New Beginnings
Chairperson’s Comment
Dear Members of the Irish Wildlife Trust, “Spring is far more than just a changing of seasons; it’s a rebirth of the spirit.” —Toni Sorenson Well, things are probably about as bad—if not worse—than we all feared but hoped wouldn’t come to pass. Across Europe and the USA, environmental protections that took decades to win are now being dismantled at alarming speed. It’s infuriating. It’s exhausting. And for those of us who care deeply about nature, it feels like a relentless battle.
But as we know, only the polluters bene t from us losing faith. Hope is not passive— it’s something we cultivate through action, through persistence, and through community. at’s why the work we do at the Irish Wildlife Trust matters so much and why I am endlessly grateful to our dedicated team and our passionate members. Your commitment keeps the ght alive.
And there is progress! e Nature Restoration Plan is being developed right now, and our advocate, Grace Carr, has provided an update in this edition. is is a critical moment for Ireland’s ecosystems, and we will need all hands on deck to ensure it delivers real change. Meanwhile, our team has poured immense e ort into shaping our strategic plan for the next ve years, laying the foundation for a stronger, more impactful IWT. Our General Manager, Kieran, will share more on that.
One of the issues that concerns so many of us is the destruction of our hedgerows, which are vital corridors for biodiversity.
Last month, we held an excellent webinar, Hedgerows Under reat, timed to coincide with the hedgerow cutting ban that runs
from the beginning of March until the end of August. If you missed the live event, you can watch it back on our YouTube channel.
We also highlighted Paw Ireland, a fantastic app that allows you to report wildlife crimes, including illegal hedge cutting. e more people who use it, the more data we have to hold authorities accountable.
We also have a signi cant change ahead as our brilliant communications o cer, Emily Nolan, embarks on an exciting new chapter, heading to Namibia to study primates. We are so proud of her and wish her the very best. You’ve all seen the impact of her work, from articles in this very magazine to our growing newsletter and much-improved social media presence. She will be greatly missed, and we will soon be recruiting for her replacement.
Spring is a great reminder of what we are ghting for. As the days stretch longer, nature seems to wake up in unison. Around Ross Castle in Killarney National Park, the scent of wild garlic lls the air, mingling with birdsong as territories are declared. In open elds, female hares can be seen boxing away overly eager mates, while the rst bumblebees stumble out of hibernation in search of nectar. Each of these moments is a testament to the resilience of the natural world—and a reminder that, no matter how dire things seem, life persists.
ank you all for standing with us in defence of Ireland’s wild places.
Warm regards,
Anne Hannan Chair, Irish Wildlife Trust
Pass it on. If you’re finished with your Irish Wildlife don’t throw it in the bin. Pass it on to someone who you think may enjoy it – or ask your local library or doctor’s office to leave it in the reception. You’ll help the environment and the IWT while you’re at it. Irish Wildlife is 100% recyclable, so if you do choose to throw it out, please put it in the green bin.
Contents page credits:
Pine Marten Checking For Danger. Photo: ©Dan Bagur 2025 Aerial view of palm oil trees plantation in Thailand. Photo: iStockphoto Cuckoo returning to Ireland. Photo: Mike Brown Lamlash Bay seabed. Photo: Howard Wood/COAST European beavers, successfully reintroduced to Scotland. Photo: iStockphoto Smooth Newt out of the water. Photo: iStockphotos
Pine Marten Standing Upright. By Dan Bagur 2025 Published by Ashville Media Group
HAVE COMMENTS?
Editorial Team: Kieran Flood & Marion Jammet
Magazine queries email: editor@iwt.ie
Snail mail: The Irish Wildlife Trust, 8 CABRA ROAD, DUBLIN 7, D07 T1W2
Web: www.iwt.ie
Social media: facebook.com/IrishWildlifeTrust twitter.com/Irishwildlife instagram.com/irishwildlifetrust/
Registered Charity Number: 20010966
About Us
e Irish Wildlife Trust was founded in 1979 and aims to conserve wildlife and the habitats it depends on throughout Ireland, while encouraging a greater understanding and appreciation of the natural world.
e IWT is dedicated to creating a better future for Ireland’s wildlife through:
Motivating and supporting people to take action for wildlife.
Education and raising awareness of all aspects of Irish wildlife and conservation issues.
Research of the natural environment.
Acquiring and managing nature reserves to safeguard species and habitats.
Lobbying decision-makers at all levels to promote policy in Ireland that provides a sustainable future for wildlife and people.
Working in partnership with other organisations to achieve results that matter for conservation.
Irish Wildlife is published quarterly by the IWT.
HOW CAN YOU HELP?
You, our members, make the IWT what it is. rough your subscriptions and support we can undertake the projects that are bene ting Ireland’s wildlife. If you would like to help more, here’s what you can do:
• Make a one-o donation to the IWT.
• Give IWT membership as a gi .
• Volunteer – we are always looking for people to help out. ere are lots of ways to get involved, from helping with important admin work in our o ce to helping us increase membership by volunteering at public events. See our website www.iwt.ie for details or contact the o ce directly.
e IWT encourages action at a local level and has a number of branches around the country:
Dublin: dublinbranch@iwt.ie facebook.com/DublinBranchIrishWildlife Trust, dubliniwt.blogspot.ie
Waterford: Denis Cullen, iwtwaterfordbranch@gmail.com, deniscullen@eircom.net, irishwildlifetrust. blogspot.ie
Kerry: Ger, iwtkerry@gmail.com, www.facebook.com/KerryIWT
Limerick: limerickbranch@iwt.ie / https:// www.facebook.com /IWTLimerickBranch
Monaghan: monaghanbranch@iwt.ie
• Do you have land that you would like used for conservation? We are always on the lookout to establish new sites to enhance wildlife or provide education opportunities.
• Remember us in your will. Why not leave a lasting legacy towards conserving Ireland’s natural heritage? e IWT uses all funds towards our campaigns, managing reserves and our education programmes. Please visit www.mylegacy.ie.
• Set up a branch. Are you passionate about wildlife and are in a county that does not have an IWT branch? Contact the o ce and we can give you the support you need to get up and running.
IMAGES THIS PAGE:
TOP: Golden Eagle by Alamy Stock Photo BELOW: Lynx cub by iStockphoto
ACTIVITIES UPDATE
Kieran Flood, IWT General Manager
2025 a year of new beginnings
It is a year of new beginnings at the Irish Wildlife Trust. We have been busy this winter working on strategic changes which will bear fruit over the coming years. We have signed off on a new Strategic Overview for IWT which will be followed shortly by the publication of our 2025-2030 Strategic Plan. Our updated Mission and Vision are as follows.
The Irish Wildlife Trust’s vision is an Ireland where wild nature thrives, and society enjoys the benefits of coexisting with diverse, functioning ecosystems.
The Irish Wildlife Trust’s mission is to protect and restore biodiversity in Ireland by motivating and supporting people to take action for nature. We aim to achieve this through assertive advocacy, inspirational rewilding, and building empowered communities for nature.
We hope that you feel our updated mission and vision reflect what the IWT means for you. The mission clarifies that we will prioritise building a community of members who are informed and empowered to take action for nature. We will combine this with our dedication to acting as a strong voice for nature through our advocacy work, and finally over the next five years we will work to increase our activity in the area of rewilding and practical nature conservation. We will do so by supporting IWT branches already working in this area but also through our network of IWT nature reserves which we are planning to grow gradually.
Our strategy work identified the need for a new visual brand for the organisation, to support our digital and print communications. In the next issue of this magazine, you’ll see our new logo and colour palette, marking the beginning of an exciting new chapter. While our previous logo, featuring a deer, served us well, we felt it no longer fully represented the breadth of our work. Our work encompasses a diverse range of species, habitats, and ecosystems—both terrestrial and marine. We needed a visual identity that is more representative of the variety of our work, adaptable across all our initiatives, and distinct enough to avoid confusion with other organisations. We hope you’ll grow to love it over time.
“THE IRISH WILDLIFE TRUST’S VISION IS AN IRELAND WHERE WILD NATURE THRIVES, AND SOCIETY ENJOYS THE BENEFITS OF COEXISTING WITH DIVERSE, FUNCTIONING ECOSYSTEMS"
The rebrand will be rolled out gradually across IWT digital and print media and beyond, so you may still see our old logo during the transition. Off the back of these changes, we’re also working on a website refresh for later in the year. This will make it easier for our community to access information on our work and on actions you can take for nature. Change takes time—but this one is worth the wait. Look out for the new look in our next issue of Irish Wildlife Magazine.
Sadly, our Communications Officer, Emily Nolan, is finishing up at the Irish Wildlife Trust this spring and moving on to new opportunities. We would like to thank Emily for her energy and fresh thinking and wish her all the best in the future.
You will notice that we have taken a new approach to some columns of the magazine, with our Connecting with Nature and Wildlife Questions column being driven by inputs from you, our members. Have a look to see how you could help shape our magazine. To add one more change to the list this new year, we are relocating to a new office at the Carmichael centre in Dublin 7. Carmichael is an organisation that supports non-profits in Ireland, and we are delighted to become one of their resident groups. Our new address will be Irish Wildlife Trust, Coleraine House, Coleraine Street, Dublin 7.
Current IWT Logo will be replace with new logo this summer
Places to connect
CGET INVOLVED
If you’d like to get involved please send the below info to editor@iwt.ie with the subject: Connecting with Nature.
» Location: GPS or map link
» Images: At least one high resolution image of the site
» Description: A description of the site itself, what nature can be encountered there and a recommended route (max 500 words).
onnection with Nature is one of the main themes of our work at the Irish Wildlife Trust. Our 2030 Strategic Plan envisions an Ireland where people have a deeper connection with nature, and an understanding of Irish biodiversity and of our place within the natural world. We work towards this goal through our webinars, articles, talks and workshops, all of which aim to share knowledge of Irish wildlife and to increase ecological literacy. More directly we work to connect our membership with nature by encouraging people to spend time outdoors through our nature walks. We would also like to encourage members to get out and explore nature independently. So, in future issues of this column we will highlight nature reserves and wild areas where people can go to encounter beautiful Irish wildlife, and we’d love it if you, our members, can help. If you have a favourite place to go to connect with nature, why not let us know? We do not want to put pressure on sensitive habitats, so we ask that you share places with us that have an existing path network and parking.
Image artist Jacinta Jardine
In our Nature Recovery News column we bring you news of inspirational efforts being made to help protect and restore nature around Ireland and the rest of the world
NATURE RECOVERY NEWS
INTERNATIONAL NEWS
Anewly released report by WildLand Cairngorms, “A Treasure and A Challenge”, showcases the remarkable resurgence of native birds of prey in Cairngorms National Park. As part of Cairngorms Connect - a partnership of neighbouring land managers - WildLand contributes to the large-scale restoration projects across 600 square kilometres of ancient woodlands, lakes and mountains. eir estates - Gaick, Glenfeshie, Killiehuntly and Kinrara - make up 48% Cairngorms Connect project landmass.
Since 2019, WildLand has led a tagging and monitoring initiative for Hen Harriers (Circus cyaneus), Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), and Goshawks (Accipiter gentilis), providing crucial insights into habitat needs and migration patterns - key to e ective land management. e resurgence of these birds is the result of collaborative restoration e orts from several groups. For more details, visit cairngormsconnect.org.uk.
One of the most remarkable success stories is the return of the Hen Harrier. As an indicator species of a thriving ecosystem,
by Emily
Emily Nolan, Communications Officer
Raptor Revival in the Cairngorms
the harrier's recovery has been particularly encouraging. In 2022 and 2023, all monitored harrier nests achieved a 100% survival rate, with an unprecedented 11 successful nests producing around 40 edglings. Numbers dipped in 2024 due to natural uctuations in prey availability, but the species’ resilience is the muchneeded boost conservationists need! e positive response of the Hen Harriers to the management plans shows the potential in Ireland. e Hen Harrier population dropped by one third in the last decade in Ireland, but with ambition and support, recovery is possible.
Golden Eagles have also made a strong comeback. In 2021, there were just four breeding pairs in the region; by 2023, this had risen to seven. One particularly successful pair has produced twin chicks
"THE SUCCESS OF RAPTOR CONSERVATION IN THE CAIRNGORMS IS A TESTAMENT TO THE POWER OF ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION"
for four consecutive years. Tracking data has shown Golden Eagles reaching the Inner Hebrides, highlighting the vast habitat needed. However, not all ndings were positive. In 2021, a tagged eagle vanished under concerning circumstances, coinciding with increased snowmobile activity on nearby land. Conservationists suggest that there was a wider movement of individuals targeting wild animals using snowmobiles for swi and wide access. Around the same time, another eagle was found poisoned on a nearby estate. Such incidents reinforce the urgent need for stronger protections against raptor persecution. A concern echoed in Ireland. Once extinct in the UK, the Goshawk is also reclaiming its place in the Cairngorms. In 2021, two breeding pairs successfully raised chicks on WildLand estates for the rst time. As native woodland expands, the future looks bright for this elusive forest predator. However, challenges remain— while three young Goshawks were tagged in 2021, none survived long a er edging, underscoring the ongoing threats these birds face.
A CALL FOR STRONGER PROTECTIONS
One of the most pressing conservation issues is the impact of muirburn—the burning of heather moorland—which can disrupt nesting sites. In April 2023, muirburn was recorded within 150 meters of an active Golden Eagle nest, likely preventing successful breeding that year. WildLand Cairngorms is supporting the Scottish Government’s proposed licensing of muirburn and grouse moors, ensuring that all landowners contribute to the protection of these cherished species. e success of raptor conservation in the Cairngorms is a testament to the power of ecological restoration. With continued habitat regeneration, reduced human pressures, and collaborative conservation e orts, these majestic birds can thrive once more. e work of WildLand Cairngorms and the wider Cairngorms Connect initiative serves as an inspiring model for large-scale conservation projects.
Golden Eagle in Cairngorms National Park.
Photo: Alamy
IRELAND NEWS by
Oisín Ó'Néill
ABOUT THE AUTHOR : OISÍN Ó NÉILL IS A DIRECTOR AT THE GAELIC WOODLAND PROJECT. GAELIC WOODLAND PROJECT IS A VOLUNTEER-LED REGISTERED CHARITY. WHOSE MISSION IS TO CONSERVE IRELAND’S NATURAL AND CULTURAL HERITAGE AND TO CREATE AN ECOLOGICALLY RICH AND DIVERSE PATCHWORK OF NATIVE HABITATS ACROSS IRELAND.
TACKLING CHERRY LAUREL
Ireland’s Overlooked Invasive Threat
THE PROBLEM
Invasive species are one of the biggest threats to Irish biodiversity today. Terrestrial and aquatic habitats are negatively a ected by invasive plants and animals which seriously harm Irish ecosystems mainly through direct competition with native biota. Invasive species pose a signi cant economic burden, with annual costs of management exceeding €2.2 million. Many of the invasive species that are seriously harming Irish ecosystems were originally sold as ornamental garden plants. High impact invasive species in Ireland include Rhododendron Ponticum, Himalayan Balsam ( Impatiens glandulifera,), Giant Rhubarb (Gunnera tinctoria), and Cherry Laurel (Prunus laurocerasus).
Cherry Laurel is a non-native species originally introduced to Ireland in 1690 as an ornamental hedging plant for large estates. It has long since escaped gardens, naturalizing in Irish woodlands where it now forms dense, impenetrable thickets across the country. is evergreen shrub has toxic, cyanide-laced leaves, making it unpalatable to herbivores thereby giving it
a competitive edge over native vegetation. riving in nutrient-rich woodland soils, Cherry Laurel casts deep shade over the forest oor, outcompeting native plants by blocking sunlight and preventing natural regeneration. Cherry Laurel impacts Irish ecosystems in a similar way to Rhododendron ponticum, which has overrun large swathes of Killarney National Park. Both species create dark, sterile environments where little else can grow. Cherry Laurel not only reduces plant diversity but also alters soil pH, further degrading the delicate balance of native ecosystems.
e National Survey of Native Woodlands found that Cherry Laurel was the second most common non native shrub found in Irish Woodlands (a er Rhododendron) posing a potential threat to native woodlands. Biodiversity Ireland classi es
Cherry Laurel as an established high impact invasive species. Invasive Species Ireland classi es Cherry Laurel as an extremely invasive plant species. e Irish Citizens' Assembly on Biodiversity Loss, convened in 2022, identi ed Cherry Laurel as a major issue during their discussions, acknowledging it as an invasive species that endangers Ireland's native biodiversity and emphasising the need for stronger control measures to combat the spread of Cherry Laurel.
Despite this recognition by various organisations and bodies, Cherry Laurel remains absent from the ird Schedule of the European Communities (Birds and Natural Habitats) Regulations 2011 (S.I. No. 477/2011). e ird Schedule lists non-native plant species whose introduction, sale, and dispersal are prohibited because they pose a high risk
"THIS CONTRADICTION HIGHLIGHTS THE URGENT NEED FOR THE GOVERNMENT TO ADOPT A COHERENT APPROACH TO INVASIVE SPECIES MANAGEMENT, ONE THAT PRIORITIZES BIODIVERSITY PROTECTION OVER ECONOMIC GAIN"
to biodiversity. Species on this list cannot be planted, sold, or deliberately introduced into the wild. This piece of legislation is a crucial tool for controlling invasive species in Ireland. Currently, species like Rhododendron Ponticum , Japanese Knotweed, Giant Rhubarb, Himalayan Balsam and many other plants are listed on the Third Schedule, making their sale, propagation, and introduction into the wild strictly prohibited. Yet Cherry Laurel, despite its equally destructive and widely recognized impact on native biodiversity, remains absent from the list. Since Cherry Laurel remains unregulated, it is still widely sold and planted in Ireland, contributing to its continued spread in native woodlands.
Many gardeners remain unaware that they are planting an extremely invasive species, Cherry Laurel continues to be a popular choice for hedging across the island. Widely planted in both public and private developments, new housing estates routinely use Cherry Laurel as a costeffective, fast-growing evergreen hedge.
Paradoxically, while the government allocates millions of euros to control invasive species, by excluding Cherry Laurel from the Third Schedule it fails to address the root cause. The continued unregulated sale and widespread planting of Cherry Laurel directly undermines costly conservation efforts. Legislative inaction perpetuates a cycle of environmental damage and expensive, short-term interventions. Coillte, for example, has invested €500,000 over three years to remove Cherry Laurel and Rhododendron from Hazelwood Forest, a rare alluvial woodland in County Sligo. Approximately €164,000 was awarded for the removal and control of Cherry Laurel at Glen of the Downs Nature Reserve in County Wicklow in 2024. These efforts have improved the structure of the woodlands, however infestations persist. Eradication efforts are also ongoing at sites such as Devil's Glen and Massy Wood, home to ancient Sessile Oaks. These efforts are costly and labor intensive.
Worryingly, despite these control measures by some state agencies, Teagasc, the state agricultural agency, promotes Cherry Laurel cultivation on its website, offering advice on its commercial benefits without any acknowledgment of its invasive threat to native ecosystems. Irish farmers continue to cultivate over 100 hectares of Cherry Laurel for export to the European
"THE ECOLOGICAL BENEFITS OF RESTRICTING CHERRY LAUREL FAR OUTWEIGH ANY SHORTTERM ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS, AS PROTECTING NATIVE BIODIVERSITY AND SUPPORTING ECOSYSTEM RESILIENCE MUST BE RECOGNISED AS NATIONAL PRIORITIES"
flower market. This contradiction highlights the urgent need for the government to adopt a coherent approach to invasive species management, one that prioritizes biodiversity protection over economic gain.
THE SOLUTIONS
Banning the sale of Cherry Laurel
Given the escalating biodiversity crisis, the Irish government must uphold its international and domestic obligations to combat invasive species. As the guardian of its natural heritage, the Irish government has a responsibility to take proactive and decisive measures to prevent the spread of invasive plants. Banning the sale of Cherry Laurel is an urgent and necessary intervention to prevent further ecological harm. The ecological benefits of restricting Cherry Laurel far outweigh any short-term economic considerations, as protecting native biodiversity and supporting ecosystem resilience must be recognised as national priorities. Such a ban would be a proportionate and targeted measure. Cherry Laurel must be added to the Third Schedule of the Habitats Directive, prohibiting its sale, propagation, and distribution. Additionally, public education campaigns are essential to inform gardeners and developers of the dangers posed by invasive species and to promote the use of native, biodiversity-friendly alternatives.
Community approach to invasive species control
In the absence of sufficient governmental action, charities and local groups are
stepping up. The Gaelic Woodland Project, established in 2022, has pioneered a community-driven approach to Cherry Laurel removal. They harvest and repurpose the Cherry Laurel as firewood, sharing their methods freely with communities facing similar infestations. Their Meitheals (community workdays) have cleared Cherry Laurel from native woodlands at Killyon Manor, Hamwood Estate and Lisnavagh Estate. In March 2025, they hosted a two-day Meitheal through Irish to celebrate Seachtain na Gaeilge, blending ecological restoration with cultural revival.
The Gaelic Woodland Project has been at the forefront of advocating for Cherry Laurel’s formal recognition as an invasive species, actively engaging the public through talks, workshops, and community events. In August 2024, they submitted a report to the Dáil, questioning the species' exclusion from the Third Schedule. Then Minister, Malcolm Noonan’s response offered no adequate explanation for its omission. The Gaelic Woodland Project continues to collaborate with organisations and authorities, pressing for urgent action to address this ecological threat. Volunteers cannot tackle this crisis alone. While public awareness is growing and some councils have stopped planting Cherry Laurel, robust legislation and a coordinated nationwide response is urgently needed. Cherry Laurel must be added to the Third Schedule and formally recognised as an invasive species under Irish law.
Cherry Laurel clearance. Photo: Aidan Ring
Gaelic Woodland Project volunteer at invasive species clearing meitheal. Photo: Aidan Ring
MARINE NEWS Grace Carr, IWT Marine Advocacy Officer
The Benefits of STRICT PROTECTION IN THE SEA
The Irish Wildlife Trust, along with Fair Seas, have been advocating for many years for the Irish Government to create new legislation to designate Marine Protected Areas (MPA) in Irish waters. One of our key asks for this legislation is that it includes strong language ensuring that 30% of Irish waters will be protected by 2030 - with 10% under ‘strict protection’. Today, less than 1% of Marine Protected Areas in the EU are under strict protection. In Ireland, 0% of our waters are under strict protection.
WHAT IS STRICT PROTECTION?
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defines strict protection as an area that is, “Strictly protected for biodiversity and also possibly geological/ geomorphological features, where human visitation, use and impacts are controlled and limited to ensure protection of the conservation values”.
In the context of the 10% strict protection target included in the EU Biodiversity Strategy, strictly protected areas are defined as follows: “Strictly protected areas are fully and legally protected areas designated to conserve and/ or restore the integrity of biodiversity-rich natural areas with their underlying ecological structure and supporting natural environmental processes. Natural processes are therefore left essentially undisturbed from human pressures and threats to the area’s overall ecological structure and functioning, independently of whether those pressures and threats are located inside or outside the strictly protected Area”. In the marine environment strictly protected areas can also be called no-take zones or marine reserves.
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO HAVE AREAS OF STRICT PROTECTION?
Species loss
Last year the World Wildlife Fund released its living planet report which included the shocking figure that there has been a 56% decline in marine biodiversity since the 1970’s. This loss of biodiversity will have huge knock-on effects on marine ecosystems and those that rely on them, including humans. Biodiversity has direct and indirect effects on our quality of life. Having high species diversity indicates a healthy ecosystem which is capable of providing the ecosystem benefits which we rely on, such as clean air and water. Losing species diversity disrupts ecosystem functionality and leaves the ecosystem unstable and more susceptible to collapse, wherein it cannot support life or provide life enhancing ecosystems services. Ecological processes such as primary production and nutrient cycling are vital for survival. There is a huge global disconnect between nature and human life. Many people do not register that we are a part of nature and by allowing it to continuously deteriorate, we are harming ourselves and future generations. Relieving an area from human pressures allows nature a break and gives it time to recover. Many global studies have shown that properly managed strictly protected areas result in an increase in fish numbers for resident species as well as migratory species.
Climate change
Climate change mitigation measures are designed to reduce the level of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere or to absorb and trap (sequester) greenhouse gases. Climate change adaptation measures are aimed at reducing the impacts of climate change. For example as the climate crisis intensifies, we will see stronger storms occurring which will accelerate coastal erosion. Protecting marine habitats such as macroalgae beds (seaweed beds) will help lower the level of erosion that occurs. Different ecosystems sequester different amounts of carbon. Some examples of high carbon stores in the marine environment are seagrass beds, macroalgae forests, certain sediments on the seafloor and saltmarshes. According to a report by the
"TODAY, LESS THAN 1% OF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS IN THE EU ARE UNDER STRICT PROTECTION. IN IRELAND, 0% OF OUR WATERS ARE UNDER STRICT PROTECTION"
Marine Institute in 2021, Ireland is estimated to store at least 9.2 million tonnes of carbon in its saltmarsh and seagrass habitats. For reference, in 2023, Ireland’s greenhouse gas emissions are estimated by the EPA to have been 55.01 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent. Having these carbon rich areas designated as strictly protected will therefore enhance climate mitigation and adaptation as well as help us meet the EU goal of climate neutrality by 2050, and Ireland’s national objective of reducing emissions by 51% by 2030.
Fisheries
Well designed and e ective marine protected areas can contribute to sh populations proliferation. A paper in 2024 by Mark Costello has stated that there is ‘no evidence of losses in catch to any shery due to MPA establishment.’ Increased egg and larva production in protected areas can then result in the ‘spillover e ect’ to surrounding areas. is is where sheries see an increase in their catches without an increase in e ort in areas close to e ectively
protected marine areas. Many sh stocks are under pressure and ensuring that there are refuges in important areas, such as spawning and nursery areas, will help to safeguard sustainable sheries for generations. Having a healthier sh population also increases genetic diversity as well as improving the size and quality of the sh. is can then provide greater economic bene ts and helps support local livelihoods.
Restoration
For some degraded ecosystems you must take considerable action to restore them. However, in many marine environments, one of the best ways to allow recovery is through passive restoration. is is taking away pressures and allowing the ecosystem to come back through natural processes. is will not only allow for environmental gains but also economic. Jobs can be created for management and monitoring of the area as well as through scienti c research and enforcement o cers. e EU Nature Restoration Law includes targets to restore
"IN MANY MARINE ENVIRONMENTS, ONE OF THE BEST WAYS TO ALLOW RECOVERY IS THROUGH PASSIVE RESTORATION"
30% of degraded habitats by 2030 across 6 di erent ecological groups in the marine environment including seagrass, macroalgae and biogenic reefs. Implementing and managing important areas with strict protection is one of the most e ective ways to achieve this.
Over the last 30 years, the Community of Arran Seabed Trust (COAST) has battled hard to protect and restore the marine environment around Arran and the Firth of Clyde. In 2008, Scotland’s rst, and only, community-led No Take Zone (NTZ) was established in Lamlash Bay. is small 2.67 square km area prohibits extraction of marine life and today is encompassed within the larger (280 km2) South Arran Marine Protected Area, legally enforced in 2016 to protect sensitive marine features through the exclusion of scallop dredging and prawn trawling. Together the NTZ and MPA, with their range of shing restrictions, provide an amazing living laboratory to study seabed recovery, and are testament to how our ecosystem can recover when protected. Long-term research in Arran’s protected areas showcases the dramatic recovery of seabed habitats and key commercial species in just a few short years. If the Irish Government puts in place plans to e ectively protect our marine areas and engages in e ective and ongoing stakeholder engagement, we could have our own success story like Lamlash Bay to highlight in a few years.
Lamlash Bay seabed after the creation of the no take zone with species such as Dragonette & juvenile Whiting Photo: copyrighted Howard Wood/COAST
Lamlash Bay dredged seabed before the no take zone was created Photo: copyrighted Howard Wood/COAST
Ancient Irish Forest. Photo: Eoghan Daltun, The Magic of an Irish Rainforest: A Visual Journey, 2024
EU UPDATE By
Marion Jammet
In the name of forests
Can EU upcoming forest laws protect our common heritage?
Forests play a vital role in addressing climate change, mitigating its effects, safeguarding public health, and preserving biodiversity. In addition to their environmental significance, forests offer a peaceful sanctuary for relaxation and healing. There's nothing quite like a forest bath (the Japanese practice of shinrinyoku) on a Sunday to recharge for the week ahead. The Vale of Clara and the Glen of the Downs are among my favorite spots near Dublin.
Despite their many benefits, forests are facing growing threats. This article examines recent EU initiatives to combat deforestation and forest degradation, both within the EU and internationally. We look first at the ongoing negotiations on the EU Forest Monitoring law, before focusing on the EU Deforestation Law.
DEFORESTATION AND FOREST DEGRADATION: UNDERSTANDING THE SCALE OF THE CHALLENGE
“Ancient trees are precious. There is little else on Earth that plays host to such a rich community of life within a single living organism.” — Sir David Attenborough
Forests cover 31% of the Earth’s land 1 and are home to 80% of all terrestrial species. However, deforestation and forest degradation, which are major causes of biodiversity loss, are taking place at an alarming rate.
In Europe, forests have been modified since the mid-Holocene through clearing for cropland and pasture, and have long
1. NASA's Earth Observatory
Deforestation is the complete removal of trees for the conversion of forest to another land use such as agriculture, mining, or urbanisation. Forest degradation refers to the destruction of specific aspects of forests such as a decrease in tree cover, changes in their structure or a reduction in the number of species that can be found in that area.
served as sources of fuelwood and construction materials2. As a result, intact forest ecosystems, where natural processes dominate, are extremely rare within the EU3. In fact, only 14% of the EU’s forests have a favourable conservation status4
Globally, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimates that between 1990 and 2020, 420 million hectares of forest – about 10 % of the world’s remaining forests, an area larger than the European Union - were lost. Each year, the world continues to lose 10 million hectares of forest, which is more than the total area of the island of Ireland, with its 8.4 million hectares. Agricultural expansion is the driving force behind nearly 90% of global deforestation, with more than half of the loss attributed to the conversion of forests into cropland for both human and livestock consumption. Livestock grazing alone is directly responsible for nearly 40% of forest loss. Without blaming individual consumers - as societal changes are crucial - it’s important to understand that our consumption patterns play a significant role in driving deforestation and forest degradation worldwide. For instance, between 1990 and 2008, the European
2. Kaplan, J. O., Krumhardt, K. M., & Zimmermann, N. (2009). The prehistoric and preindustrial deforestation of Europe. Quaternary Science Reviews, 28(27), 3016-3034, doi:doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.09.028
3. Potapov, P., Hansen, M. C., Laestadius, L., Turubanova, S., Yaroshenko, A., Thies, C., et al. (2017). The last frontiers of wilderness: tracking loss of intact forest landscapes from 2000 to 2013. Sci. Adv. 3:e1600821. doi: 10.1126/ sciadv.1600821
Union imported and consumed one-third of the globally traded agricultural products linked to deforestation.
MONITORING, A FIRST STEP TO IMPROVE FOREST HEALTH
Europe is the continent with the most pronounced human footprint on Earth, yet without human intervention, much of our landscape would still be covered by primary forests2. Today, just 14% of the EU’s forests have a favourable conservation status4, and intact forest ecosystems dominated by natural processes are rare across the continent [3]. Primary forests account for less than 3% of the EU's forest area5, and in Ireland, less than 0.10% of forests are classified as ancient, meaning they have existed since 1660 or earlier6. These ancient forests, with their long temporal continuity and natural dynamics of regeneration and disturbance, are often significantly more biodiverse than other forests in the same ecological region7. To summarise, forests in Europe are not in a good state and face major challenges in the 21st century, including increases in drought, fire, wind-damage and pests, and the need for tree species to migrate to keep pace with climate change.
4. European Environmental Agency (2018), Conservation status of habitats under the EU Habitats Directive
5. Sabatini, F. M. et al (2020). European Primary Forest Database (EPFD) v2.0. bioRxiv, 2020.2010.2030.362434, doi:10.1101/2020.10.30.362434.
6. Daltun, E., (2024), The Magic of an Irish Rainforest
7. Paillet, Y. et al (2010). Biodiversity Differences between Managed and Unmanaged Forests: Meta-Analysis of Species Richness in Europe. Conservation Biology, 24(1), 101-112, doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523- 1739.2009.01399.x.
Another significant challenge is the lack of comprehensive data. Information about European forests is often incomplete, fragmented or outdated. When governments do collect data, it typically focuses on timber production, while other valuable services provided by forest ecosystems are often overlooked. While we have details on the forest area and the species of trees planted, there is often limited information on forest biodiversity—such as the number of old and rare trees or the composition of vegetation beyond trees. Even where data is available, it may not be comparable across EU member states due to the varying methods and definitions used. Tackling this data gap is important to better protect our ecosystems and implement appropriate conservation management measures.
To address this deficit, the European Commission has proposed a Regulation on a monitoring framework for resilient European forests, known as the Forest Monitoring Law (FML)8. The FML seeks to establish a comprehensive forest knowledge base to track progress toward achieving EU targets and policy objectives related to biodiversity and climate. It also aims to support evidence-based decisionmaking and improve risk assessment and preparedness. Under the proposed law, data on 22 indicators - ranging from overall forest area to tree species composition and richness - would be collected. The Commission plans to use satellite technology to gather standardised data across all 27 EU countries, while national governments would complement this with on-the-ground comparable data. More specifically, Governments would be required to map and share the location of primary and old-growth forests by 2028, and map the forest habitats defined under the EU’s Habitats Directive. All data would be made publicly available in a machine-readable format, and governments would be encouraged to set up integrated long-term forest plans.
A robust Forest Monitoring Law can provide reliable, consistent data on the many cross-border risks facing forests, helping to support healthier ecosystems. At the time of writing, the Polish Presidency of the Council of the EU is working to bridge positions on the FML to reach a final agreement with Member States, while the European Parliament is
negotiating on the proposed Regulation9 Developments on the adoption of the FML - alongside progress on the Soil Monitoring Law, discussed in the Autumn issue of the magazine - will be important to track in 2025.
TACKLING EMBODIED ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS
- THE EU DEFORESTATION LAW
While the FML only covers EU forests and is still under negotiation, it is impossible to discuss EU forest policies without also mentioning Regulation (EU) 2023/1115 on Deforestation-free Products (EUDR).
The Regulation which entered into force in June 2023 seeks to address our embodied ecological impact and sever the link between European demand and global deforestation. Much like embodied carbon emissions, embodied ecological impacts arise from resource extraction and manufacturing processes, including the production and transportation of raw materials. These impacts can occur far from the place of consumption, mainly through materials extraction and land-use changes. According to the Regulation’s impact assessment, European final consumption is linked to about 10% of global forest loss. Without appropriate regulatory intervention, the EU’s consumption and production of six commodities - cattle, cocoa, coffee, oil palm, soya and woodwould contribute to deforestation on the scale of approximately 248,000 hectares annually by 2030.
To address this issue, the deforestation law applies to seven commodities - cattle, cocoa, soy, palm oil, coffee, rubber and wood - and some of their derived products, such as meat products, leather, chocolate, natural rubber products, palm oil derivatives and furniture. Under the Regulation, any operator or trader placing these commodities on the EU market, or exporting them from it, must prove that the products do not come from recently deforested land or contribute to forest degradation. Companies wishing to sell these products in the EU must guarantee that they are both legal and free from
deforestation. The due diligence requirements are based on a classification of countries’ deforestation risks as “low”, “standard”, or “high”, and are stricter for larger companies. The European Commission will publish this classification by 30 June 2025, based on three criteria: the rate of deforestation and forest degradation, the expansion of agricultural land for relevant commodities, and production trends of these commodities and related products. These lists will be updated as needed based on new evidence. In simple terms,
"BETWEEN 1990 AND 2008, THE EUROPEAN UNION IMPORTED AND CONSUMED ONE-THIRD OF THE GLOBALLY TRADED AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS LINKED TO DEFORESTATION"
the classification will determine the level of due diligence required - countries classified as “low-risk” will need fewer checks than those with higher deforestation risks.
Under the originally adopted text, the law was set to come into effect in December 2024. However, it has faced significant opposition and criticism from some countries (e.g., Australia, Brazil and the US) and industry. For instance, the
law. More specifically, the largest group in the European Parliament proposed a 12-month extension to the implementation timeline, pushing the law’s applicability to 30 December 2025, rather than December 2024. They also suggested introducing a "no risk" category for certain countries, which could have created a significant loophole by exempting products from these areas from traceability requirements11. While this “no risk” category was not included in the final text adopted in December, the one-year delay was approved. This postponement is disappointing as we are running out of time, but we can hope that this delay will allow for the development and testing of robust traceability and verification systems, which are crucial to ensuring compliance with the regulation.
"GOVERNMENTS WOULD BE REQUIRED TO MAP AND SHARE THE LOCATION OF PRIMARY AND OLD-GROWTH FORESTS BY 2028, AND MAP THE FOREST HABITATS DEFINED UNDER THE EU’S HABITATS DIRECTIVE"
German cocoa company Albrecht & Dill Trading have issued legal proceedings against the German Federal Office for Agriculture and Food, seeking to have certain elements of the Regulation declared invalid. The company argues that some aspects of the law are overly burdensome and impossible to meet10.
In autumn 2024, the European People’s Party (EPP), of which Fine Gael is a member, tried to weaken the Deforestation
8. EC (2023), COM(2023)728. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/documents-register/detail?ref=COM(2023)728&lang=en
9. A joint draft report is expected in February from the Agriculture and Environment Committees.
10. Climate Court, 28th May 2024, Cocoa Company Challenges EU Deforestation Regulation. Available at: https://www.climate-court.com/post/cocoacompany-challenges-eu-deforestation-regulation.
In a biodiversity and climate emergency, Europe cannot afford petty games. Strong, dependable political and economic frameworks are more critical than ever. Progress on developing the EU Forest Monitoring Law, and the publication of the list categorising countries as “low”, “standard” and “high risk” under the EU Deforestation Law will be essential to monitor in 2025. This is particularly important as a significant shift is occurring in Brussels - not to mention the US - where the new Commission is making competitiveness and regulatory simplification its priority. At the time of writing, the impact of the Mercosur and other trade deals on the EU Deforestation Law’s implementation and effectiveness is uncertain. Several experts have expressed concerns that the deal could undermine the EU’s anti-deforestation objectives12
11. IUCN, 19th Nov. 2024, EU Deforestation Regulation at Risk: Will the New European Institutions Maintain Their Environmental Ambition?. Available at: https://iucn.org/news/202411/eu-deforestation-regulation-risk-will-neweuropean-institutions-maintain-their.
12. Guillot, L., Camille Gijs, C., 20th Dec. 2024, Mercosur deal risks weakening EU anti-deforestation rules. Available at: https://www.politico.eu/article/ mercosur-trade-deal-eu-anti-deforestation-regulation-environment-agriculture/
Aerial view of huge palm oil trees plantation in Thailand Photo: iStockphotos
NATURE RESTORATION LAW
By Grace Carr, IWT Marine Advocacy Officer
Implementation and Targets for Restoring Nature
The Nature Restoration Law (NRL) was officially passed last June by the European Council. It is hugely important for nature in Europe so this year we will bring you articles examining the targets of this law and Ireland's progress implementing it.
There are a range of targets for the different habitats and species groups covered by the law. Above, we have included some of the main restoration and data collection targets. The word “measures” used here refers to restoration measures i.e. actions taken to restore habitats or populations. Most of the targets are focussing on habitats that are in unfavourable condition. It is up to the member states to determine the most appropriate restoration measures. Member states have 2 years to draft their National Restoration Plans (NRP) which must detail what measures they plan to put in place to meet the targets within the law.
THE TARGETS
TARGETS: Terrestrial, Coastal, Freshwater Ecosystems
Group 1 - Wetlands,
Group 2 - Grasslands
Group 3 - River, lake, alluvial and riparian areas
Group 4 - Forests
Group 5 - Steppe, heath and scrub
Group 6 - Rocky and dune habitats
» By 2030 - Measures in place on at least 30% of the total area of habitats listed which are not in good condition.
» By 2040 - Measures in place on at least 60% of the area of each habitat which is not in good condition.
» By 2050 - Measures in place on at least 90% of the area of each habitat which is not in good condition.
Member States also have targets to reach for data collection.
» 2030 - The condition is known for at least 90% of the area over all habitats in Annex I of the NRL.
» 2040 - 100% of the condition known of habitat types listed in Annex I
" IT IS HUGELY IMPORTANT FOR NATURE IN EUROPE SO THIS YEAR WE WILL BRING YOU ARTICLES EXAMINING THE TARGETS OF THIS LAW AND IRELAND'S PROGRESS IMPLEMENTING IT"
TARGETS: Marine Habitats
Group 1 - Seagrass beds
Group 2 - Macroalgae Forests
Group 3 - Shellfish beds
Group 4 - Maerl beds
Group 5 - Sponge, coral and coralligenous beds
Group 6 - Vents and seeps
Group 7 - Soft sediments (above 1000m)
» 2030 - Measures in place on at least 30% of total area of habitats in groups 1-6 which are not in good condition.
» 2040 - Measures in place on at least 60% of the area of each habitat in groups (1-6) which are not in good condition. Group 7 habitats at least ⅔ of a % to be decided.
» 2050 - Measures in place on at least 90% of the area of each habitat in groups (1-6) which are not in good condition.
Member States also have targets for data collection.
» 2030 - The habitat condition is known for at least 50% of the area over all habitats in Group 1-6.
» 2040 - 100% of habitat types listed in Group 1-6 & 50% of the area of Group 7.
» 2050 - 100% of area of Group 7.
TARGETS: Urban Ecosystems
» 2030 - no net loss in urban green space and urban tree canopy cover compared to 2024.
» There should be an increasing trend in green space and tree cover, measured every 6 years.
TARGETS: River Connectivity
» 2030 - 25,000km of rivers restored to free flowing rivers. Complement the removal of barriers with measures to improve the natural function of related floodplains.
» Natural connectivity and natural functions of floodplains are restored and maintained.
TARGETS: Pollinators
» 2030 - Improve pollinator diversity and reverse the decline of pollinator populations by 2030 at the latest.
» Achieve an increasing trend in pollinator populations measured every 6 years.
TARGETS: Agricultural Ecosystems Organic Soils and Rewetting
» 2030 - Measures in place to restore organic soils on at least 30% of drained peatlands. At least ¼ rewetted.
» 2040 - Measures in place to restore organic soils on at least 40% of drained peatlands. At least ⅓ rewetted.
» 2050 - Measures in place to restore organic soils on at least 50% of drained peatlands. At least ⅓ rewetted.
TARGETS: Forest Ecosystems
» 2030 - Increasing trend in at least 6/7 of the following indicators. 1) standing deadwood; 2) lying deadwood; 3) share of forests with uneven-aged structure; 4) forest connectivity; 5) stock of organic carbon; 6) share of forests dominated by native tree species; 7) tree species diversity. This will then be measured every 6 years.
» 2030 - Member States aim to contribute to the planting of at least 3 billion additional trees at Union level in full respect of ecological principles.
UPDATE ON THE NATIONAL RESTORATION PLAN
The European Commission ran a public consultation on their proposed framework for the National Nature Restoration Plan. The reasoning behind having a uniform framework for the NRPs is to help with legal alignment of the law; assist with comparisons between Member States plans; and make the analysis more efficient while allowing data reuse across policies thus reducing administrative burden. We submitted our observation on the 7th of February and you can read it on the Irish Wildlife Trust website.
We agree that the administrative burden needs to be reduced for Member States and that this will hopefully allow for more resources to be spent on implementation of the law. However, reducing administration should not come at the expense of transparency and NRPs need to be clear and contain all legal aspects that are within the NRL. Issues with the template which we highlighted, include the lack of detail required from Member States when it comes to choosing the most effective sites for restoration. Within the law it states that Member States must use best scientific knowledge and ensure the most suitable sites are chosen. Marine, freshwater and
terrestrial ecosystems are all interconnected and we noted that this was not acknowledged as much as we consider necessary within the framework. Sufficient financing for the implementation of the NRL is crucial. It is positive that there were sections within the draft template which asked Member States to highlight their estimated financial needs.
We welcomed the opportunity to submit to this consultation. This aligns with the goal of ensuring that the general public and stakeholders will have ample opportunities for early, effective and ongoing engagement with the process. What is worrying is that here in Ireland, there hasn’t been effective engagement with environmental NGOs in regards to the expert groups and panels which are being created to work on different aspects of the law. Many Irish environmental NGOs have worked on the NRL since it was first proposed by the European Commission in 2022 and yet these organisations were not included in expert groups. NGOs have had to lobby Government bodies proactively to ensure we get fair representation at the table. This is a disappointing start, but we hope that with consistent pressure, environmental NGOs will have their (and their members) views acknowledged.
Next steps will be engagement with relevant expert panels and leaders groups to discuss implementation of the law. These groups must have fair and inclusive representation across all sectors including scientific research, land owners, industry and environmental NGOs. The two year stopwatch has already begun for Member States to submit their plans, but while they are being drafted, they must already start putting actions in place if they are to reach the 2030 targets and successfully Restore Nature.
The Pine Marten’s World
Pine Marten Climbing At Night. Photo: ©Dan Bagur 2025
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
:
DAN BAGUR HAS SPENT SEVERAL YEARS WATCHING AND FILMING PINE MARTENS IN THE FORESTS OF COUNTY GALWAY AND CLARE, DEVELOPING AN IN-DEPTH UNDERSTANDING OF THEIR HABITS AND BEHAVIOUR. DAN HAS HAD HIS WILDLIFE PHOTOGRAPHY, ARTWORK AND ARTICLES PUBLISHED ALL OVER THE WORLD. HE CURRENTLY LIVES IN COUNTY GALWAY.
By DAN BAGUR
Human persecution over the past few centuries has caused European Pine Marten (Martes martes) numbers to collapse. In fact, just 4 percent of mammals alive in the world today are wild animals. Recent conservation efforts and changes in legislation have allowed the Pine Marten population in Britain and Ireland to slowly begin to recover.
For the last five years, I have been following wild Pine Martens in the woodlands of County Galway and Clare. During that time, their behaviour has been observed both directly, by tracking them, and indirectly, using trail cameras and camera traps. Direct observation requires a considerable sacrifice of time, but it offers anyone the opportunity to understand more about an animal. They are the primary source. As a result, experiencing animal behaviour in the wild is one of the best ways to learn about them. I have taken over 10,000 photographs and compiled a large collection of audio recordings. This field study allowed me to examine their behaviour closely and even make some new discoveries: including a new understanding of the function of the Pine Marten wiggle, retromingency, the cause of the scat curl, and the use of the Marten Maze and hedge tunnels. These new discoveries are covered in my new book, ‘Pine Marten’. The Pine Marten is a member of the Mustelid family, closely related to the Badger (Meles meles) and the Otter (Lutra lutra). Mustelids offer a superb example of evolutionary adaptation. They each took to their own niche and adapted their behaviour and morphology to their new environment. The Badgers burrowed under the earth, the Otters dived beneath the water and the Pine Martens climbed up into the trees. Specialising in this way enabled them to reduce competition and gain access to new habitats and resources. Being able to climb offers the Pine Marten great advantages of course. By climbing up from the ground, they can find additional prey and nest in relative safety, away from ground predators. Pine Martens will cache many food
"RECENT CONSERVATION EFFORTS AND CHANGES IN LEGISLATION HAVE ALLOWED THE PINE MARTEN POPULATION IN BRITAIN AND IRELAND TO SLOWLY BEGIN TO RECOVER"
items buried in shallow holes in the ground, but also in trees where most other mammals are unable to reach. Being up in the canopy also allows them to see the surrounding area and from this vantage point they can check an area before moving through it. They can look for food, threats and possible den sites. Their limbs are adapted to climbing. Their rear ankles can turn 180 degrees allowing them to hang from them. This adaptation is shared with squirrels and is essential for controlling their climb down from the trees. The biggest misconception about Pine Martens is that they spend most of their time up in the trees. The reality is that, when active, they are largely to be found on the forest floor; if you encounter a Pine Marten, it will most likely be on the ground, among fallen trees or dense vegetation. Their association with our woodlands runs deep. Found alive, the presence of Pine Martens provides scientists with an indicator of forest habitat integrity. Found dead, they are palaeontological indicators of coniferous forests from our distant past.
Pine Martens are a unique shape because they have to balance the adaptations required for agility in the trees with keeping warm in winter. The long, thin body that makes climbing and squeezing through tight spaces easy, causes them to lose heat more quickly than shorter, stockier mammals. As they do not hibernate, they need to change their behaviour and coat to adapt to the seasonal temperature variations, spending much more time in their dens during colder periods and moulting twice a year. Their body fat reserves also remain low throughout the year and so they have to rely on finding food to survive. In winter every hunt counts.
They are often referred to as being silent but in fact have a wide range of calls. They can move silently for long periods of time, but their lives are filled with vocal communication during the night and in the daytime. These calls occur throughout the year and are not limited to the mating season. They meet frequently along their territory boundaries and when they do there is often some form of call uttered. The calls of Pine Martens are particularly varied. They call, grunt, chatter,
"MUSTELIDS OFFER A SUPERB EXAMPLE OF EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATION. THEY EACH TOOK TO THEIR OWN NICHE AND ADAPTED THEIR BEHAVIOUR AND MORPHOLOGY TO THEIR NEW ENVIRONMENT. THE BADGERS BURROWED UNDER THE EARTH, THE OTTERS DIVED BENEATH THE WATER AND THE PINE MARTENS CLIMBED UP INTO THE TREES"
scream, cluck, purr and growl. In my book, I have included the many different types of vocalisations in a series of recordings that can be quickly and easily accessed using QR codes. As well as using calls, Pine Martens also use their tail for communication. They wag their tails rapidly from side to side and accompany this with a growl. They do this to show other individuals that they are angry, a first-level warning before the aggression is escalated. If you remove the distinct, vibrating courtship vocalisations, what remains can be very broadly broken into three categories: they growl, they scream, and they chatter. The growls are a first-level warning, especially when wagging the tail, an expression of irritation and an early threat. Pine Martens will growl at any animal they consider a threat, and I have often seen them growl at sounds when nothing can be seen yet. The scream or squeals seem to be a final warning given before violence. The chatter or grunts can go on for many minutes at a time and mostly take place out of sight in the privacy of the undergrowth, making their interpretation even more difficult. However, it is clear that calls are not just used to signal anger, danger or threat. Some calls are amicable and accepting and others playful.
Pine Martens have a special scent gland on their abdomen. On the ground, they have to crouch to leave their scent by rubbing on the
rocks, moss or branches. It seems like a strange location for a scent gland until you watch them climbing, as the scent gland frequently comes into contact with the trees and leaves an almost continuous scent trail. They also scent-mark with their urine. They wiggle to spread it over a larger surface area to increase the potency of the scent. They also scent-mark by depositing their scats in prominent places.
The Pine Marten’s world lights up with scent in a way we humans cannot fully appreciate. They use scent to communicate, to both offer and receive information about one another. The borders of their territory as well as frequented routes are marked with scent. They have an instinctive need to leave their scent, with kits leaving their own scent as soon as they leave the den. The reason that Pine Martens never spend too long in one place, and always seem in a rush, is because they need to maintain this scent trail. For a Pine Marten, the detailed messages contained within the scat are communicated via their language of scent, but even for scent-blind humans, the visible contents of the scat, the position and number of scats can be very informative. For carnivores, scats can communicate species, sex, dominance, age, health status, reproductive condition, diet, and the time they passed through.
Males are usually bigger and bolder than females. The easiest way to sex a Pine Marten
Pine Marten Checking For Danger. Photo: ©Dan Bagur 2025
is from behind. The pale testicles stand out clearly against the dark fur. Females are only receptive for a brief period in June/July. Males are only interested in females during the mating season, when they follow their scent to track them down. As male Pine Martens roam they pick up the scent of the females, which leads them to their den. They climb up to the den, uttering their vibrating courtship call as they approach. They can tell with one sniff if there is a female home and, if she is not, they descend again and follow her trail into the woods. If she is in the den then the male pushes his head into the entrance. This can often lead to a hostile encounter. The female and her kits from the previous year’s mating growl and snarl at the intruder. Female Pine Martens seem reluctant to mate. Possibly they are concerned for the safety of their kits. Eventually, the female accepts a male and mating can occur in the den or in the surrounding woods. Female Pine Martens will usually mate with more than one male. The males are therefore unsure of paternity and, for this reason, the single annual litter of kits is raised by the female alone.
Martens have evolved delayed implantation, where implantation is held off for about seven or eight months following mating. This allows them to mate at the most profitable time and hold off pregnancy and birth until the following spring, when conditions are best for raising their kits. Delayed implantation allows them to have the best of both worlds. Another advantage is that this gives the young the maximum time possible to grow and learn before the onset of winter. As spring emerges, other animals need to find one another and mate before they can begin gestation. The Pine Marten is ready to go on day one. It also ensures that the kits are raised when the young of other woodland animals can provide a relatively easy meal. I have only personally experienced litters of three kits, which is the average litter size, although size does vary between two and seven kits depending on conditions and ranges. The kits can be seen peering out of the den from late May. In June, the tiny kits begin to venture out and practice climbing. Pine Marten mothers allow their kits to overwinter in their territory during their first year. This is vital as it gives the kits extra time to learn and grow before having to face the hard realities of their wild life alone in the woods. Establishing a new territory is difficult and this is a dangerous time for the youngsters. As winter comes to an end and spring emerges the mother chases out last year’s kits and prepares for the next litter.
The Pine Marten is an omnivorous generalist, an opportunist surviving on the best food available at that time and in that place. Being
"THE PINE MARTEN’S WORLD LIGHTS UP WITH SCENT IN A WAY WE HUMANS CANNOT FULLY APPRECIATE. THEY USE SCENT TO COMMUNICATE, TO BOTH OFFER AND RECEIVE INFORMATION ABOUT ONE ANOTHER"
a generalist significantly increases the survival options for an animal under pressure. An average Pine Marten’s diet consists of a mixture of fruits and mushrooms, small mammals, amphibians, birds and invertebrates. Occasionally Pine Martens will catch larger mammals like rabbits or hares. If a deer dies within their home range, then this will also be consumed. As with bodyweight, the activity periods of Pine Martens change with the seasons, expanding to an activity peak of over ten hours in summer and down to as little as two hours in winter. The daily distances travelled also ebb and flow with the seasons. Pine Martens range widely during the summer but prefer to stay close to the warmth of the den during the cold winter months. Between about mid-October and mid-February, activity reaches its minimum level when they become almost exclusively nocturnal and can be seen during the day only occasionally.
In captivity, Pine Martens can live for 18 years or more. In the wild a far shorter lifespan is more likely.
My new discoveries and many other aspects of Pine Marten behaviour are covered in detail in my new book ‘Pine Marten’ available now in bookshops. The book includes over 200 photographs of Pine Marten behaviour.
Pine Marten Climbing. Photo: ©Dan Bagur 2025
In this new column, long-time IWT member and volunteer, Tim Clabon answers IWT members' questions about wildlife. We are starting off with one of our most common queries. People often get in touch with us after finding a newt in or near the house. Below Tim answers some of your questions about newts and lizards.
By TIM CLABON
Is that a in my KITCHEN? NEWT
Between November and February species of amphibians go into hibernation. This is triggered by a drop in overnight temperatures. Occasionally if the weather warms some may awaken for a short period and forage around, before returning to hibernation. Before this period of hibernation they will feast to build up fat reserves, which they will use to remain healthy. During the period of hibernation their metabolism drops and they enter a period of inactivity, much like a long sleep. A small number of frogs will hibernate
in the bottom of ponds, but only in ponds with high oxygen content, acceptable water quality and if the water is cold enough. Frogs can remain in a dormant state underwater for several months. The majority however, like newts, will hibernate on land. Newts will seek out particular areas which will remain frost free and sheltered. In the wild this could be under
logs, rocks or among dense vegetation, such as dense clumps of grass. Some may use disused mouse burrows or other holes. In gardens, they use areas such as compost heaps, piles of rock or stone walls with deep crevices. Under sheds or decking is also used, and occasionally house cellars.
The common Lizard (Zootoca vivipara) usually hibernates between October to
Smooth Newt out of the water.
Photo: istockphotos
March under rocks, tree roots or logs, and sometimes in groups. Like amphibians, they too will come out and forage if the temperature warms su ciently. ey are less likely to be found in gardens. Bogland, heathland, open wooded glades with sunny areas as well as coastal grasslands and cli s are their preferred habitats. ey also like exposed rocks or branches to sunbathe on in order to maintain their temperature. Newts and lizards feed on invertebrates, but newts will also feed on aquatic invertebrates as well as tadpoles when in the water.
One of the commonest questions we are asked is “What is this (in my house)?” and it is always newts. e majority of these queries come in around October/ November, which coincides with the period newts start to prepare for hibernation. Newts encountered in gardens and houses are o en mistaken for lizards, they do look quite like lizards, and many people assume newts are only found in ponds. However, newts generally only spend the breeding period as adults in ponds, preferring to spend the rest of the year on land. With the decline of natural habitats gardens have also become important, particularly gardens with suitable ponds. So with more newts favouring gardens it also stands to reason that newts may venture inside houses on occasion.
SO HOW TO TELL THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A NEWT AND LIZARD?
"FROGS CAN REMAIN IN A DORMANT STATE UNDERWATER FOR SEVERAL MONTHS.
THE MAJORITY HOWEVER, LIKE NEWTS, WILL HIBERNATE ON LAND. NEWTS WILL SEEK OUT PARTICULAR AREAS WHICH WILL REMAIN FROST FREE AND SHELTERED"
blunter, compared to the more pointy head of the lizard. Lizards can lose their tails (a defence to allow them to get away from a predator), while newts are stuck with a securely fastened tail. e colours are also di erent, while a non-breeding newt will be a drab sandy-brown colour (with lighter belly). Lizards can be brown, grey, bronzy or even green.
Newts are more active at night while lizards are more active during the day, requiring sunlight in which to bask.
So, we’ve established that if a reptile-like creature is in your home, it is more than likely a newt. But, why did it go in? is is the more di cult question, with no proven answer. If a cat or dog is kept it is a possibility that they carried it in and dropped it.
e majority of sightings inside houses occur in the period before hibernation, when newts are busy lling upon food for their winter sleep. So it is possible that newts come into houses to nd shelter in which to hibernate, or hunting for food such as spiders. Or perhaps they just wander in by mistake during a period when they are most actively seeking
shelter or food.
e next question is what to do with them? ey can neither hibernate or survive inside houses (too warm and dry) so it is best to carefully catch them and put them outside under a hedge, or lush vegetation. If possible by coxing them into a container, or using clean gloves to gently pick them up. Our hands are too hot and can irritate their skin so newts should never be handled with bare warm hands.
Obviously, creating a habitat for newts in your garden is ideal. A pond, large or small with small-leaved plants (for newts to wrap around their eggs) is essential for breeding newts. ere should be shelter as well as areas shallow enough for them to climb out. As well as log or stone piles for shelter, long grasses, hedges and rockeries create ideal habitats for when they are on the land. Access into and out of gardens is also important to allow movement of populations. If you can’t bear the thought of a wildlife garden, a garden plan along the lines of a cottage garden is ideal, providing plenty of cover - as well as supporting pollinating species of insects.
If you have a nature question you would like answered please send it to nature@iwt.ie with the subject line “Members Nature Questions”
It is completely understandable to mistake a newt for a lizard at rst glance, but there are a few ways to tell them apart without getting too close. If you can get close, it probably is a newt as lizards can move much faster. However, to identify them, lizards have scales all over their body, whereas newts have so er looking skin (o en resembling leather when dry). Newts only have four toes on the front feet, while lizards have ve. Newt toes are also stumpy, whereas the lizard's toes are more sharp and longer in appearance. e head of a newt is also
"CREATING A HABITAT FOR NEWTS IN YOUR GARDEN IS IDEAL. A POND, LARGE OR SMALL WITH SMALL-LEAVED PLANTS (FOR NEWTS TO WRAP AROUND THEIR EGGS) IS ESSENTIAL FOR BREEDING NEWTS"
Common Lizard.
Note the 5 digits on the front foot. Photo: Mike Browne
Smooth newt pictured from above. Note the four digits on the front feet.
Photo: iStockphoto
GORDON D’ARCY TALKS WITH PETE YULE OF THE SCOTTISH WILDLIFE TRUST
Discovering Scottish Wildlife
By GORDON D'ARCY
Comparisons are constantly drawn between Scotland and Ireland due to the former’s proximity and similar population (5.4 million). Geographically, it is roughly the same size and topographically, it is also substantially mountainous. However, the Scottish Highlands are wilder and more dramatic than even the highest ranges in Ireland and have more in common with the sub-Arctic regions of northern Scandinavia than with those of temperate Europe. Though there are many parallels between Irish and Scottish habitats, Scotland retains certain ‘grander’ examples such
"WITH THE COOPERATION OF LANDOWNERS, THE PLAN IS TO REINFORCE EXISTING RIVERSIDE WOODLANDS BY PLANTING NATIVE TREES SUCH AS WILLOW, ALDER AND BIRCH, TO CREATE LINEAR CORRIDORS FOR WILDLIFE IN AND ADJACENT TO RIVERS"
as vast upland moors with abundant grouse and red deer (Cervus elaphus) and extensive pine forests with iconic relict species such as wildcats (Felis silvestris).
As in Ireland a number of organisations (mainly NGOs) look after Scotland’s wildlife. These include the Scottish branch of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, and the largest, the Scottish Wildlife Trust (46,000 members!). Recently, on a visit to Edinburgh, I met up with Pete Yule, the membership recruitment manager of the Trust. Our meeting proved to be a great opportunity to compare the wildlife fortunes of both Scotland and Ireland. Pete was open to issues, whether popular or controversial. As in Ireland, the welfare of wildlife, particularly with respect to habitat and
European beavers have been successfully reintroduced to Scotland. Photo: iStockphoto
species protection, was paramount.
e Scottish Wildlife Trust’s work centres on their 120 reserves, representing a wide range of habitats, throughout Scotland. ey have 100 sta and about 1,000 volunteers. e ve goals listed by Pete, emphasise proposed conservation measures and the involvement of the public.
One of the high priorities for the Trust is the reinstatement of habitats beyond the boundaries of the nature reserves. An exciting example, presently underway, is the ‘Riverwoods Project’ focused on riparian habitats. Broadly, with the cooperation of landowners, the plan is to reinforce existing riverside woodlands by planting native trees such as willow, alder and birch, to create linear corridors for wildlife in and adjacent to rivers. ough this might be seen by some as interference with the status quo, it is argued that it actually amounts to a legitimate rewilding of habitats that, not long ago, were the norm throughout Scotland.
Another project currently underway is the ‘Coigach and Assynt Living Landscape’ programme. is, one of the largest landscapescale conservation initiatives in Europe, has truly grand ambitions. No fewer than nine organisations including the John Muir Trust and the North-West Highlands Geopark are involved along with a number of prominent landowners. Important elements of the project are biodiversity protection and enrichment, woodland connectivity and rewilding. In human terms it will provide employment opportunities for a local population, subject to depletion for decades. e Scottish Living Landscape project brings to mind the proposal to develop a similarly extensive wild tract in the west of Ireland, incorporating the Ballycroy National Park in County Mayo. Indeed, there may be much to learn from the progress of its Scottish counterpart.
Access to the country has long been a thorny issue. Nature reserves and national parks are of course open to the public both here and in Scotland. However, in Scotland (and throughout the UK) open access (‘Right-to-Roam’) is available by way of established countryside walking routes which may cross private land. In Ireland such rights of way can be highly contentious. A grand plan to reintroduce wolves into Scotland as part of a massive rewilding plan encompassing an entire Glen, came to nought as a consequence of the existence of an ancient right of way through the Glen. While it might have been possible to contain a wolf pack within the Glen, preying on the abundant and available deer, denial of access to walkers, due to the (unlikely) possibility of an attack on humans, was enough to scupper the project. ough wild Scotland is big enough to support a pack of wolves, with red deer their natural prey, Pete was of the opinion that actual implementation was still a long way o .*
"THE FORMER EXISTENCE OF THE EURASIAN LYNX (LYNX LYNX) IN SCOTLAND IS IRREFUTABLE. EVIDENCE HAS BEEN FORTHCOMING FROM A NUMBER OF WIDELY SEPARATE SITES, SOME DATED TO LATE MEDIEVAL TIMES"
He was much more optimistic about the lynx. e former existence of the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) in Scotland is irrefutable. Evidence has been forthcoming from a number of widely separate sites, some dated to late medieval times. It would have been an apex predator in the vast pine forests before their decimation during the early modern period. Due to their shy, human-shunning lifestyle, Pete is of the opinion that the lynx would pose no threat to humans. He envisaged a compensation scheme for farmers in the event of isolated sheepkill. Such a scheme operates in many parts of the world where an apex predator is proven to have attacked livestock. ough the subject of debate, Pete, as a spokesperson for the Trust, is excited about the prospect and feels that with proper public consultation the reintroduction might well become a reality. How would such an initiative go down in Ireland where there is also (minimal) evidence of the former existence of the lynx? Scotland’s great reintroduction success story is that of the European beaver (Castor ber). With sub-fossil and historical con rmation of its former existence in Britain, including Scotland, its reintroduction was seen as a legitimate and feasible undertaking. Over the past decade, with the beaver returning to a number of Scottish rivers, there has been widespread public interest and welcome for these ‘personality-plus’ mammals. Despite a certain amount of natural ‘re-engineering’ of watercourses involving some felling of waterside trees and building of lodges, the beaver has had positive ecological bene ts for aquatic and riparian wildlife, including improved water quality. Strangely, there is currently no sub-fossil evidence or historical references to beavers in Ireland. However, absence of evidence does not necessarily imply evidence of absence. If, with advances in zooarchaeology, reliable evidence is forthcoming, how would the public respond to a proposal for beaver reintroduction to Ireland’s rivers?
*A pack of 6 wild Eastern European wolves was (reportedly) released into an undisclosed location in the Scottish Highlands in 2015.
Lynx cub jumping from fallen tree trunk in Czech Republic. The Eurasian lynx once roamed the woodlands of Scotland. Many groups are calling for its return. Photo: iStockphoto
Flora
of County Monaghan A new
"IT IS AMAZING TO READ HOW MONAGHAN WENT FROM TREELESS TUNDRA TO LUSH FOREST COVER AND THEN TO THE STEADY DECLINE IN TREE COVER AS HUMAN ACTIVITIES BEGAN TO SHAPE OUR LANDSCAPE FOR THE FIRST TIME"
IBy BILLY FLYNN
t has been a long time coming but it is here. e most complete guide to the higher plants of Co. Monaghan has just been released. e Flora of County Monaghan by Alexis Fitzgerald is the result of over 9 years of study of the ora of this ‘wonderful hilly county’ as the author puts it himself. It is a lovely book to behold. e author comes from an era when ora were tomes of print with occasional grainy line-drawings. is book is far more than those dull catalogues. It is a richly illustrated and highly colourful account of a remarkably diverse county. e book opens with an account of the physical endowment of County Monaghan by Robert Meehan. is is a deep dive into the origins of the landscape of Monaghan. For someone from the county, this was a fascinating read. For instance, who knew that the drumlins of Co. Monaghan constitute the largest features formed under an ice sheet anywhere in the world? Or that the only occurrence worldwide of crosscutting ribbed morraines is about 5 km from where this present author now sits? e ice sheet that gave rise to our famous drumlins was at its greatest mass around 20,000 years ago and was probably over 650m thick. is would make it twice the height of the tallest ‘mountain’ in Co. Monaghan – Slieve Beagh (or Bragan, as we call it).
e next section of the book is on the climate of County Monaghan by Kieran Hickey. is draws heavily on the records accrued from the synoptic meteorological station at Clones. is was fascinating for this author who grew up within sight of the ‘met station’ that gave hourly data to the nation on the prevailing conditions at Clones. As it closed in 2008, the station missed out on the several extreme weather events that have by now become our new norm. Following this is a chapter by Fraser Mitchell on the vegetation history of County Monaghan. is is truly a deep dive into the oral past of Monaghan. From pollen records to nds such as giant Irish Deer and the molars of mammoths are used to peel back the layers of time to reveal how our vegetation came to be as it is today. It is amazing to read how Monaghan went from treeless tundra to lush forest cover and then to the steady decline in tree cover as human activities began to shape our landscape for the rst time.
e next section in the ora takes up the story of Monaghan’s plants as the county is settled and the land is turned to the bene t of this new dominant species. Here, the author describes some of the interactions of the rst and later
"Flora of County Monaghan" by Alexis FitzGerald
"FOR THE BOTANIST, HOWEVER EXPERIENCED, THIS IS A SUPER SOURCE OF INFORMATION WHICH INCLUDES ‘HABITAT HIGHLIGHTS’ WHERE ONE CAN SEEK OUT BOTANICAL RARITIES AS WELL AS A HOST OF MORE COMMON BUT STILL BEAUTIFUL PLANTS"
"MONAGHAN HAS THE HIGHEST PROPORTION OF TOWNLAND NAMES WITH ‘DERRY’ (FROM DOIRE, OR OAK GROVE) OF ANY COUNTY IN IRELAND"
farmers with the land and the plants thereof. To illustrate this, Alexis takes some townland names and explains their derivations from native plants.
ere is Corranure – round hill of the yew trees, Ballybay – the town at the ford of the birches, and Lennan – the place of the ax. is last plant was central to the economy of County Monaghan for many years. Interestingly, Monaghan has the highest proportion of townland names with ‘Derry’ (from doire, or oak grove) of any county in Ireland. is suggests that oak trees were a good deal more common then than now.
One can easily get lost in this really wellresearched tome. For example in the accounts of the e orts to rst map the county, the establishment of its baronies and the rst apothecaries and their botanical remedies. All of these and we haven’t got to the purpose of the book, an account of Monaghan’s ora. is begins in the 6th chapter of the book, an analysis of the
habitats and conservation of County Monaghan ora. Opening with a quotation from Patrick Kavanagh, this is a highly detailed and beautifully illustrated account of the habitats and ora of the county. For the botanist, however experienced, this is a super source of information which includes ‘habitat highlights’ where one can seek out botanical rarities as well as a host of more common but still beautiful plants. is section, ‘ e Best Botanical Sites to Visit in County Monaghan’ is sure to provide fruitful hunting ground for plant-seekers and inspire the next generation of botanists and their appreciation of Monaghan’s fascinating ora.
Book Details
Title: Flora of County Monaghan
ISBN: 978-1-916742-05-5
Author: Alexis FitzGeraldWordwell
Publisher: Wordwell
Monaghan has the highest proportion of townland names with ‘Derry’ (from doire, or oak grove) of any county in Ireland. Photo: iStockphoto
By ANNE SUNDERMANN
Springtime sees the return of many of Ireland’s migratory species. Migratory birds, insects, sh, and marine mammals pass through or arrive in Ireland for breeding or as wintering ground. Mammals in Ireland do not undertake long-distance migrations, but the smaller-scale migrations of the badger (Meles meles) and otter (Lutra lutra) are essential for species survival and ecological balance.
Coastal regions such as Bull Island and the reclaimed slobs along the Irish Sea are important stopovers or destinations. e Wexford Slobs and Harbour Special Protection Area, and Wexford Wildfowl Reserve host more than 250 bird species, particularly the Greenland Whitefronted Goose (Anser albifrons).
Migratory salmon, trout, and eels spend part of their life cycles in Ireland’s rivers, including the Moy and Shannon. e wet grasslands of the Shannon Callows are an important breeding, wintering, or stopover point for birds, including the Whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus)
GENETIC ROAD-MAPPING
Migratory animals use various guideposts to determine the timing and orientation of their travel, including the position of the sun and stars, the state of the Earth’s geomagnetic elds, and the photoperiod, or amount of daylight. ese processes are cyclical and reliable. It is this predictability that allows species to develop characteristics to amplify these cycles, dubbed circannual rhythms by Gwinner and colleagues.
Migration “builds on the reinforcement of traits that are already available by stationary animals, like locomotion, orientation, and energy deposition,” according to Alerstam and Bäckman. Species evolve when several factors interact: the potential for increased numbers, successful use of limited resources, genetic variation, and the ability to survive and reproduce despite competition from other species. ese traits are then available to be passed on to subsequent generations. Genetic diversity can either increase or decrease due to migration. As individuals leave or enter a population, they bring or take away genetic material. Migration also in uences the genetic composition of populations by facilitating gene ow, that is, when migrating individuals interbreed and transfer their genes between two or more populations.
Researchers have shown the genetic connection between generations of migratory birds. Literák, and colleagues studied behavioural characteristics of migrating populations of red
On the ROAD Again
IRELAND AS A MIGRATION DESTINATION
"MIGRATION ALLOWS SPECIES TO MAXIMIZE REPRODUCTION IN THE BREEDING SEASON, AND PROVIDE OVERWINTER ACCESS TO FOOD AND ENERGY SUPPLIES. THUS, MIGRATION IS OFTEN TIMED TO SEASONAL RESOURCES, SUCH AS AVAILABILITY OF POLLINATORS, THE HATCHING OF INSECTS, OR FISH SPAWNING"
kites (Milvus milvus) and black kites (Milvus migrans). A er several generations of interspecies hybridisation, they concluded that the di erences between the hybrid o spring of the kites can be explained by a signi cant predominance of genetic in uence over social learning.
THE KEYSTONE TO DIVERSITY
Many migratory animals and insects act as a keystone species, helping to shape habitats by transferring and distributing nutrients, dispersing seeds, pollinating plants, and enhancing biodiversity. Stopover sites used by migratory species o en host diverse organisms, bene ting multiple species.
Marine- and land-based animals distributed across several di erent habitats o er the bene t of less competition between individuals and groups, and also the potential for more diverse predator-prey interactions. ese actions build a more robust ecosystem.
Migration allows species to maximize reproduction in the breeding season, and provide overwinter access to food and energy supplies. us, migration is o en timed to seasonal resources, such as availability of pollinators, the hatching of insects, or sh spawning.
THE HIGH COST OF TRAVEL
Migration has ecological costs too, including the amount of energy that is expended. Migratory
animals must store or have access to energy (food) to fuel their migration, which in turn can reduce other functions, such as reproduction. Heightened risk via exposure to predators, disease, or parasites, as well as extreme weather conditions, o en lead to increased mortality rates.
Hewson and colleagues tracked cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) populations on two migration routes from Europe to their wintering grounds in southern and central Africa. eir research showed a higher mortality for birds crossing the Sahara Desert, which, although it was the shorter of the two routes, had a more stressful environment. e higher mortality rate was linked to a negative e ect on the cuckoo breeding population.
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) spend their rst to third years on a feeding migration into the Norwegian sea before returning to the freshwater rivers of their birth. Individual-based models developed by Utne and Mousing show that their initial location is a signi cant factor in feeding success, with smolts originating from southern rivers faring less well than their northern counterparts, due in part to the availability of food.
Migration is an adaptation that serves many species and bene ts ecosystems worldwide. Migrations may be altered due to the e ects of climate change. For example, the cuckoo has lost more than a quarter of its breeding
"EVERY PHASE OF MIGRATION AFFECTS THE HEALTH AND SURVIVAL OF THESE SPECIES, AND ILLUSTRATES THE IMPORTANCE OF ALL ASPECTS OF THE JOURNEY"
RESOURCES
Cuckoo returning to Ireland. Photo: Mike Brown
distribution over the last half a century, likely because of food scarcity.
But species do adapt. It was generally thought that basking sharks (Cetorhinus maximus) in the North Atlantic migrated based on seasonal changes in water temperature. Recent research (Johnston et al.) show data from the north east Atlantic revealed no apparent link between shark movement and water temperature, but rather that “the depth use was the key determinant of thermal range (and minimum temperatures) within coastal and o shore areas.” e researchers conclude, hopefully, “basking sharks in the north east Atlantic may possess the adaptive capacity to tolerate projected shi s in water temperature linked to climate change.”
In addition to the advantages and natural consequences of migratory travel, there are also man-made risks. Infrastructure and development create barriers to migrations, for example, dams, roads, or urban areas that fragment landscapes and create a hazard for species that rely on access for their migration. A tracking study (Atkinson et al.) of native aquatic Irish migratory species (Atlantic salmon, sea trout, European eel, sea lamprey, and brown trout) noted that 88% of obstacles were road-river crossings and lowhead weirs. e authors note that: “A high level of connectivity between habitats in a river system and between a river and the sea is acknowledged as vital for sustaining healthy stream sh populations”.
Every phase of migration a ects the health and survival of these species, and illustrates the importance of all aspects of the journey. Preserving natural migration routes and stopover areas is a critical part of maintaining robust migratory populations and healthy ecosystems. By protecting migratory species and conserving and connecting routes and stopover habitats, Ireland can play a critical role in sustaining worldwide biodiversity.
• Alerstam, T., Bäckman, J. (2018). Ecology of animal migration. Current Biology, 28, R952-R1008.
• Atkinson, S., Bruen, M. O’Sullivan, J.J., Turner, J.N., Ball, B., Carlsson, J., Bullock, C. Casserly, C.M., Kelly-Quinn, M. (2020). An inspection-based assessment of obstacles to salmon, trout, eel and lamprey migration and river channel connectivity in Ireland. Science of the Total Environment 719, 137215.
• Esri Ireland. Optimizing bird migration tracking with ARCGis. https://www.esri.com/about/newsroom/arcuser/ bird-migration/. Accessed 15 Feb 2025.
• Gwinner, E. (November 1977). Circannual rhythms in bird migration. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 8(1): 381–405. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.08.110177.002121.
• Hewson, C., orup, K., Pearce-Higgins, J. et al. (2016) Population decline is linked to migration route in the Common Cuckoo. Nature Communications 7, 12296. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms12296
• Johnston, E.M., Houghton, J.D.R., Mayo, P.A. et al. (2022) Cool runnings: behavioural plasticity and the realised thermal niche of basking sharks. Environ Biol Fish 105, 2001–2015 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-021-01202-8
• Literák, I., Kyseláková, C.M., Dostál, M. et al. (2025) Evidence of genetic determination of annual movement strategies in medium-sized raptors. Science Reports 15, 3159 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-86414-z
• Utne, K.R., Mousing , E.A. 2025. Regional di erences in salmon post-smolt migration routes can explain variation in individual growth at sea · Ecological Modelling 500(1):110955 DOI:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2024.110955
Library of Smells. Photo: Ros Kavanagh
Artisit SIOBHÁN MCDONALD
The Bogs are - which premiered at the Model Gallery, Sligo in 2023
SBreathing
iobhán McDonald’s works with natural materials, withdrawing them from their cycles of generation, growth and decay. This process gives form to a range of projects which consider our place on Earth in the context of geological time. Her artworks make use of natural phenomena and technologies to stage poetic and philosophical engagements between people and their natural world. Beginning with a specific site of investigation, Siobhán weaves diverse narratives into visual stories, often inviting nature itself to participate in the creative process. Her most recent work explores the role of boglands as both repositories of our past and guardians of our future. Some of this work can be seen at the Royal Hibernian Academy of Arts (RHA), Dublin 2 till 20 Apr., 2025, as part of the BOGSKIN exhibition.
A LIBRARY OF SMELLS (2023 - 2025)
Glass bottles, bog water, plants, scent, and microbes
A Library of Smells is an artwork that uses paleontology and botany with the reconstruction of an odor that preserved a manuscript to explore the pharmacy of bog plants beneath our feet. It is a slow distillation of deep time created from plants and mineral rich bog water to explore links between smell & memory. Different bog elements are combined in a beaker, their chemical reactions giving rise to a staging of nature. Some of the vessels contain scent infused remnants that have been buried deep in the bog for decades alluding to the low oxygen levels and unusual smells derived from the preservation conditions. The notes are guided by elements of the acid bath of the bog, the soil, the
plants and the swampy aroma of anaerobic decay, through tinctures, notes of ink, humus, papyrus, and dust.
With thanks Julie Barretta; ‘Unlocking Nature’s Pharmacy from Bogland Species (UNPBS)’ led by Professor Helen Sheridan, Academic Director of NatPro, Trinity Centre for Natural Product Research; European Research Council: 101020824 - Terraform Project.
W: www.siobhanmcdonald.com Instagram: @siomcdonald
"HER MOST RECENT WORK EXPLORES THE ROLE OF BOGLANDS AS BOTH REPOSITORIES OF OUR PAST AND GUARDIANS OF OUR FUTURE"
Siobhán McDonald
Photo: Yvette Monahan
THE RESPONSE OF BIRD COMMUNITIES TO FOREST-TO-BOG RESTORATION
Once the trees are gone
In this new column we highlight recently published irish biodiversity research that may be of interest to our members. e sub-editor for this column is Dr. Jamie Rohu. Jamie is a postdoctoral research fellow in the Department of History at Trinity College Dublin. He is currently working on the Research Ireland and National Parks & Wildlife-funded Twelve Bogs project.
In this issue we feature an article by Colin Guilfoyle.
FROM OPEN WETLANDS TO CLOSED CANOPIES, AND BACK AGAIN
By COLIN GUILFOYLE
Colin completed his BSc degree in Zoology at NUI Galway in 2020, followed by an MSc in Conservation Behaviour at ATU Galway in 2021. During this time he carried out research on species such as red squirrel and Eurasian lynx. His current research is part of a PhD project funded by the Marine Institute in Collaboration with ATU focussed on biodiversity conservation and habitat restoration in Wild Nephin National Park, Co Mayo.
During the 20th century, the Republic of Ireland underwent a period of intense state-led a orestation, with signi cant implications for wildlife. is followed centuries of deforestation, which resulted in terrestrial forest cover as low as 1%. Agriculturally unproductive lands, such as peatlands, were
speci cally targeted and planted with exotic conifers as a means to increase their pro tability and to provide local employment opportunities. Consequently, both the blanket bogs (~220,000 ha a orested) of the western seaboard and uplands, and the raised bogs (~74,000 ha) of the midlands, were greatly impacted. e outcome of this extensive a orestation strategy was a range of environmental consequences, including decreases in water quality, carbon storage and peatland biodiversity. Groundnesting birds in particular such as skylark (Alauda arvensis), golden plover (Pluvialis apricaria), curlew (Numenius arquata) and hen harrier (Circus cyaneus), which utilise bogs for breeding and foraging, su ered from the loss and fragmentation of suitable habitat. Further pressure was felt from the increasing numbers of nest predators taking advantage of the cover provided by forestry plantations.
‘Forest-to-bog’ restoration is a relatively modern innovation which was developed in an attempt to amend some of the environmental damage caused by peatland a orestation. e process involves a combination of tree felling and blocking of drainage channels, with the hope being that these rewetting
"THE OUTCOME OF THIS EXTENSIVE AFFORESTATION STRATEGY WAS A RANGE OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES, INCLUDING DECREASES IN WATER QUALITY, CARBON STORAGE AND PEATLAND BIODIVERSITY"
actions will eventually result in recovery of the bogs’ acidophilic mosses, sedges and heathers. Between 2003-2007, Ireland’s state forestry body, Coillte, started restoring a combined 2,559 ha of afforested raised and blanket bogs over the course of two separate EU LIFE funded projects, following a restoration template previously developed in Scotland during the 1990s. These projects are generally considered to have been successful, with peatland vegetation showing at least partial recovery following forest removal and restoration works. What is less certain however, is the recovery of animal communities in the years following restoration.
ASSESSING THE RECOVERY
As part of my PhD research, supported by the Marine Institute Cullen Scholarship in collaboration with Atlantic Technological University, we are addressing this knowledge gap. We selected six forestto-bog sites in County Mayo which were restored during Coillte’s EU LIFE-NATURE
Blanket Bog restoration project and paired them with nearby afforested and nearnatural blanket bog sites. The aim of the study was to assess bird species richness, abundance and community composition at each site in order to quantify the changes which have occurred since restoration, and to determine whether these efforts have led to a bird assemblage similar to that of near-natural blanket bog sites. We also wanted to establish the structural habitat differences at the site types which were most responsible for changes in bird assemblages. During the 2023 breeding season (April-June), bird communities at each site were surveyed with two counts, using a combination of point count and line transect surveys. We also recorded the percentage cover and height of the different habitat components, such as mature trees, shrubs, ground vegetation, deadwood and water.
"WHAT IS CLEAR IS THAT THE INCREASE IN SCALE OF FORESTTO-BOG PROJECTS, AND OTHER FORMS OF PEATLAND RESTORATION, CANNOT COME QUICKLY ENOUGH, GIVEN THE CONTINUED DECLINES OBSERVED ACROSS OUR ICONIC PEATLAND BIRDS"
The bird communities of afforested areas were almost entirely distinct from those of near-natural and restored bogs, highlighting the stark changes in bird communities which occur following afforestation, and subsequently, restoration. Nearnatural and restored site communities were similar to one another, hosting mutual species but frequently in differing densities. For example, meadow pipits were more abundant in restored sites than in near-natural sites, and vice versa for skylark. Notably, common snipe was the only wader recorded at restored sites, being present at several, while red grouse was also found at a single restored location. However, restorative measures did not result in a recovery of other breeding waders, such as golden plover.
As expected, the cover of mature conifer trees was responsible for a large proportion of the differences in bird communities across sites, with their removal having the largest impact on habitat structure. Increases in the cover of dwarf shrubs (mostly ling heather, Calluna vulgaris), deadwood (wood left on site to decompose following restoration) and broadleaf shrubs and trees (mainly willow, Salix sp. and birch, Betula pubescens) were the main factors responsible for remaining differences in bird communities of restored and near-natural sites. Increases in these latter variables resulted in shrub dwelling species, for example warblers and wrens, being more common at restored sites than species which prefer low growing vegetation, like skylark.
LOOKING TO THE FUTURE
Blanket bogs are not known for hosting a high diversity of species and instead tend to host a select number of specially adapted species, including several Birds of Conservation Concern in Ireland (BoCCI). Therefore, it was no surprise that we recorded a higher number and abundance of species in afforested sites compared to near-natural blanket bog sites. Generalist species such as chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs) and robin (Erithacus rubecula) were common in these forests along with typically forest-dwelling species like crossbill (Loxia curvirostra), coal tit (Periparus ater), and the amber-listed goldcrest (Regulus regulus). However, the species richness of birds did not decline following restoration as one might expect, with a mix of open and shrub dwelling species being present, including meadow pipit (Anthus pratensis), wren (Troglodytes troglodytes), stonechat (Saxicola rubicola), willow warbler (Phylloscopus trochilus) and lesser redpoll (Acanthis flammea). Near-natural blanket bogs were dominated by meadow pipit and skylark, but the occasional presence of red-listed birds including golden plover, dunlin (Calidris alpina), redshank (Tringa tetanus) and red grouse (Lagopus lagopus hibernicus) at these sites highlighted their conservation importance and contribution to landscape diversity. An important finding was that the number, and abundance of red-listed species, increased significantly following restoration, to similar levels seen in near-natural sites.
The results of this study showed that restoration can have positive conservation benefits for BoCCI, particularly for redlisted species, and support at least a partial recovery of blanket bog bird communities. The rehabilitation of these ecosystems may be a long-term process, but it is likely that legacy drainage impacts at these sites, which have led to increased growth of dwarf shrubs and broadleaf trees, will continue to shape the trajectory of bird communities. Recent forest-to-bog restoration projects have included novel methods, including more concerted efforts to reprofile the bog surface to remove the pattern of furrows and ridges left after afforestation. The result is a more even distribution of the water table, therefore improving the likelihood of peatland plant species recolonising. The effects of these novel methods on bird communities will be interesting to monitor in the future, with an increasing area of afforested peatland likely to be restored on both Coillte and National Park lands to meet our obligations under the newly introduced Nature Restoration Law. What is clear is that the increase in scale of forest-to-bog projects, and other forms of peatland restoration, cannot come quickly enough, given the continued declines observed across our iconic peatland birds.
The study was co-authored by Dr. John Lusby (BirdWatch Ireland), Dr. Elvira de Eyto (Marine Institute), Dr. Heather Lally and Dr. Conor Graham (both Atlantic Technological University) and was funded through the Marine Institute Cullen Scholarship. The study “Avian communities show distinct responses to forest-to-bog restoration” can be read openly online at the Journal of Environmental Management.
Forest to bog restoration site near Derry Co Mayo. The vegetation present is a mix of heath and bog communities. Photo: Colin Guilfoyle
IWT PHOTOS OF THE MONTH
1. Redwing by Jamie Quirke
2. Rua surveying his kingdom by Joe Duffy
3. Blue Tit by Marie Bishop
4. Red Squirrel by David Twomey
5 Barnacle Geese by Ciaran McGurran
COMPETITION
For this season’s member’s only competition you have a chance to win a copy of Pine Marten by Dan Bagur or one of our organic IWT t-shirts!
Pine Marten e Secret Life of Pine Martens
By Dan Bagur
O ering new insights into how they grow, learn and live, this book delves deep into the secretive behaviour of one of our rarest and most elusive mammals. It covers Pine Marten social interactions, courtship, mating, nesting and kit rearing, feeding and diet, as well as relationships with other wildlife. It also examines the considerable advantages of having these animals around and why it is in our interest to help them. This book uniquely uses photography to show (not tell) the reader all aspects of Pine Marten behaviour – uncovering these mammals’ private life and shining light into the darkness of the night.
To win one of these great prizes just answer this questionName one native irish species of mustelid?
Entry instructions
This is an IWT members only competition. Send your answer, name, address and prize preference (the book OR a t-shirt) to magazinecomp@iwt.ie by 1st May 2025.
If you choose the t-shirt, tell us the size, colour and design preference. You can view our t-shirt selection on https://iwtclothing.com/
The Badger Club
Competition / Activity
To enter the competition this issue, send us your artwork with a winter theme. Go for a walk outside to your local park, or further.
- What can you observe in nature during the winter?
- What is different in winter from other seasons?
- What animals can you see, or not see?
- If you don't see them where are they? Send us your answers in the form of you artwork.
The prize will be:
The Great Big Book of Irish Wildlife - Through the Seasons.
Please email a photo of your artwork along with your name and address to badgercomp@iwt.ie.
Competition deadline: 31st January 2025. Best of luck everyone! :)
The winner for the Autumn competition is
