Library of Alexandria

Li brary of Alexandria 1

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Li brary of Alexandria

Aristotle (384–322 BC): Greek philosopher. Teacher of Alexander the Great.

He encouraged Alexander to conquer the East.

Alexander (356–323 BC): King of Macedon. He conquered the Persian Empire and ruled the land all the way from Athens, Asian Minor, Egypt, Mesopotamia to parts of India. He spread the Greek culture and started the Hellenism period.

Ptolemy I (367–283 BC): King of Egypt. He planned and started building the Library of Alexandria.

Ptolemy II (283–246BC): Focus on the Translation in literature, and scroll from other language.

Ptolemy III (246-222BC): Famous for Borrow the manuscripts of Aeschylus, Euripides,and Sophpcles from Athen and only return the copy.

Euclid (300BC): Was well-known mathematician who wrote the “element”in geometry.

Zenodotus(About 300BC): the first director of the library, the first person to use tags to distinguish rolls and use the author’s name in alphabetical order to arrange countless rolls in library system.

Callimachus of Cyene(305BC): His work “Piakes” was the first idea to organize information and present the bibliography of library in Alexandria.

Aristophanes of Byzantium(205 BC – 185BC): Started the idea of Lexicography.

Dionysius Thrax(170BC – 90BC): Setup the standard grammar in Greek, which adopted by Rome into their own language.

Herophilus(335 BC): Was the first anatomist, founder of the scientific method in medicine emphasizing on the experiment to medicine.

He was the first one to differential between vein and artery and deduce that there was only blood in the vessel intend of with air and water by dissection.

Erasistratus( 304 – 250 BC): Who founded the school of anatomy with the contemporary Herophilus in Alexandria.

He also mentioned about that mental can affect the physical condition, which can’t be controlled by the consciousness.

Galen(129-216 AD): Preserved the notes and several fragments idea which come from both Herophilus and Erasistratus. His work of investigation and observation start to spread in the 16th century, and became the foundation of the development modem medicine.

Euclid(325BC): Well-known mathematician who wrote the “element” in geometry.

The most important thing is that Euclid set up an clear logic thinking process to prove facts “Axioms”.

Archimedes (287-212 BC): He was the greatest mathematician of antiquity and one of the greets of all time. He was also a physicist, engineer, inventor and astronomer.

One of his inventions, the Archimedes Screw is still widely used today in many regions.

Eratosthenes(276BC): Use the distance of two different cities and the angle of the sum in noon to calculate the circumference.

Claudius Ptolemy(90-168AD): In his work Alamgest, using the convenient table to present astronomical model for calculate the possible position for certain plaint in the past or in the future.

Combined his calculation and the knowledge in astronomy to refine the map he drew by creating the grids to set up the latitude and longitude for more accurate in map making.

Hypatia(350-370–415 AD): Most famous female scientist of her time. Strong subjects known to her was astrology, philosophy and math. Killed by a christian mob and accused for being a witch.

Cyril (376–444 AD): Bishop and patriarch of Alexandria, expelled the jews from Alexandria and is considered a more rigid ruler of the city.

Orestes(Unknown): Prefect, pagan that sided with Hypatia. Despite Cyril’s attempt, never sought peace between Pagan’s and Christians.

CONTENT I. Introduction

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II. Founding of The Library

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III. Development of library system

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a. Zenodotus b. Callimachus of Cyene c. Aristophanes of Byzantium

IV. The Contribution to Science

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a. Archimedes b. Eratosthenes c. Claudius Ptolemy

V. The Medicine Contribution

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a. Herophilus b. Erasistratus c. Galen

VI. The Transition from Papyrus to Codex

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VII. Religion, Hypatia and The Destruction

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VIII.Conclusion 18 IX. Bibliography

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VIII.Image Source

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1-1. The Ancient World / Alexander the Great / Conquests of Alexander the Great

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INTRODUCTION which Alexander was truly impressed and implied that “This is what a King supposed to be living in”. In Egypt, they had their Pyramids, Pharaohs, gods and writing system functioned as document record. In Mesopotamia they first had the oldest known code—the Ur-Nammu which created in about 2100 BC and then in 1792 BC, the most famous Code of Hammurabi.

In the 7th Century BC, the Royal Library of Ashurbanipal was built in Nineveh, with more than 30,943 tablet writing in Cuneiform in its collection. It was said that Alexander saw the Royal Library of Ashurbanipal and was inspired to create his own library.

The Library of Alexandria was the largest and most significant one in the ancient world. It functioned as a major center of scholarship from its construction in the 3rd century BC until the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC. The library was a monument to the permanence of Hellenic culture, and was never limited to Hellenism.

Alexander recognized the accomplishments of the civilizations that he conquered and he paid great respect to them. He wanted to built an empire where all nations live equally together, sharing and exchanging their culture and wisdom. He encouraged cross-nation marriage. Through Alexander’s effort, Greek culture spread and adapted to the indigenous cultures.

This fusion of the Ancient Greek world with that of the East declared the beginning of the Hellenistic Period.

The Hellenistic period began in the 4th century BC with Alexander the Greats’ conquest. Alexander grew up in Macedon. He was educated by Aristotle and became a patron to Greek culture. Before his campaign in the East, Alexander believed, as classic Greeks did, that “there are only two kind of people in the world—Greeks and Barbarians”. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest and told him “be a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians. To look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants.”

While Alexander was exploring the East, Aristotle went back to Athens and founded a school of his own. There, he had his private library. Alexander was sending collected gifts of money and specimens of fauna and flora from the East to the library, where Aristotle was able to do researches such as literature, botany and zoology. He produced a body of writings that covered full regions of the art and sciences of his age. Aristotle also developed a system of library management that he would later share with Ptolemy I.

In 336 BC Alexander’s father, Philips II was assassinated by the Persians and Alexander succeeded to the throne. He soon began his revenge—The conquest of the Persian Empire.

Alexander’s campaigns led him all the way from Athens to eastern Mediterranean, Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Iranian Plateau, Central Asia and parts of India. Along with the journey, Greek culture was brought to the East. Cities named after Alexander were founded one by one. Splendid Geek sculptures and theaters were built all the way with Alexander’s campaign.

Soon Ptolemy I would become the King of Egypt. The Library of Alexandria would be founded. And City Alexandria was to become the metropolis of Hellenic culture.

At the same time, Alexander’s old belief towards “barbarian” collapsed. All the nations that Alexander conquered were not barbarian at all. In Syria there was a magnificent palace

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3-1. The Great Library of Alexandria, O. Von Corven, 19th century

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FOUNDING OF THE LIBRARY and (Euripides Medea and Bacchae) which could be the most important tragedy plays in the Hellenic world. He desperately asked Athens to lend the manuscript of the plays for him and using fifteen talent with a huge amount of money as guarantee to turn back them. Yet, he copied the manuscript but kept the manuscript and returned the finest copy back to the Athens.

This action become a great story about how much the library of Alexandria valued the work of text documents, and how desperate they wanted to preserved Hellenic classic work.

King of Egypt, Ptolemy I, was a general of Alexander and was also Aristotle’s student who learned with Alexander. Ptolemy I and Alexander fought together in the east. Both of them understand the power of knowledge and how it could be an advantage to spread the Hellenic culture to the world. There were two good reasons to built the library in Alexandria, the first reason was that the fertile soil which was close to the river Nile harvested amount of grain every year. At that time, the grain’s value as fossil fuel in nowadays, with the numerous grain, City Alexandria was no doubt to be the prosperous and wealthy city in ancient world. The second reason was that, the river basin of Nile was the main habitat of papyrus, which was the main writing material. These two element became the unique feature of building a great library.

Translation was an important work to do in the library of Alexandria because the Greek language was variable in that time. Also the scrolls and document came from other countries needed to be understood. The goal was not just to translate foreign languages into Greek but also to organize Greek work into different languages to spread the Hellenic culture. Many Greek classic works had been organized, copied, preserved in this process such as Homer’s epics, which was the most important Greek work translate into an official version and widely spread in the period of Ptolemy II.

The first thing that Ptolemy did was to build the temple of muse, which became the main library itself. The function of the temple was to provide living place to stay. He also set up a huge fund to support the spending on the scholars, supporting them great salary, food, lodging, and no tax. In this way they could focus on their research. This act was the very beginning of the prototype idea of research center in the modern world.

These two fundamental works were the cornerstones of the library. Scholars from all over the world came to the library because it owned massive advanced information and played the role as the greatest research center in the ancient world. These Scholars did great works and their contributions influence the western culture profoundly.

Another big issue was how to collect documents in order to became the richest library in the world. The policy was to buy any documents they could. This policy was not only practiced by Ptolemy I, but the following Ptolemy as well.

The most famous event of collecting document happened in Ptolemy III who was known as a patron of literature. He was so eager of getting the official version of the plays of Aeschylus (Prometheus Bound), Sophocles (Oedipus Rex and Electra),

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5-1. The scrolls were stacked, usually no more than 3 or four high, and each had a tag on the end.

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DEVELOPMENT OF LIBRARY SYSTEM ARISTOPHANES OF BYZANTIUM The concept of Lexicography also started from library of Alexandria. Aristophanes of Byzantium(205 BC -185BC) who was a comic playwright, wrote commentaries to books, made it easier to understand and help people to understand the old word in many literature.

Collecting numerous rolls and document was one thing, managing them was another thing. How to deal with a great amount of rolls became a huge challenge to the library, because it was not only to storage these file but in order to organized them into a convenient resource for scholars to use. Thanks to many efforts taken by the director of the library, the process of problem solving became a series of development systematic revolution in Library.

He rearranged the work of Philitas’ “Miscellaneous Word” and Zenodotus’ refine version to a prototype of modern dictionary that collected old and current words with the explanation and the origin of the word. This was easy to understand for ordinary people just like the Webster Dictionary we used today.

Therefore the library became a great resource for not only the newest information but also ancient wisdom.

Taking the advantage of all these resources, Dionysius Thrax the most important grammarian in Greek, started to take the effort to refine the Greek grammar. He assembled the material into coherent and set the declension of nous and conjugation of verbs, refining them into the standard grammar in Greek.

This grammar were not only used in teaching student in the school for over 100 years, but also adopted by the Rome into their language and became the model for the modern grammar in western world.

There were several contributors building up the system making the library become a useful source instead of just a place to put scrolls.

ZENODOTUS As the first director of the library, Zenodotus was the first person to use tags to distinguish scrolls and the alphabetical order of the author’s name to arrange countless scrolls. He assigned different rooms for different categories of scrolls to make it even easier to find.

CALLIMACHUS OF CYENE It was Callimachus of Cyene who took the responsibility to produce the library bibliographic. His work “Piakes” was a 120 volume long document that recorded all the Greek works with authors information in the table. Though all of his works were lost but his idea was greatly used the ancient world.

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7-1. One of the oldest surviving fragments of Euclid’s Elements, found at Oxyrhynchus and dated to circa AD 100 (P. Oxy. 29). The diagram accompanies Book II, Proposition 5.

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THE CONTRIBUTION TO SCIENCE greatest of all time. He was also a physicist, engineer, inventor and astronomer.

Though Archimedes spent most of his later life lived and worked in his hometown Syracuse, his passion on engineering design started when he was in Alexandria, where the famous Archimedes Screw was invented. It was said that when he took a walk by the Nile and saw the Egyptians people were exhausted by going back and forth to fetch water to irrigation.

He decided to find an easy way for them. After many engineering experiments, he invented a screw named after him­—Archimedes Screw. The Archimedes screw was a device with a revolving screw-shaped blade inside a cylinder. It was turned by hand in the Ancient time. The screw could be used to transfer water from a low land into the irrigation canals.

If the library of Alexandria was only a place that collected amount of scrolls and documents, it would not be so essential in the history. The information should be used and the knowledge should be put into practice for people to think in a logic way is quite critical in that time.

EUCLID The famous scholar have done many works using the library, one of them is Euclid, he was well-known mathematician who wrote the “element” in geometry. Although some of the geometry idea is from the former mathematician, what Euclid did was simplify it and as a result his notion was easier to understand. That work was still printed in the nineteenth and twentieth century and the idea still exist until today.

Other saying is that the Archimedes Screw was actually invented in his hometown, when he was commended to design a huge ship for the King of Syracuse to have luxury travel. According to records writing by a Greek writer, the ship was capable of carrying 600 people and included garden decoration. A ship of this size would leak a great amount of water through the hull, and the Archimedes screw was invented to remove the bilge water.

The most important thing is that Euclid set up a clear logic thinking process to prove facts. Axioms, is one of the way to use the general facts to expand and can be connected to other facts to prove another certainty. It was the solid scientific logic until today. This way of thinking led the Greek scientists to an easier way to exam the works and research.

Whether in Alexandria or in Syracuse the screw was invented, it is sure that today the screw is still in use in Egypt for pumping liquids and solids such as coal and grain.

ARCHIMEDES Not many people knows that Archimedes was one of the significant scientists on the list of the Library of Alexandria. In fact, Archimedes was sent to study in the library of Alexandria when he was only 9 years old. At the library he studied mathematic and Euclid was one of his teachers.

“Give me a place to stand on, and I will move the Earth” — Archimedes

Having the best education in Alexandria, Archimedes became the extraordinary mathematician of antiquity and one of the

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9-1. The world according to Eratosthenes, ca. 220 B.C.

9-2. A 15th-century manuscript copy of the Ptolemy world map, reconstituted from Ptolemy’s Geographia (circa 150), indicating the countries of “Serica” and “Sinae” (China) at the extreme east, beyond the island of “Taprobane” (Sri Lanka, oversized) and the “Aurea Chersonesus” (Malay Peninsula).

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ERATOSTHENES Another significant scientist, Eratosthenes, was the director of library in 245-205BC. He was a mathematician, geographer, poet and astronomer, embracing the knowledge no matter what it was. The most impressive thing he did was to measure the circumference of the earth without leaving Egypt. He used the distance of two different cities and the angle of the sum in noon to calculate the circumference. He was the first person start to use the word “geography” and put him self into this area. In that time he gathered information from the library and from the soldiers in India, using these second hand research to make “map of the world” from the stretch of the Atlantic ocean to an ocean closing off India to the east. It was not the correct version of the map but it was the first step to use different information and knowledge to draw a map. By combining different area of knowledge such as astronomy and mathematics, the people were able to map the world and create the subject of geography.

CLAUDIUS PTOLEMY After the Alexandria became one the province of Rome, a scholar named Claudius Ptolemy did great contribution to not only in astronomy and geography but also astrology. In one of his work Alamgest, using the convenient table to present his astronomical model to calculate the possible position for certain planet in the past or in the future. It also included a star catalogue, which was an improved version of the former edition Hipparchus. It list 48 constellations in ancient to modern, but it is a little different from the modern one because Ptolemy only list the constellations that he can observe. He also contributed in geography; he combined his calculation and the knowledge in astronomy to refine the map he drew. By creating the grids to set up the latitude and longitude for more accurate in map making, which become the big steps to refine the skill in Empire of Rome and have a great advantage to the middle age and in Renaissance which influenced profoundly in the western culture.

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11-1. Detail of a Woodcut depicting ancient herbalists and scholars of medicinal lore “Herophilus and Erasistratus”

11-2. Erasistratus, a physician, realising that Antiochus’s (son of Seleucus I) illness is lovesickness for his stepmother Stratonice, by observing that Antiochus’s pulse rose when ever he saw her. Mezzotint

by V. Green, 1776, after Sir B. West.

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THE MEDICINE CONTRIBUTION practice human anatomy. He also paid attention on the way of circulation and describe that the heart is the origin organ where the blood of artery and vein go pass instead of starting from liver. He also had great observation on physiology mentioning about that the mental can affect the physical condition, which can not be controlled by the consciousness.

The library of Alexandria was not only a place that gathered scholars and amount of documents in the ancient times, it acted as a functional university which scientists could be trained in the school. At that time most of the Hellenic world were forbidden to do the dissection to human body, but the city of Alexandria accept the idea of it and even encouraged to practice. This was not only because Egypt had a great history and experienced of mummification that needed to be prepared for the process, but also they were eager to gain knowledge of the human body. This feature made the library of Alexandria unique place to learn medicine.

GALEN Both of these two great scientists’ work were lost in the past, much obliged to Galen (129-216 AD), the student who trained and learned in the school of medicine (anatomy in Alexandria) preserved the notes and several fragments idea which come from both Herophilus and Erasistratus. After finishing his study in Alexandria, he started to practice his career in Rome and started to write down numerous medical works. The Knowledge and skills he had was strongly influenced by what he learned in Alexandria. He became the symbol of the Greek medicine to the western culture, although most of his work were lost and not translated into Latin for a long period but his theories, the way of investigation and observation started to spread in the sixteenth century and became the foundation of the development of modern medicine. Without the city of Alexandria and the library, the research institute such as school of anatomy would not exist. The dissection of the human body brought profound understanding in organs and let the systematic dissection to be a support in the medicine.

HEROPHILUS There were several scientists who had great contribute to development of the western medical theory. The first one is Herophilus (335 BC) who was the first anatomist, he was known for the founder of the scientific method, emphasizing on the experiment to medicine. He was the first one to differentiate vein and artery and conclude that there is only blood in the vessel intend of with air and water with dissection.

He also focus on the pulse and create the equipment which is called water clock.

ERASISTRATUS The other contributor is Erasistratus (304-250 BC), he was the one who founded the school of anatomy with the contemporary Herophilus in Alexandria which drawn all the scholars in medical from all over the world to

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13-1. Christian Bible as Codex

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THE TRANSITION FROM PAPYRUS TO CODEX fourth mid-century Koine Greek.

The advantages of codex: Efficiency and portability. Could contain more information and more appropriate in a codex than roll.

Larger amount of information.

Easier to use and easier to carry.

Ability to keep long text together, in one volume rather than series of rolls, which could be lost and damaged.

Easier to bookmark, to find a place in a codex with over 1000 pages.

Easier to organize in library.

Papyrus only contained one side of writing. Rolling the papyrus tend to cause writing on the outside surface to diminish because of rubbing and discourage placement.

The Library of Alexandria rests as one of the biggest libraries not only in Egypt, but also in the entire prehistoric world. The library is a center of brilliance in the invention and spread of knowledge. It was also recognized as a focus of interchange, culture and appreciation. Most sources describe the library as storage of knowledge. The transition from the use of scrolls to the adoption of the codex is one of the most prevalent transitions in the history of the library.

The preference of the codex to scrolls was concealed in a complex of characteristics of the ancient world. This change process was obligatory and involuntary. The influences include durability, ease of copying, educational needs and readability.

The transition of the codex quickly became a symbolism of Christianity.

The transition took place roughly over 300 years, from the first or second through fourth or fifth centuries AD. The transition occurred during the final centuries of the Roman Empire. Codex evolved from wooden tablets, often with wax, filled compartments, used in ancient Rome for more or less temporary scribble and figuring. A group of such tablets tied together was known as caudex, a word originally indicating a tree trunk of block of wood. The gradual transition from the roll to the codex was traditionally credited to early Christians who wrote the books of the New Testament in codex form, on papyrus and on parchment.

Fourth century saw a revolution in book production, which made it possible to make books large enough to hold the whole bible in one volume. Of these, Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus survived until today. Codex Vaticanus was a fourth century uncial manuscript in Greek. Codex Sinaiticus was a

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15-1. The Burning of the Library at Alexandria in 391 AD, an illustration from ‘Hutchinsons History of the Nations’, c. 1910

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RELIGION, HYPATHIA AND DESTRUCTION himself it’s first bishop. He is also credited for being a cocreator of the church of Africa.

Now the religious diversity was fact and Alexandria was the metropolitan city of it all. That said it wasn’t without hiccups.

In these times this young religion was questioned almost daily and created great discussions and sometimes even arguments on street. Mark the evangelist had been traveling spreading the world of Christ up until his return to Alexandria in 68 AD, something he maybe should have continued doing. Upon his arrival, the teaching of Christianity was questioned, by both Pagan and Egyptian believers. That smalll dispute exploded in to something more, and by the end of the day, Mark was pulled by his neck around the city—by a horse.

Alexandria was not only a place for knowledge and trade but since the early days of it existence—religion. Pagans together with Jews in harmony. Even when it was founded the population had great number of Pagans, but also Jews, due to the ongoing diaspora. And later when Ptolemy the first came into power, even greater numbers had started to settle in Alexandria.

Paganism and Judaism, together with the ancient Egyptian beliefs was all melted together in this rapidly exploding capitol of the new world. And it was not up until around 60 AD, things would stay this way, when Christianity came to town.

HYPATIA

During this time many different things where happening, but maybe the greatest one for religion, and the library of Alexandria, was the creation of the Septuagint, also referred to as LXX. During the reign of Ptolemy II, the ancient Hebrew bible was translated, due to the fact that Alexandrian Jews, barely spoke Hebrew. In Alexandria lingua franca was Koine Greek, and not only there but many Mediterranean cities, as late as 600 BC. LXX remained the scripture up until 200 AD, when several factors made the majority of the Jews to abandon it

Daughter of Theon, Alexandria Librarys’s last professor, she was known for her vast knowledge in the mathematical field.

Homeschooled by another great mathematician, her father, she had began to understand the field of math and philosophy at a early age. Later this led to her helping her father by taking notes and writing commentaries on great mathematical works.

At this time Alexandria was flourishing, bringing thinkers, philosophers and scholars together from several parts of the known world to share knowledge at the great library. At the start of the late 300’s AD, Alexandria was going from an outspoken pagan stronghold to a city of chaos. Jews were fighting the fairly new Christianity, alongside was the pagans not sure what to make of this.

Being the most vital organ of the Greek, later Roman empire, Alexandria served as collection of specimens from every corner of the known world. At the beginning of time in Alexandria, ancient Egypt beliefs was closely overlapped with deities of Hellenistic origins. That said, Ptolemy the first had invented his own god, merging Osiris and Apis, creating Serapis. Apart from this event, Hellenistic existence lay the foundation for the beginning of Christianity in Alexandria.

ORESTES AND CYRIL The pagan prefect and the Christian archbishop of Alexandria, also know and the men that lead to Hypatia’s death. Alexandria already being unstable due to religious feud’s, was not helped now that strong leaders started to take control over

Nineteen years after the ascension of Jesus, 49 AD, Mark the evangelist traveled to Alexandria to spread the news about Christianity. He founded the church of Alexandria and named

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each branch. Cyril most known for driving out the Jews of Alexandria, and looting the remains. This put even more strain on the already tense relation

Whatever that remained of the library’s collection was burnt for heating, and warming of water for the city’s 4000 bathhouses. That is the sad ending of the Alexandrian Library, and will also go to history as the longest ever book burning event—taking more than 6 months to complete.

Cyril realized his mistake and tried to mend his broken relation with Orestes but it was too late. His role as patriarch of Alexandria was in danger. Hypatia at this time was very influential as a moral compass, but also as the great advisor in science, philosophy and astronomy. Standing up and representing knowledge and the classes taught in the library.

This strong point in the existing ruling gave the Christian public a feeling of unease. What was her intentions? And her openly strong bond with Pagans, what did it show?

Who really destroyed the library is not really decided to this day. Did the hectic times of the late 300’s and early 400’s AD, destroy it all and what was left was just copies of redundant manuscripts for Omar. Or was it in fact that the Islamic rule hit the last nail in the coffin of the library, burning most of the ancient worlds works for convenient heating purposes?

Religion might been a strong ally for the worlds of the ancient world, merging cultures and knowledge. However, this fact still remains, without the religious influence on Alexandria and the library specifically, we would still maybe have some of the works remaining.

Christianity sought to the solution of accusing her of black arts, naming her as a witch, confusing her knowledge in science for witchcraft is what came to be the end of her. Walking home one day from the market, she was captured and brought to the caesareum. The real knowledge of what happened next is not clear but it is thought she was skinned while still alive, remains pulled behind a horse, and then finally burnt on the edge of the city.

This was just the continuing of the fall of the library of Alexandria. After the attack by Pope Theophilius in 391 AD, now again chaos was a fact and many of the remaining scrolls, books and monuments where destroyed.

Many centuries passed and during the 600’s AD, Islamic influence was spreading to Egypt, more correct Alexandria. The siege of Alexandria in 642 AD, started what is known as the final destruction of the library.

It is the Caliph Omar we have to thank for the final destruction.

The interest of opening this pandora’s box for the public was both exciting and scary. Omar therefore decided that any book contradicting the Koran should be burnt, as well as any book that agreed with it, after all, the knowledge was superseded by the Koran then.

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CONCLUSION What did Alexandria leaves us then? Considering that only a single percent of the works survived to this day, and even the ones that did were pretty beat up.

We have Aristotle, or rather Alexander to thank still for putting the importance on knowledge in the living world, making sure that we would document and spread the our stories and advancements.

Libraries of today can thank the order of which they are in, to this ancient Alexandria. The system we are using might have been perfected, but if it wasn’t for Aristotle’s personal library, or rather the catalogue by Zenodotus in Alexandria, we might not find a single book today.

And what would modern research facilities be without the first steps at the Alexandrian library? Where scholars could focus all their effort on science, without having to actually be rich just to afford it, inventions like grammar or Archimedes screw, or the advances in medicine made put mankind where we are today.

And due to the fact that Alexandria was not alone in those days, we have to thank the codex for. If there had not been a competitive nature between rival libraries, we maybe not been able to read a book today in the way we do.

The library of Alexandria is not with us anymore, and many things have been forgotten. But the things that have remained with mankind, have made this one of most, if not the most, important libraries of our time.

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IMAGE SOURCE 1-1. http://www.emersonkent.com/map_archive/alexander_the_great_conquests.htm 3-1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ancientlibraryalex.jpg 5-1. Casson, Liconel. â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Beginnings The Ancient Near East.â&#x20AC;? Libraries in the ancient world. New Haven: Yale UP, 2001. 39.

7-1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:P._Oxy._I_29.jpg

9-1. www.henry-davis.com/maps/ancientwebpages/112A.html

9-2. The British Library Harley MS 7182, ff 58v-59./ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PtolemyWorldMap.jpg

11-1 http://wellcomeimages.org/indexplus/image/L0040791.html

11-2. http://wellcomeimages.org/indexplus/image/V0016259.html.

13-1.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex

15-1. http://www.bridgemanart.com/asset/357910

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Group 1: Wuhang Lin Sabrina Sulaiman Chen Chung Yu Carl Nenzen Loven Typeface: Baskerville Old Face, Regular Instructor: Michael Kilgore GR615 History of Graphic Design Mon / 15:30

History of Graphic Design GR615 / Gr oup 1 / Mon. 15:30

Chen Chung Yu Wuhang Lin Carl Nenzen Loven Sabrina Sulaiman