Understanding vulnerability in the context of climate change
EDITORIAL BOARD Miguel Ángel Collado Yurrita Joan Egea Fernández Isabel Fernández Torres José Ignacio García Ninet Javier Lopéz García de la Serrana Belén Noguera de la Muela Luis Prieto Sanchís Francisco Ramos Méndez Ricardo Robles Planas Sixto Sánchez Lorenzo Jesús-María Silva Sánchez Joan Manuel Trayter Jiménez
Juan José Trigás Rodríguez Publications Editor
Understanding vulnerability in the context of climate change Mar Campins Eritja & Rahma Bentirou Mathlouthi (Editors)
Rahma Bentirou Mathlouthi
Michelle Hurdle
Susana Borràs Pentinat
John H. Knox
Mariana Bruck de Moraes Ponna Schiavetti
Sandrine Maljean-Dubois
Mar Campins Eritja
Alexandre Peñalver i Cabré
Delphine Ducasse
Adélie Pomade
Rosa M. Fernández Egea
Ángel J. Rodrigo Hernández
Leila Ghassemi Farreras
Marta Torre-Schaub
Javier Martín Vide
Collection: Atelier Internacional Director: S ixto Sánchez Lorenzo Catedrático de Derecho Internacional Privado de la Universidad de Granada
Acknowledgements: This book is an outcome of the research project “Biological Diversity and International Law: Emerging Issues and Trends, Interaction of Legal Regimes and Key Policy Challenges” (Diversidad biológica y derecho Internacional: nuevos problemas y tendencias, interacción de regímenes jurídicos y principales retos normativos), DER2017-85406-P, funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness, and directed by Professors Mar Campins Eritja and Xavier Pons Rafols, Universitat de Barcelona.
Grant: Diversidad biológica y derecho Internacional: nuevos problemas y tendencias, interacción de regímenes jurídicos y principales retos normativos (DER2017-85406-P). Financiada por:
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Alphabetic list of authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
List of figures and tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
Chapter 1. Introductory remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
Mar Campins Eritja, &Rahma Bentirou Mathlouthi.
Chapter 2. Where are we? Climate change, trends and risks . . . . . .
27
Javier Martín Vide
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Observed changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. The future climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Hazards and risks due to climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Final remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27 28 32 34 35 36
Chapter 3. Understanding vulnerability in the context of climate emergency: developments and judicial approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
Marta Torre-Schaub.
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Vulnerability as a multi-level concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Vulnerabilities, justice and equity in the climate change context . . . . . . 4. The fight against vulnerability through climate litigation . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Final remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
37 38 40 41 46 46
Table of contents
Chapter 4. The role of citizens and Non-Governmental Organizations in climate litigation at national level . . . . . . . . . . .
49
Alexandre Peñalver i Cabré
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Concept and typology of climate litigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. The nature of the cases brought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Action by public authorities subject to appeal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Complainants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Remedies and content of sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. Final remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49 49 52 54 56 58 62 62
Chapter 5. Due diligence obligations as a tool to manage radical vulnerability from climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
Ángel J. Rodrigo Hernández
1. Introduction: Radical vulnerability from climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Due diligence obligations in International Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Concept and characteristics of due diligence obligations . . . . . . . . . B. Legal nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a) Legal status in Public International law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b) Type of rule in the international legal system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Content of the due diligence obligation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. A multifunctional legal tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a) Managing risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b) Compensation for loss of sovereign freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c) Reducing the international responsibility of States and expanding accountability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d) Stabilising the international order by means of proceduralisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Between flexibility and soft normativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a) The advantages of due diligence obligations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b) The drawbacks of due diligence obligations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Due diligence in International Law on climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Areas in which due diligence obligations operate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a) Due diligence obligations relating to mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . b) Due diligence obligations relating to adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . c) Due diligence obligations relating to the transfer of technology, know-how and information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Factors that define the content of due diligence in the climate change regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Final remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 6. Climate change litigation and human rights: Addressing the rights of future generations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65 67 68 69 69 70 71 72 73 73 73 74 74 74 75 76 77 77 79 79 80 81 82 85
Rosa M. Fernández Egea
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. The undeniable link between climate change and human rights . . . . .
8
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Understanding vulnerability in the context of climate change
A. The ‘greening’ of human rights and the ‘human rights turn’ in climate litigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. The especially vulnerable situation of children and future generations facing climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Climate change litigation before human rights tribunals . . . . . . . . . 3. Some ideas for detangling the hurdles of future generations rights and climate litigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Procedural hurdles: Standing and exhaustion of domestic remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a) Standing of children and future generations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b) The requisite of ‘exhaustion of domestic remedies’ . . . . . . . . . . B. Substantive hurdles: Treating the effects of climate change as human rights violations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a) Serious interference attributable to a State: The casual link dilemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b) Adjusting the margin of appreciation of States in fighting climate change: Science as a crucial factor for limiting the margin of appreciation of States in fighting climate change . . . . c) Integrating other international obligations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Final Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87 90 91 92 93 93 94 94 95 97 98 99 100
Chapter 7. Gender climate justice in a context of intersectional vulnerabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
103
Susana Borràs-Pentinat
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Understanding the causes of climate vulnerabilities based on gender discrimination and inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. The intersection between gender and climate justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Deconstructing the gender climate vulnerabilities: Towards a ‘climate gender democracy’ agenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Initial steps to include gender democracy within the UNFCCC regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. From Lima to Paris: the first Lima Work Programme on Gender . . . C. Beyond Paris: A 5-year enhanced the “Lima Work Programme on Gender” and the “Gender Action Plan” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Final remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
103 105 107 110 112 114 116 119 120
Chapter 8. Indigenous peoples and local communities - vulnerable yet actors of transformation in climate change context . . . . . . . .
123
Leila Ghassemi Farreras
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Indigenous and local communities - vulnerable still pioneers . . . . . . . A. Vulnerability from environmental justice to climate justice . . . . . . . . B. Approaches to vulnerability and Indigenous world vision . . . . . . . 3. Climate litigation as a tool for “vulnerable populations” . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Climate litigation and vulnerability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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123 124 124 131 134 134
Table of contents
B. Group vulnerability, cultural identity and right to nature . . . . . . . . C. Quasi-tribunals for indigenous peoples’ claims: from land rights to rights of nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Final remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 9. The vulnerability of marine protected areas to frequentation in a context of climate change. The example of nautical frequentation in France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
136 140 143 143
149
Adélie Pomade & Mariana Bruck de Moraes Ponna Schiavetti
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Nautical frequentation: context, challenges and risks for marine ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Anthropogenic pressure, climate change and increased vulnerability of marine ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. The impact of climate change on marine ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . D. A strong issue for Marine protected areas (MPAs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. French legal instruments applied to MPAs to ensure the protection of vulnerable ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Legal instruments stated by the Environmental Code . . . . . . . . . . . B. Legal instrument taken by the Maritime Prefect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Management perspectives applied to MPAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. The importance of local community and transparency in management process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. The introduction of prospective in the management process to better anticipate vulnerability issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Final remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
149 149 150 151 152 153 153 157 158 159 161 163 164
Chapter 10. The inclusion (or yet the lack of) environmental norms in regional trade agreements between countries vulnerable to climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
169
Delphine Ducasse & Michelle Hurdle
1. 2. 3. 4.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vulnerability to climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The prevalence of North-South regional trade agreements . . . . . . . . . . Environmental norms and vulnerable countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Oceania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Southeast Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Final remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
169 171 172 173 173 174 176 179 180 181
Chapter 11. Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
183
Sandrine Maljean-Dubois
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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A lphabetic list of authors Rahma Bentirou Mathlouthi, Post-doc researcher SNSF; Associate researcher Institut de l’Ouest: droit et Europe (IODE), Université de Rennes 1, Centre d’Estudis de Dret Ambiental de Tarragona, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, and University of Grenoble-Alpes Susana Borràs-Pentinat, Associate Professor Public International Law and International Relations, Marie Skłodowska-Curie Fellow (H2020-MSCAIF-2020) nº 101031252 CLIMOVE PROJECT***, Università degli Studi di Macerata (Italy). Mariana Bruck de Moraes Ponna Schiavetti, PhD student at University of Bretagne Occidentale, JRU AMURE Mar Campins Eritja, Professor of Public International Law and Jean Monnet Chair in EU Environmental Law, Universitat de Barcelona Delphine Ducasse, LL.D. Candidate and Lecturer at Faculty of Law - University of Sherbrooke Rosa M. Fernández Egea, Associate/Lecturer Professor of Public International Law at the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, member of UNESCO Chair of Peace Culture and Human Rights Leila Ghassemi Farreras, Independent Researcher/Lawyer Michelle Hurdle, LLM Candidate and Lecturer at Faculty of Law, Université de Sherbrooke John Knox, former Special Rapporteur on human rights and the environment (2012-2018), Henry C. Lauerman Professor of International Law, Wake Forest University Sandrine Maljean-Dubois, CNRS Research Director, Professor of International and European Environmental Law, Faculty of Law and Political Sciences, Aix-Marseille University
11
Alphabetic list of authors
Javier Martín Vide, Professor of Physical Geography, Climatology Group of the Department of Geography and Water Research Institute, Universitat de Barcelona; President of the Spanish Committee of the World Climate Research Programme Alexandre Peñalver i Cabré, Associate Professor of Administrative Law; Director of the Environmental Legal Clinic at the Faculty of Law, Universitat de Barcelona Adélie Pomade, Assistant Professor (HDR), Université Bretagne Occidentale, JRU AMURE; Associated Researcher at Institut de l’Ouest Droit & Europe IODE (Rennes 1) and CEDRE (Bruxelles) Ángel J. Rodrigo Hernández, Associate Professor of Public International Law, Universitat Pompeu Fabra; Director of Master on Sustainable Development of the Centre for International Studies Marta Torre-Schaub, Senior Professor Researcher, CNRS (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique), Institut des Science Juridique et Philosophique de la Sorbonne, Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne
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Acronyms ACHR AF ASEAN BRfA CAFTA CBD CCLW CEDAW CESDH COP CPTPP ECtHR ECOWAS EU FWG GAP GATT GCF GEF GES GHG HCHR IACHR IPCC IPLC LCIPP LWPG
American Convention on Human Rights Adaptation Fund Association of Southeast Asian Nations Beijing Platform for Action Central American Free Trade Agreement Convention on Biological Diversity Climate Change Laws of the World Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms Conference of the Parties Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership European Court of Human Rights Economic Community of West African States European Union Facilitiative Working Group Gender Action Plan General Agreement on Tariff and Trade Green Climate Fund Global Environmental Facility Good Ecological State Greenhouse Gases UN High Commission on Human Rights Interamerican Court of Human Rights Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities Local Communities and Indigenous People Platform Lima Work Programme on Gender 13
Acronyms
MESFD MPA NDC NGO NZ OFB OJEU PA REDD+ SDG TK / TEK TRENDS UN UNEP UNCCD UNFCC US USMCA WGC WIPO WMO WT WTO
Marine Environment Strategy Framework Marine Protected Areas Nationally Determined Contributions Non Governmental Organization New Zeland French Biodiversity Office Official Journal of the European Union Paris Agreement Reduction of Emissions Derived from Deforestation and Forest Degradation Sustainable Development Goals Traditional Knowledge / Traditional Ecological Knowledge Trade and Environmental Database United Nations Organization UN Environmental Programme UN Convention to Combat Desertification UN Framework Convention on Climate Change United States (of America) United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement Women and Gender Constituency World Intellectual Property Organization World Meterological Organization Waitangi Tribunal World Trade rganization
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List of figures and tables Figure 1. The climate system with the “sixth” component . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
Figure 2. Evolution of CO2 concentration in the troposphere air (1958-June 2021) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
Figure 3. Evolution of global surface temperature (in annual average, 1850-2020), and the temperature simulated by models using human and natural factors and only natural factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
Figure 4. Evolution of the Arctic sea ice extent in September (1979-2020) .
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Figure 5. Temperature projections according to five different Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP) (SSP1, sustainability; SSP5, fossil-fueled development; the other, intermediate pathways) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
Figure 6. Projected changes for 2071-2100, compared to 1971-2000, based on the average of a multi-model ensemble forced with the RCP8.5 high emissions scenario (fifth IPCC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Figure 7. The risk triangle. Risk as a function of the hazard from nature, the vulnerability of society and the exposure of the territory . . . . . . . . . .
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Table 1. The certainty about the anthropic cause of the climate change . .
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Preface Although the climate crisis affects everyone on the planet, it does not affect everyone in the same way. Some individuals, communities, and countries are in positions of greater vulnerability than others. Human rights law provides an informative lens through which to examine the issue of vulnerability and climate change. Human rights and environmental protection are interdependent. A safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment is necessary for the full enjoyment of human rights, including the rights to life, to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, and to the right to a healthy environment itself. At the same time, the exercise of human rights, including rights to freedom of expression and association, to education and information, and to participation and effective remedies, is vital to the protection of the environment. While this relationship holds true for everyone, some people are more at risk than others. As the Human Rights Council has recognized, the consequences of environmental harm are felt most acutely by those segments of the population that are already in vulnerable situations.1 Persons may be vulnerable because they are unusually susceptible to certain types of environmental harm, or because they are denied their human rights, or both. In 2018, in my last report to the Council as the UN Special Rapporteur on human rights and the environment, I presented Framework Principles on Human Rights and the Environment, which summarized the human rights obligations relating to the environment as they had been clarified by human rights bodies. Many of the Framework Principles concern the rights that all of us have in relation to the environment, and the corresponding obligations of States to respect, protect, and fulfill those rights. However, Framework Principle 14 speaks directly to the question of vulnerability. It says: “States should take additional measures to protect the rights of those who are most vulnerable to, or
1. See, e.g., Human Rights Council resolution 34/20 (24 March 2017).
17
John H. Knox
at particular risk from, environmental harm, taking into account their needs, risks and capacities.”2 There are countless ways that vulnerability may intersect with environmental harm in general, and with climate change in particular. In the most extreme cases, communities who are marginalized because of their minority or other status may be forced to bear so much of the burden of pollution and environmental degradation that their homes and communities become what David Boyd, the current Special Rapporteur on human rights and the environment, has called “sacrifice zones.” As he stated in his 2022 report to the Human Rights Council, “sacrifice zone can be understood to be a place where residents suffer devastating physical and mental health consequences and human rights violations as a result of living in pollution hotspots and heavily contaminated areas.”3 He described many examples of sacrifice zones all over the world, and correctly called them “a stain upon the collective conscience of humanity.”4 Boyd noted in his report that the climate crisis is creating new sacrifice zones, as “communities have become, and are becoming, uninhabitable because of extreme weather events or slow-onset disasters, including drought and rising sea levels.”5 Indeed, it is no exaggeration to say that the climate crisis threatens to cause entire parts of the world to become sacrifice zones. Those living in low-lying island states, in coastal regions, in the Arctic, in the Sahel, and in many other places are at grave risk from the effects of a rapidly warming planet. Indeed, many communities are already experiencing these effects, such as increasing extreme weather events, rising sea levels, melting permafrost, wildfire, floods, and drought. Making matters even worse, those most at risk have almost always contributed the least to the problem. Typically economically poor, politically disadvantaged, and socially marginalized, they are not the source of significant greenhouse gas emissions, and they have little or no input into the government policies that allow those emissions to continue to rise. To protect the rights of those who are particularly vulnerable to or at risk from environmental harm, States should ensure that their laws and policies take into account the ways that some parts of the population are more susceptible to environmental harm, and the barriers they face to exercising their human rights related to the environment. For example, States should develop disaggregated data on the specific effects of environmental harm on different segments of the population to provide a basis for ensuring that their laws and policies adequately protect against such harm. States should take effective measures to raise the 2. Framework Principles on Human Rights and the Environment, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the issue of human rights obligations relating to the enjoyment of a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment, UN Doc. A/HRC/37/59 (24 January 2018), annex, p. 17. 3. The right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment: non-toxic environment; report of the Special Rapporteur on the issue of human rights obligations relating to the enjoyment of a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment, UN Doc. A/HRC/49/53 (12 January 2022), para. 27. 4. Id. para. 29. 5. Id. para. 27.
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Preface
awareness of environmental threats among those persons who are most at risk. Assessments of the environmental and human rights impacts of proposed projects and policies must include a careful examination of the impacts on the most vulnerable, in particular. In developing and implementing international environmental agreements, States should include strategies and programmes to identify and protect those vulnerable to the threats addressed in the agreements. Domestic and international environmental standards should be set at levels that protect against harm to vulnerable segments of the population, and States should use appropriate indicators and benchmarks to assess implementation. When measures to safeguard against or mitigate adverse impacts are impossible or ineffective, States must facilitate access to effective remedies for violations and abuses of the rights of those most vulnerable to environmental harm.6 All of these obligations apply with particular force in the context of climate change. Human rights norms make clear that States have obligations both to take measures to help their own people adapt to its effects, but also to work together to achieve the goals that the international community has recognized must be met in order to avoid catastrophe: most importantly, the goal of keeping the temperature increase well below two degrees Celsius. Increasingly, courts in many countries around the world are using rightsbased claims to require governments and other actors to take their fair share of the actions necessary. Decisions from Colombia, Germany, the Netherlands, and Pakistan, among many others, show how human rights can be used to push States and multinational corporations to meet their own commitments. Although these cases provide grounds for hope, it would be an enormous mistake to conclude that we have turned a corner, or that rights-based approaches will necessarily protect those who are most vulnerable to climate change. We still have very far to go. That is why this book is so important, and so timely. By shining a brighter light on many aspects of the intersection of climate change and vulnerability, the distinguished editors of and contributors to this volume demonstrate the scale and scope of the challenge we face. Just as importantly, their contributions help to illuminate steps that should be taken to address it. Their analysis should help to inform the development of better and more effective climate policies that seek to protect the human rights of the most vulnerable. John H. Knox Former Special Rapporteur on human rights and the environment (2012-2018) and Henry C. Lauerman Professor of International Law at Wake Forest University, US
6. Framework Principles, supra, commentary on Principle 14, p. 18.
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