Atlantic Voices Vol. 5, No. 06 (June 2015)

Page 1

ATLANTIC TREATY ASSOCIATION

Volume 5 - Issue 6 June 2015

Countering Illicit Trafficking And Organized Crime Worldwide Illegal trafficking of all sorts poses grave problems to the international community, and especially to sovereign states as smuggling neither respect neither regulations nor borders. It is even more dangerous when considering that drugs and arms are the most illegally traded goods, therefore undermining the efforts of the international community to ban such traffic. The collapse of the USSR played an important part in small arms trafficking as weapons were stolen and illegally traded all the way to Africa and South America, and now used by local militias, spreading instability throughout the continents. Arms smuggling from the ex-USSR made it possible for deprived groups to start conflicts based on ethnical reasons, and to seize power by force. The smuggling of drugs and arms are closely intertwined with terrorism, as the revenues generated by those activities often feed acts of terror, both in terms of finance and means to spread such fear. With the resurgence of such attacks, more initiatives need to be put on the table to effectively prevent illegal trade.

Arms and Opium in Afghanistan (Photo: RT.com)

Contents: Countering Arms Smuggling Ms. Hanna Nykänen analyzes the international initiatives that have been put in place to counter arms smuggling, be it dedicated treaties, cooperation, border controls, etc. The negative impact of illegal arms trade is also explored, linking it to the development of terrorism.

NATO’s Impact On Drug Trafficking Ms. Kathryn Gudmunson explores the issues linked to drug trafficking, from the case of Afghani poppy producers, to the traffic routes and the demand. This article also details various measures that have been put in place to stop this illegal and dangerous trade.

- Flora Pidoux Atlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6

1


Countering Arms Smuggling By Hanna Nykänen

T

his essay briefly introduces the problem of

to the treaty was long and filled with obstacles. There is

trafficking small arms. Trafficking and

no clear consensus among countries on how guns should

smuggling are used somewhat synonymous-

be regulated, even though the treaty itself neither has an

ly although it is acknowledged that they have some differ-

effect on domestic laws nor does it limit the right to bear

ences. First there is a short introduction to the treaties

arms.

that have been created to counter arms trafficking. After

The purpose of the Arms Trade Treaty (ATT) is to

that, arms trafficking will be explored, before moving on

regulate the international trade in conventional weapons

to some reflections on the role of the international organi-

such as small arms. The treaty sets international standards

zations such as NATO in tackling the problem. It needs

for regulating the international trade in conventional

to be noted that international treaties have an important

arms. It aims to reduce human suffering especially in areas

role in limiting arms trade and trafficking but they are not

where arms control is weak and where inter-state con-

a panacea for dealing with the new threats. International

flicts may occur. It also has the objective to increase trans-

organizations also have a limited effects on countering

parency and co-operation between its signatories. Last but

arms trafficking.

not least, it aims to promote international and

Arms Trade Treaty

regional peace with in-

During the last decades,

creased accountability and

important treaties have lim-

transparency. There are

ited the acquisition and the

coercive tools such as

use of the most destructive

sanctions to implement in

arms systems. The Conven-

the principles of the agree-

tional Forces in Europe

ment.

(CFE) Treaty, the Vienna Document and the Open

The Arms Trade Treaty was approved by the UN General Assembly on 2 April 2013 (Photo: UN)

Skies Treaty are all treaties

The treaty is an important endeavor to limit

that NATO regards as important in the field of arms con-

the trade of conventional arms but it has only been rati-

trol. One of the most important treaties that would set

fied in 69 countries, many of which many are member

standards and limit the international arms trade (at least

states of the European Union where the regulation was

according to the UN) was only signed last Christmas. A

strict even before the ATT. Out of the world’s top 10

treaty to limit the trade of conventional and small arms

arms producers, only half have ratified the treaty.

had been discussed for years, but it was only accepted by the UN Security Council on 23 December 2014. The way Atlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6

2


International Arms Trafficking In the New

impact on several fields in society. First, arms smug-

Security Environment

gling is closely linked to terrorism and transnational

International arms smuggling is one of the threats that

criminal activities. It also has an explicit effect on

emerged after the end of the Cold War. It is part of the

mortality, crime rate and human rights. Small arms

new security environment among other threats such as

are used in inter-state conflicts, civil wars and gang

cyber-attacks, human trafficking, drug smuggling, envi-

fights. According to the EU Council, conventional

ronmental threats and fast-spreading infectious diseases.

arms cause the death of almost 500 000 people every

All these new threats have at least one thing in common

year, with Third World countries being the most af-

which is their unpredictable nature. States have tradi-

fected.

tionally had a hard time dealing with these issues since

Arms trade is closely linked to terrorism. Interna-

they often involve actors other than foreign states. The

tional crime is obviously not a synonym for terrorism

emergence of the new non-state actors like terrorists and

but the two are somewhat related. The main differ-

the transnational co-operation between them also point-

ence between international criminals and terrorists is

ed out the weakness of the traditional nation state. These

the goal of their actions. Terrorists wish to have a po-

new stateless actors pose a threat to the legitimacy of the

litical effect whereas criminals are interested in creat-

whole state – the inability to

ing profit. To put it simp-

protect its own territory

ly, terrorists need guns and

against individuals of groups

international criminals can

is a serious problem.

provide them with what

Gun trafficking is not as

they need. Therefore in-

new as some other threats

ternational crime organiza-

mentioned above but the

tions are co-operating with

problem rose to the policy

terrorist groups in many

makers’ and researchers’

areas. According to some

attention in the 1990’s. Globalization, with its inter-

Destruction of Small Arms during Disarmament ceremony in Cote d’Ivoire. (Photo: UN Photo/Basile Zoma)

scholars terrorism and international crime should be

dependency among states, is one example which links

studied in together in order to help to create a com-

closely to the arms trade and trafficking. The decade

prehensive view on the issue of arms smuggling.

was characterized by the rise of international crime and

Small arms are produced in nearly half of the

terrorism, which peaked on 9/11. Soon after the 9/11

world’s countries. The amount of small arms is esti-

terrorist attacks, the United Nations published Resolu-

mated to be around 550 million weapons, and it is

tion 1373, in which they expressed a deep concern to-

increasing steadily. More than 50 % of small arms are

wards arms trafficking, organized crime, drugs and ille-

owned privately and the rest is owned by military and

gal movement of nuclear, chemical, biological and other

police forces. There is no clear consensus on what is

deadly materials.

licit or illicit when it comes to arms trade. In general,

The smuggling of small arms and light weapons has an Atlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6

arms trade is based on the UN’s charter in which 3


states have the right to export and import firearms for

operation. In their view, states only go along with the

individual and collective self-defense. In practice, arms

treaties if it is somehow useful to them and promotes

trafficking means “the international trade in conventional

their interests. The challenging liberal view emerged in

arms which is contrary to the laws of States and/or inter-

the 1980s and suggests that international treaties cer-

national law.”

tainly matter and enable state co-operation in situations

The possibilities of controlling arms trafficking varies

where it would otherwise be very challenging. Dr. Asif

greatly. First, the level of control depends on the legisla-

Efrat, an expert on arms and drugs trafficking, suggests

tion which varies greatly between states. Though there

that the level of compliance depends on the subject of

are contracts that set limits to the international trade,

the treaty. According to him, international institutions

domestic laws concern-

play an independent yet

ing guns are different

limited role against illic-

everywhere and so are

it trade. This has been

the attitudes towards

the case with campaigns

owning guns. Another

against drug smuggling

factor in arms control is

and money laundering.

the level of corruption of

The role of international

the border agency, mili-

organizations in small

tary, and police officials.

arms trafficking has also

The environment also

been

has a role in the ability of

which supports the real-

the customs officials to oversee the border. In

ist Sculpture against arms trafficking in front of the UN (Photo: Oxfam)

quite view

modest introduced

above.

South East Asia where the border between Thailand and

NATO’s role in countering arms trafficking can be

Burma, the jungle is so thick that it is almost impossible

seen as somewhat modest too. It was added to the Alli-

to detect illegal crossings or activities. There can be other

ance’s agenda in 2010 when the newest strategic con-

problems like political, socio-cultural or even a language

cept “Active Engagement, Modern Defence” was intro-

barrier that are harmful for countering the arms traffick-

duced. Arms trafficking is mentioned in the security

ing, which is the case in the U.S.-Mexican border.

environment chapter and it is linked to terrorism. It is

The Role Of International Organizations There has been a lively discussion among international relations scholars about the role of international organizations and their ability to facilitate co-operation between states. Like in international relations in general, there are two primary schools debating the subject: realists and liberals. The traditional realists have a doubtful view when it comes to the international treaties and state coAtlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6

also mentioned that instability beyond NATO borders can affect the security situation in member states. According to NATO’s Strategic Concept, NATO is committed to conventional arms control and willing to “strengthen the conventional arms control regime in Europe on the basis of reciprocity, transparency and host-nation consent” which summarizes Efrat’s ideas on the role of international organizations in arms trafficking. NATO is only able to operate within its member 4


states, most of which are European Union member states who already have strict control on arms trading. When it comes to other countries NATO is only able to co-operate, and not act on its own. Where co-operation is concerned, NATO is working together with the United Nations and the European Un-

About the author Hanna Nykanen holds a Master degree in Social Sciences from the University of Helsinki. Her research interests are intelligence oversight and co-operation and the Nordic security environment.

ion. The European Union is providing education to border officials in countries where arms trafficking occurs, though it has been recognized that a consistent enforcement is highly challenging. NATO’s role in controlling arms trafficking outside its member states’ borders can also be questioned. Before the release of the 2010 Strategic Concept, there was discussion on the role NATO should play internationally. Some arguments were made that NATO should focus only on the member states and military issues and leave other areas for the UN, whereas some were demanding a broader view. When it comes to trafficking, the problem is mainly about how countries secure their borders; as long as there is no unified method to do so, arms trafficking will remain a problem. As mentioned earlier, arms trafficking, like other illegal activities such as human trafficking or drug smuggling is linked to international crime and terrorism. Researchers need a comprehensive understanding of trafficking in order to provide information to policy makers. It is vital that nation states co-operate, for which international organizations such as the European Union, Interpol, and NATO, to name a few, offer the

Bibliography Boris O. Saveedra. 2007. Transnational Crime and Small Arms Trafficking and Proliferation in Thachuk, K. L. (Ed.). Transnational threats: smuggling and trafficking in arms, drugs, and human life. Greenwood Publishing Group. David Capie. 2012. Arms trafficking in Mainland Southeast Asia. in Chouvy, P. (ed.) An Atlas of Trafficking in Southeast Asia : The Illegal Trade in Arms, Drugs, People, Counterfeit Goods and Natural Resources in Mainland Southeast Asia. London: I.B.Tauris. Dina Mahmoud. 2012. A Short Guide to The Arms Trade Treaty. Efrat, A. (2012). Governing guns, preventing plunder: International cooperation against illicit trade. Oxford University Press. Institute for Foreign Policy Analysis. 2010. A Comprehensive Approach to Combating Illicit Trafficking. pp. 3236. NATO. 2014. http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/ topics_48896.htm (accessed on 30th May 2015) Tamara Makarenko. 2004. The Crime-Terror Continuum: Tracing the Interplay between Transnational Organized Crime and Terrorism. Global Crime, 6:1, pp. 129145. United Nations Security Council. 2001. Resolution 1373.

appropriate fora. Co-operation, education and shared intelligence are the key words to tackle the problem when formal treaties can only provide a partial solution, as reflected by the limited number of countries who actually ratified the ATT.

Atlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6

5


NATO’s Impact On Drug Trafficking By Kathryn Gudmunson

D

rug trafficking is an international

with Colombia and how that might impact drug

threat that continues to elude law

trafficking on the other side of the Atlantic.

enforcement agencies. Drug trade is

currently the most profitable illicit business worldwide, with hundreds of billions of dollars estimated

to

Globalization

be

changing

hands

annually.

has

enhanced

drug

trafficking

capabilities, with additional factors such as political turmoil providing ample opportunity for new market entrants. Further, the exploitation of established trade routes and unstable governments has allowed for growth in the drug trade, which is evidenced by the explosion of opium production in Afghanistan following military intervention by the US-led coalition in 2001. Political instability has also influenced the capabilities of cocaine traffickers in Latin America, in some cases leading to extensive political power by drug cartels. The transnational nature of these organizations has made it impossible for any one country to claim victory through purely national efforts, and it is rare for a country to make any headway in controlling the drug supply. This transnational quality also explains the involvement of

Drug Trafficking In Europe And Central Asia Heroin is the drug that causes the most concern in Central Asia. Along with other opium derivatives, heroin is produced from poppies grown almost exclusively in Afghanistan. Each year, more people die from Afghan heroin than any other drug worldwide. While there are two primary sources for heroin – the Golden Crescent (Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan) and the Golden Triangle (Myanmar, Laos, and Thailand), 80 percent of the world’s opium was produced in Afghanistan as of 2014. Although this percentage fluctuates from year to year, the percentage change is a greater reflection of the amount produced in Myanmar and the Golden Triangle, rather than a significant reduction in Afghan production. Opium production in Afghanistan has followed an increasing trend since 2001. Heroin from the Golden Crescent is mostly directed at the European, Central Asian, and Russian markets while the Golden Triangle has traditionally provided heroin to Australasia and Eastern Asia.

NATO. Though the drug trade does not traditionally

Afghan heroin, like most drugs, typically follows

fall under NATO’s jurisdiction, NATO forces have

established trade routes. These include the Balkan route

been tasked with countering drug trafficking as one

to Europe, the Northern route to Russia, and the

of few international politico-military organizations

Southern route through Pakistan. The Balkan route

working in drug sourcing nations. This paper

leads from Afghanistan through Iran, then splits in the

examines the role of NATO in combatting drug

region of South-Eastern Europe. Some drugs are

trafficking, both the complications encountered and

diverted to Western Europe through Greece and the

progress

to

remaining shipments take routes through Central

Afghanistan. It also addresses the NATO relationship

Europe. While Russia is the final destination for

made,

particularly

in

regards

approximately 20 percent of Afghan heroin, some will Atlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6

6


continue on from the Northern route into Western

working in the drug trafficking field seems to be its

Europe. The Southern route, through Pakistan, has the

involvement in Afghanistan. While the goal of NATO

most branches, supplying heroin to South-East and Eastern

assistance there has been targeted towards counter-

Asia, Africa, and the Americas.

insurgency, and not the prevention of drug

As law enforcement efforts and market demands change, so do the trade routes. It has been reported by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) that the Balkan route is losing popularity with traffickers. While there are still large amounts of drugs seized at the end points of the Balkan route, the amounts of heroin, amphetamines, and precursors seized at the mid-points have decreased. This is potentially due to increased law enforcement

trafficking, the Alliance has taken on this role due to the financial support insurgents receive from the drug trade and the impact that Afghan drug production has on neighboring countries. NATO has been involved in operations in Afghanistan since 2001, and has headed the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) since 2003. The official statement from NATO Operation Plan 10302, is “Given the threats to stability arising from

activity

the drugs trade, ISAF

along the route, leading

will

to the formation of new

Afghan

divisions along the Balkan

counter

pathway. The routes into

indicating

a

narcotics

10302, 2005). This

already

basically

supplied by the Golden Triangle,

government

guidelines” (OPLAN

increasing in popularity, being

support

efforts, within agreed

Eastern Asia are also despite

also

outlines

NATO’s role as an Drug Trafficking Routes (Image: CIA)

possible weakness in law enforcement along the Southern route out of Afghanistan. The increasing production and export of heroin is thus a primary concern for the destination countries. Role Of NATO

assistance force to the

Afghan government, rather than a leader in combatting drug trafficking, but the international community has not based their opinions on NATO’s responsibility on the official statement. The ISAF was disbanded in December 2014, amid concerns that

NATO’s role in combatting drug trafficking is

Afghanistan was unprepared to deal with the return of

complex. Ultimately, the organization is meant to protect

insurgent groups. It was replaced by the Resolute

national security for its member states, which can involve

Support Mission, a NATO-led operation with 14

curtailing illegal activities; however, NATO is not a police

partner countries, which is meant to assist and train

force and is generally only involved in large-scale politico-

Afghan security forces to enable them to maintain

military operations. While drug trafficking could be

stability in the future. It continues to include counter-

considered a security threat, it is non-traditional, and thus

narcotics training for local law enforcement.

more difficult to fit under the auspices of NATO’s responsibilities. The primary argument for NATO Atlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6

7


tension with the farmers, NATO has attempted to

Counter-Insurgency Counter-insurgency efforts in Afghanistan are

replace opium crops with food crops or provide other

closely linked to the drug trade and are complicated

compensation, but nothing has been as profitable for

by the variety of insurgent groups involved and their

the farmers as opium. This precarious relationship

equally complex involvement with drug trafficking.

with farmers has caused NATO forces to be hesitant

The Taliban, the driving force for the US offensive in

about widespread crop eradication, which has been

Afghanistan,

criticized by surrounding countries, particularly

had

a

particularly

convoluted

relationship with drug traffickers. In the 1990s, they

Russia, Pakistan, and Iran.

allowed opium cultivation and collected taxes from

In addition to the Taliban, other armed militant

farmers. In 2000, they changed course and declared

groups (some of which use terrorist tactics) also

opium

principles,

benefit from the drug trade both in and around

demanding the destruction of all crops. The invasion

Afghanistan. Al-Qaeda, a multi-national organization,

cultivation

against

Islam’s

by the US-led NATO

receives funding through

forces that took the

the opium trade in both

Taliban out of power

Afghanistan and Pakistan.

thus led to a rapid

Islamic militant groups in

expansion

of

opium

Central Asia have also

cultivation

in

2001,

benefitted as trafficking

when the anti-opium enforcement

of

the

Taliban was removed. This

has

become

more

prominent through the NATO and UNODC launch counter-narcotics training in Central Asia in May 2015 (Photo: NATO)

unintended

region. Rerouted drugs from

more

heavily

consequence then increased the funding of other

patrolled trade routes pass through Central Asia,

insurgent groups with the profits of drug trafficking.

funding insurgent groups. The majority of the drugs

After the resurgence of the opium problem, NATO

that pass through these regions are not seized, so

forces were compelled to initiate crop eradication

there is little impact from law enforcement efforts.

programs, which put the relationship between NATO

Corruption is also rampant, making national law

and the rural Afghan population at risk. The tenuous

enforcement attempts limited and often futile in the

relationship that NATO forces have with local

face

farmers is an additional complication. Though drug

operations in Afghanistan often do not extend to these

trafficking is definitely benefitting organized criminal

nations, but could be assisted by better control of the

groups and contributing to instability in the region,

drug market.

farming opium also provides work for millions of Afghan people, putting NATO in a difficult position. Attempts to eradicate poppy crops led to hostilities with locals, forcing people out of work, and leading some of them to join the Taliban. In order to mitigate Atlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6

of

organized

crime.

Counter-insurgency

Counter-Narcotics Training NATO did make progress in the policing of drug trafficking due to cooperation with the UNODC. Through this partnership, training was developed to 8


assist local law enforcement in counter-narcotics

NATO cooperation, but also one with a difficult

endeavors, and activities were coordinated that led to the

history regarding NATO. While Russia was the first

interruption of drug trafficking routes and the

country to sign on to the Partnership for Peace in

confiscation of large seizures. In particular, a training

1994, the relationship has been fraught with tension

program developed with the NATO-Russia Council

over the years. Russia objected to NATO operations in

(NRC) made major progress in training local police to

Kosovo in 1998. More recently, NATO withdrew

handle drug trafficking, making them less reliant on

support for Russia following Russian military action

NATO forces and able to work better in their home

against Georgia in 2008. Although after each of these

countries. It also extended NATO assistance beyond

incidents the two entities would reunite via a common

Afghanistan, providing needed training to the nations

cause, the break that occurred in 2014 over Ukraine

impacted by the export of Afghan heroin.

has still not been remedied. NATO’s objection to the

The NRC Counter-Narcotics Training Project – created under the NRC with the assistance of the UNODC and the support of 21 member countries, plus Finland and Ukraine – trained 3,500 officers between 2006 and 2014. It focused on training law enforcement

Russian occupation caused a rift which not only led to the breakdown of the NRC, but increased hostility from the Russian government. Drug trafficking has become a key area of dispute from the Russian side of the divide.

officers from Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Central Asia.

Russia is one of the primary destination countries

Training included organized crime investigation, forensic

for heroin from the Golden Crescent and drug abuse

investigation, surveillance techniques, and working with

has increased exponentially in recent years. As a result,

canine units. Officers trained by the NRC were

the country has been insistent that NATO should be

responsible for some of the largest seizures in Central

doing more to control the drug trade. Since efforts

Asia, demonstrating the effectiveness of the program. It

thus far have been only marginally successful, and

was Unfortunately suspended in 2014. The project was

primarily in the form of training officers, Russia has

no longer viable due to NATO’s strong condemnation of

adopted the view that NATO is purposely not working

Russia’s military actions against Ukraine, which led to the

against traffickers and instead may be colluding with

suspension of cooperation between Russia and NATO,

them. Both Pakistan and Russia have claimed that

and the dismantling of the NRC. With the success of the

NATO officials are involved directly in trafficking

training however, NATO is looking for non-NRC

drugs from Afghanistan. These accusations reflect

methods to continue training officers and positioning

previous

counter-narcotics experts throughout the region.

regulation of the drug trade. Since the mid-1990s,

Political Complications The dissolution of the NRC was a major blow to NATO’s effort against drug trafficking. NATO’s complex relationship with Russia is only further complicated by the counter-narcotics effort, as Russia is one of the most affected countries by Afghan heroin and most in need of Atlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6

anti-NATO

complaints

regarding

the

when NATO was involved in the Kosovo conflict, there have been accusations that US and NATO forces allowed drug trafficking to continue in order to fund resistance troops that would work for them. Similar claims that NATO only stops Taliban-related trafficking while tacitly allowing other organized criminal groups to continue are now being made in 9


Afghanistan, damaging NATO’s reputation in the

it has committed to assisting NATO by agreeing to

region. Iran has also joined in the complaints, but only

provide communications support. The agreement

to the extent of claiming that NATO has not been

with Colombia did not, however, occur without

doing enough to stop trafficking, rather than direct

controversy. Neighboring countries are concerned

accusations of collusion. In addition, there are

that this will open the area to NATO operations,

suspicions among the Afghan people that the local

leading to the occupation and bombing of their

government is corrupt and directly benefitting from

territories. The Colombian government has insisted

drug trafficking, further fueling the distrust in

that cooperation is only on communications, and that

political and military powers.

NATO will not conduct operations on Colombian soil; but this has not been much comfort to the

Future Endeavors As mentioned previously, NATO is still seeking a non-NRC partner to continue the counter narcotics training that seemed to be successful. The Alliance is also continuing programs of aid to farmers,

governments of Nicaragua, Venezuela, and Bolivia. Having issues arise before involvement commences does not bode well for the potential cooperation of NATO and additional Latin American nations, even if Colombia remains on board.

attempting to pull them away from growing opium without threatening their livelihood, as well as

Conclusion

continued training of Afghan security forces. Even

The role of NATO in the control of drug

though NATO troops have been significantly reduced

trafficking is complicated and has led to political

in Afghanistan, the Resolute Support Mission still has

opposition in both Afghanistan and Latin America.

a prominent presence in the country and is continuing

This raises the question of how much responsibility

to work against insurgents and drug trafficking.

NATO should be entrusted with in regard to the drug

In addition to the efforts in Afghanistan, NATO has also begun working on the obstruction of cocaine trafficking from Latin America. In 2013, NATO signed an agreement with the government of Colombia to allow the transfer of information for security purposes. As Colombia is an important figure in the cocaine trade, this agreement and future cooperation could lead to greater control of cocaine trafficking across the Atlantic. Although Colombia is not a NATO member, and does not wish to become one, it has supported NATO operations in the past. The Colombian government supported NATO’s interventions in Libya and Afghanistan, and has offered to provide air-to-air fuel transfers to NATO member countries. It is therefore not surprising that Atlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6

trade. In the case of counter-insurgency efforts in Afghanistan, attempts at crop eradication have been met with not only resistance, but outright hostility from the local population. Conversely, reluctance to pursue crop eradication has increased tensions with Russia, Pakistan, and Iran, which are key countries in the fight against both drug trafficking and insurgency and would be useful allies. This puts NATO forces in a difficult position, with few options for appeasing all parties involved. Ultimately, the best plan of action is likely the one that has already proven effective. Training local counter narcotic officers in Afghanistan and its wider region has been supported by all countries and met with little resistance. While it has not stopped the flow of drugs from Afghanistan, 10


training agents has led to larger drug seizures, made nations

more

trafficking,

self-sufficient

expanded

NATO

in

controlling assistance

drug beyond

Afghanistan, and not caused additional political turmoil. With current political complications and anti-NATO sentiment,

implementing

and

expanding

training

programs allows for drug trafficking intervention without alienation. As NATO moves forward from the conflict in Afghanistan and potentially engages with drug trafficking control from Colombia, the importance of training and local support should remain a priority.

About the author Kathryn Gudmunson is a PhD student at the University of Leeds, studying the effects of drug decriminalization on organized and violent crime. She holds an MPA from Seattle University and was previously employed as a Legislative Performance Auditor for the State of Nebraska."

Bibliography Chossudovsky, M. (1999). Kosovo" Freedom Fighters" Financed by Organized Crime. Peace Research, 29-42. Iran blames NATO for increasing drug production, trafficking in Afghanistan. (2012, Dec 10). BBC Monitoring Middle East. Retrieved from http://0search.proquest.com.wam.leeds.ac.uk/ docview/1224528573?accountid=14664 Law enforcement; drug trafficking to remain unchanged after NATO withdrawal from Afghanistan - Russian Drug Control Service Head. (2013, Sep 27). Interfax : Russia & CIS Military Information Weekly Retrieved from http://0search.proquest.com.wam.leeds.ac.uk/ docview/1441303229?accountid=14664 Mikhos, A. (2006). Analysis: Afghanistan's drugs challenge. NATO Review. Retrieved from http:// www.nato.int/docu/review/2006/issue1/english/ analysis.html NATO refuses to cooperate with CSTO infighting drug trafficking - Bordyuzha. (2014, May 28). Interfax : Russia & CIS Diplomatic Panorama. Retrieved from http://0search.proquest.com.wam.leeds.ac.uk/ docview/1530016066?accountid=14664 North Atlantic Treaty Organization Release of Unclassified Version of Saceur Oplan 10302 (revise 1). IMSM-091 2-2005. December 2005 North Atlantic Treaty Organization. (2011, July). NATORussia Council Project on Counter-Narcotics Training of Atlantic Voices, Volume 5, Issue 6

Afghan, Central Asian and Pakistani Personnel. Retrieved from http://www.nato.int/nato_static/assets/pdf/ pdf_2011_07/20110802_1107015-NRC_CounterNarcotics_Project_en.pdf North Atlantic Treaty Organization. (2013, June 25). NATO and Colombia open channel for future cooperation. Retrieved from http://www.nato.int/cps/en/ natolive/news_101634.htm North Atlantic Treaty Organization. (2014, Mar 19). NATO and Colombia discuss future of cooperation. Retrieved from http://www.nato.int/cps/en/ natolive/news_108117.htm North Atlantic Treaty Organization. (2015, Feb 27). Resolute Support Mission in Afghanistan. Retrieved from http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/ topics_113694.htm North Atlantic Treaty Organization-Russia Council. (2012, Nov 19). NRC Counter Narcotics Success: 10 Years 10 Stories Anniversary Feature. Retrieved from http:// www.nato.int/nrc-website/en/articles/20121116-nrc -10-years-cnt/ Pakistan protests against reported role of NATO troops in drug trafficking. (2007, Jan 10). BBC Monitoring South Asia Retrieved from http://0search.proquest.com.wam.leeds.ac.uk/ docview/459914821?accountid=14664 Responding to Risk and Uncertainty: Understanding the Nature of Change in the Rural Livelihoods of Opium Poppy Growing Households in the 2007/08 Growing Season. (Report, Afghan Drugs Inter Departmental Unit of the UK Government, July 2008). Russia/Afghanistan: Russian drug czar links NATO soldiers to afghan narco-trafficking. (2010, Mar 29). Asia News Monitor. Retrieved from http://0search.proquest.com.wam.leeds.ac.uk/ docview/1242021482?accountid=14664 Russian official berates NATO over Afghan drug trafficking. (2010, Dec 08). BBC Monitoring Former Soviet Union Retrieved from http://0search.proquest.com.wam.leeds.ac.uk/ docview/816400592?accountid=14664 Sanchez, W. A. (2014). Geopolitical Considerations of the NATO-Colombia Cooperation Agreement. EInternational Relations. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2005). World Drug Report 2005. New York, New York: United Nations. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2010). World Drug Report 2010. New York, New York: United Nations United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2014a). World Drug Report 2014. New York, New York: United Nations United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2014b). The Illicit Drug Trade Through South-Eastern Europe. New York, New York: United Nations. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Studies and Threat Analysis Section. (2009). Addiction, crime and insurgency: The transnational threat of Afghan opium [report]. Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 11


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