AP Psychology
Table of Contents Introduction ........................................................................................... 1 Subject Area Review ............................................................................. 4 Logic Philosophy and Science ............................................................... 8 Research Methods................................................................................ 17 Experimental Research ........................................................................ 18 Correlation Research ........................................................................... 20 Statistics ............................................................................................... 23 Ethics ................................................................................................... 30 Biological Bases of Behavior .............................................................. 37 Nervous System ................................................................................... 39 Brain Structures ................................................................................... 41 Neural Transmission ............................................................................ 45 Endocrine System ................................................................................ 48 Genetics ............................................................................................... 50 Sensation and Perception ..................................................................... 56 Vision .................................................................................................. 57 Hearing ................................................................................................ 59 Other Senses ........................................................................................ 61 Sensory Thresholds .............................................................................. 62 Sensory Adaption ................................................................................ 64 Attention .............................................................................................. 65 Perceptual Processes ............................................................................ 66 Perceptual Organization ...................................................................... 67 Perceptual Constancies ........................................................................ 68 States of Consciousness ....................................................................... 74
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Biological and Circadian Rhythms ...................................................... 75 Sleep and Dreaming ............................................................................. 76 Meaning and Function of Dreams ........................................................ 78 Sleep Disorders .................................................................................... 79 Hypnosis .............................................................................................. 80 Psychoactive Drugs .............................................................................. 81 Learning ............................................................................................... 87 Classical Conditioning ......................................................................... 88 Classical Conditioning of Humans ...................................................... 90 Taste Aversion Learning ...................................................................... 91 Operant Conditioning........................................................................... 92 Schedules of Reinforcement ................................................................ 93 Applications of Operant Conditioning ................................................. 94 Social Learning .................................................................................... 95 Cognitive Processes ............................................................................. 97 Cognition ........................................................................................... 103 Memory Processes ............................................................................. 105 Types of Memory ............................................................................... 106 Reconstructive Nature of Memory ..................................................... 107 Forgetting ........................................................................................... 108 Language ............................................................................................ 109 Reasoning .......................................................................................... 111 Problem Solving ................................................................................ 112 Creativity ........................................................................................... 114 Motivation and Emotions ................................................................... 120 Theories of Motivation ...................................................................... 121 Theories of Emotion .......................................................................... 123 Stress .................................................................................................. 124 Developmental Psychology ............................................................... 131 ii
Research Methods.............................................................................. 132 Physical Development ....................................................................... 133 Cognitive Development ..................................................................... 135 Social Development ........................................................................... 137 Early Attachment ............................................................................... 138 Parenting Styles ................................................................................. 139 Psychological Development .............................................................. 140 Personality ......................................................................................... 147 Psychodynamic Approaches .............................................................. 148 Freud’s Personality Structures ........................................................... 150 Humanistic Theories .......................................................................... 152 Cognitive Theories ............................................................................ 153 Trait Theories .................................................................................... 155 Assessment Techniques ..................................................................... 156 Testing Intelligence and Individual Differences ................................ 163 Different Types of Tests .................................................................... 165 Assessment of Intelligence ................................................................ 167 Heredity and Intelligence ................................................................... 168 Human Diversity ............................................................................... 169 Abnormal Psychology ....................................................................... 175 Theories of Psychopathology ............................................................ 176 Diagnosis of Psychopathology .......................................................... 178 Mood Disorders ................................................................................. 179 Anxiety Disorders .............................................................................. 180 Schizophrenic Disorders .................................................................... 182 Somatoform Disorders ....................................................................... 185 Dissociative Disorders ....................................................................... 186 Personality Disorders ......................................................................... 187 Treatment of Psychological Disorders ............................................... 195 iii
Behavioral Therapies ......................................................................... 197 Cognitive Therapies ........................................................................... 199 Biological Therapies .......................................................................... 201 Social Psychology .............................................................................. 207 Group Dynamics ................................................................................ 208 Helping Behavior ............................................................................... 209 Social Cognition ................................................................................ 210 Attitudes and Attitude Change ........................................................... 211 Persuasion and Attitude Change ........................................................ 212 Attribution Processes ......................................................................... 214 Interpersonal Perception .................................................................... 215 Conformity and Obedience ................................................................ 216 Complete Sample Test ....................................................................... 225 Sample Essay Questions .................................................................... 296
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Introduction
Welcome to A-P psychology audio-learn, an audio review for the A-P psychology test. Research has shown learning
in different forms such as audio can help you remember
information better on the test day!
Here is an overview of the A-P psychology test. The test will cover fourteen areas of psychology. History and approaches, research methods, biological bases of behavior, sensation and perception, states of consciousness, learning, cognition, motivation and emotion, developmental psychology, personality, testing and individual differences, abnormal psychology, treatment of psychological disorders and social psychology. There will be seventy multiple choice questions on the A-P psychology test. There will also be two short essays questions. The whole A-P psychology test will take hours
to complete. You will need to budget your time carefully during the test. You will have seventy minutes for the questions. That’s about one minute per question. You may want to make two passes through the test. During the first pass, you can quickly answer questions you are sure of. Then during the second pass, you can spend more time on the questions 1
you are unsure of. Here are some more tips for answering multiple choice questions. You will need to pick the correct answer from
five different choices. Some choices will be clearly incorrect. Others may be similar to the correct one, but not quite right. Be sure to pick the best answer. Pay attention,
and make you sure you understand each question. You should be extra careful with questions which have NOT or EXCEPT in them.
You will have fifty minutes for the two essays. That’s about twenty five minutes per question. Keep track of your time and try to spend only twenty five minutes per essay question. Points are not taken away for grammar or
spelling. Write neatly, and be sure to answer all parts of the questions. The multiple choice questions will be worth two thirds of your score. The essays will be worth one third of your
score.
Here is an overview of how to use this audio book. This audio book covers all the information you will need to know for the A-P psychology test! We will start with a thorough review of each of the fourteen subject areas. Listen carefully for key phrases, vocabulary and names. It may be helpful to take notes during the review.
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After the review section for each area, there will be review questions to test your knowledge. Go slowly through this section. Make sure you understand the answer and explanation for each questions. After the question is read, five answer choices will be given. Listen carefully and select the best choice in your mind. The correct answer choice and an explanation will then be read. After you have completed the review of each subject area, you should next listen to the complete practice test.
The practice test has one hundred multiple choice questions and two essay questions. If you miss a question and do not understand the explanation, it may be helpful to return to
the review of that subject area. Let’s get started!
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Subject Area Review
Welcome to the subject area review. We will start with history and approaches.
Psychology is a natural science. Psychology studies the laws of nature. Psychology also involves the thoughts, feelings and behaviors of people. Psychology can be traced back to ancient Greece. The first psychological laboratory was founded in the eighteen
hundreds by Wilhelm Wundt. Today’s psychologists use many different models. This section gives an overview of the history of psychology. We will also cover the seven theoretical approaches to psychology. Welcome to the section on logic, philosophy and the
history of science. Philosophy influenced psychology. Philosophy emphasizes self examination and wisdom. Physiology also influenced psychology. Physiology is the study of living organisms. Both philosophy and physiology influenced the ancient Greeks. Hippocrates is known as the father of medicine. Hippocrates was a philosopher who used empirical observations. Hippocrates thought the mind and body were 4
separate. This idea that the body and mind are separate is
called mind body dualism. Plato and Aristotle were two other famous Greek philosophers who influenced psychology. Plato was a rationalist. Plato believed that knowledge should be acquired through rational methods. Aristotle was Plato’s student. Aristotle was an empiricist. Aristotle believes that we acquire knowledge through empirical methods. Aristotle thought we gain knowledge through experience, observation and experiments. Aristotle is created with creating the modern scientific method. The scientific method allows scientists to do research in an orderly way. Rene Descartes was a French Philosopher. Descartes was interested in the mind body problem. Descartes
thought of the concept called interactionism. Interactionism says that the interaction between the body and mind occurs in the pineal glad. The pineal gland is a
small gland in the lower center of the brain. Descartes thought the mind was essential and separated us from the animals. Descartes is famous for saying, I think, therefore I am.
Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher. Hobbes believed in the idea of monism. Monism says that our experiences are physical processes which come from the brain. Hobbes did not think the mind was independent of
the body. Hobbes thought we could only understand the mind if we understood the body. John Locke was a British empiricist and philosopher.
Locke believed the interaction between the body and mind 5
was symmetrical. Locke disagreed with Descartes. Locke
thought the mind and body depended on each other. Locke presented the idea of tabula rasa. Tabula rasa means that each child is born a blank slate. Locke thought that humans were shaped by their experiences. Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher. Kant thought a set of mental powers linked the body and mind.
These powers included the senses, understanding and reason. Kant used both rationalism and empiricism to try to understand the body and mind.
Charles Darwin was the first person to purpose a theory of evolution. Darwin’s book called the Origin of Species introduced the ideas of evolution and natural selection. Natural selection is the idea of survival of the fittest. Natural selection means that those who can adapt to their environment are the most likely to survive and reproduce. Wilhelm Wundt created the first psychology lab in Germany. Wundt focused on perception and consciousness. Wundt refined the idea of objective introspective. In objective introspection, thoughts, feelings and experiences are recorded in great detail. Edward Titchener was one of Wundt’s students. Titchener broke down consciousness into three elements: (Pause) things we see, things we feel, and memories. Titchener proposed that even complicated thoughts could be broken down into these elements. Both Wundt and Titchener believed in structuralism. Structuralism breaks down consciousness into smaller pieces using 6
introspection. William James was the first psychologist born in America. James did not believe in structuralism. James was a leader in the functionalism movement. Functionalism presented the idea of learning by adapting to the environment.
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Logic Philosophy and Science
Welcome to the section on modern psychological perspectives. The A-P psychology test includes questions on seven
perspectives: (Pause) biological, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, psychodynamic, socio-cultural and evolutionary / socio-biological. These perspectives have some of the same principles as the ideas of the Ancient Greeks. There has been a lot of conflict over the perspectives, but today’s scientists usually think the ideas complement each other. The biological approach is based on the study of anatomy and physiology, especially of the brain. Biological psychology is also called psychobiology. Biological psychology assumes the mind and body are related. This type of psychology is heavily influenced by the work of Hippocrates. The biological approach believes both nature and nurture can influence human development. Doctors use C-A-T scans, P-E-T scans, M-R-Is and EE-Gs to figure out what areas of the brain are responsible
for certain behaviors. Researchers also look for genetic causes behind mental disorders. The behavioral approach originated in the United States in the early twentieth century. Behaviorism says psychology should be objective, and only focus on 8
observable behavior. John Watson was a psychologist who thought than any behavior could be shaped and controlled. Watson thought a baby could be raised to be anything the
parent wants. Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who influenced Watson. Pavlov created the idea of classical conditioning. Pavlov used dogs in experiments. Pavlov rang a bell while giving the dogs food. Later, Pavlov rang
the bell without giving the dogs food. Pavlov wanted to see if the dogs would drool for food when he rang the bell. They did! Pavlov thought that behavior is a learned response to a stimulus. B.F. Skinner was another behaviorist. Skinner developed operant conditioning. Operant conditioning rewards subjects for acting a certain way. Skinner thought a behavior was more likely to occur when the behavior is rewarded. Skinner thought a behavior was less likely to occur if people received punishment. Cognitive psychologists believe that how people think is basis of human behavior. Cognitive psychology studies
mental processes scientifically. Early cognitive scientists promoted an idea called the serial processing of information. Serial processing is step by step processing. Cognitive psychologists today also study parallel processing. Parallel processing is when more than one mental process occurs at the same time. Scientists sometimes use computers and artificial intelligence programs to simulate the human thought process.
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The humanistic approach emphasizes that people can grow and change. Humanists believe people can consciously shape their experience. Carl Rodgers is a humanist. Rodgers developed client centered therapy. In client centered therapy, the therapist
gives the patient unconditional positive regard. The therapist wants the patient to integrate who they are with
who they want to be. Abraham Maslow is another humanist. Maslow developed the hierarchy of needs. The hierarchy of needs has five levels. The bottom has the basic needs, like food
and water. The next need is safety. The next ones are love and self esteem. The last level is self actualization. People meet their needs on the bottom before trying to meet the
higher needs. The psychodynamic approach is also called the psychoanalytical approach. Psychodynamic psychology is
based on the idea that the unconscious mind conflicts with conscious behavior. Sigmund Freud is the father of the psychoanalytic psychology. Freud said our mind is divided into the conscious and unconscious. The conscious is made up of thoughts and memories that we are aware of. The unconscious is the mental states we are not normally aware of. Freud believed the conscious and unconscious are in conflict with each other. Psychoanalysis is a type of therapy that tries to uncover a patent’s deep thoughts and desires.
Other psychologists have expanded psychodynamic theory. C.G. Jung thought that the unconscious is made up of different layers. These layers include the personal 10
unconscious and the collective unconscious. Alfred Adler created the idea of the inferiority complex. Karen Horney
focused on how anxiety creates a sense of isolation. The sociocultural approach focuses on how culture influences learning and development. Sociocultural psychologists believe that a person cannot be understood outside their culture. L.S. Vygotsky introduced the idea of sociocultural psychology. Vygotsky thought was consciousness was the result of socialization. Evolutionary psychology studies human behavior from the perspective of evolution. Evolutionary psychology is also called sociobiological psychology. Charles Darwin influenced evolutionary psychology. Evolutionary psychology applies natural selection to the mind. Reproductive success is the basic principle of evolutionary psychology. Reproductive success is the idea that all species are programmed to produce offspring who can reproduce. Evolutionary psychologists believe that the mind evolved to ensure the survival of the human race. Here are seven questions reviewing the section on the
history and approaches of psychology. Question one. Which psychologist is thought to be father
of psychoanalysis? Here are the answer choices: A. William James B. B. F. Skinner
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C. Sigmund Freud D. Charles Darwin E. C.G. Jung
The answer is C. Sigmund Freud is considered the father of psychoanalysis. Freud created the terms conscious and unconscious. Freud thought the conscious and unconscious were always in conflict with each other. The goal of psychoanalytic therapy is to bridge the gap between the conscious and unconscious.
Question two. Which psychologist created the idea of the
inferiority complex? Here are the answer choices: A. Rene Descartes B. Abraham Maslow C. John Watson D. John Locke E. Alfred Adler
The answer is E. Alfred Adler created the term inferiority complex. 12
Question three. Which psychological approach focuses mainly on the study of anatomy and physiology? Here are the answer choices: A. Biological approach B. Socio-biological approach C. Humanistic approach D. Cognitive approach E. Psychodynamic approach
The answer is A. The biological approach to psychology deals mainly with the structure of the body and brain, especially in the areas of anatomy and physiology. Biological psychology focuses on the connection between the brain and body.
Question four. What psychologist proposed that the unconscious was made up of different layers? Here are the answer choices: A. Karen Horney B. Alfred Adler
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C. L.S. Vygotsky D. Carl Rodgers E. C.G. Jung
The answer is E. C.G. Jung proposed the idea that the unconscious is made up of many layers. These layers include the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious. Jung expanded Freud’s psychoanalytical theory.
Question five. What humanistic psychologist created person centered therapy? Here are the answer choices: A. Abraham Maslow B. Carl Rogers C. C.J. Jung D. Hippocrates E. Plato
The answer is B. Carl Rogers was a humanist psychologist. Rogers created the idea of person centered therapy. In person centered therapy, the client is given 14
unconditional positive regard by the therapist. The therapy focuses on bridging the gap between a person’s self concept and their actual self.
Question six. Who is considered the father of behaviorism? Here are the answer choices: A. John Locke B. B.F. Skinner C. John B. Watson D. Edward Titchener E. Immanuel Kant
The answer is C. John B. Watson is considered the father of behaviorism. B.F. Skinner was also a behaviorist. Skinner’s work was built around operant conditioning, while Watson’s focused on classical conditioning.
Question seven. Which psychological approach was primarily influenced by Charles Darwin?
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Here are the answer choices: A. Evolutionary / Socio-biological approach B. Humanistic approach C. Biological approach D. Behaviorism approach E. Cognitive approach
The answer is A. The evolutionary/Socio-biological approach to psychology explores how Charles Darwin’s idea of natural selection applies to the mind. Natural selection is the idea of survival of the fittest. Natural selection means that those who can adapt to their environment are the most likely to survive and reproduce.
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Thank you for taking the time to listen to the A-P
psychology audio-learn. When test day comes, you will be well prepared. Relax, carefully think
through your answers, and you’ll do great!
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