Mobile Migrant School- R. Watson

流动民工子弟小学 -八家村为例，北京 (申请清华大学建筑学硕士专业学位论文)

培养单位 申

请

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人 ：

指导教师

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建筑学院 瑞娃 李晓东教 授

二○一五年五月

Mobile Migrant Primary School -Case of Bajia Village, Beijing

Thesis Submitted to Tsinghua University in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the professional degree of Master of Architecture

by Reva Watson

Thesis Supervisor :Professor LI Xiaodong

May, 2015

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导师签名：

日期：

日期：

摘要

摘要 北京的外来人口占总人口的三分之一，它带来了巨大的经济增长，城市化和城市扩 张。在这城市成功的背后付出的代价，是这些农民工孩子的教育机会。年轻一代 的农民工由于缺乏先进的农业知识以及在城市生存的条件，他们的身份处于灰色 地带，不仅是因为他们的户籍原因更重要的是他们的问题不被社会关注及政府的正 视。北京市政府为了保护北京为政治中心的形象试法阻止更大的农民工人口涌入城 市的困境。因此，许多现有的非法农民工子弟学校面临拆迁和关闭，市政府不愿意 对这种人口采取负责任。本论文主要为了让这一社会群体拥有最基本的教育机会， 提出移动学校的设计研究方案。本论文的移动学校设计主要应付教育设施面临拆迁 的问题，同时满足在北京农民工子弟对学校的需求。这些移动学校的方案将解决学 校在移动搬迁过程中的问题与挑战，并通过组装，使农民工子弟对城市有感归属 感。

I

Abstract

Abstract The migrant demographic in Beijing make up one third of the population, bringing great economic growth, expansion and urbanisation to the city. The opportunity cost of this development however, is the limited access their children have to education. Young and newgeneration migrants lack experience in agriculture as well as in city life, and much of their education is denied not only because of their household registration, but due to the neglect by officials at the municipal and district level to implement policies. The Beijing municipal government falls into the dilemma of protecting the image of the political centre as well as potentially creating greater population influx into the city. As a result, many of the existing private migrant schools face demolition and closure as municipal governments do not want to take responsibility of this demographic. This proposal aims to provide this social group with the opportunity to further their education while living in the city, through the provision of a mobile school. These mobile migrant schools would alleviate the problems of demolition faced by these educational facilities, as well as fulfill the demand for private migrant schools in the city. These mobile schools will help to reduce the feeling of displacement during relocation, and through the maintenance and assembly of the school community, a sense of belonging can be formed.

Key words: Floating Population, Migrant Population, Migrant Children, Education, Private Migrant Schools, Local Public Schools, Mobile Education Unit, Learning Landscapes, Space and Learning, Identity, Participatory Design .

II

Table of Contents

Contents Chapter 1 Introduction

1

1.1.

2

Research Background

1.1.1. Urbanisation and Household Registration

2

1.1.3. Growth and Development of Migrant Schools in Beijing

3

1.1.2. Two Priorities Policy

1.1.4. Demand for Private Migrant Schools

1.1.5. Education Performance of Migrant Children 1.1.6. Learning Behaviour Theories 1.1.7. Space and Learning

2 3 4 5 6

1.1.8. Learning Landscapes

6

1.1.9. The Third Teacher

6

1.1.10. Participatory Design

6

1.1.11. Mobile Architecture

7

1.2.

Aims and Objectives

7

1.3.

Purpose, Contents and Significance

7

1.3.1. Research Purpose

7

1.4. Methodologies

9

1.4.1. Primary Research

9

1.3.2. Research Significance

7

1.4.2. Case Study Analysis 1.5.

9

Structure & Framework

11

Chapter 2 Migrant Education in Beijing

14

2.1.

14

Challenges to Migrant Education

2.1.1. Local Cases of Private Migrant Schools

20

2.1.3. Secondary Analysis- Dandelion School

25

2.1.2. Primary Research- GEGEJIEJIE Volunteer Programme

Chapter 3 Case Studies

22

28 III

Table of Contents

3.1.

Architectural Design Question

28

3.2.

Space and Learning

32

3.2.1. The Montessori School

34

3.3.

36

Learning Landscapes

3.3.1. Schools in Nagele

38

3.4.

40

The Third Teacher

3.4.1. Clifton Hunter High School- Cayman Islands

42

3.5.

46

3.4.2. Fridjtof-Nansen School, Germany Participatory Design

44

3.5.1. Evangelische Gesamtschule Gelsengirken (EGG)

46

3.6.

54

3.5.2. West School Complex Mobile Architecture

50

3.6.1. Ablenook

56

3.7.

64

3.6.2. Sustainable Self-Sufficient Floating Home- Vincent van der Meulen Synthesis of Design Principles

60

Chapter 4 Design Proposal

66

4.1.

66

Site Analysis

4.1.1. Immediate Site Context

70

4.1.3. Mobile Architecture Explorations

76

4.1.2. Schematic Design and Process 4.2.

72

Final Design Proposal

78

4.2.1. Site Plan

80

4.2.3. Classroom Design Features

84

4.2.2. Spatial Layout

82

4.2.4. Unit Design

86

4.2.5. Unit Structure and Assembly

88

4.2.6. Kit of Parts

90

4.2.7. Wall and Floor Detail

92

4.2.8. MEP Systems

94

IV

Table of Contents

4.2.9. Climatic Details

96

4.3.

98

Findings and Conclusions

References 100 Acknowledgment 102 Curriculum Vitae

104

V

VI

Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 1 Introduction Education is a valuable commodity to any society, as it enables its members to not only establish certain freedoms, but also allow for significant contributions to said society.

Over the next few decades, education will become critical for China to shift quickly into a modern society then gradually into a knowledge society. Improving social and economical conditions not only through innovation and technological or scientific advancements, but through an information architecture that addresses the problems of urbanisation. China’s migrant population constitutes a third of Beijing’s total population which speaks to the large volume of transient people and even more so, the effects on a city by a potentially permanent population. Resource allocation is already determined through the outdated hukou system, which limits this portion of the population to housing, healthcare and education from their original place of registration. Therefore, exempting them and their children from the basic requirements critical for human and by extension, societal development. Besides the hukou system, are the municipal government’s failure to enroll migrant children into public schools, yet continued closure and demolition of existing private migrant schools. This research aims to find a solution that appeases both civil and government problems surrounding migrant education, as well as improve the quality of education received by this demographic through the provision of an architecture that suits their needs. The thesis is divided into three main parts that define the existing problems and conditions for migrant children in Beijing, then the exploration of architectural cases that address quality of education and identity. The design proposal is then presented as a synthesis of the principles discovered in the cases with special attention to the local migrant problems.

1

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1. Research Background 1.1.1. Urbanisation and Household Registration

The household registration system -hukou (户口）- reestablished in 1958, was

implemented to control migration and sustain agriculture and food supplies to the cities.

However, after the economic reforms of the 1980s, the cities had a much greater demand for cheap labour. This led to the mass migration of people from rural to urban areas. And in 2012, there was an estimated 262 million migrant workers in China’s cities, of which 40 percent were under the age of 30 (National Bureau of Statistics, 2012). As a result of the hukou, rural migrants (农民工) could only receive the benefits of housing, education and healthcare provided in their rural hometown, leading to many of the problems they currently face in the cities. Since 2009, there have been attempts to improve the benefits that this group can receive in the cities, and the central government has declared that the municipal governments should implement the ‘Two Priorities’ Policy, including amongst other rights migrants- a right to education (Pong, 2015). However, much of their needs are still not met, especially in Beijing, where the municipal government have not effectively implemented policies, and migrants still often face discrimination, and are denied benefits within the city.

1.1.2. Two Priorities Policy

The ‘Two Priorities’ (两为主) Policy is an attempt by the central government to

implement the Nine-Year Compulsory Education Law for migrant children in cities. The responsibility of receiving migrant children under this policy, as well as having these children integrate within public schools, is now taken on by the local governments (Pong, 2015).

This decentralisation by the state, however, has allowed municipal officials to implement this policy at their own discretion, leading to many inconsistencies in implementation in different cities. Shanghai and Wuhan, for example, assisted in improving the conditions of most makeshift private schools established by migrants instead of their closure, and allocated spaces within public schools where necessary. In Beijing however, most of these makeshift private schools have been closed and demolished, and only some migrant students have been 2

Chapter 1 Introduction

integrated into the public schools, while the rest were sent back to their ‘hometown’ (CLB, 2009). The two main reasons the local governments tend not to support the operation of these privately-run schools relate to the financial and political issues, rather than ideological perceptions of these schools. Financial, as it costs on average 700 yuan to support a child in primary school, and 1,250 yuan for a child in junior high, putting a strain on local resources for government provisions. The political reasons for the closure of these schools, comes from the government’s prevention of ‘subversive’ teachings and the potential encroachment on their jurisdiction.

1.1.3. Growth and Development of Migrant Schools in Beijing During the 1990s there was an increase in the presence of makeshift privately-run migrant schools in Beijing as a response to the increase in numbers of the young in the cities and the high cost of education in the cities. By 2002, there were over 100,000 children between the ages of six and fourteen living in Beijing, of which only 12 percent were enrolled in legitimate schools, and 3.5 percent in private schools. Within the decade, the median age of migrants in Beijing increased from twenty to thirty years old, establishing more families in the city (Kwong, 2004). The growth and development of migrant schools in Beijing occurred three stages: the emergence through the period of 1993 to 1997, their competitive development from 1998 to 2000 and then by 2000 to 2003, their expansion, self-improvement and attempts to gain legal status (Pong, 2015). Their emergence came about due to not only one- third of the migrant population being from family units, but also from the demand that the low income group of the floating population had for education. These privately-run institutions were ‘selfhelp’ solutions to provide education for their children in a place where they could not afford fees for temporary- private or public schools.

1.1.4. Demand for Private Migrant Schools

The view that education can reduce poverty levels and increase opportunities within

family units is the main reason why many children are brought to live in the cities (Kwong, 2004). However, public schools in the cities cannot facilitate the number of migrant children

3

Chapter 1 Introduction

that require education nor provide the services that the privately-run migrant schools can.

And although many parents would prefer to enroll their children formally into public schools, there are still three reasons why these privately-run migrant schools are still in great demand.

Firstly, enrollment in public schools comes at a high cost. Many migrant families are required to pay ‘scholarship fees’ and other miscellaneous fees which amount to around 6000 to 10000 yuan a year. Additionally, enrollment often requires the presentation of documents that migrant families either have limited access to or are ineligible for (like household registration, work permits etc.). Secondly, many migrant children face discrimination when enrolled in public schools, and are sometimes even separated from the local students within classes, as a result many migrant parents prefer to have their children in an environment that can allow equal treatment. Furthermore, these privately-run migrant schools have greater community ties and operate as such, leading to lastly, the services these private schools provide, which lack in public schools. In most cases, privately-run migrant schools are located in close proximity to the residential areas of the migrants, they also have flexible opening and closing hours, which accommodate the odd working schedules of parents. These schools also offer discounts on fees and in special cases, no fees at all, as a result, they provide economic and psychological benefits to the children (Pong, 2015).

1.1.5. Education Performance of Migrant Children

Though these privately-run migrant schools provide many benefits for migrant

children, there is still a great gap in the quality of education received between themselves and their urban counterparts. In a study carried out by the REAP team in 2009, there was a significant gap in performance between students enrolled in public schools and those in privately-run migrant schools, however they found students from the migrant schools still performed better than their rural counterparts (REAP, 2009). The performance gap between the public schools and both the rural and migrant schools is drastic. Students in the public schools outperform both migrant and rural children, and even migrant students enrolled in public schools also outperform students in privately-run migrant schools. This is primarily because these students have more resources and superior quality of teachers who are often ranked in the top tiers in schooling. The study found that the primary reason for the gap in 4

Chapter 1 Introduction

performances between the rural and migrant children was based on the family structures, and not as a result of the quality of teachers. In fact, the teachers in the rural areas were better qualified than those in the migrant schools, and students often have more resources, but the rural children that underperformed, often only had their mother along with other siblings, causing an overall performance drop in the demographic. The students brought to the city also seemed to have stronger academic backgrounds and having their family possibly improved their performance.

1.1.6. Learning Behaviour Theories

Throughout the evolution of schooling and education there have been different modes

of transferring knowledge to engage students in the learning process. There are theories that have been utilised since the earliest development of schools and implemented to date, amongst them include behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism and connectivism. These theories not only describe a method of teaching, but also highlight the spatial layouts and environments that are often employed to either positively or negatively affect the learning process. Early schools developed out of the era of World War II when there was a spike in child births and there became an increase in the demand to train the young population.

During this period of industrialisation, schools developed out of necessity, and operated in a mode that was like ‘mind- manufacturing’, where students came in through one end passing from classroom to classroom, then graduating out the other end. Based on the punish-reward system, classrooms were arranged on a grid system with students arranged in rows and facing the teacher. This typical ideology of schooling is antiquated but often still adopted in education today, and only started to shift since the last century. Cognitivism was developed on the notion that knowledge is absolute and objective, of inquiry and curiosity.

Schools transformed to the campus typology, with students attending classes in a lecture setting and moving to there classrooms through corridors with views to the outdoors. The constructivist theory is the most recent theory for a more successful method of improving the learning process, however, its the least applied in contemporary architecture. It is based on the principle that learners construct their own knowledge, and based on their experiences and reflections gain an understanding of their world.

5

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1.7. Space and Learning Based on the theories written by Herman Hertzberger, space and learning is based on the concept of a unit to whole relationship, with the classroom connected to the entire school and the school linked to the community. Many references to the school as a micro and macro city are made to show how these two seemingly different scales of a community can be designed with similar patterns. Schools can therefore be designed with principles found in cities, like squares for central gathering spaces or streets for interaction (Hertzberger, 2008:129). Schools then function like the community, and the classroom the home. In this ideology, spaces function similarly to those in a home, with ancillary and kitchen spaces, relaxing and living spaces as well as quiet and individual spaces. As a result, there is a familiarity and comfort brought to the school that allows the individual to explore and learn at their own pace.

1.1.8. Learning Landscapes Classrooms should be able to extend beyond the confines of one room, and should be flexible to allow for different activities at different times. Adjoining classrooms should be able to open up onto each other and even extend to the spaces between like corridors and outdoor spaces. Learning should also occur in the literal landscape and should include play as an important part of learning for a developing child. According to ideologies applied in the architecture done by Aldo van Eyck, schools should extend into the outdoors, and playgrounds can be used to transform areas of the city (Eyck, 2008). Allowing social development and exploration beyond their school.

1.1.9. The Third Teacher The classroom has an affect on the way in which a child learns and can even be considered the ‘third teacher’. The physical environment dictates the type of interaction, level of concentration and even health of the children in the space. The classroom and as an extension the school, should facilitate the basic requirements of comfort and security, stimulation of a developing mind and ensure they are able to keep their bodies in motion (Third Teacher, 2014).

1.1.10. Participatory Design In spaces shared by a community, it is important for the users to contribute to its development. People often identify the places they are involved with defining and appropriating and as a result are able to strengthen community ties and develop a sense of belonging and identity to the spaces they shape (Blundell Jones, 2007). Community involvement in placemaking should also extend beyond community gatherings or community-driven developments, 6

Chapter 1 Introduction

rather they should also integrate critical players in the shaping of identity of a place (Hou and Rios, 2003).

1.1.11. Mobile Architecture There are times when sedentary architecture restricts and prevents the progress of particular functions required by users who do not necessarily require this permanence. As a result mobile architecture is employed to support functions for personal use and in disaster situations. When utilising mobile methods some of the most important things to consider are the mechanical, electrical and plumbing systems that allow for the continuation of life on the move (Seonwook, 2012).

1.2. Aims and Objectives The primary aim of this thesis is to design an educational facility for migrant children in Beijing addresses the civil society and government dilemmas associated with the continued increase in the city’s population. Providing a mobile primary school for migrant children, would allow for the fulfillment of the basic right to education according to Chinese law, and allow these children to stay with their families while continuing their studies in the city. Making the project ‘mobile’ could alleviate the problems of demolition faced by existing schools, while allowing the government to continue their urbanisation agenda. Fulfilling the demand for more private migrant schools in the city, and allowing migrant students to continue their education benefitting not only their position in society, but the society itself.

1.3. Purpose, Contents and Significance 1.3.1. Research Purpose The objectives of the research are to determine the ways in which the architecture can allow migrant children to not only continue their education in cities, but also improve their academic performance. Through the examination of local and international, theoretical and applied case studies, principles that shape better learning spaces will be explored and adopted in the proposed design solution. Methods of improving a sense of identity and relationship to the community will also be explored in an attempt to improve the demographics’ assimilation into the Beijing society.

1.3.2. Research Significance

7

Chapter 1 Introduction

S ocio - cultural S ignificance One third of Beijing’s population is comprised of migrant workers and their children contributing to the city through their labour. This large portion of the population provides skills that have led to the development of the city and possess human capital related to tacit knowledge from their experience in agriculture. However, many of their children have no direct connection to this tacit knowledge and moreover, these children without the basic right to education cannot assimilate well into the city they call home. Providing this portion of the population with the ability to continue their education will foster the future development of Chinese society. And with the anticipated decrease in the work force and demand for cheap labour it will also provide this group with skills that can allow them to integrate into city life.

Through the definition of the problem in Chapter two, the socio-cultural significance is further outlined and explored through the discussion of demand of migrant schools and the need for improvement in performance.

T heoretical S ignificance Since the development of schools, there has been very little change in the approach of teaching and learning in practice or in architecture. Schools are often centered around the teacher and his or her ability to instruct and impart knowledge on to students. However, there are changing schools of thought on the methods of encouraging learning, and as a result the architecture needs to evolve. Most literature regarding education and architecture come out of places like Europe, with theorists like Herman Hertzberger and Peter Hubner. China, however has the scope to shift its approach to teaching methods that promote creativity and innovation to assist its progression to a knowledge society. This study provides an example of an architecture that attempts to improve the learning process, and provides a basic strategy for the optimal arrangement of learning spaces. Consequently, this will be amongst the first architectural projects to address the issue of migrant schooling in Beijing.

P ractical S ignificance Through the examination of a unique case of migrant children exclusion from education in Beijing, there is an opportunity to develop a typology that can address the lack of access to education that many face in developing nations. Therefore, this proposal extends to the development of an approach to solve the problem of little access to education to people in different contexts.

8

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.4. Methodologies 1.4.1. Primary Research Q ualitative A nalysis To substantiate the secondary data analysed in the empirical study, primary research will be conducted to document conditions of an existing private migrant school and the behaviour of students that attend. The methods of participant observation and an in-depth interview will be employed to carry out the qualitative analysis. For the participant observational study, subjects will be given tasks that will allow them to assess their schools and community and observations documented. An in-depth interview will then be carried out with a participant in the study who has experience working with the migrant children to gain an understanding of the first-hand issues faced with student behaviour, self-perception and their environment.

S econdary A nalysis Another local case study of a private migrant middle school (the Dandelion School) will then be analysed through data collected from the school’s web sources. This local case study will highlight the ways in which a private migrant school can operate as an non-government funded institution. This data would assist in determining whether or not it would be feasible or possible to operate more schools in Beijing through community support and donations.

1.4.2. Case Study Analysis Besides the problems involving civil society and the government in the operation of private migrant schools, limited access to quality education and integration into society are predominant factors in the initial generation of the idea to provide mobile primary schools. This definition of the problem will generate the architectural question, which will aim at employing methods to improve academic performance and community involvement through the analysis of eight case studies. These case studies will inform the design solution through theoretical and technical analyses. The theoretical analysis will be an assessment of different architectural thinking on architecture and education. The first two case studies of Herman Hertzberger’s Montessori School and Aldo van Eyck’s Schools in Nagele, look at ideas of ‘spaces and learning’ and ‘learning landscapes’ respectively. These school typologies that developed under these ideologies are amongst the first attempts in architecture to address ways to improve learning in 9

Chapter 1 Introduction

the built environment. They consider The following two case studies are based on the idea of the classroom as the ‘third teacher’. The cases of the Clifton Hunter School and Fridjtof- Nansen School look at more modern ideologies of encouraging learning through the stimulation of the body and mind. The last two case studies in the theoretical analysis assess how the involvement of the community and ideas of participatory design can improve one’s sense of belonging and strengthen identity. Both projects, the Protestant School in Gelsenkirchen by Peter Hubner and the West Complex by Duncan Lewis were designed on the premise that the students who would attend the school should contribute to its shaping. Through the use of participatory design methods, both projects were able to successfully integrate student’s ideas with their own, acting as a guide to the design rather than dictating the outcome. This method helped to strengthen the student’s identity with the school and allowed for the engagement and enhancement of their community. The final two case studies were based on the technical analysis required to have the building operate as a mobile system. The projects Ablenook and Floating Sustainable Home were analysed for their structural, mechanical, plumbing and electrical systems implemented.

These case studies would then inform the design principles to be implemented in the proposed design solution, relating to the ideas of architecture shaping learning and community.

10

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.5. Structure & Framework

PROBLEM DEFINITION

Research Question: What are the existing problems in Migrant Education and what is the demand for migrant education in Beijing?

Quality of Education

Issues of Identity

Issues of Demolition and Closure

ARCHITECTURAL QUESTION

Case Study Analysis: How can architecture improve the quality of migrant education and identity?

THEORETICAL ANALYSIS

PARTICIPATORY DESIGN ANALYSIS

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

SYNTHESIS OF DESIGN PRINCIPLES

DESIGN PROPOSAL

SOLUTION: A mobile and adaptable Education Unit supporting Primary School Education for Migrant Children in Beijing

11

Chapter 1 Introduction

12

Chapter 1 Introduction

13

Chapter 2 Migrant Education in Beijing

Chapter 2 Migrant Education in Beijing

2.1. Challenges to Migrant Education

Private Migrant School Issues: BUT

Civil Society Issues:

Need MORE Migrant Schools

AND

RESOURCES, PERFORMANCE + IDENTITY Government Issues: FINANCE + POLITICS Leads to Demolition and Closure

Fig. 2.1 A diagram above defining the problems faced in migrant education

The primary educational challenges faced by migrant children in Beijing are connected to issues of identity and poor performance. Due to the lack of access to quality educational facilities, the demolition and closure of the private migrant schools and the stigmatisation faced by migrant children in local public schools, migrant children continue to struggle academically and socially in Beijing (Pong, 2015). In recent years there has been the establishment of the ‘two priorities’ policy developed by the central government to enforce the ‘Nine Year Compulsory Education Law’ for migrant children in cities. The responsibilities and execution of the tasks, however, are to be carried out by district level government, who need to supply resources to existing migrant schools, and or ensure that eligible migrant children are placed in local public schools. While the attempts to improve the education policies at the central level are noteworthy, the municipal and district governments often implement these policies at their own discretion, and do not want the added responsibility of providing for this demographic, perpetuating existing problems (Deng, 2010). To address the challenges experienced by both civil society and the government issues of migrant children education, more private schools should be provided within the city that do not require demolition on request for land space by the government. A more temporary or mobile education unit could not only foster the continuation of classes if schools needed to relocate, but pose less jurisdictional pressure on local governments.

14

Chapter 2 Migrant Education in Beijing

L imited A ccess

to

Q uality E ducation

During the 1990s the central government established the “one fee” system where more funds were poured into primary school education to prevent schools from collecting arbitrary funds. Enrollment increased during this period, but migrant children who left their ‘hometown’, were not beneficiaries of this system, and although the state encouraged the state schools to accept them, these schools were not obligated nor given the funds to. Migrant children had limited access to public schools for reasons primarily related to the expenditure the local governments had to provide for the additional student enrollment. This cost was transferred to the schools, who were given the permission to charge migrant families a ‘temporary’ fee for this added expenditure. Consequently, temporary fees in public schools were too exorbitant for migrant families to afford, and they often did not have all the documentation and eligibility to enroll in public schools. The average expenditure during the mid-2000s for migrant children enrollment into public schools accounted for about 20 percent of the family’s annual income at 2,450 yuan per person per year, causing great financial pressure on families. This financial problem continued through the mid- 2000s, and has improved drastically over the last decade in Beijing, but for governments to accept at least 50 percent of the migrant children in the city they would need to raise 137 million yuan (CLB 2009).

With this financial difficulty, migrant households turned to private migrant schools, which costs much less than public schools and allowed students to continue their education in an environment with less discrimination. This market and civil demand led to the establishment of over 250 private migrant primary schools across Beijing (Goodburn 2009). Private migrant schools fulfill a less than satisfactory situation, as with limited resources and lack of government funding, these schools would struggle to ever meet public school standards, however their demand will remain, once more migrants continue to come to cities with their families. The problems that private migrant schools face include, poor quality teaching, poor and general lack of resources, instability, and difficulties acquiring licenses (Lu 2007; Han 2001). Private migrant schools often follow the same curriculum as the public schools, but with low quality teachers, students’ performance is still significantly lower than their urban counterparts. Besides poor teaching, students also have to deal with the undesirable conditions of the classrooms, often with no heating and furniture in disrepair. They also face the pressure of closure from local governments, who have to ensure that standards are maintained and proper licensing and safety are provided, more often than not, the government would prefer their closure to reduce responsibilities (Kwong 2004).

15

Chapter 2 Migrant Education in Beijing

D emolition

and

C losure

of

M igrant S chools

in

B eijing

In 1998, the Ministry of Education issued a notice of ‘ Provisional Measures for the Education of Migrant Children’ which encouraged that the migrant children brought into the cities of China be provided education. This policy however was not legally binding, and the local governments at the time used it more as a ‘guideline’ than an official policy. Then a more official notice in 2003 was sent to the local governments by the State Council imploring the acceptance of migrant children into state school education under the relevant jurisdictions (SPRC, 2003).

This notice, however led to the closure of many unlicensed private migrant schools, as they were not ‘state-run’ leading many children still excluded from the public school system. These contradictions between central government policies and municipal policies can be seen right up until the policies today. In 2005, the “Notice of the Beijing Municipal Education Commission on the Work of Strengthening the Management of Self- Run Migrant Schools” called for a strategy that would assist migrant schools. However, by the following year, this three-part strategy is changed to the “Notice of the General Office of the Beijing Municipal People’s Government on the Work of Strengthening the Safety of Non-Approved Self-Run Migrant Schools” omitting any assistance, in fact, the strategy involved moving some migrant students to public schools, regulating some migrant schools, and closing others down altogether. Ultimately, it seems that although the sentiments expressed at the municipal level seem to echo the central government’s on the rights of migrant children, but the municipal government has generally excluded the assistance of migrant schools in its policies. Additionally, the city’s pursuit of urbanisation seems to be putting an even greater strain on the survival of these migrant schools and has led to the demolition of many (Pong, 2015). Since 2008, there has been some progress with the financial assistance provided for some licensed migrant schools, municipal governments now give 80 yuan to every student per term at the primary school level, and 130 yuan at the middle school level. However, for unlicensed migrant schools, there is still the chance for closure, and the funds being allocated to the licensed schools are incomparable to the provisions made for migrant schools in other provinces like Shanghai. The conflict between social and economic growth is the primary culprit for this predicament, and it is claimed that centers like Shanghai, which are primarily economic-based have more freedom to implement the ‘two priorities’ policy than Beijing. Most of the problems the government faces with supporting migrant schools in Beijing relate to the image of the political center, and in order to control population, the government cannot fully support the influx of migrants into the city (Wang, 2008). As a result governments would rather support state-run schools than the private migrant schools for greater control.

16

Chapter 2 Migrant Education in Beijing

E ducational P erformance

of

M igrant C hildren

In examining the performance of migrant children in Beijing, two studies were selected that describe homogeneous and heterogeneous schooling of migrant children and urban children.

One study conducted by REAP 2009, compares the performance of grade four migrant children in private schools to local public school children in the same grade. While a study conducted

by Deng 2010, explores the performance of migrant children enrolled in public schools to their urban counterparts. Both studies suggest that the primary problems attributed to the poor performance of migrant children in all cases relates to their economic disposition relative to the local students, the quality of the teaching, resources and environment for schooling.

In the study conducted by REAP, twenty-three private migrant schools were selected within areas of high concentration in Beijing and then eleven public schools in close proximity were chosen to compare results. The rural student data collected was from seventy schools from different areas in the Shaanxi province, and all data analysed used a multivariate regression to calculate the score from a standardised test. The results showed that the students from the private migrant schools performed better than their rural counterparts with an average score of 68.6 compared to 64.4 from the rural schools. Even though rural schools, even in the poorest parts of the country, had better resources and teachers, migrant students still outperformed the rural students. They found, however, that migrants children in private schools performed worse than both migrant children in public schools (80.1) and urban local children (79.8). It is possible that the classroom conditions affect the performance of migrant children over time in private migrant schools, as studies have found a downward trend in performance over their length of time in Beijing. In fact, it seems that an increase in resources and teacher quality could be the primary contributor to migrant children’s increase in performance (REAP 2009; Deng 2010). Interestingly as seen in this study, migrant children in public schools outperformed their urban counterparts, this is potentially due to the ‘selection effect’, where parents and schools select the best migrant students to attend the institutions, but the improvement in performance is likely due to access to better resources. In the study carried out by Deng, however, although migrant students in public schools had improved reading achievements to students in private migrant schools, their performance did not narrow the gap between their urban counterparts.

The reason for their lower performance in this case, related to issues of discrimination in the public schools selected which had a negative effect on the performance of the migrant children.

The performance of students in private migrant schools remain low due to lack of resources, poor quality teaching, instability and illegitimacy (Lu 2007; Han 2001), and in public schools due to discrimination.

17

Chapter 2 Migrant Education in Beijing

D iscrimination

and

S tigmatisation

in

P ublic S chools

The placement of migrant children in public schools, with better facilities and teachers would seem like the best solution for all parties. However, the concentration of migrant children in the public school system has put tremendous pressure on the local government. In 2006, Beijing accepted 240,000 migrant children into public schools, which if performance improved for the migrant children, this increase might be worthwhile (CLB, 2009). However in a study carried out in 2009, showed that migrant children’s reading achievement improved, but their placement in public schools neither widened or narrowed the gap between themselves and their urban counterparts (Deng, 2010). This low performance may be attributed to the discrimination and stigmatisation these children often face in public schools, and may be based on the same reasons they were excluded to begin with. Many urban parents feared that the acceptance of migrant students would reduce the quality of their own children’s education, and in some provinces, like Wuhan, this complaint led to the denial of many migrant students (Duan & Zhou, 1999). The social inequality experienced by migrants in Beijing and the high competitiveness in schools are the primary challenges of migrant children enrollment into state-run schools.

The unfortunate resonance of the hukou system, even after the establishment of policies like the ‘two priorities’, is that over 10.4 percent of these children were born in Beijing, with over 32.8 percent living in the city for over five years, 28 percent between two and five years, 23.9 percent between a year to two years and 4.9 percent for less than a year (CLB, 2009).

These figures show that these children will hardly be able to associate themselves with the ‘hometown’ they are registered in, and cannot be accepted as true Beijing residents although that may be all they know. These identity issues create feelings of exclusion and resent in many migrant children and in a China Youth Research Centre study found that 33.7 percent of migrant children felt unaccepted by locals, and 40 percent claimed they faced discrimination, in some studies up to 76 percent felt discriminated against (CLB, 2009). This exclusion also occurs in their schooling, as some migrant children are not allowed to participate in extra-curricular activities like ‘Young Pioneers’ nor could they be nominated as ‘outstanding students’ (三好 学生- good in academics, character and physical ability). Only since the early 200s were local governments encouraged to include migrant children in the Communist Youth League. The discrimination is a clear signal to the migrant children that they are outsiders and inferior. As a result many migrant families prefer to enroll their children in the private migrant schools to foster a greater sense of community and reduce the amount of discrimination typically faced in public schools.

18

Chapter 2 Migrant Education in Beijing

D emand

for

P rivate M igrant S chools

The community that is created in private migrant schools is the most critical component in its demand and survival over the course of the decade. They provide a solution to both the “psychological and economic barriers to the education state system” (Chen and Liang, 2007:125). These barriers extend from the difficulty to enroll migrant children into crowded public schools to the discrimination that they often face in them, but these schools offer a few more services and conveniences that public schools would never offer. Firstly, public schools are much more expensive than private migrant schools and often have difficult enrollment procedures. For migrant children to enroll in a public schools their family must present up five documents: temporary registration permit, household registration booklet, work permit, proof of residency and a certificate verifying a lack of guardianship in the place of origin (REAP, 2009). These documents along with a ‘sponsorship fee’ ranging from 6,000 to 100,000 yuan and the lack of transparency for these fees are the largest deterrents for migrant families in enrolling their children into public schools. Many private migrant schools have flexible payment plans for migrant families, and in desperate cases no tuition fees. They also allow these very mobile families the freedom to relocate without losing the money they pay initially for tuition. Private migrant schools are also more conveniently located and have accommodating hours for parents who cannot pick up their children at normal times (Pong, 2014). This issue of location and the proximity of home to school, affects migrant children socially in public schools, as students from these different backgrounds are unable to integrate with local students outside of school.

This inability to interact with local children contributes to the discrimination faced by migrant students in public schools. In many cases the problems of discrimination come from not only fellow urban students, but from teachers and urban parents. In some public schools, migrant children are even separated from their urban peers with lower quality teachers and classroom settings (Deng, 2010) and urban children are often encouraged to distance themselves from migrant children.

These barriers point to the continued demand for private migrant schools in Beijing, and in order to meet both problems faced by local governments and migrant families a temporary solution should be employed. Given the inability of public schools to accept all the migrant children that come into city, and the closure and demolition existing private migrant schools, there should be an affordable solution that allows for quality educational resources to be provided through a mobile facility. This facility would still allow for the flexibility for interaction between demographics and allow for easy relocation if governments disapprove of sites.

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Chapter 2 Migrant Education in Beijing

2.1.1. Local Cases of Private Migrant Schools The aims of conducting the primary and secondary research highlighted in this chapter is to gain a personal understanding of the local conditions of migrant schools in Beijing. This observational study would provide better local knowledge of migrant schools, and provide some experience useful to meeting the needs of the demographic. The two schools selected, was a typical private migrant primary school, and a unique migrant middle school called the Dandelion School. The private migrant primary school was selected to observe the typical conditions migrant children learn and play in, and conduct an exercise that addressed issues of community building with the migrant children. The middle school selected, represents an example of the way a successful migrant school might function without government funding.

There were many challenges throughout the course of selecting and attempting to visit these and other schools, primarily surrounding the publicity schools might receive from the study.

During my visit to the private migrant primary school, I served as a volunteer under a program called GeGeJieJie (Big Brother, Big Sister) where I observed the children in a classroom setting as well as through two activity sessions. The primary school which requested to remain anonymous, represents a typical migrant school in a nearby migrant village in Beijing, and was selected at random and only as a result of the programs’ willingness to accept my request. Over two sessions, a map challenge and a community building project were conducted. These two exercises allowed students to think about and identify the places they had in their community, as well as allowed them to generate ideas about how they wanted their communities to be. In small groups, these ideas were discussed with the migrant children, and observations recorded.

The most predominant finding, was that children often recreated elements of their homes, gardens and often imaginative scenarios of their community’s landscape. Children were also very active, and concepts of active learning should be fostered to stimulate these behaviours, and should be taken into consideration when proposing their learning spaces.

The Dandelion School is a non-profit institution and is one of only two licensed middle schools for migrant children, it is the only example in the city of a school accepted by the government and funded by private entities. This method of funding and operation was the most interesting to study, as this may be a solution to the issues of expenses that keep the typical migrant school in conflict with local government. Understanding the operation of the school was 20

Chapter 2 Migrant Education in Beijing

the primary type of information I had hoped to receive during my interview with the principal.

However, the request to visit and interview the principal of the Dandelion School, was declined as there was concern that their situation with the local government was still ‘sensitive’. This unfortunate circumstance prevented me from learning some of the critical motivations for the establishment of the school and the challenges they faced to function as an NGO- run migrant school. Most of the information for understanding the school’s operation is from web-based sources, so there are limitations in how specific the information could be to the particular issues I hope to address within the design. Another reason this school was selected, was as a result of the ways in which the community and the students were involved in its development and betterment since its establishment. Some of the art projects taken on within the school were even participatory in nature, which is also a critical component in creating a sense of belonging and identity for migrants (ref here). These ideas of participation and community involvement are crucial elements to be included in the design proposal of the educational units, and their employment critical in addressing the social needs of the students.

The findings from studying these two local cases, point to many issues that must be addressed in the design proposal, and will assist in the operation and functioning of the scheme.

From observing the behaviour of the migrant children in the private migrant primary school, they need types of active learning and spaces that allow them to play and spend their energy, which they often are not allowed at home (CLB, 2009). The spatial arrangement and class sizes were also determined from the observations gathered in this study, as groups become more focused and settled in smaller class sizes. Students also have a connection to the idea of the home and potentially, the familiarity and sense of stability created in that environment. The programs and involvement of the community at the Dandelion School would be taken as the primary examples for issues that will be considered during the design of the public facilities. Having the children and the community beautify and economically develop are critical to developing a sense of belonging and ownership, and the community and the school can have a symbiotic relationship each contributing to both student and family needs. These ideas of community, participation in school building, creating the sense of a ‘home’ and accommodating active learning are the principles this study has provided. These principles will be considered when

21

Chapter 2 Migrant Education in Beijing

selecting materials for assembly, the assembly method of the unit, the spatial arrangement of the program and the development of the site and the public facilities.

2.1.2. Primary Research- GEGEJIEJIE Volunteer Programme The purpose of this portion of the primary research was to get an understanding of the general conditions of a typical private migrant school in Beijing, the interaction and behaviour of students in the classroom setting and gain an understanding of their needs while assisting in the volunteer program. The findings of the research through observation would then contribute to the development of the design proposal for a similar demographic, and provide a hands-on guide to true conditions that require attention in the process.

The primary school visited under the GGJJ Volunteer Program, is located in a small migrant village to the North West of the city along the outskirts of the 5th ring road in Beijing.

The school is tucked in a cul-de-sac with a small paved courtyard off the street, which serves as a play area and as a parking lot. The L-shaped building has a dark narrow corridor along its center, with classrooms running along its edges on either side. There were approximately six to ten classrooms, the ones facing the courtyard primarily received daylight, while the classrooms on the opposite side used artificial lighting. The building had no heating and the ventilation was generally poor, as there were not enough openings to allow for cross-ventilation, and in any case, it was too cold to open the windows. The condition of the furniture was also poor and often did not have matching pieces. These observations are useful to note given the general performance levels described by the students in this type of school, and although the performance of these students were not ascertained in this study, the conditions match several other descriptions of a typical migrant school (Deng 2010).

The provinces most students come from originally include Hebei, Anhui, Hunan, Henan, Shandong, however, most of them grew up in Beijing and live in the surrounding village. For this program, there are a few children who travel far distances to participate, but the students that attend the school, live nearby, corresponding to the reasons migrant parents send their children to private migrant schools, for convenience (Pong 2014). Most of these children have little connection to their hometown, and will most likely not return unless they take the high school entrance exam. During an interview conducted with the founder of the program Emily He, she relays that these children seem very aware of their environment and what their school is lacking, and in some cases have a more astute understanding of their position in society more than their urban peers. She shared a sentiment of one migrant child who wished they had a track and field area for their school, and although they get donations, their facilities 22

Chapter 2 Migrant Education in Beijing

Fig. 2.2 Image above of showing the context of the visited primary school

need improvement. The student volunteer group ‘GeGeJieJie’ holds activities with the migrant children (‘littles’) that attend this school on Saturdays, to teach English and offer exposure to the students who often are not afforded such vibrant learning sessions. Over the course of two visits to the primary school, once on December 6, 2014 and another visit on December 13, 2014, I attended a map challenge and community building project that was conducted with the students. During this period I was able to observe the behaviour of the children and their ideas of the communities they wished to live in.

Before the activity started and the instructions were administered, all the students gathered in one large classroom with their partners and groups. However, the students were very hard to control in this setting, as they were very hyperactive and excited about the activities and having the volunteers around. In some cases a few children had climbed on the furniture and there were even a few conflicts between some students. When the groups were divided and separated in other classrooms, the students calmed down and were then able to receive the instructions. This particular observation was critical in understanding the very active nature of children who often do not have much space and opportunities to spend their energies and even frustrations. During the map challenge the children were asked to identify the route by which they typically came to school, the things and places they passed along the way, and all the possible vehicles they could use to get there. Some groups had more imaginative concepts illustrated, while others had very practical maps. The map was then used as a board game 23

Chapter 2 Migrant Education in Beijing

Fig. 2.3 Photographs above of Participatory Design for ‘Community Building’ Project

with challenges between getting from their home to school. The map challenge was useful in gaining an understanding of how students perceived their communities in its current state, and allowing them to think about the environment they see on a regular basis. For the community building activity, students were to propose with the assistance of the volunteers, their ideas of an ideal community. Each student was paired with a volunteer (a ‘big’) who would mentor the student (a ‘little’) throughout the entire duration of the program, and in groups of three (six people in total- three bigs and three littles) we began designing the communities. The materials used to develop the communities were made out of putty, Popsicle sticks, cardboard and other decorations, to form places that would make up a community. In our team each student did their own building and the group developed a landscape for the buildings to be positioned in. One of the volunteers suggested using the Chinese principles of site selection, with the mountains to the North and the water source to the South, with the buildings running along the river.

Most students did a building that represented their home, and this was common in most teams.

This observation is critical for classroom space planning, and understanding the importance of comfort and familiarity in learning spaces. Many successful learning spaces use the concept of the home for promoting learning, and this observation was important in solidifying the reason for considering the home during the design process. Along with accommodating active and playful learning, from the hyperactivity observed, these children need a space that feels like a solid community in their very mobile, yet restricted life. These were the primary observations that will be utilised to contribute to the design and planning of the education units.

24

Chapter 2 Migrant Education in Beijing

2.1.3. Secondary Analysis- Dandelion School Describing and analysing the operation of the Dandelion Middle school and the ways in which they involve the community for the betterment of the establishment, are the aims of this portion of the research. This institution is very unique, as it is the only example of a nonprofit licensed migrant middle school in Beijing, providing a potential solution for how the proposed design project could operate in a realistic context. The operation of the school as a non-profit, its daily operation, the activities the students engage in and the involvement of the community and other institutions will be highlighted in this section. Gaining an understanding of the way the school operates and functions will contribute to the development of the cultural and educational programming in the design proposal.

Founded in 2005 by the current principal, Zheng Hong, the Dandelion School was inspired by the lack of educational facilities being provided by the government for migrant children in the city. Middle schools are particularly scarce in Beijing, and this problem is a potential setback in the development of migrant student education beyond the primary school level. Students have to return to their hometown to sit their high school entrance examination and they often have a hard time transitioning back into schools they are unfamiliar with, and in some cases they do not go back to school (Kwong, 2004). Dandelion school gives children the opportunity to stay in Beijing longer during the period of middle school to high school, and their curriculum allows for the matriculation into the standard school system, and ease the transition. The students pay two thirds of their tuition at 680 yuan per semester, rent of 50 yuan per and 6 yuan for three meals a day, the rest of their tuition is covered by donations. The school has dormitories for the students and teachers, it has laboratories, a library and an auditorium.

Meals are brought to the classrooms from the kitchen, and students play basketball or table tennis for physical education (Beijing Review).

The school is located in Daxing district of South Beijing in a former switch factory which has been modified to accommodate the facilities aforementioned. The school is supported by many donors and receives some assistance from the government in recent years. The website of the school also gives account numbers for donors to support and transfer money directly to the school’s bank accounts, allowing for an extension of sponsorship beyond China. The school has a strong on-line presence, with a Facebook account and crowdfunding websites supported and managed by Duke University. Duke University is very active in the support of the Dandelion school, providing English language volunteers in the summer and the Duke students have even developed some game applications for the migrant students to learn and improve their English. The participation and volunteering of different organisations and institutions has been of great benefit to the school since its establishment, and they require this support to sustain 25

Chapter 2 Migrant Education in Beijing

Fig. 2.4 Images above of beautification and art projects with artist Lily Yeh, Source: photo by Lily Yeh www. barefootartist.org

the operation of the school. Amongst donations contributed by outside contributors, include a beautification project of the school by a famous artist Lily Yeh along with the students and teachers. Students collected old pieces of tile found around the city to create mosaics at the entry and in the play areas of the school yard. A welcome sign was also painted along the main building to add vibrancy to the old and worn facade. In Yeh’s volunteer program ‘barefoot’ artists she has organised other art projects with the students where she hopes to revitalise impoverished communities like this one. Besides art projects, the school has also implemented a nutrition program for students to ensure they have a balanced diet. Proper nutrition is critical in improving student performance, and it is common that migrant children are malnourished in other migrant schools. The school is currently hoping to raise funds to build a new school and has gained a large following on social networks to support this effort.

The Dandelion School is a successful model of the way in which education can reach this ostracised, low-income demographic. Great efforts are made by the staff and the principal to manage this non-profit school, and it may be the influence of Zheng Hong that the school can continue its operation. Being a former Harvard graduate, Hong has connections to international support and donors, where much of Dandelions’ support comes from. In a discussion between Dartmouth University and the Dandelion School a question was raised about the potential to replicate the Dandelion School model to other migrant educational facilities. The school did not feel it was possible to successfully replicate this model without a change in the financial outlook of the establishment. This is because of the school’s reliance on donations to sustain operation, and even with government subsidies, there would not be enough to improve the cost structure. The school also felt that it was not realistic to attain domestic support due to the lowincome background of the students attending the school.

26

Chapter 2 Migrant Education in Beijing

Fig. 2.5 Images above of volunteers from Dartmouth University with migrant children, Source: sites.dartmouth. edu

In considering the use of this model within this design proposal, it is important to think of different measures for financial support, and potential strategies to include the assistance of the domestic population in the support of these migrant schools. Most importantly in the involvement of arranging and constructing the unit is the migrant community, to further their own contributions to their children’s education. Following these principles of community and student participation a sense of belonging and identity can develop, as well as, a greater sense of self-reliance. What is also interesting about the Dandelion School’s operation, is that it is still somewhat acceptable by the government to have private funding to this type of school, once their curriculum is monitored. As a result, this may be one economic solution to the development of this design proposal, however the method of construction must remain affordable, yet comfortable and suitable to support learning.

27

Chapter 3 Case Study Analysis

Chapter 3 Case Studies

3.1. Architectural Design Question

Architectural + Education Issues: BUT

PERFORMANCE + IDENTITY

AND

Needs Improvements

Government Issues:

Civil Society Issues:

Need MORE Migrant Schools

SOLUTION:

Mobile Education Units

MOBILITY

Needs Consideration

Fig. 3.6 Diagram above of primary design considerations for the design proposal

The diagram above shows the three fundamental issues that will be addressed in this proposal, and how a mobile education unit could be a suitable solution. The findings of the primary and secondary research aforementioned, point to the central and recurring challenges of performance and identity in existing private migrant schools. Through the definition of this problem, the architectural design question formed, aims to focus on how architecture can positively contribute to learning and identity, creating a sense of belonging and improving the social and academic performance of migrant children in Beijing. The case studies in the following sections address the aims of this question, the theoretical thinking regarding architecture and learning, and describe the main principles that will be explored in the design proposal.

The civil society’s needs for more private migrant schools, based on the limited space in public schools and the constant closure and demolition of private migrant schools, require a solution that appease both civil society and government needs. To avoid demolition, schools need to be able to relocate on demand if the government requires land space for continued urbanisation and development. The school also needs to be flexible and adaptable to various site conditions if it is to be relocated, while housing facilities that can contribute to surrounding communities. Flexibility, adaptability and ease of mobility are critical factors in resolving some 28

Chapter 3 Case Study Analysis

of the political issues the state may have with these institutions, while allowing the community of students and teachers to stay together during relocation.

Beyond the fundamental factors of safety, logistics and MEP considerations, the spaces created in the learning facility must support the improvement of the migrant children’s academic performance and sense of belonging and community. The provision of spaces that promote active and dynamic learning, as well as create a sense of ‘home’ and community is the primary architectural focus in the design project. In the field of architecture, very little has been done to change the way the typical classroom is thought of, and the ways in which space affects individual learning. This is especially the case for people who have very limited access to education, and these groups are often the ones who need education the most to improve their circumstance. This design project aims to propose and architectural solution that can improve learning and create a sense of belonging to migrant children in Beijing. In order to create spaces that can improve student performance, the case studies and theories described in this section, cover the principles and topics related to space and learning, the classroom as the third teacher and learning landscapes. The following section then addresses the issues of identity and community relationship to schools, and how to make this system mobile.

The first theoretical case explored was the idea of ‘space and learning’ as discussed by Herman Hertzberger. The topics described include the classroom as a home base, the corridor as a learning street, the thresholds from the classroom to the corridor and how spaces and elements can affect views and attention to learning. Understanding the spatial relationship of the individual classrooms to the whole school and all functions in between, help to form the arrangement and progression of spaces. Students can explore and self- learn through the ‘learning streets’ while still having a familiar place they can settle and have as a base. These ideas, especially of the home correspond to the findings in the primary research, where students have a place of comfort, yet different articulations of space that assist individual learning.

The ideas explored in the classroom as ‘the third teacher’ also have strong principles on individual learning, where students engage the bodies and minds to explore and build on their own knowledge and experiences. Displaying work and emulating museums is also another strong theme for promoting individual learning which corresponds to the ‘learning street’. The transformation of typical ideologies, such as classroom static seating to allowing ergonomic and dynamic movement in class, are amongst the ideas discussed that are found to improve health and concentration in classes. Growing minds and bodies need spaces that allow them to explore their surroundings and gain self-confidence and lower disruptive behaviour. Learning landscapes promotes this ideology, where play becomes critical for social development and allows for a different type of engagement with learning outside of the classroom.

29

Chapter 3 Case Study Analysis

There are two primary aims of this design proposal: creating spaces that can improve learning and that suit the needs and identity of migrant children, as well as, provide a solution that can appease societal and governmental issues through mobility. To achieve the architectural and spatial solutions related to performance and identity, most of the principles described within the theories and case studies will be analysed and adapted to the local situation, and incorporated in the design proposal. This means the creation of spaces that address the problems of belonging and identity through the involvement of community through the public facilities, as well as through participatory methods of engagement to the arrangement of the school and classes.

Also through addressing the individual problems surrounding performance, the classrooms will have dynamic spaces that are flexible and allow students and teachers to tailor learning to specific needs.

3

2

1

6

5

4

Fig. 3.7 Sketch and Diagram above of design strategy for the programmatic layout in plan view corresponding to the theoretical thinking

To achieve a program that incorporates the ideas mentioned in the theoretical thinking, and yet is still flexible, a design strategy for the arrangement of spaces was formed. Given that primary school students from years one to three are close in age and development, but still need exposure from older students, clusters will be created that allow for vertical and lateral interaction. The younger year groups would have a layout more like the ones created in Montessori schools, while the older year groups would have more collaborative and ‘breakout’ spaces. Courtyards or vertical playground spaces would connect students beside and across spaces for interaction in the threshold spaces. And where a learning promenade is a available, nooks and seating spaces would be provided to allow students to collect and interact around student work. The classrooms would provide spaces for dynamic instruction, soft spaces for individual rest and recreation, as well as spaces for experimentation through technology or art 30

Chapter 3 Case Study Analysis

6 3

5

6

3

2

5

1 2

6

1

2 4

4

3

4

1

Fig. 3.8 Diagram above of design strategy applied to hypothetical sites: small (left), linear (center), uneven (right)

and crafts. Spaces between and outside the classrooms would display student work and other educational subjects along the corridors would engage students from different age groups.

Given that the site could change regularly, guidelines for configuration is another critical component that requires establishment, to ensure the maintenance of theoretical principles during the changing and relocation of the school. The diagram above shows a matrix of different layouts based on width, length and height restrictions of different potential spaces.

As long as the combination of numbers remain in a particular order or configuration, students should be able to experience the critical elements outlined in the theoretical theories that enhance learning. Flexibility in design configurations not only allow for adaptation to varied site conditions, but allow students, teaching staff and the community to engage in the process of making their school. This strengthens identity and belonging and promotes a connection amongst all members of the community. To maintain community connections, public facilities 31

Chapter 3 Case Study Analysis

and the agricultural and botanical areas would support community and educational needs. This would increase involvement consistently from people not directly involved with the school, and even provide economic opportunities for its sustenance and development.

3.2.

Space and Learning The first component to creating spaces that enhance the learning experience is the

creation of relationships between the unit and the whole. Classrooms should have a connection to the school and the school to its community, just as different elements come together to create a city. Herman Hertberger makes many connections between the school and the city, and how different the components like homes and streets contribute to the functioning of the entire system. This section will describe these components central to space and learning, and then discuss a case study of the Montessori.

T he C lassroom

as

H ome B ase

The classroom is made synonymous with a ‘nest’, where students can go out and come back to a familiar place. Hertzberger renounces the nomadic movement of subject classrooms, and promotes the home base as particularly important in primary schools, as students at that age require a more permanent place to rest and concentrate. This base should have nooks, ancillary spaces and bays, or spaces that open up altogether creating, different areas that allow for group work or spaces that permit disruption. This home base however, does not prevent the movement between other learning spaces, and even interaction with other classrooms. Spaces should be able to open up onto other classrooms, and if not possible, allow for visibility. This creation of curiosity and adventure is important as long as there is a familiar space to return.

F rom C orridor

to

L earning S treet

and

T he T hreshold S pace

The use of corridors in the schools in the Netherlands, came out of a lack of space within classrooms. In modern times classrooms are able to spill out into these spaces and offer small nooks and spaces for group or individual learning. Corridors allow for the opportunity for interaction between different groups of students not only from the same class, but from other year groups to engage with the work taking place. This is different from the separation often created by putting students in higher grades on higher levels in buildings. Movement into the corridors led to the opening up of classrooms so there could be a greater visual connection between both spaces. Punctuations in the hallways also slow students down naturally and create a pause for students to relax and reflect. This space allows for a ‘dialogue’ between different

32

Chapter 3 Case Study Analysis

Fig. 3.9 Diagram above of learning landscapes according to Herman Hertzberger, “Space and Learning”, pg.59

zones and increases the surface area of the classroom to a learning street that allows for crosspollination around a larger cross-section of people.

S patial C onditions

for

A ttention

and

V iews + E lements

that

S upport L earning

Through the articulation of space in different ways, the dynamics and usage of a space may change. In order to keep a visual connection in surrounding spaces, as well as create enough separation to prevent distraction, the articulation of a space’s dimension and enclosure is paramount to its particular use. This allows for many activities to occur in a maximum amount of space with minimal enclosures. Spaces are created based on the purpose it provides and their use determined by their height, whether they are sunken or raised, whether connections between floors are created through the use of voids and openings, through the use of sitting- stairs and elements that create collection of people, by the admission of daylight and acoustics, as well as the use of materials on different surfaces for different functions. These spatial conditions affect the feelings created in spaces whether they are more public or private, or for small or large groups, the determine whether they promote interaction. These all contribute to diverse and rich learning spaces that support different types of people as well as different types of interaction needed to impart knowledge.

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3.2.1. The Montessori School The concept of the Montessori School is based on the idea of creating a learning space that feel like home, with spaces like the kitchen, ancillary spaces and resting spaces- often found in a home- a sense of familiarity is created. Children along with the teacher decide the way their ‘nest’ is arranged, and are given responsibilities of cleaning their areas and taking care of a plant. Students are also in charge of the way they learn, a sense of independence and individuality are promoted through personal activity selection and minimal instruction. In this way different lessons can be taught to different children in their own time and in their own way. Over the decades of the Montessori school’s evolution, it became apparent that in order to promote individual learning without the disruption of different learning group sessions, classrooms had to become more articulated.

Fig. 3.10 Drawings of an articulated classroom versus a typical layout, Source: “Space and Learning”, pg.31-2

The basic classroom could only facilitate instructional learning and not individual learning, as students in smaller groups carrying out their own learning would get distracted by other students. As a result, spaces were screened and partitioned creating nooks and niches for individuals or groups to thrive within, and transitioned from more public to more private spaces like in a ‘snail’s shell’. Creating a steady transition from different areas with different levels of activity and movement directly affects concentration. Therefore tasks that require more intellectual thinking and concentration should be tucked away from tasks that require more creativity and movement. These transitions also need to be considered from the movement from outside the classroom to within, and have lessons that respond to the level of activity in the spaces in closest proximity.

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Through the transition of spaces, a sense of community with a communal learning streets and pockets of work spaces along the corridors creates learning spaces so students can continue to learn beyond the classroom. These pockets allow for individual working that is not disconnected from the classroom space while creating interaction between other classrooms and other students. This line between the classroom and the corridor then becomes blurred creating a sort of learning landscape between all learning zones, allowing for an exchange between all classrooms in a communal space. These landscapes allow for a more natural and democratic allocation of space, and constantly changes according to the needs of the individuals using it. However, these spaces still need articulation and definition through the use of partitions, sunken spaces, types of furniture and so on. Spaces can then open up and close off to certain areas depending on the requirements of the space at a given time.

Fig. 3.11 Drawings above showing the transition of classrooms into learning landscapes “Space and Learning”, pg.25, 31, 146

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3.3. Learning Landscapes Hertzberger discusses the concpet of learning landscapes in relation to the spaces between adjoining classrooms as well as within the corridors. With an open plan as in seen in Fig. 3.9 partitions can delineate spaces and furniture selection can articulate the types of activities that can take place between these classrooms. As a result the school becomes connected not just through segregated rooms but as a collection of spaces to spread various ideas (Hertzbeger, 2008).

Fig. 3.12 Photographs of an unused space in the Netherlands transformed in into a playground for children.

Source: http://merijnoudenampsen.org

Fig. 3.13 Drawings of playground components used throughout the 700 playgrounds designed, Source: http:// merijnoudenampsen.org

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Learning extends beyond the classroom, and this should be facilitated not only through the spaces in between classrooms but to playscapes and areas outdoors. Aldo van Eyck’s concept of ‘City as Playground’ was selected primarily to understand how unused spaces can be transformed to enhance the city as well as provide spaces for children to play and become engaged in their urban environment. These playgrounds developed after the Second World War when much of the destruction and functionalist ideologies of the time led to the neglect of spaces for children to play (Novak, 2002).

Fig. 3.14 Photographs of playgrounds being used by children. Source: http://merijnoudenampsen.org

Playgrounds were designed in a minimal way to have the children imagine and shape their own reality. Components were developed to plug in on different sites, and allowed for more than one use of the equipment. The modular equipment includes sandpits, hemispheric jungle gyms, tumbling bars, stepping stones and chutes. The hemispheric jungle gyms were not only for hanging and swinging, but could be used as a look out point or if covered with a blanket, could function as a hut. Giving the children enough room to add to the spaces already designed for them. The playgrounds were also designed to mesh in the urban fabric and went against the modernist thinking at the time with design occurring in an autonomous language, these playgrounds however had to be integrated in the existing landscape. They also functioned as an ephemeral element between nature and built form.

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3.3.1. Schools in Nagele Aldo van Eyck also developed three schools Nagele, Netherlands, with H.P.D van Ginkel, a public school, a Catholic school and a Christian School in one vicinity. Schools in this area typically develop as only four classrooms, and in the view of the small Catholic community, they often did four classrooms, one for toddlers, and three classrooms for grades one to six (Korenberg, 2013). Given this brief, Van Eyck applied his philosophy of ‘in-between’ spaces where the polarities of small and large, open and closed, subject and object and part and whole were not conflicting, but symbiotic elements that met in the middle. This ‘breathing’ space allowed for an ambivalent space similar to the spaces left in the playgrounds, where interaction between different groups could come together. Van Eyck also conceived this school as a village where this idea of parts to whole were also explored. This ‘village’ was created with the idea of a central spaces surrounded by a housing belt, which made

Fig. 3.15 Photographs showing the way in which the openings in the facade function as both doors, windows and seating areas for children, connecting the outdoors to the classroom spaces. (Korenberg, 2014: 17-18)

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Fig. 3.16 Drawings of the original classroom design landscape, showing the learning promenade shared between classrooms. Source: Korenberg (2014): 15

up the housing units, consisting of “dwellings around a centrifugal square” (Strauven, 2007).

These squares occurred internally and externally through a ‘configurative’ approach, were the building is conceived as a ‘little city’. Through the understanding of this pattern at different scales from house to city, the multiplying of this pattern could shape the identity of a cluster through the repetition of this pattern. This repetition however should not disrupt the identity of each unit, but through its juxtaposition, intensify it. This interweaving and superposition of spaces would create an ‘aesthetic of number’ creating spaces that could be utilised between units.

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3.4. The Third Teacher The concept of the ‘third teacher’ is that the classroom represents another element that affects a child’s ability to learn. In the book: “ The Third Teacher: 79 ways you can use design to transform teaching and learning” several theorists discuss and summarize different principles and elements that should be combined to facilitate better learning in different ways and spaces. This section will describe the points mentioned in this text that will inform some of the principles that will be incorporated in the design proposal. The two projects that best represent this theoretical thinking will then be highlighted and analysed as case studies.

Fig. 3.17 Photographs of Norman Foster’s Thomas Deacon academy fulfilling the ‘basic’ requirements of adequate daylighting and acoustics (left) and Ogden Junior Public School ‘shuffling the deck’ by having classes in different locations (Third Teacher, 2014)

The primary issues addressed in the text can be summarised into four categories: the basics, bodies in motion, minds at work and community connections, ranging in scale from furniture to the society. The first principle relates to the ‘basic’ requirements of a classroom, where the conditions of safety, comfort, acoustics and daylighting must be in order to allow for the proper functioning of students. These basics relate not only to fundamental needs, but directly to the ‘realm of the senses’ where all basic senses must be engaged to stimulate learning. Students should be allowed to learn in different environments and have hands-on learning experiences beyond the classroom. By ‘shuffling the deck’ learning is extended outside their boundaries and creates a connection to the knowledge in their surroundings. The relationship to the senses then leads to the second principle of ‘bodies in motion’, where play and movement are critical types of stimulation that improve learning. It is found in studies that climbing improves self-confidence, 40

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physical activity decreases disruptive behaviour, and dynamic seating and movement in the classroom improves posture and concentration. Movement improves motor skills and general health, which all become critical to improve overall learning, leading to the third principle of ‘minds at work’. In order to ‘build neural networks’ and spark cognitive development students of all ages need new places to test different skills. Being in different environments and creating innovative ways of uniting disciplines will improve the development of active and curious minds. The allowing of individual learning through the display of information, and provision of private work zones are also important to spark connections between different people outside of the classroom. This community connection is the final principle that should be implemented to not only create relationships outside of school but extend resources, functions and awareness between the school and the society. There is a symbiotic relationship that can be formed between the school and its community. If a school develops near libraries or recreational facilities, both entities can benefit from sharing resources. Schools can also open their doors so the public can use some facilities and see the work of the children, this removal of barriers between the school and the outside world is beneficial to not only the students but their community.

The Clifton Hunter High School and the Fridjtof- Nansen Primary School, discussed in the following section, represent the ways active learning occur respectively, in a psychological and physical way in the classroom. They come under two critical topics described in the text: ‘minds at work’ and ‘bodies in motion’ which collectively represent the main ideas that transform learning spaces. These activities stimulate each other as children at this stage rely on movement and activity to steer their minds and activate concentration. Not only is movement in the classroom important, but being able to move between classrooms is important for the sharing of ideas and discovery of new things. In the study carried out by the consultants Fielding Nair International on the Clifton Hunter High School, the ability to transition between and integrate with other classrooms increased the interdisciplinary and self-directed learning.

It is the flexibility of space that occurs within and between classrooms, that is a critical component to the topics of bodies in motion and minds at work, not only to these case studies, but for the proposed design solution. The flexibility of furniture, the walls of the classrooms and the collaboration created between and within these spaces are most important to improving learning. This increases interaction, independence, individual learning and interdisciplinary models of teaching, which create not only self-directed but communal learning.

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3.4.1. Clifton Hunter High School- Cayman Islands To promote twenty-first century teaching and learning, the Ministry of Education in the Cayman Islands made a pledge to develop and transform their national education system. To improve their students’ chances in the international market, the schools would adopt project-

Traditional layout for learning

Integration of similar subjects into co-spaces and multiple zones to break-out into.

Collaboration in pairs allowing for more flexibility in the layout

Learning spaces shared by all students and teachers promoting self- directed learning

Greater sense of ‘community’ and distributed learning

Diagrams above showing the evolution of learning spaces through the integration and creation of multiple zones to make learning more projectbased, interdisciplinary, ‘community’- oriented, networked and selfdirected. The interdisciplinary learning studios developed by the FNI were incorporated into the design of the Clifton Hunter High School, Cayman Islands.

Fig. 3.18 Diagrams of concepts (above) used to develop the design of the Clifton Hunter High School, Cayman Islands (right). Source: Fielding Nair International, LLC

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based learning, an approach that allows for the development of interdisciplinary skills for the challenges of their current knowledge-based and technologicalenvironment. The project developed by the architect Trung Le from the firm OWP/P, and consultants for educational planning and architectural design from Fielding Nair International (FNI), aimed at creating diverse learning spaces that allow students to learn from their individual strengths. Amongst the primary principles adopted in this design include the uniting of disciplines, where subjects like art and science are combined to promote ‘creative genius’ and encourage cross-disciplinary work. Also, the ‘emulation of museums’ is another principle incorporated in the design, where

students can students actively engage with their environment promoting self-directed learning, by selecting the objects they want to interact with. These ideas were implemented through the creation of small learning communities called ‘academies’ with up to 250 students for intimate class settings. These spaces were also designed with an emphasis on Caymanian culture for the reinforcement of knowledge of local history and the promotion of a strong sense of identity.

Based on this idea of identity, every academy was designed with a community- themed garden, and different types of studios that promote: reflection, discovery and collaboration. These studios were inspired by various influential and ‘creative geniuses’ like Einstein who believed in quiet and reflective spaces to create opportunities to think ideas through, or Leonardo DaVinci who combined art and science for discovery and ‘design-thinking’. The school also has a Design and Technology Building, along with seminar and learning studios, where students are encouraged to experiment, explore and network with each other through media and collaborative workspaces. (The Third Teacher, 2014: 72)

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3.4.2. Fridjtof-Nansen School, Germany

Fig. 3.19 Photographs showing the arrangement of classrooms at Fridjtof- Nansen School using dynamic seating and more individual and group learning arrangements. Source: Third Teacher (2014)

In an attempt to create more ‘health-promoting schools’ the World Health Organisation’s Global Initiative was designed to improve the health of children, their parents, the school staff and members of the community through schools. In order to create and sustain the health promotion in schools the organisation had placed emphasis on the development of the school environment physically and socially, and developed ten principles to classify the schools (The Third Teacher, 2014: 98). The Fridtjof Nansen School was amongst the pilot schools tested under this initiative and had already adopted five of the ten principles adopted developed for the program.

These principles included: 1) self-learning centers and the use of ‘theme’ rooms where students can observe, experience and understand real phenomena, promoting a new culture of expression in learning. 2) The school also has a strong connection to the community and supports physical and cultural activities within the community. Activities like rock-climbing, judo and team sports support the promotion of strong bodies and promote self-esteem building and the reduction in disruptive behaviour. 3) The school is also well- organised with an innovative time and project management system in place, 4) and even with a limited amount of space the school has adequate playground and sport facilities. 5) The health initiative promotes a dynamic program for class activities, a balanced diet and opportunities to be regularly active, with an ergonomic classroom environment (The Third Teacher, 2014:99).

The Fridtjof Nansen School in Hannover, Germany is an example of ‘movementergonomic’ work design space created to increase student knowledge retention, through the use of furniture that allows flexibility and mobility in the classrooms. Bodies in motion and movement- orientated teaching has proved to be a more effective way of imparting knowledge 44

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Fig. 3.20 Photographs of small play spaces utilised due to inefficient outdoor play spaces for children at the school. Source: Third Teacher (2014)

onto primary school students. A four-year pilot study was conducted at the school to assess the relationship between student’s ability to move in class and their health to their performance and well-being. During this period the government along with VS furniture supplied two classrooms with new furniture with varied degrees of movement, and along with a control group which had conventional furniture, the students were observed. Tests were carried out measuring the students agility, strength, coordination and ability to concentrate. Over the period of the four years, students in the control group had increased deterioration in the physiological curvature of their spines and students with dynamic seating had maintained the health of their spines. The findings also indicate that students with dynamic seating were able to concentrate for longer periods of time, with increased levels of concentration by the fifth hour compared to students in static seating, with a continued and consistent decrease in concentration over the period (BAG, 2005).

Fig. 3.21 Diagrams above showing the physical behaviour of both test groups over the four-year period and the findings showing the health of their spine and posture as well as their level of concentration over sustained periods of time (BAG, 2005).

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3.5. Participatory Design 3.5.1. Evangelische Gesamtschule Gelsengirken (EGG) Throughout the period of 1997 to 2004 the design and construction of a protestant school in Gelsenkirchen- Bismark, was undertaken by architect Peter Hubner along with the co-designers and end users, the children. The school was envisioned by the protestant group as a place where students of unique cultures could come together and act as a catalyst for environmental awareness. The understanding of this vision, was what allowed Peter Hubner to win this competition, as he told a story of a poor Turkish emigrant who attended EGG, and in 2023 became a renowned ecologist winning an environmental prize. The transformation of this students life was based on the premise that through his involvement in the process of developing the EGG school, his knowledge of the world and ecology flourished. The area was a former industrial suburb that developed around a coal mine and was commonly labelled as ‘stigmatised’. Through the application of participatory design, the school aspired to create a sense of identification with the school environment, and through the involvement of parents, students and teachers, the community. As a ‘house of learning’ strong links to the community were proposed through the connection of a local park and shared facilities (refectory, main hall, classrooms and workshops) for members within the district. ‘rather than god-like creator, the architect becomes a kind of midwife at the building’s birth, guiding the forces that demand its existence and giving them physical shape. It is almost as though the building is already implied by the place and people, and the architect must simply find it’ (Blundell Jones 2007:p. 99).

Over the period of two days, the students were involved with the planning, modelling and construction of the school, along with the architectural staff of Hubner’s studio and teachers.

The first task was to build a 1:10 clay model of themselves, which would inform the furniture arrangement and get a sense of scale, they then arranged their current desks and chairs in the playground to get a feel for space. The children were then asked to think about their houses, and the different kinds of rooms and spaces that were similar to and useful within a school. These ‘classroom-houses’ were then thought of in relation to their various elements: roofs, materials, lighting, orientation amongst other things, and then the students built 1:10 softwood models to explore the structure and how the different parts would fit together.

Collaborating with a structural engineer, the architect then used the various ideas generated by the students and the other architects working in other groups to cooridinate a design that shared all the principles developed. A 1:10 computer three- dimensional model 46

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Fig. 3.22 Photographs of Peter Hubner and his team developing design ideas with the students and the results of their softwood models. Source: Hubner (2005)

was then presented to the students the following day and their opinions on the adjustments made through more model building exercises. For the final design proposal the architects, teachers, students and parents were then asked to discuss their ideas about the solution, and when contractors completed the basic structure, they all assisted in the finishing of the project.

Students were also engaged in the landscaping process, and in turn were able to learn about habitats, rainwater catchment and growing food, in keeping with the environmental motivations for the school. In 2004, the school was completed and stands as not only a learning space, but an eco-build showcase for the community.

Fig. 3.23 Drawings and models of design proposal made by both the students through the model and the development of a three-dimensional model by the architects and engineers. Source: Hubner (2005)

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Fig. 3.24 Drawing of the Floor Plan of the Protestant School showing the clusters of classrooms about the central learning promenade, opening up to gathering spaces on either end. Hubner (2005)

The design and development of the Protestant School was done based on principles developed by the institution to create spaces that encouraged “home learning” and have functions that promote environmental awareness and learning on the outside. As a result there is a great connection between these spaces and classrooms, creating a “village street as a street of learning” open onto a central learning promenade for interaction between surrounding classrooms in the environment. The library, canteen, assembly hall, administration and functional room, are arranged around this learning street and is also very open to the community. Both sides of the building are accessible independently of school operations and has a direct connection to the district Bismark through a building on the south side of the building. There are many ecological features incorporated into the building, including green roofs, rain water collection and the wooden materials used on the facade of the building.

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Fig.  3.25  Photographs of external spaces between classroom clusters and the gathering spaces on either end of the school. Hubner (2005)

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3.5.2. West School Complex The West School Complex conceptualised by Duncan Lewis and completed by Klein Baumann Architects is a project that developed from the topography and land management of the site. It represents a “strip of geometry that echo the linear fields” (Prue Chiles) and aims to merge the building in its context. Located in Obernai, France along the fringe of urban and rural Alsacian landscape, the main concept behind the development of the school, is to address the idea of a ‘school on the edge’. The aim of the project was the construction of an elementary school, a kindergarten, common areas and extracurricular development of the surroundings.

Completed in 2005 the project size was 2944 square meters with a budget of 4.3 million

Fig. 3.26 Photographs showing the wider context of Obernai, France and the juxtaposition of the urban and rural landscapes. Source: duncan-lewis.com

euros. The project was the continuation of the geometry of viticulture to the north as it met the municipal buildings along the southern edge.

During the conception of the design it is said that Duncan Lewis asked the students that would use this building, how they felt about being on the edge of the different landscapes. It was this concept that led to the selection of this project, not only for its participatory nature, 50

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but also as a result of how the architect tried to address the issues of the site and its broader context. The migrant children and the private migrant schools they attend, almost function as people and places ‘on the edge’. Not accepted in their urban landscape and having often to function along the fringes of the city, migrant children feel on the outside of a city they have come to know as home. Although these migrant children feel Beijing is their home, it is not certain that they will stay in the city. They may have to return to their ‘hometown’ in a rural context where they are also considered outsiders. Addressing these issues of staying in the city or returning to rural areas is important to the adaptability of these children in two contexts that they both belong. Their education should be suited to their reality, and addressing this ‘edge’ is critical for the potential integration into cities or rural towns. The site arrangement and ideas of continuity between the urban and rural landscape influenced the strategy that would be utilised in the development of site for the design proposal.

To facilitate different types of education extending beyond academics to agriculture and environmental challenges that migrant children may encounter if they had to return to their hometown.

The complex is arranged along the north-south axis of the site and houses three separate functions joined by a circulatory path on the south. Of the three buildings is a nursery on the west, an elementary school in the center and

Fig. 3.27 Concept Images of the ‘school within the trees’ showing the merging of the school in the landscape.

Source: hughsklein.com

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Fig. 3.28 Photograph of East elevation showing the relationship the building has with the ground plane. Source: duncan-lewis.com

public facilities for town groups with administrative and assembly rooms to the east. Each strip of building has a different relationship to the topography of the site. The eastern section starts at ground level and progresses up toward the municipal park where the ground dips in the north on irregular pilotis. The central section is entirely elevated with the same pilotis for a continuity in language, while the western section is on the ground level and follows the slope of the site along its progression. This relationship to the ground is a direct response to the functions within each portion of the building, with the youngest children connected to the ground while the public facilities extend to public spaces like the park. The interweaving creates an interesting play with the idea of nature and the connection to the site, while allowing for entrance of light into the building.

Fig. 3.29 Drawings of schematic model and floor plans of building. Source: duncan-lewis.com

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Fig. 3.30 Photographs of children going to classrooms. Source: duncan-lewis.com

The facade was also a another important feature in daylighting and climatic control in the building, furthering the idea of the importance of the landscape. The hydroponic panels are supported by metal beams which protrude off the elevation of the building creating relief, mimicking the nature it has disturbed but also adapted. The vegetation selected changes with the seasons and the colours are reflected into the building creating not only an emotional play of light in the space, but draws awareness to the systems and their educational purpose.

The interaction of the building to the site and the surrounding landscape is important to the way it functions and the way in which users also respond to their surroundings. The concept of the ‘school on the edge’ is seen in the interplay of landscape and built mass, and although it is done literally in some features in the building it is supported functionally with the connection to the ground and the surrounding facilities.

Fig. 3.31 Drawings of Elevation. Source: duncan-lewis.com

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3.6. Mobile Architecture The structure and materials used in the proposed educational unit were selected based on their afford-ability, adaptability and universality. Made from structurally insulated panels for the walls and floors, an aluminium structure with attached track systems and connecting members for joints, the modular system can be assembled into many configurations to allow for adaptability on any site or to user preferences. The structure should be rigid and beam and column components universal to allow for multiple configurations and make provisions for expansion and additions. The structure should also be able to house the electrical, and water supply pipes for the unit. The skin, comprised of the panel system which make up the floors and walls must also have a universal dimension. Wall panels should have a high insulation value, but must be affordable and made from recycled materials. The floor panels should be modified to house a underfloor heating system connected to pipe system in the floors’ structural system.

Structurally insulated panels were selected due to their high insulation properties, their ease and variety of construction as well as their self-structural properties particularly for the use in the flooring system. The panels are comprised of two layers of Oriented Strand Board (OSB) sandwiching an insulation material often EPS foam, and sometimes with metal sheeting. The finish on the inside will remain in the OSB finish and the outside covered with a thin metal sheeting for ease of cleaning. Each panel has a tongue and groove system that allow members to fit neatly together creating a uniformed structural system. The under-floor heating system would lay within a metal sheet on top of the panels of the floor system and then covered with the floor finish. These panels would be supported along its edges by a track system fixed to all sides of the aluminium hollow section frame. The panels, window and door frames, and lights can slide within the tracks attached to the column and beam framing system, making assembly more simple. The structural aluminium beam and column members also slide into elbow, T-shaped and four-sided hollow joints, to tie all members together. The joint also accommodates a footing member that is adjustable to the terrain to allow for the assembly in any location. The mechanical, electrical and plumbing (MEP) systems would run through pipes in the aluminium hollow section framing members, and be connected to the relevant areas to provide heating, lighting and water supply.

The selection of the structural and MEP systems are adapted from the case studies described in this section. AbleNook and the sustainable self-sufficient Floating Home, are projects of similar scale to the proposed educational units and have several useful features that are important to consider during mobile architecture design. These case studies address the ideas fundamental to the problems and challenges of mobile architecture: structure, assembly and the functioning of the MEP systems.

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Fig. 3.33 Photograph of OSB SIP Panels. Source: http://www.matrixmfgusa.com

Fig. 3.32 Photographs of aluminium extrusion system. Source: ablenook.com

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3.6.1. Ablenook AbleNook is a project that started as a disaster relief shelter by researchers Sean Verdecia and Jason Ross at the University of South Florida and transformed into a product design solution as prefabricated living modules. The project was developed with the thinking that the shelters could become a more semi- permanent solution after a disaster, creating spaces with more dignity for the displaced. However, units are currently being marketed for more product design and sales, expanding the idea of the unit to more than a disaster shelter. This

Fig.  3.34  Images above of showing the way the unit opens and how its packed on trucks. Source: ablenook.com

has led to greater opportunities for several other design applications, including school or civic portable units, flexible office spaces and even military applications. The prefabricated system was designed to be easily deployed, assembled, transported and adaptable to different terrain, with footing adjustable to different heights. The framing members easily snap into one another, and the panels slide into the frames making it easy for anyone to assemble. Components are universal and dimensions uniformed so that walls and floor components as well as posts and floor joists are the same. Creating a simplified solution to packing and assembly, so there are less complicated parts. Its dimension also allows it to be flat-packed and transported on a truck to deploy more than one at any given location. The proportion of a single unit also seems like it has the potential to be transported as is, whether its through the addition of wheels, or its placement on a lorry. The kit of parts created allows for easy additions to the systems beyond the standard package, making this system very versatile. Even if all panels are not universal, the system can become more customised to different individuals and for different purposes.

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Fig. 3.35 Images above of showing panel and framing system. Source: ablenook.com

Fig. 3.36 Image above of showing interior of classroom or office space of two units combined. Source: ablenook. com

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Fig. 3.37 Image above of typical and expanded unit plans. Source: ablenook.com

The modularity of the unit allows for easy expansion and additions to create larger volumes and more articulated spaces. The expansion of the residence in the plans above, show the transition from an open two bedroom plan to a four bedroom unit with more facilities for a more permanent arrangement. The kitchen and the bathroom in the unit receives its water from an attached rainwater collection tank called a ‘water hog’ which is designed to have water stored vertically or horizontally for immediate collection and distribution. The ability to expand this unit and the flexibility of wall removal, allows individuals to personalise their spaces. Once the areas of the unit that require water are located near the mechanical storage spaces, the rest of the plan is open to transition into many options for interior spaces.

Fig. 3.38 Image above of typical and expanded unit plans. Source: ablenook.com

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Fig. 3.39 Image above of exploded view of panel and framing system. Source: ablenook.com

The panel system is an aluminum structural insulated panel system (SIPS) that have a tongue and groove pattern on the outer edges that allows for interlocking between panels.

Some panels are also combined to have the final finish as OSB, and the window panel system is the same dimension as the SIPS so they also fit easily into the track system. These panels then slot into the aluminum framing members of the walls and floors of the unit. These frames then fit into the footing of the structure and the roof framing is extended to accommodate a curved solar roof, which also allows for adequate drainage and rainwater collection. The most unique element created in this system is the connective joints that allow for easy assembly without the use of tools. Grooves along the aluminum framing system slide into each other and fasten at the connecting joints with a spring and lock system. This fastening allows for the connection without the use of tools or nuts and bolts, as pieces run smoothly along each other and snap into place that the corners. The hollow section also for the passing of pipes through the structure to provide MEP systems, that provide electricity and air- conditioning systems to the unit. Electricity is supplied from the solar panels, and wall outlets come built in through pipes and connected through the walls. Other mechanical equipment and the water tanks are located together on the back deck of the unit.

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3.6.2. Sustainable Self-Sufficient Floating Home- Vincent van der Meulen Designed by Vincent van der Meulen and other collaborators Dura Vermeer, DGMR and Giesbers and Van Der Graaf, this floating home is a sustainable model of what homes may become in flood- prone areas. This project won first prize under designs for realisation in a competition established by the municipal government in Amsterdam. The residence is 164 square meters, and responds not only to its immediate environment of waterways and flood plains, but has systems that promote its preservation and cleanliness.

The water also plays a key role in the functioning of the building, it provides the heating through an under floor heating system, and through the use of vertical gardens, the water is cleaned and returned to the water body it sits in. Moreover, this project was selected based on the passive climatic and MEP systems that have been put in place to allow it to be self-

Fig.  3.40  Images above of conservatory and shell facades. Source: arqa.com

sufficient. The unit essentially has two faces, a conservatory that collects heat in the winter and shell that blocks the heat in the summer. The building’s ability to float allows for rotation about a pivot and the flexibility to modify its position based on the time of year. The angle of rotation corresponds to the angle of the sun during the different seasons allowing for the optimum penetration of light and heat during the winter months. This passive method of changing the skin according to the season, was one principle implemented in this design, that will be incorporated in the proposal. By changing the skin on different sides of the building at different times of year, more efficiency and energy savings can be made, especially when there may not be many options for the use of electricity. Through the changing of their environment through the seasons, students and teachers can see how they affect their surroundings, and how they can contribute to it, as well as suit their own needs. Through the rotation of the house during the relevant seasons, there is a reduction in the heat load by 40 percent and the cooling load by 90 percent. This efficiency and energy saving is critical in a self-sufficient unit, as the amount 60

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of energy passively attained, can assist the heating and cooling savings. The layout of the house is also arranged according to the requirements of cooling and heating for certain spaces.

Areas of the house that require heating, like the bedrooms, were placed on the upper level, while spaces that needed to remain cool, like with computer and mechanical equipment, were

Fig. 3.41 Images above of the strategies that address various climatic conditions . Source: arqa.com

placed on lower levels. This allowed for the transfer of heat between floors as the heat rises from the spaces below, adding warmth to spaces with less exposure to the sun. The selection of the materials in the structure also had a great impact on the performance of the insulation of the building. The ‘shell’ is made up of two systems made of natural hardwood, one for the interior and another for the exterior surface, between is a biodegradable polystyrene insulation.

The materials are from local companies that have sustainable philosophies on the treatment and selection of the woods they provide. The company for the exterior wall, Holz 100, specializes in the production of solid wood that use no chemical pollutants and the system has high insulation properties. The interior wall is from the Wonderwall company, and they provide reclaimed hardwood for interior wall finishes. Their philosophy is about the creation of a Dutch paneling solution with the use of skillful artisans and staying away from mass production methods.

These two hardwood surfaces sandwich a biodegradable polystyrene (bio-eps) insulation made

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Fig.  3.42  Exploded view above of components that make up the skin and structure. Source: arqa.com

from plant and vegetable waste, providing slower transmission of heat through the shell during the summer periods. This wall system allows for a lighter structure to facilitate the ability to float while providing adequate insulation. Besides the sustainable and local materials used to construct the facade, the building also utilises the water it sits in to heat the building and treats it through its vertical garden system. The sectional perspectives on the right show the different passive and active sustainable systems incorporated to allow the building to be selfsufficient. The top drawing shows the electrical layout within the house through the connection and distribution of electricity from the solar PV panels to the network of LED lighting, power supply and battery storage throughout the spaces. The second drawing shows the underfloor heating distributor and the heat recovery unit that bring the water through the building. The bottom drawing shows the passive and mechanical ventilation systems incorporated in the building, with windows with self- regulated gratings and controlled carbon dioxide exhaust systems in every room. The passive and mechanical systems incorporates for heat, electricity and ventilation become critical to the functioning of this self-sustaining unit.

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Diagrams above showing the MEP systems in the unit.. Source: Seonwook (2012)

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3.7. Synthesis of Design Principles C lassroom

as a home base

1) Spaces created for students ought to feel familiar.

2) Students need a base for comfort and security in themselves and their environment.

3) A point of rest, instruction, discovery and creativity 4) Classrooms should be articulated to allow for varied activities that promote different type of learning and interaction 5) Spaces in the classroom should be similar to the ones found in a home: soft spaces, ancillary spaces, and solitary spaces.

L earning S treets

and

L andscapes

6) Learning should extend to spaces outside the classroom for the continuation of individual learning, students can study in nooks and view other work students work on display.

7) Learning outdoors should also be promoted to improve environmental awareness and gain an understanding for agricultural and biological systems.

8) Student responsibilities can extend to the taking care of plants, cleaning their work and bathroom spaces. Actively engaging in these tasks can teach students how MEP systems work.

B odies

in

M otion

9) Play areas are critical for the stimulation of not only the body but the mind in developing children.

10) Climbing improves self-confidence and physical activity helps to decrease disruptive behaviour in the classrooms.

11) Dynamic seating in classrooms that promote movement improves concentration over time and improves posture for developing bodies.

M inds

at

W ork

12) Students should be stimulated at all times and should be allowed to explore and discover their own capabilities.

13) Spaces should be designed to accommodate different learning and learning speeds.

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A daptability 14) To facilitate mobility the structure must be adaptable to different site conditions, uneven, linear and vertical configurations require consideration.

15) A mobile system that can transport many units is critical for space conservation during transition to different site. System should be able to be flat-packed so many can be transported on a truck or in a container.

16) Building faรงades should also be adaptable to accommodate the intense changes in the Beijing climate, elements should be able to switch to suit needs.

17) Insulation of walls that provide energy conservation in both the winter and summer are important for a self-reliant unit.

18) The MEP systems need to be directly connected to each unit and decentralised to avoid waste of water and energy, also allowing for adaptability if rearranged on different sites.

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Chapter 4 Design Proposal

4.1. Site Analysis To select a site for development, certain criteria were established to objectively determine the most suitable location for the proposal. These criteria included: 1) Proximity to migrant settlements 2) Proximity to a means of transportation or easy access to city 3) Access to surrounding public facilities: parks, other educational facilities etc.

4) Safe, Quiet and Secure: clear of construction sites, major roadways etc.

5) Access to a water source: river, water mains etc.

6) Proper drainage 7) Access to or generation of power Areas with the largest migrant settlements in Beijing were first determined to narrow the options for suitable sites. Haidian and Chaoyang have the largest migrant settlements with populations of 300,000 and 400,000 respectively. Chaoyang has a large concentration of urban villages to the East and is convenient for migrants who live near to their workplace.

Haidian, however is the best midpoint between the other migrant settlements to the North in the Changping district and the city center where most migrants work. Haidian is also well known for its concentration of educational facilities in Beijing, and is considered the university district.

The Haidian district was then selected for the location of the proposal given its fulfillment of two criteria, proximity to migrant settlements and educational facilities. One of the largest migrant settlements in Haidian, is Bajia Village with over 45,000 migrant residents (Zheng, 2008), this village is bordered by QingHe river to the North, and Tsinghua University to the South West. A site was then scouted around this area of Bajia Village that was close enough to a water source, in a safe and quiet area, yet still connected to the main transportation routes. Just South of Bajia Village is the extension of DongSheng Park an unused public space bordered by the fifth ring road to the North, a river to the East and Shuangqing Road along its West and South boundaries. This site was selected for the development of the design proposal due to its proximity to the village, the river, two main thoroughfares, a park and the universities and schools in the vicinity.

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Fig. 4.43 Map showing concentration of migrant settlements in Beijing. Source: Eurasian Geography and Economics, 428

Based on the fulfillment of all the basic criteria established for site selection, the proposed location could act as a suitable site for the school as well as improve its function as a public park to the community. The site however, has a few barriers to pedestrian circulation, due to the high volumes of vehicular circulation around North, West and South sections of Fig. 4.44 Drawing above of wider site context showing Tsinghua University to the West and Bajia Village to the North.

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Fig.  4.45  Map above of immediate site context, showing the fifth ring road to the North and the river to the East

Based on the fulfillment of all the basic criteria established for site selection, the proposed location could act as a suitable site for the school as well as improve its function as a public park to the community. The site however, has a few barriers to pedestrian circulation, due to the high volumes of vehicular circulation around North, West and South sections of the site.

To the North, is fifth ring road which is elevated five metres above the street, and although this elevation is beneficial to reduce noise and air pollution directly on site, it creates a divide between the village and the site itself. Along the West and South boundaries along Shuangqing Road, there is also a divide not only created by the roadway, but the fence surrounding the site. These boundaries are the primary reasons the site is underutilised in its current function as a public park. To improve this connection of pedestrian movement between the areas North and South of site, it is possible to improve the Eastern boundary that runs parallel to the river.

The development of this area along the river can create a stronger connection between the migrant villages and the urban areas for pedestrians, as Shuangqing Road does for vehicles.

The development of this boundary also improves the safety for the children who may move between the site and the village, as well as to other surrounding areas. Based on the site analysis of various existing programs and activities around the site, if the community functions are improved on the site, the school can then act as an enhancer to the community not only through the provision of a school, but through the improvement of community interaction.

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Fig. 4.46 Diagram showing major and minor vehicular circulation. The heaviest traffic flow occurs along the North of site on the elevated fifth ring road.

Shuangqing Road has moderate to high traffic in the afternoons crossing over the river and towards Bajia village.

Fig. 4.47 Diagram showing hot spots and collection of migrant workers working in different areas around the village. Most activity in the village is from restaurants and repair shops, while South of the site is from the recycling collection point.

Fig. 4.48 Diagram shows different schools nearby the site that the proposed school can offer facilities to.

Fig. 4.49 Diagram showing the way in which the site can allow for integration between the different social groups in Beijing.

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4.1.1. Immediate Site Context 20m buffer zone between Fifth Ring Road and area of development on site

Enclosed area on site with fence

Existing Building on Site

Besides the issues of circulation and access that address the issues at the community scale, the site must address the immediate conditions that will impact the development of the architecture. The features that have the greatest impact on the architecture are the topography, the existing structures and the setbacks from the boundaries. The topography of the site is uneven with gradually sloping areas running from East to West, with drainage patterns following the same path, with potential pooling in some areas. The Eastern portion of the site is slightly elevated, and has a small fenced enclosure near to the South boundary, with an access point to that area from the street. Along the Western portion of the site there are two small structures, on that services the property, and another with a small exercise playground, each structure also has

Fig.  4.50  View looking West towards existing building and North towards the elevated Fifth Ring Road

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Fig. 4.51 Map showing immediate existing site conditions

an access point from the street. These small structures would be removed and re-purposed into the school facilities, play field and landscaped areas. The existing concrete paths on the site, as well as the trees will also be re-purposed and a few relocated to enhance their arrangement on the site. These particular features were arranged in an attempt to address some ‘aesthetic’ issues on the site, as the paths are somewhat haphazard and the trees are arranged to block the view to the fenced enclosure. The development of the proposed building must also have a setback from the ring road of up twenty metres.

Fig. 4.52 View looking South East by the enclosed fenced area and building opposite the site

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4.1.2. Schematic Design and Process The design process began with analysis at the unit scale to determine the minimum dimension for a

65 sq. m.

classroom. The dimension of 65 square metres was established for a classroom of up to 30 students in a typical instructional layout. The selected module had to meet these requirements of the optimum classroom dimension as well as allowed for easy transportation.

To facilitate the concept of mobility and allow for some

Minimum dimension for a classroom with 20- 30 students

articulation in the rectangular volume, the shipping container as a module was first considered. At 75 square metres three 40 foot shipping containers could meet the basic requirements of the standard classroom dimension.

However, would not really provide great flexibility and

25 sq. m.

articulation of the different spaces hoped to be designed.

Thus, the 20 foot variation was considered to allow for

25 sq. m.

greater subdivision of space, creating nooks and niches for various activities. Sketch physical models were

25 sq. m.

constructed and organised to scale on the site at 1:200 to determine different layouts for classroom units. The first

At 75 sq.m. three 40 ft. shipping containers could house the same number of students

set of iterations were done with only 40 foot containers, and were conceptualised as one school as opposed to various units, circulation between volumes was a primary concern in this scheme. However, classrooms still seemed to be too long and extended poorly vertically. This led to the exploration of units with 20 foot containers to provide deeper classrooms and greater extension to roof spaces and thus vertical interaction.

The spaces between the units were just as critical as the volumes themselves, as the negative spaces would allow for greater flexibility in the type of spaces created between. This also became a focus to maximise on the spaces between units, but minimise on the extent of the

If 20 ft. shipping containers are used, spaces can be further subdivided.

enclosures that would be required to unify the units.

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Fig. 4.53 Models above showing the various site configurations using the 40’ container dimension

Fig. 4.54 Diagrams above showing the various site configurations using the 20’ container dimension

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Fig.  4.55  Diagrams above showing the various site configurations using the 20’ container dimension

After several iterations with the physical models, a computer three-dimensional model was arranged with the preliminary design thinking using a combination of 20 and 40 foot shipping containers. The container volumes were stacked and staggered to allow for spaces below, between and on top of the interacting spaces. This created less surface area for the enclosed spaces between, and extended interaction to multiple directions. The enclosures and courtyards between the classroom units were also established to maintain connection between classrooms during the winter seasons. This would help to improve not only the utility of spaces but reduce thermal bridges between units. Circulation paths would be connected to the enclosures and could open on to the courtyard spaces when required, and stairwells were also incorporated into the container dimension for vertical circulation. A central gathering space was placed at the entry of the school as a central point for all members of the school communityparents, teachers and students. Public facilities were placed on the Southern section of the site below the administration building, and service areas placed on the Northern portion of the site. The service area opened onto a path along the play field, to allow for an easy connection between classrooms and service spaces, this distance was too great however, and requires further assessment. Agricultural and botanical landscaping was also considered to integrate the linear building form with terrain in a similar pattern.

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Fig. 4.56 Diagrams above showing the various site configurations using the 20’ container dimension

Classrooms were arranged based on the idea that there should be lateral and vertical integration between year groups. Therefore, year one would have a connection to year two as well as four, this was done to prevent a huge gap between age groups, but still allowed for the extension of interaction beyond one year. Shared meeting spaces between each group provided zones for different levels of interaction outside of the classroom, most were oriented around play without much definition of the spaces themselves. There was also an underdevelopment of the teaching and public facilities within this scheme. Most of the spatial features designed in this layout that will be maintained, including the main area of instruction within the classroom and the smaller spaces for creativity and individual learning.

Although the container module dimension created well-articulated spaces, the structure of the container itself would not allow for the openness and flexibility desired in the classrooms.

Further structural systems were explored to determine an adequate solution, while many of the spatial principles developed during this portion of the study were maintained. Spaces between and interaction within unit groups were also improved, as well as the landscaping, teaching and public facilities.

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4.1.3. Mobile Architecture Explorations Switching to a structural system that would provide more flexible spaces, allow for easy transport and support multiple configurations were then explored for further development.

Folding structures were first explored and then structures that could be dismantled employed.

During the exploration of the folding structures, a key element of consideration was storage, a way in which the building could be made more compact and mobile with all the furniture, books and services in tact. The main problem with the folding structures however was the flexibility to create multiple configurations if the site were to change, as well as the weight of the storage units.

1

2

3

4

5

Fig.  4.57  Diagrams above showing the exploration of a folding structural system

As a result, structural systems that could be assembled and dismantled were considered over the folding structures, as the number of units transported per truck is more important than the ability to store the items in the units. The primary material selected was structurally insulated panels (SIP) that would sit within an aluminium structural framing system. These materials and methods of construction were selected as the products are readily available to purchase and at an affordable cost, while providing a system that is easy to assemble while maintaining climate control. The system would also allow for the creation of several configurations, allowing for greater flexibility on different sites in different conditions. Another advantage of this system is not only the flexibility granted in the grid and column system, but the flexibility of the wall systems and the ability to easily replace and modify the facade according to different demands of the seasons. Making this system most appealing for adaptability, the most critical element for mobility.

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Fig.  4.58  Images above showing various folding and portable structures particularly for furniture applications

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4.2. Final Design Proposal

Fig.  4.59  Rendering of school community gathering in the central space

The final proposal addresses the aims initially determined, to create spaces that improve the learning process, increase community involvement for a sense of belonging and security, as well as provide a system that can enhance public space rather than impede on it. As a result, most of the planning was centered around the development of spatial relationships within, between classroom clusters, and the site. The elements that tie the classroom spaces to the entire site, relate to the constant flow of learning at different paces. These elements include the 78

Chapter 4 Design Proposal

learning promenade, with classroom display boards that face the corridor, along with nooks created off the path with seating and tables for individual study. Courtyards between the year groups also allows for a collecting and gathering space between units and interaction between the floors above.

For the improvement of community involvement, public facilities are provided on the ground level and the original function of the Dongsheng Park enhanced through the provision of agricultural and botanical plots. Through participation in the assembly of the school, the sense of identity to the building in the making process and the community tie will be strengthened.

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4.2.1. Site Plan

Fig. 4.60 Isometric View of Site from a Bird’s Eye View

The total site area is 12, 600 square metres, with the built area covering an area of 2,600 square metres, parking at 280 square metres and the landscaped area at 7,200 square metres. The entrance to the site occurs along the North West boundary of the Dongsheng Park, with parking in the space allocated within the fifth ring road setback. The classroom clusters are arranged on the boundary of the buffer zone to allow for maximum amount of light to the South for the agriculture and botanical gardens. These agricultural and botanical plots are surrounded and integrated with walking paths and running tracks. The landscaping of the area provides the park with greater functions to the public than its existing use, and allows for the integration of the wider community in the use of and contribution to the educational facility.

The landscaped areas extend learning outside the classroom, through the creation of different zones for flowering plants and crops, students can learn about the formation of habitats and ways to take care of the environment. These lessons can also be utilised in the cases where the children return to their rural setting, and can adjust in environment that they have little experience with otherwise. These ideologies of taking care of the environment extend to areas near their classrooms as well. Hydroponic roof garden, window screens and vertical plant growing systems along the railings, allow children to see the way buildings can improve the environment.

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Fig. 4.61 Site Plan showing building in the landscape

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4.2.2. Spatial Layout At the entrance of the school is the administrative and teaching building, with kitchen facilities, public facilities for conferences and administration at ground level. The kitchen facilities serve the students and the teachers and will use the vegetable grown on the property to supply the meals. Teachers have dedicated eating zones on the upper level, while the public has access to the eating facility on the ground. The food is brought to the students to be eaten in the classrooms to reduce the space required to seat the number of students. Also, ancillary spaces have been provided in each classroom unit to support this function. Decentralising the service spaces, including bathroom facilities, allows for flexibility in each unit if the configurations need to be modified on a different site. The public facilities and conference rooms are also located on the ground floor and open up to the gathering spaces between the administrative block and the classrooms. This allows for a range of activities that can be utilised by the community for different events. These spaces also open up onto the landscaped areas already dedicated to the public.

On the second level above the administrative area are the spaces dedicated to the teachers, to exchange ideas and information they themselves learn from the students. There are spaces for training, working and relaxing for the teachers within an open and expandable plan.

The teachers are also connected to the students on the second level of the structure, by the paths that link the classroom clusters.

Along these paths are display boards that show students work, allowing for a learning between grade levels to promote vertical integration, self-assessment and public interaction.

These learning promenades are connected on both levels through courtyard spaces and light wells from the upper to ground levels. This creates interest and interaction between floors through the extension of the classroom to the corridors. With the display boards in the paths and the juxtaposition of the classroom clusters, there is a punctuation in the corridors that allows children to slow down after playing in the spaces around. As students progress to their classrooms and transition at the entry, they will take off their shoes and enter a more soft space.

These two actions allow for relaxation and help to reduce the amount of disruption and conflict within the classroom. When students return to playing they are allowed to access climbing and bouncing areas off the second and ground level, these playground provisions made within the grid system allow for play even on sites with little land space.

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Fig. 4.63 Second Floor Plan showing the connection of classrooms and teaching block

Fig. 4.62 Ground Floor Plan showing the interaction of corridor, classroom, outdoor and play spaces

Chapter 4 Design Proposal

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4.2.3. Classroom Design Features The connection of the classroom spaces to the outside is a critical design feature employed. Classrooms have two entry points, one for students on the ground level and the one for the students on the second. The first entry point allows for punctuation and gathering in an ante space where students can leave their belongings and transition to the instruction spaces.

The second entry point acts as a direct connection to the service core to allow students on the level above to have access to the stairwell and bathroom facilities on the ground floor. The classroom has four distinct areas: an instructional space, a soft reading and discovery space, a creative zone for arts and crafts near the sink, and a study space for individual learning.

Dynamic seating and furniture suitable for mobility was also another key design feature. In the instructional and individual learning area inflated balls typically used for exercising are utilised as seats. These balls allow students to keep moving throughout lessons which is critical for the development of their body and minds (Third Teacher, 2014) . They also allow for easy

Fig. 4.64 Images above showing interior of classroom on the ground level (left) and the view of the courtyard at the entry of a classroom (right)

Fig. 4.65 Site section above showing the spatial relationships between units laterally

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transportation and each student can have their own, even using them in the play spaces. In the reading and discovery area, large cushions slot in and out of the shelving unit allowing for soft seating for self discovery. The negative spaces were the cushions fit in the shelving can also be climbed in and used for individual seating, especially in moments were a child needs seclusion.

The creative spaces are low floor seating with cushions that stack on a circular table in quarters and then on the floor for four students at a time. Each classroom has an opening to all the zones on the site for learning and play that connect the classrooms. The instructional, creative and individual learning spaces all have access to the display boards to show work done on a daily basis to track progress and display work to others. This work can also be seen within the courtyard by students in the same grade and above through the spaces. The reading spaces on the ground level open onto a small garden space with seating for a supervising teacher or parent while the children use the playground, while on the upper level children can directly access the play areas. These playgrounds are integrated into the grid system and covered with foam with tensile nets within so kids can bounce off , fall onto and climb in this space.

Fig.  4.66  Images above of the interior of the classroom on the second level (left) and the view of the central space with personal planting rails and access to climbing zones (right)

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4.2.4. Unit Design

Fig.  4.67  Rendering of Unit

The school can house up to three hundred students, with two classes of up to twentyfour students (total of 48 students) in each year group, with each classroom unit size at 115 square meters. The stacked units of class share a bathroom and each year group is accessed from a central stairwell located near the entry and the service core. Each cluster of classrooms is shared by four student groups (96 students), two from each year. The six year groups are arranged to allow for interaction vertically and laterally between age groups. Therefore, students in years one and three, two and five and four and six will share courtyard spaces and the playground areas that tie the classrooms laterally will be between the students of the sequential year groups. This interaction between year groups is important for individual learning for all students, allowing for the learning of new subject matter from the year above and revision on topics covered from the years below.

Furniture in each unit facilitates easy mobility, as seats either deflate, fit into the shelving system or stack onto the tables. Smaller shelving systems can be flattened, while the larger shelf can be separated into smaller systems.

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Fig. 4.69 Ground Floor Plan of unit

Fig. 4.68 Second Floor Plan of unit

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4.2.5. Unit Structure and Assembly

Fig. 4.71 Images above of community participation in school assembly

Involving the community in the assembly of the school will enable greater connections between family members, teachers and students. It allows all participants to feel involved and feel more connected to the school itself. It will reinforce the main reasons why most migrant children currently attend migrant schools, yet allow for a greater sense of belonging knowing

Fig. 4.70 Drawings above step-by step assembly of unit

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the community will never have to be displaced over the period of time in Beijing.

A critical feature of the joints is that unskilled labour can put it together as the connection process is relatively simple. The six-way joint is a critical piece that allows for the footing, columns and beams to be fastened to. The footing and beam components should be first slotted into the six way joint to allow for support on two sides for the SIP floor panels. After these pieces are connected, the columns can be placed into the top of the six way joint and the SIP wall panels slotted into place. The process is then repeated for each floor.

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4.2.6. Kit of Parts Units were designed to allow for multiple configurations on different sites with multiple components that could be added to the structure. The grid system and unit dimension were determined by the standard dimension of the Oriented Strand Board (OSB - 2.44m x 1.23m x 0.75m) that make up the SIP panels. Therefore all components are universal and the column and beam systems, SIP panels, door and window units are the same dimension.

Each unit has seven individual components, which include the universal extruded aluminium structural frame for beams and columns, the six-way joint, bolts for fastening, the SIP wall system, a two and four foot high sliding window system, pivoting and typical door systems, and adjustable footings. Some additional systems include the plant screens slotted into the tracks on the external south faces, the vertical plant railings on the upper levels above the shared courtyard spaces, the steel stairwell and the different treatments to the SIP panels based on the relevant exposure to the elements.

There are 384 beams and columns, 44 footing members, 64 interior floor SIP panels, 56 wall OSB SIP panels, 35 window systems, 12 pivoting doors and 8 standard 7’6” doors. With a total of 600 pieces including the climbing zone to make up one year group, with one cluster (two classrooms) being able to fit into a container.

Fig. 4.72 Drawing above of kit of parts

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Fig. 4.73 Exploded axonometric of classroom unit

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4.2.7. Wall and Floor Detail

110mm OSB SIP Panel fastened to 127mm aluminium extruded channel, with underfloor heating and finished with OSB

110mm cement board SIP Panel fastened to 127mm aluminium extruded channel.

Fixed above is rubber insulation.

Fig.  4.74  Drawing of wall and floor connections and systems , showing the SIP panel treatments on the horizontal exterior, interior and roof surfaces, as well as the window system designed for the connection.

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110mm PVC pipe system for small plants and vegetables 76 mm thick corrugated decking with 110mm RHS to slot in track 110mm cement board SIP Panel fastened to 127mm aluminium extruded channel. Fixed above is rubber insulation.

Horizontal Slider Window System with 115mm CHS fixed to top and 120mm C-channel fixed to bottom

112mm (4.5�) OSB SIP Panel with 2mm galvanised sheet for ease of cleaning and water protection Wall SIPs are made up of 19 mm (.75 inch) OSB members that sandwich an EPS foam core with a total thickness of 114mm (4.5 inches). These SIPs have an R-value of 13, significantly reducing energy costs for heating during the winter. The SIP panels used in the floor that are potentially exposed to water from the bathrooms or from exterior exposure, are made of a cement board instead of OSB to prevent the damaging of the SIP if water settles. This treatment is done on the ground floor, the roof and on the outdoor areas along the pathways on the second level, these panels then have a waterproofing membrane and a rubber tile slotted in between tracks at the same height for a level surface. The interior ground and second level SIP floor panels have underfloor heating plates that sit on top of the waterproofing member and finished with OSB on top. The roof SIP panel is made up of the cement board with waterproofing and rubber insulation for acoustic purposes. The corrugated decking for the water runoff is fixed to a 110mm (4.3 inches) square channel that slots into track system above. Window and Door systems were designed to attach to both SIP panel systems and beam members through the connection to the track system. Windows are framed to a 110mm (4.3 inches) square channel that slide into the track of the aluminium beam. The base of the window is fixed to a 114mm (4.5 inches) C-channel that is fixed to the top of the SIP panel .The pivoting door system are fixed at the top and bottom with a pin into a bearing fixed to 110mm (4.3 inches) square channel that fit into the track system.

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4.2.8. MEP Systems The boilers for the underfloor heating, batteries for energy storage and water tanks for plumbing and irrigation are stored in the area beneath the stairwell on the ground level. Water is supplied either from the nearby river, a main pipe from the street or can be transported by truck to each unit and placed in tanks for storage. The pipes connecting the buildings to the water supply run along grid line ‘B’ and ‘G’ and are fed to the boiler which distributes the water to each floor. The underfloor heating system out- pipe runs through the track system which is covered by a plastic cap and the in- pipes run through the channel and are supplied through holes in the beam member. The pipes along the grid line ‘A’ are directly fed upward to the irrigation and sink areas from a pump in the service area. The grey water from the sink is then used to flush the toilets, connected to a cistern beneath. Water circulates through the irrigation system once for the day in the evening and the plants growing on the handrails are taken care of by the children. Energy to pump the water and for power supply when needed in the day are generated from solar panels on top of every other roof frame, the other frames have small plants and vegetables growing within the pipes.

Fig. 4.75 Section showing the MEP systems, with boilers and water tanks under the stairwell and the connection of the underwater heating, irrigation and electrical systems

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Fig. 4.77 Diagram showing the Water connection to source and grey and black water storage

`

Fig. 4.76 Isometric Diagram showing the boiler storage and underfloor heating

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4.2.9. Climatic Details The classrooms are arranged along the North- South axis, to increase hours of sun exposure, also the courtyard spaces and light wells created between floors allow for the entrance of light to the classroom along the North face on the ground level of classrooms. South facing facades have an operable glazed plant screen that can allow for the trapping of heat in the winter and when opened a shading and ventilation system in the summer. These screens can also be added to other openings between classrooms and in the courtyard spaces to create an enclosure to the building in the winter, essentially creating a winter garden on the ground level.

As seen in fig. 4.77 the framing members in the pipe system would transport the water from grid line ‘I’ through the screen system along the stairwell and the across to the roof.

Fig. 4.78 Photographs of horizontal and vertical PVC plant systems, and drawing showing the horizontal system for the roof and screen, and vertical system for the hand railings. Source: top- http://cdn.wonderfuldiy. com ; bottom- http://archive.peninsulapress.com

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Fig. 4.79 Drawings of an articulated classroom versus a typical layout, Source: “Space and Learning”, pg.31-2

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4.3. Findings and Conclusions The urbanisation, economic growth and as a result migration in China is an unprecedented phenomenon that has brought many challenges to the society. One of which, is the deprivation of migrant children’s rights to education. With the Nine-Year Compulsory Law in China, all students are granted an educational opportunity in their hometown. However, families who decide to leave their hometown are less likely to benefit from this opportunity in the city.

Municipal government officials have the responsibility to provide education for the migrant children, however with limited resources and for other political reasons migrant children seem to have fallen through a gap. To compensate for this, many members of the migrant community have had to find ways to educate themselves and their children, leading to the development of private migrant schools. These schools however lack resources and quality teachers to have a great impact on the advancement of the demographic. And with government’s desire to maintain the appearance of its political centre, these schools pose a problem to many issues surrounding urbanisation, leading often to their closure and demolition.

This floating population requires a temporary and flexible solution to the problems associated with education in the city. This solution however must provide more quality education than previous attempts and keep the involvement of the community in its operation.

The design of the proposed mobile migrant primary school addresses both problems associated with the civil demand for schools and the government’s dilemma with urbanisation.

Through the use of an adaptable structural assembly system this mobile school can move onto any site, and although there could be a physical relocation there is still a connection through the community and its ability to move easily together. The engagement of the students and community in the building of this project is of a participatory nature that addresses the problems of displacement and issues of identity children face when they move to the cities. The sense of belonging created through appropriation of their own spaces creates an attachment and forms an identity with the building, improving the sense of security and stability in an unfamiliar environment. Through the ability to shape their own spaces, a sense of independence and power are stimulated which are beneficial to improving identity. The proposal also includes the design strategies to ensure that architectural principles are maintained when sites are changed.

Whether the site requires the arrangement of the units in a vertical, linear or uneven layout, certain space relationships must be maintained to preserve the original design principles.

The design principles applied to the educational facility are based on the modern theories in architecture that attempt to improve the learning process through the design of space. The proposed solution integrates the idea of the classroom being a home base with the creation of 98

Chapter 4 Design Proposal

spaces that promote and provide comfort and exploration, each of these spaces have different relationships with the outside spaces and their functions. Therefore creating extensions beyond the classroom walls, to the courtyard, outdoor and play areas. The concept of the learning landscape is seen through this extension, however there was scope to improve this feature and the relationships between adjoining classrooms. The primary reason why classrooms did not open as much onto each other was in order to keep the surface area of the roof minimised for surface run off, as well as to adequately provide daylight into the classroom spaces. Leading to another challenge in the design, in finding the right distances between the spaces in order to allow for the option of full enclosure in the winter while still providing adequate daylight.

These shortcomings were opportunity costs foregone that still might prove more beneficial for energy savings.

Some external factors beyond the architecture that truly allow for the improvement of the quality of education, relate to the operation, support and funding, as well as the quality of teachers provided. The aspiration is that the educational units be funded by some government and non-government funding. The support from the government is not entirely guaranteed, although there are examples that exist in Beijing of the government assisting private migrant schools. The funds would then primarily come from the non-government funding through donations and also crowd-funding. The development could be marketed to contributors as the purchasing of a classroom unit and they can see the progress and what they have made a direct contribution towards. If the classroom is purchased then most other donations could go to the provision of suitable teachers that can truly improve the quality of the education these children receive. Ultimately, the educational units can support better learning, but if the quality of teachers is poor then there is the possibility that students may still under perform.

Besides these minor drawbacks for spatial layouts and potential economic factors the design successfully fulfills the design principles set to achieve adaptability and provide spaces that can improve the variety of learning activities that can be conducted in one space.

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References

References [1]

Abrams (2014), “The Third Teacher: 79 Ways You Can Use Design to Transform Teaching & Learning”, OWP/P Architects + VS Furniture + Bruce Mau Design

[2]

Alexander, C., Ishikawa, S., & Silverstein, M. (1977). A Pattern Language. New York: Oxford University Press.

[3]

Breithecker, D. (2005), “‘The Educational Workplace’: What the “classroom of the futre” will look like”, Haltungs-und Bewegungforederung

[4]

Capacity Building Series ed. #27 (2012), “The Third Teacher”

[5]

Chan, A. (2009), “Paying the Price for Economic Development: The Children of Migrant Workers in China”, China Labour Bulletin, 27-56

[6]

Chiles, P. “Learning through Architecture”, School of Architecture University of Sheffield; https://youtu.be/XrrbqzDY694

[7]

Deng, F. (2010), “Moving for Opportunities? Examining the Public School Attendance and Reading Achievement of Migrant Students in Beijing”, University of Michigan, 2-27; 62-103

[8]

Goodburn, C. (2009), “Learning from migrant education: A case study of the schooling of rural migrant children in Beijing,” International Journal of Educational Development, 497– 504.

[9]

Gou, J. (2007) “Migrant Children School Performance in China: A Pilot Study in Beijing”, University of California, Berkeley.

[10] Hou; Rios (2003), “Community-Driven Placemaking:The Social Practice of Participatory Design in the Making of Union Park”, Journal of Architectural Education [11] Hertzberger, H. (2008), “ Space and Learning: Lessons in Architecture 3”, Rotterdam Publishers, 27-127 [12] Hubner, P. (2005), “Schulen als Kraftorte gestalten”,62-86 [13] Jin, L. (2012) “Rights-based Approach to the Educational Experience of Migrant Children in China”, Institute of Social Studies [14] Korenberg, G. (2013), “De Voormalige Titus Brandsmaschool Ring 1 In Nagele Bouw- En Kleurhistorische Analyse En Waardenbepaling”, Monumenten Advies Bureau, 5-21.

[15] Kwong, J., (2004). “Educating migrant children: negotiations between the state and civil society.” The China Quarterly 180, 1073–1088.

[16] Lai, Fang; Chengfang Liu; Renfu Luo; Linxiu Zhang; Xiaochen Ma; Yujie Bai; Brian Sharbono and Scott Rozelle (2011), “Private Migrant Schools or Rural/Urban public schools: Where should China educates its migrant children?”Rural Education action project, Stanford University, working paper #224.

[17] Mitra, S. (2000 )“Children and the Internet: New Paradigms for Development in the 21st Century”, Centre for Research in Cognitive systems, NIIT Limited.

[18] Novak, A. (2002), “ Aldo Van Eyck: Designing for Children, Playgrounds”, NAi Publishers [19] Pong, M. (2015), “Educating the Children of Migrant Workers in Beijing: Migration, Education and Policy in Urban China”, Routledge Publishers

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References

[20] Strauven, F. (2007), “Aldo van Eyck- Shaping new Reality from the In-Between to the Aesthetics of Number”, Mellon Lectures [21] Seonwook, K. (2012), “ Mobile Architecture: Construction and Design Manual, DOM Publishers, 210-479 [22] UNESCO (2008), “ National Education Development Report to the 48th Session on the International Conference of Education, Ministry of Education of P.R. China Chinese National Commission for UNESCO [23] Wang, L. (2008) “The marginality of migrant children in the urban Chinese educational system”, British Journal of Sociology of Education [24] Wu, J. (2013), “The Relationship Between Chinese Rural Migrants’ Job Stability And Their Housing Conditions In Cities”, Georgetown University.

[25] Wu, W. (2002), “Migrant Housing In Urban China: Choices And Constraints”, Sage Publications.

[26] Yi, S. (2011) “Education As A Means Of Integration Into The City: Migrant Children In The Government-Sponsored Honghua School In Chengdu, China”, Faculty of the School of Intercultural Studies, Biola University, UMI Publishing, 17- 70 [27] Zai, L; Yiu P.C. (2007), “The educational consequences of migration for children in China”, Elsevier, 30-42 [28] Zheng; Long; Fan; Gu (2008), “Urban Villages in China: A 2008 Survey of Migrant Settlements in Beijing”, Eurasian Geography and Economics, 428-443

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Acknowledgements

Acknowledgment

First and foremost I would like to thank my tutor and guide, Professor Li Xiaodong, for

his knowledge, patience and encouragement throughout the course of this thesis. It has been a pleasure to be under his tutelage, and his teaching, as well as this experience will resonate with me throughout my design career.

I would also like to thank all the professors who were patient and willing to read and

share their ideas and comments to improve this thesis, Professor Terrance Curry, Professor Zhang Yue and Professor Liu Jian.

I would like to thank the members of the English Programme for the Masters of

Architecture (EPMA) at Tsinghua University, who organised, coordinated and helped to make these two years fulfilling and a worthwhile experience.

I would like to make a special acknowledgment to my father, who went through my thesis

tirelessly and for my mother for her encouragement and support throughout this time. They have made this experience possible and I am eternally grateful.

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Statement

Personal Statement

本人郑重声明：所呈交的学位论文，是本人在导师指导下，独立进行研究工作所取得的

成果。尽我所知，除文中已经注明引用的内容外，本学位论文的研究成果不包含任何他人享有著 作权的内容。对本论文所涉及的研究工作做出贡献的其他个人和集体，均已在文中以明确方式表 明。 The author asseverates: this thesis was prepared solely by myself under instruction of my thesis advisor. To my knowledge, except for documents cited in the thesis, the research results do not contain any achievements of any others who have claimed copyrights. To contributions made by relevant individuals and organizations in the completion of the thesis, I have clearly acknowledged all their efforts.

签 名：

日 期：

Signature: Date:

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Statement

Curriculum Vitae

Name:

Reva Watson

Nationality:

British / Jamaican

Gender: Female Date of Birth:

1990/ 05/03

Education: 2013- present:

Master of Architecture

2008- 2012:

Bachelor of Arts in Architectural Studies

Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

University of Technology, Jamaica

Work Experience: 2012- 2013:

Atelier Vidal Limited, Jamaica (Architectural Assistant)

2009:

Cornerstone Design Limited, Jamaica (Internship)

2010:

Baston and Associates Limited, Jamaica (Internship)

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