Scholarship Review 2021 by Blackpool and The Fylde College

Blackpool and The Fylde College Scholarship Review 2021

BLACKPOOL AND THE FYLDE COLLEGE SCHOLARSHIP REVIEW 2021

Contents Welcome to the Scholarship Review 2021 Helen Fogg - Director of Higher Education page 6 The Editorial Team

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The pursuit of happiness: an early year’s explorative study into the challenges of recognising and supporting child health and wellbeing. Françoise Peill

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Questioning the efficacy of online Continuous Professional Development (CPD); practitioner reflections through experiential and theoretical lenses Richard Dunston

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The Realm(s) of Belongingness (Online) Colette Mazzola-Randles

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The impact of diet and nutrition on the wellbeing of students at B&FC: A case study into students’ perceptions at Levels one and two regarding the importance of dietary intake on wellbeing. Graham Mason and Mark Belfield page

Reflections on the need to develop a multi-heritage critical citizenship education David Hayes

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Is Die Hard a Christmas Movie? A brief investigation into the application of genre Ashley Lister

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PAPERS

Safety Culture and Cadets: assessing cadet values relating to safety and the impact of teaching and learning strategies on those attitudes Alex Barlow page 68 The application of innovative technology in online teaching Fraser N. Hatfield page 82 What the...! System Failures Alan Harding page 88 Development of a MEMS Hotplate-based Photoacoustic CO2 Sensor Lucky A. Ishaku, David Hutson and Des Gibson

page 92

The Most Important Cog in the Machine: Business Analysis and 5S Implementation in an Engineering Company Margarita Georgieva, Andrew Heaton, Abdelrahman Abdelazim, Matthew Worthington

page 102

FEATURES Focus on Scholars: The People behind the Papers

page 120

Lancaster University Undergraduate Research Conference

page 128

The Annual Teaching and Learning Conference

page 130

Validation Showcase

page 132

The Scholarship and Research Development Scheme (SRDS)

page 136

Writing for the Scholarship Review

page 140

BLACKPOOL AND THE FYLDE COLLEGE SCHOLARSHIP REVIEW 2021

Welcome to the Scholarship Review 2021 Helen Fogg Director of Higher Education

Welcome to the 2021 edition of the Scholarship Review. This publication is one of the mechanisms through which staff at Blackpool and The Fylde College (B&FC) are able to disseminate their research and scholarship outcomes and to share these with the cohesive, self-critical academic community. The review opens with Françoise Peill’s paper entitled “The pursuit of happiness: an early year’s explorative study into the challenges of recognising and supporting child health and wellbeing”. It addresses rising concerns surrounding child mental health and wellbeing and examines the appropriateness and timeliness of interventions in early year’s environments within socio-economically deprived communities. Richard Dunston’s paper ‘Questioning the efficacy of online Continuous Professional Development (CPD); practitioner reflections through experiential and theoretical lenses’ explores the need for CPD while questioning its nature. The work draws upon studies which consider distance learning and the human psychological reasoning as to its success or failings, alongside considering transactional distance theory and its application in face-to-face, online and distance learning methodologies. Colette Mazzola-Randles’ paper highlights the views of participants from a variety of university settings in the United Kingdom and Ireland. The findings were gathered from semi structure interviews exploring the emotional connections and sense of belonging to teaching and learning online. The key findings evidence that not all staff used visible interactions (via web cameras) to develop emotional connections online and the asynchronous environment appeared to support students becoming more confident and express themselves. Graham Mason and Mark Belfield’s paper offers an interesting view on the impact of diet and nutrition on mental wellbeing of students at Blackpool and the Fylde College. The paper documents their project which aimed to evaluate the current level of wellbeing of students and their current dietary intake, to determine if there is a direct correlation between nutrition and mental wellbeing. David Hayes piece ‘Reflections on the need to develop a multi-heritage critical citizenship education’ offers insight and perspective on the historical context of policies surrounding British Values. Looking at the impact of both New Labour and Conservative discourses around British citizenship, and questioning the pedagogic rationale of embedding this version of British Values into curriculum delivery. The writing offers the potential for a multi-heritage education model that engages with more complex and ‘lived experience’ of local and regional communities.

BLACKPOOL AND THE FYLDE COLLEGE SCHOLARSHIP REVIEW 2021

The review continues with Ashley Lister’s piece ‘Is Die Hard a Christmas Movie?’ A brief investigation into the application of genre. The aim of his paper is to demonstrate that such genre labels are descriptive rather than prescriptive and to illustrate that the purpose of genre classification is often more important than the limits imposed by an arbitrary label. Alex Barlow’s paper, ‘Safety Culture and Cadets: assessing cadet values relating to safety and the impact of teaching and learning strategies on those attitudes’ examines the potential shift in the attitudes of merchant navy cadets towards safety culture as of result of engaging in taught health and safety sessions. Drawing on industry standard guidelines and current literature the research implements a mixed method research design combining both quantitative evaluation and qualitative social research. The findings offer some thoughtprovoking insight into the impact teaching health and safety within a maritime setting. Fraser Hatfield introduces a novel open-source software package, called ‘Open Broadcast Software’, OBS, in his paper titled, ‘The application of innovative technology in online teaching’. The software is a video recording and live streaming suite that allows him to combine his webcam video with all of his interactive resources into one output display, and then shares his screen with the students in Teams. Using this technology, Fraser has been able to demonstrate the relevance of physics and maths to Marine Engineering, generate interest and enthusiasm, engage students in their learning, improve understanding and knowledge retention, improve assessment grades and improve students’ satisfaction. Alan Harding’s paper ‘What the…! System Failures’ discusses concepts around system failures relevant to systems engineering. An accident that occurred in aerospace is briefly broken down in this short paper. This is then used as a template for student analysis of maritime accidents such as the Costa Concordia. Lucky Ishaku’s paper is on the Development of a Micro-Electro-Mechanical System Hotplate-based, Photoacoustic Carbon Dioxide Sensor. In this collaborative study with colleagues, it is outlined how the system developed offers the advantages of low-cost, small-size and low power consumption devices, which can be easily mass produced, and which are capable of sensing and monitoring Carbon Dioxide levels in the atmosphere and in industrial settings. Our final piece “The Most Important Cog in the Machine: Business Analysis and 5S Implementation in an Engineering Company” written by Margarita Georgieva, Andrew Heaton, Abdelrahman Abdelazim and Matthew Worthington, focusses on the 5S process, incorporating a real working example of how this method can positively affect a business in terms of managing change and continuous improvement. The paper outlines the benefits that 5S implementation can bring to a manufacturing business on every-day work with a holistic approach that intends to bring order both in the material environment and in the ethical values that support it. We hope you engage with and enjoy this 2021 edition and that it motivates you to consider writing for the Scholarship Review in the future.

BLACKPOOL AND THE FYLDE COLLEGE SCHOLARSHIP REVIEW 2021

The Editorial Team What we do The Editorial Team oversees and approves the content of each annual edition of the Scholarship Review. This entails reviewing, checking, editing, amending and refining papers submitted for publication each year. We meet to discuss papers, articles, features and think pieces and case studies and feedback to authors on how to enhance their papers. Our remit also extends to the promotion of scholarship and research within the B&FC academic community, and encouraging and supporting staff to publish the outcomes of their research activities. In the forthcoming year we will be working more closely alongside the Senior Tutors Scholarship and Research.

Who we are The Editorial Team is chaired by Helen Fogg, HE Director who works closely with Senior Tutors Scholarship and Research (S&R): Fraser Hatfield, Senior Tutor S&R (Maritime Operations), Françoise Peill, Senior Tutor S&R (Society, Health & Childhood), Rachael Leitch, Senior Tutor S&R (Leadership, Management & Lifestyle), Tracey Eastham, Senior Tutor S&R (Blackpool School of Art), Christopher Willitts, Senior Tutor S&R and Curriculum Manager (Computing and Digital Technologies), Lucky Ishaku, Senior Tutor S&R (Engineering and Science). We would also like to thank Marc Potter, Curriculum Manager (Leadership, Management & Lifestyle) for his input and support.

First row (left to right): Helen Fogg, Fraser Hatfield, Françoise Peill and Rachael Leitch Second row (left to right): Tracey Eastham, Christopher Willitts, Lucky Ishaku and Marc Potter

BLACKPOOL AND THE FYLDE COLLEGE SCHOLARSHIP REVIEW 2021

The pursuit of happiness: an early year’s explorative study into the challenges of recognising and supporting child health and wellbeing. Françoise Peill FHEA, MEd “The health and wellbeing of today’s children depend on us having the courage and imagination to rise to the challenge of doing things differently, to put sustainability and wellbeing before economic growth and bring about a more equal and fair society” (Marmot, Allen, et al; 2020, p.6).

Abstract The escalating concerns in relation to child mental health and the power of early intervention are wellrecognised within the early year’s sector, however, there is no mandatory practice or model of wellbeing used within early year’s environments. Practitioners have little knowledge or have received insufficient training in order to help them recognise the signs and symptoms of poor wellbeing, and do not feel confident in measuring and monitoring the children to support positive health and wellbeing. This study examined child health and wellbeing within the early years sector and drew upon the evidence from thirty-two early years practitioners and ten nursery managers working in a deprived socio-economic community in the North-West of England. A constructivist paradigm was used to enable qualitative data to be collected from an interactive questionnaire from thirty-two different early years settings, with further data being gathered from three theme focus groups with ten experienced nursery/preschool managers. As part of the process of analysing the findings, two credible wellbeing models were used to support the discussion: the PERMA model of wellbeing (Seligman, 2015) and the SHANARRI wheel of wellbeing (Scottish Government, 2006). The findings exposed the lack of confidence of early years practitioners in identifying the precursors of health and wellbeing, and furthermore, their capacity to be able to monitor the progress to support individual children. The key issues transpiring from this analysis highlight that clear mandatory guidance should be available for early years practitioners and that there is a need for the development of a bespoke early years model to support the measuring of child health and wellbeing.

Context of study The town of Blackpool is a seaside resort on the coast of Lancashire, which hosts an estimated transient population of 141,500 (JSNA, Blackpool, 2020). The current data reported by Public Health England (2020), rate Blackpool as one of the 20% most deprived authorities in England and highlight that 52% of children live in low-income families. The report states that early year’s children living in the local area are severely impacted by the social determinants of the area and the impact of poverty. The community further indicates a high rate of

BLACKPOOL AND THE FYLDE COLLEGE SCHOLARSHIP REVIEW 2021

unemployment, child protection issues and cases of domestic abuse. Current figures further evidence that Blackpool transcends the national averages due to the high rates of drug and alcohol abuse in the town PHE, 2019). Furthermore, a local report for the Children’s Society (2019) suggested that children living in the local area are at a significant disadvantage and are living in extreme poverty and deprivation. A government research report (Department of Education, 2016) identified Blackpool as a pathfinder for the family focused assessment tool to support child health and wellbeing, and this multiple disciplinary method continues to develop in a coherent way. Current UK statutory guidance within the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) (Department for Education, 2021), advises that practitioners should work to nurture children’s individual well-being and that there are clear correlations with the emotional aspect to child development. Additionally, Seaman and Giles (2019), acknowledge that emotional well-being plays a fundamental part in the relationships that early years children make and the way that they communicate with the world around them. Furthermore, contemporary views (2020) by the NSPCC state that one in four children are living in poverty and this has a lasting impact on their wellbeing and emotional development.

Research question “How do early years practitioners identify, record and support child health and wellbeing in the deprived area of Blackpool?”

1. Context of literature 1.1 Definition of wellbeing UNICEF (2019) define child wellbeing as an approach that centres the happiness and satisfaction of every child, regardless of their socio-economic environment. Well-being is related to self-realisation and selfacknowledgment of the present and forthcoming competence set for children. Additionally, UNICEF’s (2019) international research simply defines wellbeing as how happy, healthy, and satisfied children are. Contemporary focus presented by the Scottish Government (2006) and the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child Bill (2020), places the value on children’s rights and their wellbeing and advises the power of collaborative decision-making. The UNCRC supports public authorities in a bid to develop the rights of wellbeing for children and young people (UNICEF, 2019. p, 3). Similar views are presented by Ben-Arieh, Casas, et al; (2014), who define child wellbeing as the interplay between children’s rights, healthy development, and their freedom to exercise those rights. In addition, stating that they are influenced by issues at the micro level and are surrounded by the social structures of the wider community. However, in comparison, the United Kingdom Government publication (2016) discusses child wellbeing as simply the quality of a child’s life which is potentially measured by an individual’s achievement and fulfilling of social and personal goals. The report evidences the socio-economic influences that impact on child health and wellbeing and supports and promotes the use of holistic intervention to support the child succeeding. A recent publication by The Children’s Society (2020), outlines wellbeing as an ‘umbrella term’ that should be accompanied by a collection of appropriate indicators that can be used to build up a true picture of the child. Sointu (2005) disagrees and defines wellbeing as a ‘notion’ in society and a concept that impacts a person’s happiness and discusses the development of wellbeing as an evolving notion, proposing:

“a lack of definition in much health policy and practice typically leaves the term ‘well-being’ as an open-ended, catch-all category” (Cameron, Mathers, et al; 2006, p. 349).

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Dodge, Daly, et al; (2015) disagree, stating that there are several opposing approaches to defining wellbeing, and it is extremely problematic to identify between a hedonic belief compared with the view of achieving and flourishing. Early childhood experiences have a profound impact on a child’s health and wellbeing; the necessity to raise the feelings of worth and satisfaction is evident in current research (Robson, Brogaard-Clausen, et al; 2019; Susman-Stillman, et al; 2020). The contributing factors that impact early development have lasting effects of a child’s self-worth and self-esteem. The impact of poverty of early development is apparent in the work of Gupta (2019) and Lyndon (2020) who express the shared belief that deficiency has lasting damage, both psychologically and physically. Chaudry and Wimer’s research (2016) disputes that poverty is a societal stimulus in a child’s wellbeing and has a lasting impact on an individual’s cognitive growth, further highlighting the connection with child development. 1.2 UK Government influences Current practice accentuated within the Early Years Foundation Stage (Department for Education, 2021) advises that practitioners must work to ensure that every child is supported to

“develop a positive sense of themselves, forming positive relationships and develop respect for others, further developing social skills and learning how to manage their feelings.” (DfE, 2021, p.29).

The value of these early experiences is further evident in the current UK government publication (Department of Education, 2019) which places the emphasis on the benefits of offering a holistic experience for early year’s children to support their overall development. The Government further advises that a clear definition for wellbeing and a robust system for measuring it needs to be a priority. The cross-party manifesto publication 1001 Critical Days (Leadsom, Field, et al ;2015) offered a unique vision for the provision of services in the UK to support early intervention. The document acknowledges the importance of the early months of childhood up until the age of two years and how the priority should be, at this crucial stage, to ensure babies get the best start in life to support development and wellbeing. The paper highlights, that in order for a child’s wellbeing and development to prosper, the succeeding generation should be nurtured and safeguarded (Leadsom, Field, et al; 2015). 1.3 International context On a global scale, research conducted by Grethe Baustad and Bjørnestad (2020) highlights current early years practice in Norway. More specifically, the Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) model focuses on the child’s personal wellbeing and play interactions. This international educational system, used with all children in early years practice is a ‘societal pedagogic’ tradition that concentrates on the individual’s personal wellbeing and play. Practitioners utilise the Caregiver Interaction Profile scales (CIP) (Helmerhorst, Riken-Walraven et al; 2014) to record their exchanges with the children. The model focuses on the interactions with professionals as they support child wellbeing and development. The interactive technique uses a video to record the engagement between the child and staff and evaluate these high-quality communications to highlight the significance of well-being (Helmerhorst, Riksen–Walraven et al., 2014; Sylva, Melhuish, et al., 2004). These encounters are of exceptional prominence for the development of the child’s wellbeing to build a secure attachment to the main carer and support relationships. In comparison, in Croatia, the focus is placed on the co-production of a resilience-building model. Cefai, Matsopoulos, et al; (2014) review paper promotes the need for children to work to build their resilience, in

BLACKPOOL AND THE FYLDE COLLEGE SCHOLARSHIP REVIEW 2021

order to overcome obstacles and challenges they face in their life. By introducing a resilience perspective in education within early years that guides children to recognising the process needed to thrive and develop when dealing with adversities, disadvantages and challenges. This core competence in education allows children to work to comprehend their emotions and build empathy for others. Australian early years practice supports the work of Baker, Green & Falecki (2017) who portray the link between purposeful pedagogy, education and positive psychology, (Figure 1). They highlight the role of early education in shaping early child development, by placing emphasis on the importance of positive intervention, therefore enhancing the synergy between pedagogy and psychology within the early years sector. The paper forges the links between intervention, creativity and engaging teaching that supports the child to build their own resilience and thus develop their emotional intelligence.

Figure 1. Wellbeing synergies – positive and psychology and early childhood education (Baker, Green. et al; 2017)

Furthermore, similarities are highlighted within Kosovo’s early years practice within a current qualitative study conducted by Zabeli & Gjelaj (2020), which highlights that all early years activities within settings should embrace inclusive education, and wellbeing should align with all elements of happiness and achievement. Moreover, Lee, Lane, et al.’s; (2020) research in Hong Kong further values the need for happiness and appraises the effects of play. The study utilises a children’s emotional manifestation Scale (1 -5 scales) to measure emotions and recognises interaction, facial expression, and vocalization. Finally, the Department for Educations (2018) International Early Learning and Child Well-being Study (IELS) further analyses wellbeing in a global context. The study allows for clear comparisons to be made relating to children’s development in England with children in settings in other countries. The study focuses on aspects of child development and deliberates the educational outcomes that broaden a child’s wellbeing. The ongoing findings have recently been presented in the OECD current publication 2020, and relate to the specific study of five-year-old children living in England (United Kingdom), Estonia and the United States.

2. Discussion and findings Following the thematic analysis of the findings the identified common themes have formed the discussion, in response to the research question, “How do early years practitioners identify, record, and support child health and wellbeing in the deprived area of Blackpool?” The original aims of the study explored the sub-questions

BLACKPOOL AND THE FYLDE COLLEGE SCHOLARSHIP REVIEW 2021

and firstly asked thirty-two early year’s practitioners, ‘What do you understand by the term child health wellbeing and what signs identify low health and wellbeing?’ Practitioners were then asked “What tools, if any, do you use to monitor and measure child health and wellbeing? and “Do they feel they are qualified and experienced enough?”. Secondly, the theme focus groups, with ten experienced managers, explored the topic of wellbeing and their understanding, also discussing how they assist and supervise staff in their setting. Further meetings deliberated what wellbeing tools they use in their setting, and did they think staff were confident using these tools. Also, they investigated if their staff had accessed training and did they feel confident supporting child health and wellbeing in their preschool settings? Figure 2. Coding of data to form thematic analyses from early year’s practitioner’s questionnaires Theme one

Definition of wellbeing

29/32 responses

Theme two

Understanding of wellbeing

30/32 responses

Theme three

Measuring

20/32 responses

Theme four

Effective model to measure and monitor

28/32 responses

Theme five

Qualifications and training

30/32 responses

Figure 3. Coding of data from themed focus groups Theme one

Definition of wellbeing

10/10 managers

Theme two

Understanding of wellbeing 9/10 managers

Theme three

Measuring 9/10 managers

Theme four

Effective model to measure and monitor 8/10 managers

Theme five

Qualifications and training

10/10 managers

The findings from the early year’s practitioners clearly evidence that they link child health and wellbeing with the happiness of the child, and clarity is needed as to how wellbeing is defined. Both managers and practitioners echo the need for training and a reform in the content of qualifications to equip them with the skills they need and/or desire in order to support early year’s children. Finally, the challenge of measuring child health and wellbeing was paramount for all early year professionals, the results further indicated that no wellbeing tool is favoured by practitioners and confidence is lacking in using the various tools and models.

Emerging themes from the findings 2.1 Definition and understanding of child health and wellbeing The research has highlighted a number of emerging themes via the responses of the thirty-two early years practitioners and the ten managers. What is clear within both the literature review and the research that there is no clear definition of child health and wellbeing (Morrow and Mayall, 2009; Thompson and Aked, 2009; Dodge et al, 2012). This is problematic for practitioners as they struggle to recognise, observe, and monitor issues within their setting. There is a great need for clarity and to generate a clear comprehensive definition that is both concise and comprehensible for practitioners to use (Pollard & Lee, 2003). Furthermore, the research data evidenced that half of the participants involved in the survey have a level three early years qualification, with a further quarter having a level four and a further quarter having a level five qualification as their highest form of qualification. It was clear that early year’s practitioners had varying views in relation to what health and wellbeing is, with many of the less qualified staff referring to it simply as ‘happiness’ and ‘whether the child appears happy’.

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Practitioners further stated that child wellbeing is centred on whether the child feels content and happy. Similar views are evident in the international views of Lee, Lane, et al; (2020). This study attempted to appraise happiness and examine the effects of play in relation to intervention within early years settings. This echoes the work of the OECD study of five years olds (2020), which affirms that in order for a child to feel happy and thrive they must be reinforced by a strong, solid foundation surrounding them. However, Sointu (2005) disputes these views believing that wellbeing is simply a ‘notion’ in society and a concept that impacts a person’s happiness. In comparison, more qualified staff viewed wellbeing as emotional development and the child’s ability to control their emotions. Several responses highlighted that health and wellbeing is more about a child’s emotional state, not just their cognition. This reflects the views of Seaman and Giles (2019) who accept that emotional well-being plays an essential role in the relationships that early years children form, and this supports them to interact with others. Similar principles can be seen in Croatia’s early years practice (Cefai, Matospoulos et al, 2014) which places emphasis on supporting children to work to understand their emotions and therefore build empathy for others. The approaches focus on empowering children so they can manage negative emotions, such as failure and anger. The focus group discussions suggested that participants regarded health and wellbeing as an emotional developmental stage and believe positive wellbeing can lead to confidence and resilience within the child’s learning. Managers placed more emphasis on the external factors that can impact the child’s wellbeing highlighting that if the child’s early atmosphere is toxic, this can impact on their early brain development which can have detrimental effects for the rest of the child’s life. Similar principles are present in Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological framework, which stresses the influences of social and economic factors which in turn form the layers of the community that influence a child’s wellbeing. Furthermore, the multi-layer process of Anspaugh, Hamrick and Rosato (2004) supports the holistic dimensions of wellnesses and recognition of social, emotional, physical and spiritual. All three ideologies champion and endorse the need for positive interactions within early years and value the significance of this in all areas of child development. Anspaugh, Hamrick, and Rosato (2004) further evidence the views that the ‘holistic dimensions of wellnesses’ promote the concept that wellbeing is a multi-layer process that includes all areas of development socially, emotionally, physically and spiritually thus stating that the child’s holistic development is essential on building positive health and wellbeing. Furthermore, global recognition can be found in the Department for Education (2018) International Early Learning and Child Well-being Study (IELS), which focuses on all aspects of child development and considers the educational outcomes that increase positive wellbeing. This comparative ongoing study analyses child wellbeing within a global context and evaluates the factors that implicate child development. There are similar priorities highlighted in the current UK government focus (2020), which places emphasis on the benefits of offering a holistic experience for early year’s children to support their overall development. Finally, there is evidence presented in the findings that illustrates that many early years practitioners recognise issues with the child’s health and wellbeing via physical, observable signs. Many highlighted the child’s behaviour or recognising a dramatic change in behaviour and sometimes a change in the child’s normal mood. Some highlighted that the child may become more introverted or lack social and communication skills and show little engagement. In comparison with the focus groups discussion, managers placed some focus on the child’s ability to build resilience, which replicates global practice in Croatia that places the emphasis on the building of resilience within early years. Cefai, Matsopoulos, et al; (2014) focus on self-regulation and the child’s ability to manage their own anger and negative emotions.

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2.2 The challenge of measuring child health and wellbeing and what model is more effective The study has provided clear findings that both the early years practitioners and managers lack self-assurance in their ability in using the various wellbeing tools accessed in early years practice. The main findings from the survey illustrated that Nursery staff do not feel confident using the adopted tools and felt they had not received sufficient training to complete the associated scales. They also lacked confidence in their own abilities, with some of the less experienced members of the team feeling that they had not had enough experience to recognise and identify what good wellbeing looks like. The views of Coles, Cheyne and Daniel (2015) highlight the challenges of early years intervention in relation to child health and wellbeing and explore the challenge of making improvements to the sector to assist early years. Similar views are suggested by Susman-Stillman, Meuwissen and Watson (2020) who recognise the pressures within the early years sector for practitioners in supporting child health and wellbeing. Additionally, this is corroborated by the current views of Lyndon (2020), who discussed the pressure that early year’s practitioners face within their daily practice. The research discusses the increasing pressure for practitioners supporting and working in deprived areas (Susman-Stillman, Meuwissen and Watson, 2020). The analysis of the findings clearly evidences the challenges of working in a deficient area, with both practitioners and managers stating the stress this can cause them, particularly if they have experienced their own mental health issues and have grown up within the local community. It is clear that early year’s practitioners require a wide variety of skills in order to understand children’s feelings, and as key workers they should work to ensure they are nurturing children to develop positive relationships and empathy towards others (Blair and Raver, 2012; Chaudry and Wimer, 2016). Early year’s practitioners did not favour any of the health and wellbeing tools suggested, and in fact, none have been adopted as mandatory practice. Both the Leuvan scale and SHANARRI wheel (Scottish Government, 2006) were being used to measure and monitor wellbeing. What was particularly alarming, was the fact that nearly a quarter of the early year’s practitioner respondents highlighted that their setting did not use any formal process for monitoring health and wellbeing at all. This could suggest that some practitioners do not appreciate the urgency and relevance of supporting health and wellbeing and the detrimental effect it can have on a child’s development and on their later life. A further twenty-eight percentage of the study stated that they use some form of feelings, reward or progress chart to monitor wellbeing. This equates to nearly half of the participants involved in the research stating that they has been no official practice adopted in their setting to monitor and measure child health and wellbeing. Evidence within the findings further highlights that some less experienced staff struggle to measure and recognise “what good wellbeing looks like?”. This correlates with the interpretations specified by the global OECD Child Well-Being Data Portal (2020), (Appendix 4) which ranks England as one of the lowest ranking global countries when supporting early years positive involvements for children. Furthermore, the Department for Education (2018) International Early Learning and Child Well-being Study (IELS) presented comparisons and outlined the ongoing study which analysed the factors that implicate child development. The findings highlighted and emphasised the benefits of observing a holistic experience for early years children to support their overall development. 2.3. Qualification and training needed to support early year’s children The study highlighted that over half of the early year’s practitioners participating did not feel sufficiently qualified to implement appropriate interventions and stated they felt that a more bespoke training is needed. Practitioners stated they lack essential knowledge and understanding and simply did not know what they are looking for when identifying the signs and symptoms of child health and wellbeing. They also highlighted the

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responsibility of monitoring wellbeing and stated they often felt out of their depth. The Managers echoed the same views as they further recognised that younger, less-experienced staff struggled to recognise and monitor their abilities when supporting children’s health and wellbeing. The findings evidenced that better mandatory training should be available to all staff that is tailor-made for early years professionals. This supports the findings of UK governments (Nutbrown, 2014) that emphasises the need for all nursery workers to be suitably skilled and well-qualified practitioners in every early years setting, dictating that high quality early education can significantly impact on child development and learning. The review focused on children living in particularly low-income areas and highlighted the impact of this on their wellbeing and the need for better outcomes for these at-risk families (Sylva, Melhuish, et al; 2004. Mathers, Eisenstadt, et al; 2014). In more contemporary research, Archer & Merrick (2020), further recognise the importance of a well-trained, high-quality workforce in recognising the issues with the child’s emotional wellbeing at the earliest point, in order to improve a child’s long-term outcomes and increase the chance of better societal progression. Similar views are presented by Coles, Cheyne and Daniel (2015) which confirms how and why early years professionals need clarity on child health and wellbeing, and the need to use a directed framework that monitors and measures wellbeing. Early year’s managers indicated that they witness younger, less experienced staff struggling to recognise wellbeing and were not assertive in monitoring and supporting this. A further contemporary study conducted by Kay, Wood, Nuttall, & Henderson, (2021) examines the early years workforce reform in England and scrutinises early childhood education in relation to policies and qualification. The findings suggest that both the early years practitioners and managers see the value of training in relation to supporting health and wellbeing, with the majority of practitioners’ responses, in particular the more qualified early year’s staff, valued the importance of building relationships and getting to know the children, and view this as an important element of supporting child health and wellbeing. This reflects the views of Gupta (2019) who believes that relationships in the early years play a fundamental part of communication and development, supporting the practitioner to build a rapport with their key children. The importance of successful relationships is integral to the PERMA model of wellbeing (Seligman, 2012) which is the focus of one of the five priorities to happiness and positive wellbeing. A similar focus is present within Norwegian early years practice, which promotes the Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) model of child personal wellbeing and play interactions. This concentrates on the social interactions of professionals supporting child health and wellbeing (Helmerhorst et al., 2014; Sylva, Melhuish, et al; 2004. These recorded encounters help the child to build a secure attachment to the main carer and support the building of relationships. As key workers, practitioners need to develop their skill to comprehend children’s emotions and guarantee they are building positive relationships (Blair and Raver, 2012). The initial research has allowed for an in-depth thematic analysis to be conducted from an early years and managers’ perspective. It has been suggested that early years practitioners view wellbeing differently, illustrating that there is a need for a clear definition of wellbeing to be established as there is confusion among the sector and there is a need for clarity for professionals (Cameron, Mathers. et al; 2006; Morrow and Mayall, 2009). The research further illustrated that additional training is needed to support the early years workforce in combat the rising issues of supporting low child health and wellbeing (Nutbrown, 2014: Kay, Wood, Nuttall, & Henderson, 2021). This further places the attention on current early years qualification that shape and develop the early years workforce to influence the reform of course content of qualifications and reflect the current rise and issues in health and wellbeing concerns. Furthermore, it stresses the importance of the key worker relationship and the need for practitioners to build successful rapport with children (Grethe Baustad and Bjørnestad 2020; Helmerhorst, Riksen–Walraven, et al; 2014).

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3. Conclusion On reflection, it is apparent that early year’s practice has changed immensely over the last twenty-five years and the challenges that practitioners face in the sector is demanding. The words of one early year’s practitioner is particularly memorable “I do not know what I am looking for, what does good child health and wellbeing look like?”. As early years educators, it is our role to ensure we shape and train practitioners to meet the needs of current contemporary practice and furnish them with the skills to support their roles. It is clear how practice has changed radically over the years and the need for reform within qualifications to reflect the changing issues within the sector (Nutbrown, 2014: Kay, Wood, Nuttall, & Henderson, 2021). The subject of child health and wellbeing was rarely discussed historically, however, more recently via education and the constant pressure of society, the evolving issues of health and wellbeing needs to be supported efficiently. The constructivist interpretivist approach has allowed for the gathering of rich descriptive data to emerge from the heart of early years, gathering individual opinions and views. Recognition must be given to the practitioners working amidst the many daily challenges to support the children in deprived socio-economic communities. (Lyndon, 2020; Susman-Stillman, Meuwissen and Watson, 2020). The approach however further allowed for their views to scrutinise and reveal there is not one truth which was apparent from the findings. The cohesion between the findings clearly advocates the need for a mandatory tool to be adopted by practitioners, alongside comprehensive training which will arm early years practitioners with the tools to support children living in the deprived area of Blackpool. My own wellbeing model will reaffirm the principles highlighted from the EYFS (DfE, 2021) and will centre around the holistic development of health and wellbeing, concentrating on happiness and contentment, emotional intelligence, communication and relationships, and external socio-economic influences (Ben-Arieh, Casas, et al; 2014; Kay, Wood, Nuttall, & Henderson, 2021; Marmot, Allen, et al; 2020; Seaman and Giles, 2019). The tool will allow practitioners to make an initial assessment on the child in relation to the external socio-economic factors that can influence child health and wellbeing. The model will further support the key principles identified within the EYFS early learning goals for personal, social, and emotional development which highlight self-regulation, managing self and building relationships.

Figure 4. SERCCH model of wellbeing (2021)

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Figure 4. Guidance sheet for Early Years practitioners Socio economic factors

What contributing factors are influencing the child’s day to day life?

Emotional intelligence

Can the child regulate their own emotions? Can the child control their behaviour and does not evidence emotional outburst? Can the child follow instructions and simple rules?

Relationships

Does the child form relationships peer to peer and with other adults? Will the child be comforted by a key worker or an adult? Does the child show empathy towards others?

Communication

Does the child play with other children? Does the child speak with others?

Contentment

Is the child content and happy? Does the child show confidence with attempt new challenges? Does the child cope with failure and adversity and show resilience to the situation?

Happiness

Does the child become upset easily and show emotional maturity? Does the child laugh and engage positively with others?

References Archer, N. and Merrick, B. (2020) Quality or quantity in early year’s policy: time to shift the balance? London. Sutton Trust. Anspaugh, D., Hamrick, M., Rosato, F. (2004). Wellness: Concepts and Applications. London. McGraw Hill. Baker, L. Green, S. Falecki, D. (2017). Positive early childhood education: Expanding the reach of positive psychology into early childhood. European Journal of Applied Positive Psychology, 1(8), pp.2397-7116. Ben-Arieh, A.; Casas, F.; Frones, I.; and Korbin, J. (2014). Multifaceted Concept of Child Well-Being. Handbook on Child Well-being. 1, pp.1-27. Blair, C. Raver, C., (2012). Child development in the context of adversity: experiential canalization of brain and behaviour. American Psychologist, 67(4), p.309. Bronfenbrenner, U., (1979) The Ecology of Human Development. Cambridge. Harvard University Press. Cameron, E. Mthers, J. and Parry, J., (2006). ‘Health and well-being’: questioning the use of health concepts in public health policy and practice. Critical public health, 16 (4), pp 347–354. Cefai, C. Matsopoulos, A. Bartolo, P. Galea, K. Gavagiannaki, M. Zanetti, M. Renatari, R. Cavioni, V. Ivanec, T. Šaric, M. and Kimber, B. (2014). A resilience curriculum for early years and primary schools in Europe: enhancing quality education. Croatian Journal of Education, 16 (2), pp.11-32. Chaudry, A. Wimer, C., (2016). Poverty is not just an indicator: the relationship between income, poverty, and child well-being. Academic paediatrics, 16(3), pp.S23-S29.

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Coles, E. Cheyne, H. Daniel, E. (2015) Early year’s interventions to improve child health and wellbeing: what works, for whom and in what circumstances? Protocol for a realist review. Systematic reviews, 4(1), pp.1-6. Department for Education (2021). Statutory Framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage. Available at: https://www.foundationyears.org.uk/eyfs-statutory-framework/ (Accessed: 16th March 2021). Department for Education (2018). International Early Learning and Child Well-being Study (IELS). London. HMSO Dodge, R. Daly, A. Huyton, J. & Sanders, L; (2012). The challenge of defining wellbeing. International Journal of Wellbeing, 2(3),pp 222-235. Grethe Baustad, A; Bjørnestad E; (2020) Interaction Quality in Norwegian ECEC for Toddlers Measured with the Caregiver Interaction Profile (CIP) Scales, Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 64:6, pp 901-920. ta, A; (2019). Poverty and child neglect – the elephant in the room? Families, Relationships and Societies, 6(1), pp. 21-36. Helmerhorst, K. Riksen-Walraven, J. De Kruif, R. Vermeer, H. J., Fukkink, R. G. and Tavecchio, L. (2014). Measuring the interactive skills of caregivers in child care centres: Development and validation of the caregiver interaction profile scales. Early Education & Development Journal, 25(5), 770–790. Kay, L. Wood, E. Nutall, J. and Henderson, L., (2021). Problematising policies for workforce reform in early childhood education: a rhetorical analysis of England’s Early Years Teacher Status. Journal of Education Policy, 36(2), pp.179-195. Lee, R.L.T., Lane, S., Brown, G., Leung, C., Kwok, S.W.H. and Chan, S.W.C. (2020). Systematic review of the impact of unstructured play interventions to improve young children’s physical, social, and emotional wellbeing. Nursing & health sciences, 22(2), pp.184-196. Leadsom, A; Field, F; Burstow, P; Lucas, C. (2015) The 1001 Critical Days: The Importance of the Conception to Age Two Period: A Cross Party Manifesto. 2013. London. HMSO Lyndon, S., (2020). Early year’s practitioners’ personal and professional narratives of poverty. International Journal of Early Years Education. Online First’ Published 11th September 2020 [Available from DOI:10.1080/ 09669760.2020.1782175] Macrae, C. and Jones, L., (2020). A philosophical reflection on the “Leuven Scale” and young children’s expressions of involvement. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education. Online First’ Published 6th November 2020 [Available from DOI 10.1080/09518398.2020.1828650] Mathers, S. Eiestenstadt, N. Sylva, K., Soukakou, E. and Erekey-Steves, K; (2014). Sound foundations: a review of research evidence on quality of early childhood education and care for children under three: implications for policy and practice. Available at: https://education.gov.scot/improvement/research/soundfoundations-a-review-of-the-research-evidence-on-quality-of-early-childhood-education-and-care-for-childrenunder-three-implications-for-policy-and-practice-2014/ [Accessed 30th January 2021]. Marmot, M. Allen, J. Boyce, T. Goldbatt, P. Morrison, J. (2020) Health equity in England: The Marmot Review 10 years on. London: Institute of Health Equity. Morrow, V. and Mayall, B., (2009). What is wrong with children’s well-being in the UK? Questions of meaning and measurement. Journal of Social Welfare and Family Law, 31(3), pp.217-229. Nutbrown, C; (2012). Foundations for quality: the independent review of early education and childcare qualifications: final report. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/nutbrown-reviewfoundations-for-quality [Accessed 16 January 2021].

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Organisation for economic cooperation and development OECD; (2020). Early Learning and Child Well-being: A Study of Five-year-Olds in England, Estonia, and the United States. Paris. OECD Publishing. Pollard, E.L. and Lee, P.D., (2003). Child well-being: A systematic review of the literature. Social indicators research, 61(1), pp.59-78. Public Health England; (2020). Blackpool Child Health Profile. England. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/ government/statistics/2019-child-health-profiles [Accessed on December 2019] Robson, S. Brogaard-Clausen, S. and Hargreaves, D; (2019). Loved or listened to? Parent and practitioner perspectives on young children’s well-being. Early Child Development and Care, 189(7), pp.1147-1161. Seaman, H. and Giles, P; (2019). Supporting children’s social and emotional well-being in the early years: An exploration of practitioners’ perceptions. Early Child Development and Care. Online First’ Published 6th November 2020 [Available from DOI10.1080/03004430.2019.1649668] Seligman, M; (2012). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. London. Free Press Selwyn, J. and Riley, S., (2015). Measuring well-being: A literature review. Hadley Centre for Adoption and Foster Care Studies. University of Bristol. Scottish Government, (2006). Getting it right for every child (GIRFEC). Available at: https://www.gov.scot/ policies/girfec/principles-and-values/ [Accessed on 12th September 2020] Scottish Government; (2019a). Improving children and young people’s understanding of their wellbeing. A resource for teachers and practitioners working with children and young people. Edinburgh. Children in Scotland. Scottish Government; (2020). United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (Incorporation) (Scotland) Bill. Scotland. Scottish Government Sointu, E., (2005). The rise of an ideal: tracing changing discourses of wellbeing. The Sociological Review, 53(2), pp. 255-274. Smith, R; (2018). Research Review Promoting Children’s Emotional Health. London. Barnardo’s Publications Susman-Stillman, A. Lim, S. Meuwissen, A. and Watson, C; (2020). Reflective Supervision/Consultation and Early Childhood Professionals’ Well-Being: A Qualitative Analysis of Supervisors’ Perspectives. Early Education and Development. 31(7), pp.1151-1168. Sylva, K. Melhuish, E. Sammons, P., Siraj, I. and Taggart, B; (2004). The Effective Provision of Pre-School Education [EPPE] Project. Findings from the Early Primary Years. Nottingham. DfES Publications. Temple, E. and Emmett, S., (2013). Promoting the development of children’s emotional and social wellbeing in early childhood settings: How can we enhance the capability of educators to fulfil role expectations? Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 38(1), pp.66-72. The Children’s Society; (2020). What is Child Well-being? Available at: https://www.childrenssociety.org.uk/ what-is-child-wellbeing [Accessed 19th February 2020]. Thompson, S. Aked, A; (2009). A guide to measuring children’s well-being. London. Action for Children & the New Economics Foundation. UNICEF (2019) A child’s guide to the child well-being report. Paris. UNICEF publications UNICEF (2019) (United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) Available at https://www.unicef.org.uk/what-we-do/un-convention-child-rights/ [Accessed on November 16th 2019)

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Wild, M. Silbefield, C. and Nightingale,B; (2015). More? Great? Childcare? A Discourse Analysis of Two Recent Social Policy Documents Relating to the Care and Education of Young Children in England. International Journal of Early Years Education, 23 (3): 230–244. Zabeli, N. and Gjelaj, M., (2020). Preschool teacher’s awareness, attitudes and challenges towards inclusive early childhood education: A qualitative study. Cogent Education, 7(1), p.156-179.

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Questioning the efficacy of online Continuous Professional Development (CPD); practitioner reflections through experiential and theoretical lenses Richard Dunston

Abstract Continuing Professional Development (CPD), a long-established feature of modern-day practice, often divides practitioner opinion in terms of its necessity and relevance. As modern-day educators, we find ourselves in a seemingly perpetual struggle to meet the obligations of the job role as we become slaves to temporality, the importance of time, and its lack thereof, becoming more prevalent and a precious commodity for all. The need for CPD is not up for question, most practitioners would advocate for its necessity and value however, it is the very nature of the CPD that brings about the need for questioning. CPD has become more widespread over the last decade, with practitioners required to undertake development linked to their fields of expertise and wider skill sets as educational professionals. An inversely proportional relationship between time and developmental requirements has evolved, leading to an exponential shift in CPD towards more cost-effective and accessible online mediums. Experientially speaking, I must question this trend as there would appear to be more pitfalls associated with a move away from synchronous models of delivery to wider, asynchronous alternatives. These pitfalls are clearly highlighted when evaluating the effectiveness of online CPD and applying a theoretical lens, in the guise of Moore’s transactional distance theory, to establish its overall efficacy as a result of its metamorphosis and ensuing virtual rebirth.

Introduction This study is located within the arena of continuous professional development (CPD) focusing on the widening shift, on the part of educational providers, to implement CPD through online mediums, akin to distance learning models. This emerging trend is a result of the need to counter the issue of increased employee workloads (Razak et al, 2015) whilst, simultaneously, optimising the potential for coverage and accessibility of wider professional development. However, as a long-standing practitioner, I would argue that this shift towards asynchronicity may appear to be effective from a cost-effective and lean-management perspective however, removing key, intrinsic elements associated with a synchronous delivery model, and attempting to emulate them asynchronously, is simply not viable. In many cases, this renders the CPD moot in terms of its value to the practitioner and wider organisation. The aim of the study is to explore current research related to CPD and distance learning, with particular attention paid to the core conceptual framework for CPD (Desimone, 2009; Timperley et al, 2007), Transactional Distance theory (Moore, 1973 and 1993) and, to a lesser extent, Equivalency Theory (Simonson et al, 1999 and 2015). This research is considered and combined with subjective

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reflections, attempts to illustrate the differences and conflicts between synchronous and asynchronous delivery models and how this can directly impact upon the efficacy of the CPD itself.

Research and Reflections CPD is deeply embedded within the culture of modern-day educational practice (Peel, 2005) and has long been regarded as being a vital component in contributing towards practitioner currency (Bolderston, 2007; Cervero, 2001; Kennedy, 2014) and the wider notion of professional validation. Peel expands upon this theme by suggesting that the impacts of CPD extend beyond the workplace and, potentially, shape an individual’s personal and societal positioning and profile. However, from an alternative, and seemingly negative, perspective, Guskey (2002) suggests that CPD is nothing more than ‘systematic efforts to bring about change in classroom practices’ (2002:381); furthermore, he states that its objective is to ‘initiate change in teachers’ attitudes, beliefs and perceptions’ (2002:382), changes that, by proxy, will lead to improved practice. Are we therefore to assume that when CPD is implemented by the organisation something is wrong? Do we immediately infer that our practice or professionalism is deficient in some way? Does this perhaps explain the reticence and resistance we encounter amongst our fellow practitioners? Practitioners recognise the benefits of CPD (Guskey, 2002) and strongly advocate for its existence and purpose however, the widening breadth of CPD that we seem to encounter year on year, coupled with the time implications associated with their completion, has had a negative impact on this recognition and advocacy, with many practitioners reticent to engage (de Vries et al, 2014). Modern day educators have become slaves to temporality, time has become our most precious commodity, and we find ourselves grappling with exponentially increasing workloads and responsibilities amidst dedicating time for CPD, a sentiment shared by Clay and Weston (2018). One can clearly see the argument for the aforementioned shift towards online mediums, but it is not the need for CPD itself that is up for question, it is the very nature of the CPD that brings about the need for questioning. Upon reflection, I consider my own positionality in relation to the notion of online CPD, one of scepticism or cynicism at best; I find myself struggling to rationalise the concept of online CPD and locate its proposed, inherent value. Perhaps my positionality, as it is, is generationally-linked? Is my propensity towards scepticism or cynicism a result of my generation-X origins? Has my previous experience tainted my ability to be open-minded about alternatives? In an age where technology has come to the fore, is it possible to design and deliver models of CPD through distance learning? Can this alternative approach be effective and fulfil its intended purpose fully? CPD is understood to be the umbrella term applied to all aspects of training and development within the job role that occurs following any period of initial training or induction (Eraut, 1994; Keegan, 2019). The expectation is that CPD is executed in such a way that individual development is ‘logical and structured’ (Armour and Yelling, 2004:95), propelling the participant in some form of upward trajectory. Assumptions can be inferred from this; should it transpire that any given CPD was irrelevant or repetitive, then this would impede or alter the aforementioned trajectory for that individual. With this in mind there is a need to design and implement CPD that clearly meets the needs of its participants with minimal, if any, ambiguity in terms of its intent or execution. Research has shown that CPD effectiveness is directly relational to the impact it has on ‘knowledge, skills, values, attributes, behaviours and changes in practice in the workplace’ (Schostak et al., 2010:586) again supporting the assumption that any form of CPD lacking in impact is effectively redundant. At the heart of this study is the focus on the efficacy of online CPD, specifically when implemented via distance learning, where considerations must be made to compensate for the lack of face-to-face contact and a minimal

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support network. I find myself in conflict with Tyreman (2019), who suggests that online CPD can be as effective as face-to-face CPD stipulating that it is simply a question of its design and implementation. Speaking subjectively as someone who has experienced a range of CPD mediums, it is the human element that is the point for debate, this bringing to the fore the philosophical notion or concept of habitus (Bourdieu, 1984), having to factor individual tendencies and inclinations into thought processes. Moving from a synchronous learning environment to one that is asynchronous, requiring greater levels of autonomy on the part of the user, is not always viable, not everyone is capable of such a transition; design and implementation aside, change must also be perceived as being of value to, and meet the needs of, the individual (Schostak et al, 2010). Despite my initial disagreement with Tyreman (2019), when considering CPD efficacy I concur with her, as someone who has designed and delivered CPD sessions and courses, in recognising the need to ensure learners are challenged and taken out of their comfort zone, almost forced into a state of disequilibrium (Makopoulou, 2018). Learning cannot be effective if it is mundane or a variation of previously visited theme; participants must be exposed to new ideas and practices that forces them to question their inherent beliefs and practices without demeaning them or suggesting any level of inadequacy or ineptitude on their part. This perhaps allays the fears raised as a result of Guskey’s (2002) earlier comments.

A question of habitus CPD, in distance learning form, lacks the element of face-to-face interaction and, therefore, embodied or active learning as we perceive it. Collectively, as humans, we are, at heart, social in our proclivities (Baker, 2017; Tomasello, 2014); as such, our primal instincts crave interaction with peers, communication is something we seek and embrace in any scenario. In the case of distance learning, this is lacking and, as such, places undue pressures on participants who have to re-evaluate and adopt mind-sets that align with distance learning and all it entails. A brief foray into Pierre Bourdieu and his notion of habitus (Bourdieu, 1984; Bourdieu and Wacquant, 1992) is useful here as we have to ask how difficult is it to transition to something that goes against our nature? How malleable is an individual’s habitus or predispositions? Wacquant (2016:68) offers that one’s habitus is in a state of ‘permanent revision’ therefore the notion of malleability is axiomatic. Human nature suggests that we are, at times, creatures of habit therefore, having to adapt to that which is not habitual can be problematic. This notion of habitus gives us a better understanding of practitioner behaviour, certainly from a psychological perspective, when considering those who are more reticent or resistant towards undertaking CPD. It is somehow ingrained in their psyche to the point where the realisation that CPD is beneficial exists, however their habitus is such that they tend towards negativity in the first instance. When considering a shift towards asynchronous learning, it is imperative that, before considering relevant theoretical frameworks in the planning stages, as discussed in the following section, we must consider the underlying, and potentially obstructive, influence that philosophical concepts, such as habitus, can have on the implementation of pedagogical change. If one were to acknowledge, for example, that participant uptake on a particular course of CPD would be minimal, then this would indicate that the need for the course itself is negated.

Theoretical underpinning The underpinning theoretical framework associated with the foundations of this study, specifically, Moore’s transactional distance theory, is associated with, but not exclusive to (Naylor and Wilson, 2009), distance learning and it is important to understand this distinction before considering the theory and its applicability. Terms including online learning, e-learning and distance learning can be semantically confusing however, the qualifying distinction that differentiates distance learning from its contemporaries is the absence of the teacher

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from the process (Keegan, 1980; Rumble, 1989; Simonson et al, 1999) coupled with the lack of interaction with others. The premise behind the theories under review in this study is that they attempt to identify, and effectively posit interventionist strategies for, the disparities highlighted between distance learning and more traditional models. Transactional distance (TD) theory, as explained by Moore (1973), encapsulates the discursive relationship that exists between structure, dialogue and autonomy (Gorsky and Caspi, 2005; Ramdoo, 2008) and considers the degrees of separation between them in terms of their theoretical positional juxtaposition. It is posited that any apparent theoretical or cognitive gap, often labelled as a ‘psychological or communication space’ (Moore, 1993:20), must be bridged in order for distance learning to effectively take place. Gorsky and Caspi (2005) pointed to the importance of TD theory as it identifies that the essential distance in distance education is transactional, not spatial or temporal; it relates to the teacher-student relationship as opposed to the time or geographical location of learning. Moore stipulates that the narrower the level of TD, the more effective the teaching (Hauser et al, 2012: Stein et al, 2005), as one would expect. Transactional distance, the term applied to the aforementioned gap, cannot be quantified statistically but evaluated in terms of its prevalence and relational impact; one could argue that it would be omnipresent to some extent unless the levels of dialogue, structure and autonomy were such that its manifestation could truly be nullified. Although it is associated with distance and other non-traditional learning typologies, it can be applied to traditional face-to-face models as, even in classrooms where learning and the environment can be controlled, TD can exist (Naylor and Wilson, 2009) for one or more learners in any given situation. Initially, it is necessary to break down the theory into its composite parts, or dimensions, and explain each of them and their respective connotations in order to understand the purpose they fulfil within the wider theoretical framework. Transaction, in this instance, refers to the discourse or interplay that exists between the learner and teacher within a given distance learning relationship and the degree to which the three component parts, structure, dialogue and autonomy (Moore, 1997; Naylor and Wilson, 2009; Ramdoo, 2008) exist within that discourse. Structure denotes the course or program being undertaken, including its content, resources and/or relevant support mechanisms; it is often represented in tandem with the learner’s capacity for individualisation, the relationship between the two being oppositional in nature as the higher the level of embedded structure, the lower the capacity for individualisation and vice versa. It is necessary to note here that capacity for individualisation and the wider notion of autonomy are independent of each other however, as expected, they become directly relational once the structure-dialogue relationship or level of TD has been established. Similarly, the relationship between structure and TD is positive and they will increase or decrease harmonically, never finding themselves in opposition. Secondly, dialogue represents the level of direct interaction or communication, verbal or otherwise, between the learner and teacher or learner and their peers across the distance divide. Unlike structure, dialogue is negatively related or inversely proportional to TD with the increase or decrease in one having the opposite effect on the other. Thirdly, autonomy signifies the level of control or determination learners have over the learning content or the wider learning process; it is often viewed as being magnitudinal in its orientation as it fluctuates and is defined as a result of the direct correlation between the other two variables, arguably classifying it as being a consequential factor as opposed to being contributory. The image below illustrates the relationship between structure and dialogue and how this impacts upon the level of TD: Analysing the image (fig.1), assumptions can be made when contrasting levels of structure and dialogue at specific points however, as we move away from the origin and axial extremes, there is the potential for interpretational ambiguity such is the complexity of the wider theory and the intricateness of the various dimensional relationships. The image below however, a three-dimensional representation of TD theory, offers higher levels of clarity and integrates the tertiary variable of ‘autonomy’ previously discussed.

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Fig.1 Transactional distance and the structure-dialogue relationship (Delgaty, 2018)

Fig.2 Overview of transactional distance theory (Delgaty, 2018) Figure 2, above, eliminates the potential for interpretational ambiguity and enables us to utilise the visual representation of the theory to propose the following assumptions in terms of the structure-dialogue relationship and how these affect the level of TD within each given transaction: 1. Increased structure + decreased dialogue = highest levels of TD/autonomy 2. Decreased structure + increased dialogue = lowest levels of TD/autonomy 3. Increased structure + increased dialogue = increased levels of TD/autonomy 4. Decreased structure + decreased dialogue = increased levels of TD/autonomy It is important to understand that the level of learner autonomy within the framework is commensurate with the level of TD, as would be expected, with more autonomy on the part of the learner required when faced with

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greater levels of transactional distance to compensate for apparent the lack of dialogue. Research does appear to suggest that the common approach, one I classify as being bottom-up, is to establish the structure-dialogue relationship which, in turn, defines the transactional distance level and, consequently, the degree of autonomy placed upon the learner. I am not sure I fully support this angle of approach; I agree with Moore (1993) and Ramdoo (2008) that learner autonomy is perhaps the most important of the variables, the one that defines the structure-dialogue relationship and, therefore, the transactional distance therein. In this instance, the approach becomes one that is almost top-down with autonomy becoming the main contributory or guiding factor, the others becoming more consequential in their manifestation as they are integral rather than defining components. For example, with a learner demographic suited to autonomous learning, in order to implement this, it would be deliberately designed to be highly structured yet lacking in dialogue throughout, resulting in high levels of transactional distance and capacity for individualisation. Conversely, with a low-ability or high-maintenance demographic, the design of the learning would be based around minimal autonomy with the focus being on dialogue and structure laden with support mechanisms. My point here is that distance learning practitioners must adopt whichever approach best suits the learner demographic, avoiding falling into the trap of psychological myopia where autonomy takes a back seat and is not harnessed fully in the learning design process.

CPD and Transactional Distance theory Transactional distance theory comes to the fore when contrasting and evaluating the various CPD typologies, especially those that are non-traditional in orientation as any move away from the norm, so to speak, will automatically result in some level of disparity that requires consideration. In an effort to illustrate this discussion thread, three typologies have been defined and labelled, its corresponding positioning within the previously discussed models illustrated below:

Fig.3 Transactional distance theory models (Delgaty, 2018) 1. When implementing face-to-face CPD, we would expect there to be degrees of structure within the session complemented by good levels of dialogue throughout; the session would undoubtedly contain discussion, debate, delivery, collaboration and, perhaps, active learning. In this case the level of TD would be low, similarly with autonomy, and this would locate this typology towards position one in the images above. Its position, as with others, is not a fixed point, as any change in terms of the variables previously stipulated, will result in movement in and around the positional area it finds itself.

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2. Online learning, in most cases, contains good levels of structure as it aims to replicate what occurs in the traditional classroom and must be in place to counter any issues such as absence or inability to interact; this structure is augmented by assumed ‘medium’ levels of dialogue as interaction takes place but at a level lower than in the classroom. The level of TD, as with autonomy, within online learning would fluctuate to compensate for increased levels of structure combined with decreased levels of dialogue. For purposes of this study, I suggest a mid-model positioning (number 2 above) for both as they will be impacted upon by the ever-shifting degrees of structure and dialogue present but, not to the point where one or the other becomes non-existent. 3. Distance learning will clearly position itself towards the apex of each model (number 3) as it is traditionally high in structure, in order to cater to learners and ensure progression through their learning with minimal or zero contact. Lacking in any form of interaction therefore results in the need for high levels of autonomy on the part of the learner and therefore the greatest level of TD across the typologies. Understanding the concept of TD is imperative in the design process as the online packages evaluated would clearly not suit learners who struggle with being autonomous or who rely on interaction.

Concluding comments: food for thought The assumption made above is arguably the most important one for us as practitioners, as we readily accept that, as individuals, we are diverse and this diversity must be accounted for regardless of the mode of delivery or the learning approach employed. In the case of everyday learners, we cater to their differentiated needs and we must apply the same strategies when considering CPD for employees as, is often the case, there is no one-size fits all panacea with regard to education. The dilemma facing practitioners today when considering CPD is how do we harness it, how do we ensure it is fit for purpose across the piece? In a search for a solution, I defer to Michael Simonson, the founder of Equivalency Theory, who believed that distance education ‘should be built on the concept of equivalency of learning experiences’ (Simonson et al, 1999:70). In essence, he proposed that, whilst acquiescing that there are fundamental differences between traditional learning and distance learning (Simonson, 1995), he suggested that a degree of parity is possible as ‘the more equivalent the learning experiences of distant learners are to those of traditional learners, the more equivalent will be the outcomes of the educational experiences for all learners’ (Simonson et al, 1999:70). The first question here must be is equivalency sufficient? Equivalency and equality are not the same thing; equality refers to holistic similarity throughout, whereas equivalency intimates at aspectual similarity only. When considering distance learning and traditional learning, one must conclude that, regardless of the equivalency between the two entities, equality of learning experiences will never be achieved, therefore should one entity (in this case distance learning) be presumed as being lesser, potentially inferior, than the other? The challenge in relation to online CPD, it would seem, continues…

References Armour K and Yelling (2004) Continuing Professional Development for Experienced Physical Education Teachers: Towards Effective Provision, Sport, Education and Society, vol.9 (1), pp.95-114 Baker L (2015) Human Persons as Social Entities, Journal of Social Ontology, vol,1 (1), pp.77-87 Bolderston A (2007) Maintaining competence: a holistic view of continuous professional development, Journal of Radiology in Practice, vol.6, pp.133-141

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Bourdieu P (1984) Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste, Cambridge, Harvard University Press Bourdieu P, Wacquant L (1992) An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology, Oxford, Polity Press Cervero R (2001) Continuing professional education in transition, 1981 - 2000, International Journal of Lifelong Education, vol.20 (1/2), pp.16-30 Clay B and Weston D (2018) “No teacher thinks they have enough time for proper CPD. Here’s how schools can MAKE time…” [Online][Accessed 22/03/2020] Retrieved from: https://www.tes.com/news/no-teacherthinks-they-have-enough-time-proper-cpd-heres-how-schools-can-make-time Delgaty L (2006) “Transactional Distance Theory: A Critical View of the Theoretical and Pedagogical Underpinnings of e-Learning” [Online][Accessed 17/04/2020] Retrieved from: https://www.intechopen.com/books/ interactive-multimedia-multimedia-production-and-digital-storytelling/transactional-distance-theory-a-criticalview-of-the-theoretical-and-pedagogical-underpinnings-of-eDesimone L (2009) Improving impact studies of teachers’ professional development: Toward better conceptualizations and measures, Educational Researcher, vol.38 (3), pp.181-199 De Vries S, van de Grift W, Jansen E (2014) How teachers’ beliefs about learning and teaching relate to their continuing professional development, Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, vol.20 (3), pp.338-357 Eraut M (1994) Developing Professional Knowledge and Competence, London, Falmer Press Gorsky P, Caspi A (2005) A critical analysis of transactional distance theory, Quarterly Review of Distance Education, vol.6 (1), pp.1-11 Guskey T (2002) Professional Development and Teacher Change, Teachers and Teaching, vol.8 (3), pp.381-391 Hauser R, Paul R, Bradley J (2012) Computer Self-Efficacy, Anxiety, and Learning in Online Versus Face to Face Medium, Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, vol.11, pp.141-154 Keegan D (1980) On defining distance education, Distance Education, vol.1 (1), pp.13-36 Keegan R (2019) Unleashing the Powers Within: Delving Into Our Own Talents to Provide Effective CPD, Physical Educator, vol.76, pp.110-134 Kennedy A (2014) Models of Continuing Professional Development: a framework for analysis, Professional Development in Education, vol.40 (3), pp.336-351 Makopoulou K (2018) An investigation into the complex process of facilitating effective professional learning: CPD tutors’ practices under the microscope, Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, vol.23 (3), pp.250-266 Moore, M.G. (1993). Theory of transactional distance, in Keegan D (Ed.), Theoretical principles of distance education (pp.22-38), New York, Routledge Moore M (1973) Toward a Theory of Independent Learning and Teaching, Journal of Higher Education, vol.44 (9), pp.661-679 Naylor L, Wilson L (2009) Staying connected: MPA Student Perceptions of Transaction Presence, Journal of Public Affairs Education, vol.15 (3), pp.317-331 Peel D (2005) Dual professionalism: facing the challenges of continuing professional development in the workplace? Reflective Practice, vol.6 (1), pp.123-140 Ramdoo S (2008) Beyond the Theoretical Impasse: Extending the applications of Transactional Distance Theory, International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, vol.9 (3), pp.1-17 Razak R, Yusop F, Halili S, Chukumaran S (2015) Electronic Continuous Professional Development (E-CPD) for Teachers: Bridging the Gap between Knowledge and Application, Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology [Online][Accessed 23/03/2020] Retrieved from: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1077613.pdf

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Rumble G (1989) Concept: On defining distance education, American Journal of Distance Education, vol.3 (2), pp.8-21 Schostak J, Davis M, Hanson J, Schostak J, Brown T, Driscoll P, Starke I, Jenkins N (2010) ‘Effectiveness of Continuing Professional Development’ project: A summary of findings, Medical Teacher, vol.32 (7), pp.586-592 Simonson M, Smaldino S, Zvacek S (2015) Teaching and Learning at a Distance: Foundations of Distance Education, 6th edition, IAP, Charlotte Simonson M, Schlosser C, Hanson D (1999) Theory and distance education: A new discussion, American Journal of Distance Education, vol.13 (1), pp.60-75 Simonson M (1995) Does Anyone Really Want to Learn, Tech Trends, vol.40, p.12 Stein D, Wanstreet C, Calvin J, Overtoom C, Wheaton J (2005) Bridging the Transactional Gap in Online Learning Environments, American Journal of Distance Education, vol.19 (2), pp.105-118 Timperley H, Wilson A, Barrar H, Fung I (2007) Teacher professional learning and development. Best evidence synthesis iteration. Wellington: Ministry of Education. Tomasello M (2014) The ultra-social animal, European Journal of Social Psychology, vol.44, pp.187-194 Tyreman H (2019) “What does good online teacher CPD look like?” [Online][Accessed 21/03/2020] Retrieved from: https://schoolsweek.co.uk/what-does-good-online-teacher-cpd-look-like/2 Wacquant L (2016) A concise genealogy and anatomy of habitus, The Sociological Review, vol.64, pp.64-72

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The Realm(s) of Belongingness (Online) Colette Mazzola-Randles

Abstract A contentious debate amongst educators, the implementation and impact of sense of belonging; this debate is typically defined in campus rich interactions, with little to no notion of online interactions. For many institutions and individual staff members, it is an incredible challenge and has made a significant impact on staff making meaningful, emotional connections with their students in an online learning environment. Creating emotional connections and a sense of belonging is perplexed and convoluted. This paper brings together a wide range of primary data in order to define and analyse the literature around this topic. This study used a phenomenological methodology with semi-structured interviews. The participants were from a variety of universities and curriculum areas in the United Kingdom and Ireland. The results of this study indicate that creating emotional connections and a sense of belonging is fundamental to teaching and learning online. In addition, the findings indicate that not all staff used visible interactions (via web cameras) to develop emotional connections online, the non-visible interactions were also noted as successful, as the asynchronous environment appeared to support students to become more confident and express themselves in a medium that they could not in a face-to-face environment (Suler, 2004; Wu et al., 2017; Tanis & Postmes, 2007; Scott, 1999). The recommendation is the importance of more robust, focused training to ensure teachers and students have knowledge of the benefits and drawbacks to emotional connections and sense of belonging, which should alleviate some of the implications and barriers to learning and teaching online, which are outlined in this paper.

Introduction A controversial debate amongst educators is the implementation and impact of a sense of belonging (Sense of belonging); this debate is typically defined in campus rich interactions, with little to no notion of online interactions. For many institutions and individual staff members, this has been an incredible challenge and made a significant impact on staff making meaningful, emotional connections with their students. A significant strength of digital learning is that individuals can learn at their own pace and prioritise the areas of a course they find more applicable to themselves. However, these same strengths can also present very real challenges, especially for new students who can feel unconfident about their academic skills and abilities and find immersion in the online educational space to be alien, even threatening - particularly when they are expected to post in online discussions and engage in online group work (Goodnow, 1993; Fulford and Zhang, 1993). In the digital environment, students can often miss out on interactions they might otherwise have had if they attended physically. Studies have shown that studying remotely can leave some students feeling isolated and lonely; emotions which significantly impact on their motivation to learn (Goodnow, 1993; Fulford and Zhang, 1993; Hausmann et al, 2009; Kearsley, 1995). This would appear to be why some Massive Open On-line

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Courses (MOOCs) can have extremely high dropout rates, with Sandee (2017) suggesting that completing rates hovered below the ten percent marker (Martinez, 2003; Muse, 2003; Simpson, 2003). In addition, not all students will possess the skills necessary to learn independently. Repeated demographic studies of those who successfully study online demonstrate that they tend to be already well educated, with the skills to read through materials and complete assessments. Furthermore, there must be consideration that not all students have the same level of access to the internet and technology as others (Goodnow, 1993; Fulford and Zhang, 1993; Hausmann et al, 2009; Kearsley, 1995). Therefore, it is vital that digital courses and delivery are inclusive, supportive and afford students the chance to work collaboratively with their peers and establish supportive communities. This research could be important, as it will investigate and outline how emotional connections are made in an online space. In addition, it is imperative to define what mechanisms are in place to support staff and students to establish supportive communities. The Office for Students writes that for individuals to unlock their potential, they need not just to gain access to a degree, but also have mechanisms and support to become successful (Davey, 2019). This focus of this study has not been undertaken before and could contribute to the knowledge currently known on creating emotional connection online, furthermore the psychological perspectives of online learning and teaching does not feature heavily in the research, and there are key factors that need to be addressed in order to create a fully inclusive, supportive environment, that affords students the chance to work collaboratively with their peers and establish supportive communities.

Research Questions RQ1: To what extent do emotional connections impact learning and teaching in an online environment? • How do teachers describe their experiences of emotional connections in online learning? • How important do they feel emotional connections are, and why? RQ2: What mechanisms are used to build and implement emotional connections in an online environment? • How would teachers develop more emotional connections in online learning, and why would they do it in these ways? • Are there emotional connections that teachers feel would be difficult to develop in an online environment? Why would these be important or crucial?

The Focus of the Research (Literature) This research will contribute to the wealth of knowledge on creating emotional connections online. In addition, it aims to touch on the psychological perspectives of human-to-human visible and non-visible interactions online, in order to develop practical applications with current topical tools and techniques, which educators could take advantage of whilst teaching and learning in online learning environments. Emotional connections and a Sense of belonging have been researched extensively (Goodenow, 1993; Fulford and Zhang, 1993; Hausmann et al, 2009; Kearsley, 1995). However, the psychological perspectives of online learning and teaching does not feature heavily in the research, and there are key factors that need to be addressed in order to create a fully inclusive, supportive environment, that affords students the chance to work collaboratively with their peers and establish supportive communities.

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Belonging and Engagement Belonging: a simple word for a huge concept. It is a basic human need, just like the need for food and shelter. Maslow (1943) proposed his Hierarchy of Needs, that indicates that physiological need is a basis to foster motivation. This theory has been emphatically contested and modified over the years (Neher, 1991). However, one could deduce that if a person’s physiological needs are not met, it could be incredibly detrimental to their intrinsic motivation and overall Sense of belonging. Intrinsic motivation involves doing something because it is personally rewarding, without external reward or punishment (Maslow, 1962). Maslow’s hierarchical diagram (see Figure 1) illustrates to achieve Sense of belonging, one must firstly satisfy their physiological and security needs.

Figure 1 - Maslow Hierarchy of Need (Maslow, 1962)

Maslow infers that a Sense of belonging involves how a person emotionally feels and that they are accepted in a group; for example, social groups, community groups and friendships all satisfy a person’s physiological need to belong. People need personal connections to feel accepted, comfortable, supported, and safe (Maslow, 1962; Thomas, 2012). Goodenow (2003) defines Sense of belonging as involving feelings of being accepted, needed, mattering, valued, feeling of fitting in, being connected to a group, class, subject or institution. Matheson and Sutcliffe (2017) suggest Sense of belonging is based on relationships and will only be established if others truly care about them. In the absence of Sense of belonging, people could become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression (Meehan and Howells, 2018).

Learning Environments Learning environments is an area that needs to be considered when attempting to create a Sense of belonging. The online space is void of walls, seating plans and replaced by informal discussion fora. In some learning instances, academic staff are not always present, resulting in the curriculum being delivered through pre-recorded content. This raises concerns for creating Sense of belonging, as the whole premise to creating Sense of belonging is formal and informal interactions (Martinez, 2003; Muse, 2003; Thomas et al, 2014). Hurtado and Carter’s (1997) work indicated that using a holistic socio-affective strategy, where the learning is a joint responsibility, improves senses of student attainment, increased learner satisfaction and persistence (Hausmann et al., 2009; Locks et al., 2008). Research found that engagement and wellbeing are factors that support a learner’s motivation and improve self-confidence, self-esteem, and self-efficacy which link to creating a positive Sense of belonging. However, this research was completed only in an on-campus environment with no indication to an online presence. Therefore, there needs to a focus to engagement and wellbeing in online learning environments (Hausmann et al., 2009; Locks et al., 2008; Maestas et al., 2007; Tovar and Simon, 2010, Yoo and Huang, 2013).

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One consideration in potentially supporting engagement and wellbeing is remote learning through meetings via webcams and screenshare. Whilst this is relatively new to many educators, some universities have been operating in this manner for many years, for example, via MOOCs. A MOOC is a course of study made available over the internet to a very large number of people. MOOCs are documented as having extremely high dropout rates, which could be deemed as a negative for creating a Sense of belonging (Martinez, 2003; Muse, 2003; Simpson, 2003). Whilst MOOCS typically have low completion rates compared to enrolments, the course structure seems to be the issue (Rovai, 2003; Simpson, 2003). Content is representing more monologue than dialogue, stocked with pre-recorded lectures, directed to an anonymous class, online discussion forums, swamped by thousands of students, which is noted as ethically unmanageable for the student and the teacher (Martinez, 2003; Simpson, 2003; Thomas et al., 2014). In order to avoid what Zhao, Englert, Chen, Jones, and Ferdig (2000) call the intellectual IV drip of facts, there needs more focus on questions, synthesis of answers, discussion, debate and to form an intellectual community which students feel they are part of. Creating conversation and community depends on a personal connection which is said to be much harder to replicate online (Zhao, Englert, Chen, Jones, and Ferdig, 2000). Online learning has received ambivalent responses from scholars over the years, many stating the positives, for example, the ability to bring people together that otherwise may not have the opportunity (Zhao, Englert, Chen, Jones, and Ferdig, 2000) and the ability to alleviate feelings of isolation (Hough, Smithey, and Evertson, 2004). Furthermore, online learning in an asynchronous style could allow participants time to respond, allowing for more calculated discussions. Whereas synchronous conversations offer the possibility for immediate collaboration, both mediums afford students to have their own voice, which is occasionally missing in a face-to-face environment (Beeghly, 2005; Tiene 2000; Suler, 2004). Greenland and Moore’s (2014) analysis of 200 qualitative student interviews found that lack of flexibility in assessment policies negatively impacted a student’s Sense of belonging in an online learning environment. In addition, Strayhorn (2012) cites the work of Hagerty, Williams, and Oe (2002) and affirms that the absence of a Sense of belonging is typically described as alienation, rejection, social isolation and can lead to low self-esteem and depression. In contrast, Beeghly and Huang’s (2013) study found that regular online student engagement improved retention, motivation, and Sense of belonging. Therefore, one could conclude that the use of regular online sessions is a fundamental element that needs to be incorporated into learning online and creating a community, to ensure students feel accepted, safe and belong.

Community of Inquiry (CoI) Framework Community and the creation of community features heavily in the research. Scholars imply that building a community in an online environment helps create Sense of belonging; therefore it is essential to explore this element further (Garrison, Anderson and Archer, 1999; Fulford and Zhang, 1993; Thomas et al., 2014; Palloff and Pratt, 2003; Li et al., 2009; Wenger, 2000). In order to understand the concept of Community of Inquiry (CoI), we must firstly define community. In this specific context, it describes people in a group who share a common interest of communicating knowledge and believe that people can learn in a collaborative environment. The term ‘Learning community’ emerged from the research in the early 19th century and the concept of community embedded in a social context by pragmatist philosophers C.S. Peirce and John Dewey. Lipman (2003, pp. 20–21) applied the concept to the educational setting and argued that the classroom environment is a type of CoI which leads to “questioning, reasoning, connecting, deliberating, challenging, and developing problem-solving techniques.” In addition, Garrison,

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Anderson and Archer (1999) applied this concept to computer mediated communication (CMC) and found that conferencing via a computer over the internet has a potential to create a CoI in an educational context (Garrison, Anderson and Archer, 1999). Using a CMC, there are documented techniques to improve Sense of belonging; one example is that teachers should take a step back and act as a facilitator, to equalise the roles between teacher and student in a community as this often maximises collaboration. However, the research does indicate that this can be a struggle for some students, and they may feel a sense of discomfort and insecurity. To alleviate these potential issues, developing a high level of trust amongst participants is suggested (Fulford and Zhang, 1993; Thomas et al., 2014; Palloff and Pratt, 2003). Garrison is a respected and well recognised scholar, who expresses the need for students to belong and collaborate, to create a community of learners: “this sense of belonging and security facilitates open communication and creates group cohesion… crucial that each student feels welcomed and is given the reassurance that they are part of a purposeful community of learners” (Garrison, 2017, pp. 114-115). Garrison’s research implies a number of suggestions that could achieve Sense of belonging: the importance of creating a community that has a common purpose, where students can feel a sense of connection; recurring regular communications to establish trust and group cohesion, with the tutor modelling appropriate messages and responses to give participants Sense of belonging; early chances for participants to get to know each other and share personal experiences in introductory activities. These points are essential to create Sense of belonging and improve the feeling of being accepted (Thomas et al., 2014; Palloff and Pratt, 2003). Wenger’s (2000) research agrees with the aforementioned and further adds that mutual engagement represents the interaction between individuals, which leads to the creation of shared meaning on issues or problems. Similarly, joint enterprise is the process in which people are engaged and working together towards a common goal (Li et al., 2009; Wenger, 2000). Both mutual engagement and joint enterprise can support and enhance the emotional connections and Sense of belonging in an online learning environment.

Visible and nonvisible Interactions (Online) High level interactions in an online learning environment are suggested as ways to increase the effectiveness of the learning (Fulford and Zhang, 1993). There is knowledge to suggest that in order for learning to occur in online environments the students must be visible and actively participate (Gonzales, 1995; Kearsley, 1995). One main argument that is present and contextualised is what equates to learning. If students are not actively participating and contributing, are they passive and not learning? Holmberg and Ortner suggest that participation should consist of a mediated two-way conversation (1992). In contrast, Bernath and Rubin (1999) developed the theory that is called ‘witness learning’: “students who were not actively participating via written contributions at a particular point, but who nevertheless were still engaged in the process as observers (witnesses) of the written exchanges taking place online between other students” (Holmberg and Ortner, 1992 p.7). It is suggested that these students are still actively learning, simply lurking in the background of the participation. Dennen (2008) found a similar concept and describes it as “pedagogical lurking” (Dennen, 2008, p.1624). Online, people do and say things that they otherwise would not in a face-to-face situation, suggesting that online

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interactions have the potential to relieve anxieties. People feel less restrained and loosen up expressing themselves more openly. Research suggests that this could help a student to participate in an online environment (Suler, 2020; Wu et al., 2017). This phenomenon is named ‘The Online Disinhibition Effect’. It is documented as having two opposing sides: benign and toxic disinhibition. Benign can be described as a person going out of their way to show kindness and helping others, while toxic disinhibition is antagonistic and hostile where crime, violence and internet bullying is situated. Benign disinhibition has the capabilities to help people develop their interpersonal and intrapsychic problems, explore their identity and connect with their emotions. Toxic and benign disinhibition are a conceptual dichotomy, which can be complex and ambiguous. However, in some cases, it could support people to become more confident and express themselves in a medium that they could not in a face-to-face environment, which could support students and teachers in creating emotional connections and Sense of belonging (Suler, 2004; Wu et al., 2017; Tanis and Postmes, 2007; Scott, 1999).

Epistemology and ontology The ontological and epistemological perspectives that have been adopted in the research are from a relativism constructivist view (Raskin and Debany, 2018). This paper has used a phenomenological methodology, which explores the common perceptions among groups and/or subgroups of people. Using semi-structured interviews allowed accounts to be formed and contextualised based on the tutor’s experiences. The epistemological perspectives took an interpretivist paradigm, as they were discovered according to the context of the teacher’s experiences, and it used semi-structured interviews, which allowed the researcher to talk to the participants and dig deep into the ideologies and concepts that were exposed (Grix, 2010, p. 84; Grix, 2018, p.53).

Methodology This paper will use a phenomenological methodology, since the fundamental interest is learning from lived experiences. Phenomenologists tend to explore the common perceptions among groups or subgroups of people. Moran (2000) suggests that phenomenology aims for fresh, complex, rich description of phenomena as concretely lived. There is one unifying point behind the idea of phenomenology, it is an intense concern about the way the world appears to the person experiencing the world (Moran, 2000).

Data Collection This study used semi-structured interviews as the data collection method. The reason for this was so the questions could be prepared ahead of time and shared with the participants before the interview (Creswell and Creswell, 2017). The use of semi-structured interviews allows participants the freedom to express their views, and links with the interpretivist paradigm that had been adopted in this study. Additionally, Cohen and Crabtree (2006) suggest that semi-structured interviews could provide reliable, comparable, qualitative data that offer reasons for the answers in a narrative account. The questions used were open questions, to allow participants to share their own perspectives without being led. A downside to semi-structured interviews is the time that needs to be allocated to the transcribing and analysing the data. In order to combat this issue, the researcher used Microsoft Teams to record the interviews, and then uploaded the interviews to Microsoft Stream to autogenerate the transcripts. The next step was to download the transcripts and load them into NVivo, where a manual thematic analysis was conducted. This method supported the researcher as the data were recorded exactly and efficiently (Grix, 2010, p. 127).

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Sample A purposive, convenience sample was used in this research, as it allows for a specific set of participants to be handpicked, and in this case the sample was six teachers, teaching in higher education (Bickman and Rog, 2009, p.7). The participants were from a variety of universities and curriculum areas in the United Kingdom and Ireland, consisting of representatives from Queen’s University Belfast, in the Social Sciences, Education and Social Work department; Northumbria University from the Leadership and Human Resource Management department; Liverpool University from the Teacher Education department and Blackpool and The Fylde College from the Leadership, Management and Lifestyle department. Whilst a purposive, convenience sample could be deemed as having a negative connotation due to low level reliability and the inability to generalise the findings, it is felt that the diverse sample of participants captured robust and multi-dimensional data (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison, 2013, p.143).

Data Analysis and Validity The semi-structured interviews were recorded via a Microsoft Teams Meeting and uploaded to Microsoft Stream to auto-generate the transcripts. The transcripts were then downloaded and loaded into NVivo, where a manual thematic analysis was conducted. A thematic analysis is typically used in connection with interview transcripts, which allows the data to be organised into themes and interpret meaning. The data were coded in NVivo manually to ensure the validity of the themes identified. In addition, some researchers code their transcripts using colour coding; this was used by the researcher to support the analysis (Bazeley, 2020, p.212).

Findings This paper used a phenomenological methodology and semi-structured interviews to gather qualitative data to answer the main research questions: • To what extent do emotional connections impact learning and teaching in an online environment? • What mechanisms are used to build and implement emotional connections in an online environment? A thematic analysis was completed using NVivo software, where four themes emerged from the data. Firstly, a description of emotional connections, secondly, the development of emotional connections, thirdly, the limitations to developing emotional connections, and finally, the mechanisms to develop emotional connections. This section will use the four themes as headings, and a discussion will be offered linking to the literature provided on each theme, in an attempt to provide clear, robust, and valid accounts of the data.

Description of emotional connections The data supports the literature and participants express the importance of creating emotional connections and sense of belonging. The participants stated that community, connections, and relationships are key drivers. In addition, one participant noted that there is more of a mentorship relationship in the online setting due to the support that they have had to provide. Another participant described sense of belonging using the word ‘fundamental’, and that if the connections with students are not developed, retention could be very poor and

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that creating emotional connections does not feature in training. One could deduce that Sense of belonging and emotional connections are an essential aspect of learning and teaching in an online setting and should be at the forefront of all training. An emotional connection or sense of belonging is described in the literature in a plethora of ways, this paper acknowledges sense of belonging and emotional connections as involving feelings of acceptance, feeling needed, mattering, and valued, also feeling of fitting in, connected to a group, class, subject or institution or all of these (Goodenow, 2003). Moreover, the psychological and sociological need to connect with a person socially is essential for creating emotional connections and it is based on building a relationship, where it is established if others truly care (Matheson and Sutcliffe, 2017; Thomas, 2012).

Development of emotional connections The study data lean towards these ideologies of motivation and meaningful partnership in learning; one participant offered, “it is a journey, a journey we are going on together” linking with the literature Li et al. (2009) and Wenger (2000) confirm this and suggest learning and teaching is a ‘Joint enterprise’, the process in which people are engaged and working together towards a common goal. Another participant noted that their philosophy in teaching is that she assures students that she is not the “font of all knowledge” and that they are on a discovery of learning. This could suggest that teachers must adopt a flexible approach to teaching and learning to support student attainment, increased student satisfaction and persistence (Carter, 1997; Hausmann et al., 2009; Locks et al., 2008). Three of the participants alluded to using socio-affective strategies to engage their students, they noted this was successful and supported the development of motivation and community. Motivation is a term that is used extensively in the literature, there is research to suggest that learning and teaching should adopt socio-affective strategies, where the learning is a joint responsibility, similarly, it is essential that each student feels welcomed and is given the reassurance that they are part of a purposeful community of learners and also participate in the learning environment (Fulford and Zhang, 1993; Garrison, 2017, pp. 114-115). Whilst learning and teaching is a historic and contested field, the realm of online learning is still very much in its infancy and there is a lot to learn.

Mechanisms to develop emotional connections The data gathered on mechanisms was diverse and context driven based on the curriculum area. However, this does not dilute the value of this section as the mechanisms are adaptable and versatile in terms of use. One participant used a web tool called ‘Flipgrid’ (https://info.flipgrid.com/) to allow their students to create a video introduction of themselves. Early chances to participate are documented as largely essential to allow students to get to know each other and share personal experiences (Thomas et al., 2014; Palloff and Pratt, 2003). Another participant added that they had created a channel on Microsoft Teams called “Coffee Lounge”, where students were able to socialise and the teachers would not participate, in order to create a peer-to-peer environment, and this was said to improve the students’ Sense of belonging. The research implies that regular online action-based sessions are fundamental, in order to avoid the intellectual IV drip of facts, and create improved engagement to build a community, where students feel accepted and that they belong (Garrison, Anderson and Archer, 1999; Beeghly and Huang, 2013). Three of the participants expressed that if they could not see their students (via web cameras) they felt they were not connecting with the students, whereas one participant noted that their students spoke more openly in the online space without their cameras on. Research from Holmberg and Ortner (1992) suggests that two-way communications are essential, regardless of visibility. This could bring the online disinhibition effect to the

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forefront of interaction. Suler (2004) suggests that asynchronous communication could support people to become more confident and express themselves in a medium that they could not in a face-to-face environment. However, this area needs to be further developed with the addition of student data (Suler, 2004; Wu et al., 2017; Tanis and Postmes, 2007; Scott, 1999). Learning and teaching in an online setting is distinctively incommensurable compared to teaching face-to-face. Therefore, there needs to be adapted, rigorous and dynamic mechanisms in place to ensure that digital courses and delivery are inclusive, supportive and afford students the chance to work collaboratively with their peers and establish supportive communities. Scholars allude to the barriers to replicating emotional connections online, the points offered here could enhance the development of emotional connections and sense of belonging (Zhao, Englert, Chen, Jones, and Ferdig, 2000).

Limitations to developing emotional connections This paper would not be a complete analysis if we did not explore the limitations and problematic areas to creating an emotional connection in an online environment. The body of knowledge regarding emotional connection and creating sense of belonging is substantial and often implies that if emotional connection or sense of belonging is absent in the online environment, it could impact negatively, causing students or staff to feel isolated, rejected, leading to low self-esteem and depression (Hough, Smithey, and Evertson, 2004; Staythorn, 2012; Greenland and Moore, 2014). One of the participants alluded to these feelings and noted that she does not feel that she is making a connection with her students in an online setting, as the students were not comfortable putting their cameras on for the online session and the participation was minimal. This could be deemed as a concern, as teachers who are passionate educators are left feeling that the learning environment is not dynamic or engaging, and confirms the aforementioned point that sense of belonging and emotional connections are an essential aspect of learning and teaching in an online setting, and should be at the forefront of all training for staff and students.

Discussion and Conclusions This paper adds to the knowledge about creating emotional connections and sense of belonging in an online environment, by providing discussions on descriptions, development, mechanism, and limitations in the current climate. Highlighting the importance for more robust focus on training is required, as the data found that creating emotional connections does not feature in training. This could ensure teachers and students have knowledge of the benefits and drawbacks to emotional connections and sense of belonging; this should alleviate some of the limitations. Additionally, providing example of ‘good practice’ could improve staff and student’s confidence and motivation to engage in the online learning environment. Whilst creating emotional connections and sense of belonging could be deemed as perplexed and a somewhat convoluted ideology to perfect, the research and combined data from professional teachers across the United Kingdom and Ireland, offers a discussion with pertinent examples of useful practice, (two examples are, the use of Flipgrid to engage students early to get to know the cohort and the teachers, the use of an optional channel in the VLE to engage in peer to peer learning where it is an open platform that could alleviate some anxieties of learning online) this could support teachers and students creating emotional connections and sense of belonging in online learning environments. This project has brought to light some of the barriers that teachers are facing (not feeling there is such open

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discussion in an online medium, or not feeling connected if students did not use a camera) whilst attempting to create emotional connection and sense of belonging online. The main contribution of this paper is to bring to the forefront the importance of ways to support sense of belonging in training and development.

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Jonathan D. Raskin, Alanna E. Debany. (2018) The Inescapability of Ethics and the Impossibility of “Anything Goes”: A Constructivist Model of Ethical Meaning Making. Journal of Constructivist Psychology 31:4, pages 343-360. Kearsley, G. (1995) The nature and value of interaction in distance education, Distance Education Symposium 3: Instruction. University Park, PA: American Center For the Study Of Distance Education, Lipman, M. (2003) Thinking in Education. Locks, A., Hurtado, S., Bowman, N. and Oseguera, L. (2008) Extending Notions of Campus Climate and Diversity to Students’ Transition to College, The Review Of Higher Education, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 257-285. Maestas, R., Vaquera, G. and Zehr, L. (2007) Factors Impacting Sense of Belonging at a Hispanic-Serving Institution, Journal Of Hispanic Higher Education, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 237-256. Martinez, M. (2003) High attrition rates in e-learning: challenges, predictors, and solutions, The E-Learning Developers Journal, vol. 14,pp. 1-9. Maslow, A. (1962) Toward A Psychology of Being, D Van Nostrand. Matheson, R. and Sutcliffe, M. (2016) Creating belonging and transformation through the adoption of flexible pedagogies in masters level international business management students, Teaching In Higher Education, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 15-29. Meehan, C. and Howells, K. (2018) ‘What really matters to freshers?’: evaluation of first year student experience of transition into university, Journal Of Further And Higher Education, vol. 42, no. 7, pp. 893-907. Moran, D. (2000) Introduction to Phenomenology, London, Routledge. Muse, H. (2003) The Web-based community college student: An examination of factors that lead to success and risk, The Internet And Higher Education, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 241-261. Neher, A. (1991) Maslow’s Theory of Motivation, Journal Of Humanistic Psychology, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 89-112. Palloff, R. and Pratt, K. (2007) “Online Learning communities in perspective”, in Luppicini, R. (ed) Online Learning Communities, Charlotte, NC, Information Age Publishing, Incorporated, pp. 1 -72. Rovai, A. (2003) In search of higher persistence rates in distance education online programs, The Internet and Higher Education, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1-16. Scott, C. (1999) The impact of physical and discursive anonymity on group members’ multiple identifications during computer‐supported decision making, Western Journal Of Communication, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 456-487. Simpson, O. (2003) Student Retention in Online, Open And Distance Learning, London, Kogan Page. vStrayhorn, T. (2012) College Students’ Sense of Belonging, London, Routledge. Suler, J. (2004) The Online Disinhibition Effect, Cyberpsychology & Behavior, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 321-326. Tanis, M. and Postmes, T. (2007) Two faces of anonymity: Paradoxical effects of cues to identity in CMC, Computers In Human Behavior, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 955-970. Thomas, L. (2012) Building Student Engagement and Belonging in Higher Education at A Time of Change: Final Report from The What Works? 1st ed. Youk, Higher Education Academy. Thomas, L., Herbert, J. and Teras, M. (2014) A sense of belonging to enhance participation, success and retention in online programs, The International Journal Of The First Year In Higher Education, vol. 5, no. 2. Tovar, E. and Simon, M. (2010) Factorial Structure and Invariance Analysis of the Sense of Belonging Scales’, Measurement and Evaluation in Counselling And Development, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 199-217.

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Wenger, E. (2000) Communities of Practice and Social Learning Systems, Organization, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 225-246. Wu, S., Lin, T. and Shih, J. (2017) Examining the antecedents of online disinhibition, Information Technology & People, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 189-209. Yoo, S. and Huang, W. (2013) Engaging Online Adult Learners in Higher Education: Motivational Factors Impacted by Gender, Age, and Prior Experiences, The Journal Of Continuing Higher Education, vol. 61, no. 3, pp. 151-164. Zhao, Y., Englert, C., Chen, J., Jones, S. and Ferdig, R. (2000) The Development of a Web-Based Literacy Learning Environment, Journal Of Research On Computing In Education, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 435-454.

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Introduction This research project aims to evaluate the current dietary intake of students at Blackpool and the Fylde College (B&FC) and investigate its impact on mental wellbeing. The current statistic of individuals in contact with mental health services between April 2019 and March 2020 were 1,380,240 people of which 237,088 were young people (NHS, 2020). The impact of Covid-19 has increased the consumption of long life convenience foods and ‘unhealthy’ junk foods in conjunction with an approximately 50% rise in the development of mental health issues (Robinson, 2020). This project aims to evaluate the current level of wellbeing of students, at B&FC, and their current dietary intake, to determine if there is a direct correlation between nutrition and mental wellbeing. It then aims to establish the importance of developing interventions within the College environment to create awareness and provide information and guidance to improve mental wellbeing through nutrition.

Literature Review The impact of diet on psychological wellbeing has been researched in a range of studies. These have investigated the consumption of specific food groups and eating behaviours and their direct impact on health and wellbeing, including brain development and cognitive function, while also considering external factors, including environmental, societal and socio economic. This review aims to analyse the current research in this area to support this research project. The consumption of fruit and vegetables has a range of benefits on physical and mental health, however this review will focus on the benefits to individual cognitive function and wellbeing. The initial benefits of nutrition on wellbeing has been explored by Mujcic (2016), data was collected over a two year period through national survey of households. The analysis of the survey data correlated the intake of fruit and vegetables and an individual’s wellbeing. This study measured wellbeing through a life satisfaction survey and the quantity of fruit and vegetables consumed by individuals. It concluded that improvements in psychological wellbeing can be achieved through an increased intake of fruit and vegetables, with the higher the amount of fruit and vegetables consumed the greater the life satisfaction.

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However, it is not only the positive impact of fruit and vegetables on a student’s wellbeing that must be analysed, but also the negative effect of specific food groups on wellbeing. The impact of refined carbohydrates on mood and wellbeing relates to their glycaemic index, which is the rate at which carbohydrates are metabolised and converted to glucose within the body. The westernised diet, which generates a high glycaemic load resulting in fluctuating blood glucose levels, has been demonstrated to increase depressive symptoms in otherwise mentally healthy volunteers in controlled experiments (Firth, 2020). Firth (2020) presents the concept of ‘dietary inflammation’ as the result of diets high in saturated fats, increasing inflammation of the hippocampus, which in turn is linked to various mental health conditions and cognitive decline, which have a direct impact on wellbeing. Adan (2019) supports these findings, identifying the negative impact that a high fat and sugar westernised diet has on cognitive function and an increase of anxiety-like behaviours. With the consumption of refined carbohydrates having a negative effect on wellbeing, high sugar food groups also have a direct impact on synaptic activity and neuron communication within the brain, which in conjunction can impair cognitive ability and result in dysfunctions in insulin receptors, producing unstable energy metabolism (Agrawal, 2012). The impact of diet on the brain and cognitive function further analysed by Owen (2017). Owen focused on the hippocampus, the area of the brain related to memory learning and mood, with diet being associated with neurogenesis, the development neurons within the brain, within the hippocampus, correlating with an individual’s mood. This period in adolescence is critical, according to Lopez-Olivares (2020), as there are significant developments in emotional, cognitive and psychological dimesons which can directly affect quality of life and wellbeing. The adherence to a balanced and healthy diet during adolescence can have a positive impact on maturation of the brain, psychological wellbeing and the regulation of emotions. Current research highlights the positive impact of the Mediterranean diet on wellbeing. This has been explored by Moreno-Agostino (2018), with analysis of positive affect (calm, relaxed and positive emotions) and negative affect (irritable, stressed, tense or depressed) states as a result of diet and their direct impact on wellbeing. The results conclude there was an affiliation between fruit and vegetable consumption and positive affect states, with a lower consumption of carbonated sugary drinks and full fat dairy products. In contrast negative affect states were found to be higher in diets which contained pastries, sweets, processed and red meats. However, the evidence in the report is not as clear, that the negative impacts on wellbeing associated with these food groups can directly affect wellbeing through their influence on physical health. Moreno-Agostino (2018) highlights a range of variables that can also impact an individual’s wellbeing besides diets, including tobacco usage, physical activity levels, socio-economic background and previous history of mental wellbeing, which must also be considered. In the educational environment where this project is centred, the effect of diet on wellbeing is evident. Papier (2015) presents a range of evidence on students, which highlights the behaviour changes impacted by diet and in turn affecting health and wellbeing. This research presents the concept of a cyclic model in which stress initiates the consumption of refined carbohydrate and high fats foods, increasing the production of serotonin to reduce stress, but this diet has all the negative results as presented in previous research, resulting in the further consumption of an unbalanced diet. Stamp (2019) further investigates the impact of diet and wellbeing on mental toughness in university students and how their own mental toughness impacts diet and food choices, concluding that a balanced diet, including a focus on fruit, vegetables and fibre, results in higher mental toughness, which correlates to an increase in wellbeing. Additional research on students in education (Peltzer 2017) documents not only the impact of food and the positive dietary behaviour of consuming breakfast every morning and its positive impact on life satisfaction and wellbeing, but the impact of sugar consumption in hot beverages. The report notes that students who did not consume sugar in tea or coffee recorded higher scores for happiness than individuals who consumed sugary hot

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beverages and concluded that healthier dietary behaviour resulted in lower levels of mental distress and higher psychological wellbeing. Lopez-Olivares (2020) analysis of the diets and wellbeing of university students, investigated their consumption of elements of the Mediterranean diet including olive oil, vegetables, fruit, legumes and whole grains, in conjunction with the analysis of the students consumption of processed foods, alcohol, sugary drinks and high fat commodities. The results highlighted once again the consumption of the Mediterranean diet and its elements have positive emotional and mental benefits and a higher quality of life and a high intake of red meat and processed meats have an inverse effect on wellbeing. Zurita-Ortega (2018) supports these finding of the benefits of the Mediterranean diet and social influences on diet and wellbeing, but their research on students noted that courses of study had a direct influence on the adherence to a balanced and nutritional diet. It was also concluded that an individual’s level of physical activity had a direct impact on diet, though it was noted there was no noticeable variations in the adherence to a balanced diet and religion. Though there is a range of additional factors which can impact a student’s consumption of a diet beneficial to wellbeing, Utter (2017) examines the external influences on the diet of students and the impact of balanced family meals. The evidence presented the increased consumption of a balanced family meal was shown to correlate with increased emotional wellbeing, fewer depressive symptoms, and a reduction in emotional difficulties. This highlights the influence of family and social influences on nutrition and wellbeing. Further analysis of beneficial diets presents the theory of the gut microbiome having a direct influence on neurotransmissions and behaviours associated with mental health disorders. The implementation of dietary changes which impact the microbiota can initiate beneficial cognitive developments (Malan-Muller, 2017) with changes in the intestinal microbiota improving wellbeing and a reduction in anxiety based behaviours. Though it must be considered that all beneficial microbiota are not dietary and environmental micro-organisms can also be a contributing factor to the microbiome. There is a range of evidence which links the promotion of gut flora and microbiome for health, but further research is necessary (Taylor, 2019) as to which specific microbial profiles have a positive or negative impact on cognitive function and wellness. Though there is no identified microbial profiles which have a direct impact on wellbeing, research has highlighted specific food groups and diets which can have a positive effect. According to Hills (2019) the excessive consumption of carbohydrates in the form of added sugars, starches and refined grains has a negative impact on gut microbiota and a reduced bacterial diversity. Diets specifically highlighted by Hills (2019) for their beneficial impact on an individual’s microbiome, were the Mediterranean diet, noted for its predominant consumption of olive oil, vegetables, pulses, cereals and low glycaemic index carbohydrate, in conjunction with a conservative consumption of animal proteins in the form of meat and fish, and a lower intake of dairy, processed meats and refined grains which are over consumed in a westernised diet. In conclusion, an increasing range of evidence supports the concept of diet impacting an individual’s wellbeing and also being critical to brain development in adolescents. A large percentage of research praises the benefits of the Mediterranean diet, which is centred on the consumption of fruit, vegetables, pulses, cereals and dietary fibre, with a lower intake of animal products and refined carbohydrates. The research highlights the negative affect of sugary drinks, refined grains and processed foods, therefore this project will focus on these food groups and analyse their impact on the students’ wellbeing.

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Methodology This quantitative research project will focus on the collection of primary numerical data to expose trends, patterns and relationships between data sets (Albers, 2017). This research was centred on two forms of primary data. Initially a variation of a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) was used to analyse the diets of students, as it enables respondents to detail how much and how often they consumed specific food items. The FFQ is regarded as a simple, time efficient and cost effective method to collect dietary data (Shim, 2014), with the flexibility to be tailored for this study focusing on specific food groups and nutrients. To facilitate the collection of data a short food questionnaire (SFQ) was utilised, which reduced the usual 150 questions on a FFQ to approximately 50 questions on the SFQ. Nikniaz (2017) concluded that a SFQ was ‘reasonably good in estimating food groups and nutrients’ and is applicable for ranking food group consumption. Though consideration must be given to the reliability of any type of FFQ, Golley (2016) highlights variables including perception of portion size and the cognitive ability to accurately recall food consumption and patterns. The SFQ aimed to address these potential variables through providing diagrammatic representation of single portions and limiting food groups to enable the focus on specific foods. The wellbeing of students was measured utilising the Short Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale (SWEMWBS), it is a reduced revision of the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale (WEMWBS). The SWEMWBS consists of seven positively worded statements about their thoughts and feelings over the previous two weeks, which is then converted to scores providing an insight to the individual’s wellbeing. The SWEMWBS has been validated in Europe in various population studies including clinical, adolescents and minority groups Koushede (2019). The SWEMWBS was selected for its increased completion rates, lower participant burden, focus on positively worded questions avoiding the negative aspects of mental or physical health and relative similar performance compared to the full WEMWBS (Fat, 2017). The utilisation of the SWEMWBS was evaluated by Ringdal (2017), which confirmed its suitability for use with adolescents, and its ability to capture the current state of mental wellbeing in participants, through focusing on eudaimonic wellbeing, the happiness achieved through meaning and purpose. All research was collected online utilising Microsoft Forms and completed remotely by students within online sessions in various curriculum areas to adhere to government Covid-19 legislation of ‘National Lockdown’ and all FE learning being delivered remotely. Overall 100 questionnaires were issued to Further Education students across numerous programmes of study, with a completion rate of 100%.

Results The aim of this research was to establish if nutrition had an impact on the current level of wellbeing of Further Education (FE) students. Wellbeing The primary data collected for the current measure of the wellbeing of student’s, utilising the SWEMWBS, presents the current level of wellbeing of students at 23.2 out of a potential 35 on the SWEMWBS scale. In relation to the SWEMWBS Population Norms in Health Survey for England data, (2011) which highlights the mean national level of wellbeing recorded as 23.6, resulting in FE students recording a lower than average score when compared to the national average. The average data is also presented against the established cut points (Warick.ac.uk, 2021), with ‘17 or less for probable depression, 18-20 for possible depression, 21-27 for average mental wellbeing and 28-35 high mental wellbeing’, fig.1 presents the average score for FE students against the established cut points.

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Fig 1

Fig.2

Fig.3

Further analysis of the individual statements presents additional detail on the current wellbeing of FE students. Significant results obtained from the SWEMWBS data in regards to the statement ‘I’ve been feeling relaxed’ (fig.2) highlights that 68% of participants feel relaxed some of the time or less, including 28% of participants who rarely felt relaxed. Data regarding the expected positive individual future prospects, the statement ‘I’ve been feeling optimistic about the future’ (fig.3) presents finding that only 52% of students were sometimes optimistic about the future, with a total of 65% feeling optimistic some of the time or less about their future. Nutrition The data obtained through the short food frequency questionnaire was collated into several categories to establish the intake of refined processed foods, refined carbohydrates, consumption of fruit and vegetables, sugary beverages and high fat foods. The results obtained for the consumption of processed meats, in comparison to fresh fish, which is a key element of the Mediterranean Diet, highlight a low dietary intake of oily fish, with 73% of students rarely or never consuming oily fish. Fig.4 presents the comparison, one portion a week or more of processed meats to fresh fish consumption. The results document a 70.7% weekly consumption of processed pork in conjunction with 47% of students consuming one or more servings of fried chicken products, in comparison to a 12% weekly consumption of oily fish. Further analysis of 2-3 portions a week of processed meats, the findings show 23% of students are consuming 2-3 portions of fried chicken and 29.3% consuming 2-3 portions of processed pork products each week.

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Fig. 4

Fig. 5

In the results of dietary intake of refined carbohydrates in comparison to whole grains (fig.5), the evidence documents that all variations of refined grains were consumed in a higher volume than whole grain products. The consumption of white bread recorded the highest in dietary intake with 26% of students reporting they consume 4-6 portions each week and 35.6% of students consuming chips 2-3 times a week with 7.1% consuming chips 4-6 times a week. In comparison to whole grain products 64.6% of students rarely/never consuming oats, 79.6% of student’s rarely/never consuming brown rice and 81.6 rarely/never consuming brown pasta. The results recorded for the weekly dietary consumption of fruit (fig.6) and vegetables (fig.7) compare the consumption of 2-3 portions of each item per week in relation to never consuming that specific fruit or vegetable. The results for fruit consumption highlight 27.3% of students consuming 2-3 apples a week in comparison to 24.2% never/rarely consuming apples, this result for apples was the only figure for fruit consumption in which 2-3 portions a week was higher than the rarely/never consumed. The results of consumption for the remaining fruits show that the rarely/never for fruit consumption was higher than 2-3 portions a week, notable figures for rarely/never consumption of fruit being, oranges 42.4%, strawberries 37.4% and dried fruit 72.4%.

Fig. 6

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The results for vegetable consumption (fig.7) continues to document a low dietary intake of fruits and vegetables, with only two vegetables having a higher consumption rate of 2-3 portions compared to rarely/never consumed were carrots (32%) and broccoli (31%). The results for rarely/never consuming vegetables reported a low consumption of mineral rich green vegetables with rarely/never consumption of cabbage (40.4%), courgettes (77%), green salad (34%), green beans (47%). Though in contrast, the weekly consumption of 2-3 portions of peppers (31%), tomatoes (25%) and sweetcorn (24.5%) was above average in comparison to fruit and alternative vegetables.

Fig.7

Discussion The aim of this research was to establish if the nutrition of FE students had an impact on wellbeing, through data obtained through the Short Warwick Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale in conjunction with a short food frequency questionnaire. The results for the current level of wellbeing provided a score of 23.2 points on the SWEMWBS, this is below the national average and utilising the established cut points (Warwick.co.uk, 2020) presents the FE students below the midpoint for average mental wellbeing. The food frequency questionnaire documents a large percentage of students are not consuming enough wholegrains and the low intake of a variety of fruit and vegetables with a considerable amount of students never/rarely consuming any types of fruit and vegetables. The most significant findings of this study is the below average mental wellbeing score on the SWEMWBS which is only 3.2 points from the cut points for possible depression. This result, in conjunction with a low intake of fruit and vegetables and preferred intake of processed meats, builds on existing evidence of Mujcic (2016) that the consumption of fruit and vegetables can have a direct impact on mental wellbeing. The research of Zurita-Ortega (2018) and Lopez-Olivares (2020) document the positive impact of the Mediterranean diet which is centred on the consumption of minimal animal product, fresh fish, whole grains and fruit and vegetables. The data obtained presents the opposite of the Mediterranean diet and consists of a low consumption of whole grains in conjunction with the low intake of fruit and vegetables and this supports academic research that diet can correlate to psychological wellbeing.

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The high consumption of refined carbohydrates and processed foods, in comparison to the low consumption of whole grains and fruit and vegetables, has a direct impact on saturated fat consumption, glycaemic index and the glycaemic load in student’s diets, producing unstable blood glucose levels and dietary inflammation, which can be a contributing factor to the lower than average mental wellbeing of students. The negative effect of refined carbohydrates are highlighted in the SWEMBS results which recorded 28% of students rarely feeling relaxed, potentially leading to anxious behaviours, and 45% of students only thinking clearly some of the time. These results support the findings of Firth (2020) and Adan (2019), whose research supports the finding of the negative effects of a processed westernised diet on mental function and wellbeing. The results of SWEMBS could also reflect the situation presented by the global pandemic with only 24% of students often feeling optimistic about the future, 27% of students often feeling useful and 24% of students rarely feeling close to others. These reflect the current temporary closure of industry and its impact on employment and the loneliness from isolation. This research has a range of limitations. The reliability of this data is impacted by the limits of food frequency questionnaires and the ability for adolescents to recall dietary intake. It also fails to take into account additional factors which can impact mental wellbeing: previous mental illness, smoking and levels of physical activity (Moreno-Augustino 2018). The socio-economic status of students could impact the results with the simplified access to convenience and ‘Junk’ foods and the perceived expense of wholefoods. This could be further impacted by the global pandemic which has negatively impacted the visitor economy, central to the employment of individuals and families in Blackpool. The analysis of this research was limited by the quantity of data obtained through the study and constraints of research production, therefore failing to fully utilise all data. Further research should focus on establishing a control group to then determine if positive alterations on diet do have a positive impact on wellbeing and to analyse specific dietary choices and their impacts. Future studies need to analyse eating habits through a range of data collection methods, while also considering nutrition and culinary knowledge, and the parental influence on a student’s diet through ability and affordability. These findings present supporting data on the impact of nutrition on wellbeing and the results provide a deeper insight to the wellbeing of students in Further Education highlighting negative dietary choices and their impact.

Conclusion The aim of this research was to investigate the impact of nutrition on wellbeing through the quantitative data obtained in the SWEMBS and the food frequency questionnaire. These results and the supporting literature conclude that nutrition can have a direct impact on FE student’s mental wellbeing. This research clearly illustrates to impact of poor nutrition on mental wellbeing and demonstrates the need for interventions to provide information and develop an understanding of the positive impact a balanced and nutritional diet can have on mental wellbeing. Based on these conclusions, nutritional advice should highlight the positive influence and benefits healthier food choices can have on mental health. This research contributes to the academic literature on the wide range of modifiable variables which can have a direct impact on wellbeing. It provides an insight into the dietary intake of FE students and its impact. Future research on this topic should focus on beneficial nutritional interventions and how they can improve the wellbeing of students.

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References Adan R.A.H., Van Der Beek, E.M. & Buitelaar, J.K. et al. (2019). ‘Nutritional psychiatry: Towards improving mental health by what you eat’ European Neuropsychopharmacology, pp. 1-12. Agrawal, R. , Gomez-Pinilla, F. (2012). ‘Metabolic syndrome’ in the brain: deficiency in omega-3 fatty acid exacerbates dysfunctions in insulin receptor signalling, R>A and cognition. J. Physiol. 590, 2485–2499. Albers, M.J. (2017) ‘Quantitive Data Analysis – In the Graduate Curriculum’. Journal of Technical Writing and Communication. Vol. 47(2) pp. 215-233. Fat L. N., Scholes S., Boniface S., Mindell, J., Stewart-Brown, S. E. (2017) ‘Evaluating and establishing national norms for mental wellbeing using the short Warwick–Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (SWEMWBS): findings from the Health Survey for England’. Qual Life Res. 26:1129–1144 Firth J., Gangwisch J.E., Borsini A., Wooton R.E., Mayer E.A. Food and mood: how do diet and nutrition affect mental wellbeing. (2020) The BMJ. 369:m2382 Golley R.K., Bell L.K., Hendrie G., Rangan A., Spence A., McNaughton S.A., Carpenter L., Allman-Farinelli M., de Silva A., Gill T., Collins C., Truby H., Flood V.M. & Burrows T. (2016) ‘Validity of short food questionnaire items to measure intake in children and adolescents: a systematic review’. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics. Koushede, V. et al. (2019) ‘Measuring mental well-being in Denmark: Validation of the original and short version of the Warwick-Edinburgh mental well-being scale (WEMWBS and SWEMWBS) and cross-cultural comparison across four European settings’ Psychiatry Research. Vol. 271. pp. 502-509. Lopez-Olivarer M., Mohatar-Barba M., Ferndandez-Gomez E., Enrique-Miron C. (2020) ‘Mediterranean Diet and the Emotional Well-Being of Students of the Campus of Melilla (University of Granada)’. Nutrients 2020, vol. 12 Malan-Muller, S. et al. (2017). ‘The Gut Microbiome and Mental Health: Implications for Anxiety- and Trauma-Related Disorders’. Journal of Integrative Biology. Vol. 21(0). Moreno-Agostino, D., et al. (2018). ‘Mediterranean diet and wellbeing: evidence from a nationwide survey’ Psychology & Health. Mujcic R., Oswald A.J. Evolution of Well-Being and Happiness After Increases in Consumption of Fruit and Vegetables. (2016) AJPH Research. 106:8. NHS (2020) ‘Mental Health Services Monthly Statistics Final March 2020’ available at: https://digital.nhs.uk/ data-and-information/publications/statistical/mental-health-services-monthly-statistics accessed 7th June 2021. Accessed 10th March 2021. Nikniaz,L., Tabrizi, J.,Sadeghi-Bazargani, H., Farahbakhsh, M., Tahmasebi, S., Noroozi, S. (2017) ‘Reliability and relative validity of short food frequency questionnaire’. British Food Journal. Vol. 119:6. Owen L., Corfe B. The role of diet and nutrition on mental health and wellbeing. (2017). Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 76, 425-426. Papier, K., Ahmed, F., Lee, P., Wiseman, J. (2015) ‘Dietary behaviour among first-year university students in Australia: Sex differences’. The international Journal of Applied and Basic Nutritional Science, 31. pp. 324-330. Peltzer, K., Pengpid, S. (2017) ‘Dietary Behaviors, Psychological Well-Being, and Mental Distress Among University Students in ASEAN’. Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioural Sciences. Robinson, E. et al. (2020) ‘Obesity, eating behaviour and physical activity during COVID-19 lockdown: A study of UK adults’ Appetite. Vol. 156

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Ringdal, R., Eilerten, M.E.B., Bjornsen, H.N., Espnes, G.A. Moksnes, U.K. (2017). ‘Validation of two versions of the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale among Norwegian adolescents’. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 1–8. Shim, J-S., Oh, K., Kim, H.C. (2014) ‘Dietry assessment methods in epidemiologic studies’. Epidemiology and Health. Vol. 36. pp. 1-8. Stamp, E., Crust, L., Swann, C. (2019) ‘Mental toughness and dietary behaviours in undergraduate university students’ Appetite, Vol. 142. Taylor. V.H. (2019) ‘The microbiome and mental health: Hope or hype?’ Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience. 44(4). Utter, J. & Denny, S. et al. (201) 7‘Family Meals and Adolescent Emotional Well-Being: Findings from a National Study’. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behaviour. Vol 49. pp. 67-72. Warwick Medical School (2020) ‘The Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scales – WEMWBS’ Available at: https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/med/research/platform/wemwbs/using/howto/wemwbs_population_norms_in_ health_survey_for_england_data_2011.pdf . Accessed 29th March 2021. Zurita-Ortega, F., Roman-Mata, S.S., Chacon-Cuberos, R., Castro-Sanchez, M., Muros, J.J. (2018) ‘Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet Is Associated with Physical Activity, Self-Concept and Sociodemographic Factors in University Student’. Nutrients. 10:966.

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Reflections on the need to develop a multi-heritage critical citizenship education David Hayes

Abstract The central argument of this think piece is the need to develop a multi-heritage critical citizenship studies in post-compulsory education. It will begin by making a crucial distinction between civic and ethnic nationalism and examining different conceptions of citizenship education promoted by UK governments. There will be an analysis of the broader implications of the current UK state governance strategy of constructing ‘Britishness’, which arguably bases a politics of national identity, social solidarity and community cohesion on exclusionary practices (McLaughlin, 2009) linked to ‘fundamental British values’. Global capitalist networks and flows present a challenge to dominant conceptions and meanings of society, home, community, nation, culture, and social belonging. In response to this challenge, there have been various attempts in the early 21st Century to promote a sense of civic nationalism in the UK. It is argued that the current UK Conservative government’s construction of ‘fundamental British Values’, and related ‘prevent agenda’, represents a cultural supremacist and ethnic nationalist politics, aimed at culturally, politically and socially defining the limits of an ‘at-risk’ national identity. As a challenge to fundamental British values and the rise of ethnic nationalistic politics, an outline and possible theoretical basis for an alternative citizenship discourse will be explored – a discourse that promotes the development of the social, cultural, and political literacies of a multi-heritage, active and critical citizenry, providing individuals, institutions and communities with the necessary resources for building solidarity and respecting difference.

Introduction The rise of ethnic nationalist politics has arguably served to highlight how urgent and necessary it is to develop political, social, historical, and cultural literacies to counteract socially divisive, right-wing populism and promote community cohesion. What has been conspicuously absent from the versions of citizenship education promoted in the 21st Century, has been a focus on social class and a rational critique of the socio-economic structure of capitalism. The aim of the critical citizenship education proposed here would be to capture and celebrate the narratives and discourses of multi-ethnic and multi-heritage communities. It is remarkable how many students in FE/HE lack even a basic knowledge of modern world history and the development of multi-heritage and multi-ethnic Britain. Without this knowledge, history is arguably doomed to repeat itself, both as tragedy and farce, and appears to be doing so with the rise of the political right and ethnic nationalism in the UK, Europe, North America and other nation-states around the world.

Civic and Ethnic Nationalism Michael Ignatieff (1993) makes a useful distinction between two forms of nationalism – civic nationalism and ethnic nationalism - and identifies how both forms of nationalism vest political sovereignty in ‘the people’. The crucial difference between the two forms of nationalism is that, in the case of ethnic nationalism, not all ‘the

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people’ are included in the definition of who constitutes the nation. This contrasts with the democratic conception of civic nationalism, which is inclusive of all of those who subscribe to the rule of law and the values of a liberal democracy. Civic nationalism sees the nation as diverse social democratic community based on equal rights and united by an attachment to shared values. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), writing at the turn of the 20th Century, identified one key role and purpose of education as being the production of nation-state citizens with a shared culture and heritage. This was viewed by Durkheim as essential for the maintenance of social order and for promoting community cohesion. As Durkheim argued, the breakdown of shared norms and values tends to occur during periods of rapid social change - times of great ontological insecurity, when people lack what Oskar Negt and Alexander Kluge (1998) call ‘contexts for living’, experiencing a crisis of meaning, identity and belonging. Late modernity arguably represents such a period, where global capitalist networks and flows present a challenge to dominant conceptions and meanings of society, home, community, nation, culture, and social belonging. The ideal of civic nationalism was easier to realise in Durkheim’s mono-cultural times, as the societies he examined were largely characterised by ethnic homogeneity. Those who did not belong to the dominant class, gender and culture found themselves disenfranchised and excluded from citizenship and thus from the nation. The inclusive social democratic societies of the mid-20th Century defined their shared national identity and belonging in terms of common citizenship rather than ethnicity (Ignatieff, 1993). What we are arguably currently experiencing in the UK, and across Europe and the world, is a revolt against the idea of a sovereign nation-state based in civic rather than ethnic identity and belonging. This can be seen in the current UK Conservative construction of ‘Britishness’ through immigration policy and the basing of a politics of national identity and community cohesion on the cultural supremacism of fundamental British values linked to exclusionary practices and strategies of governance (Bowcott and Adams, 2016). There have been various attempts to promote a sense of civic nationalism and civic responsibility in the UK, attempts that have involved reclaiming national symbols from the political right, who have infused these symbols with racist, jingoistic, and xenophobic meaning. The UK New Labour government 1997-2010 attempted to change the political culture of the UK by actively promoting the universal liberal values of freedom, diversity, toleration, and human rights in their liberal conception of citizenship education. In 2007, a chief architect of the New Labour project, and soon to be Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, said the following in a speech at a seminar on ‘Britishness’ at the Commonwealth club, London:

Now for years we didn’t think we needed to debate or even think in depth about what it was to be a British citizen. But I think more and more people are recognising not just how important their national identity is to them but how important it is to our country. A strong sense of being British helps unite and unify us; it builds stronger social cohesion among communities. We know that other countries have a strong sense of national purpose, even a sense of their own destiny. (Gordon Brown, 2007)

What Brown was attempting to invoke was a strong sense of civic nationalism. However, today, instead of this form of nationalism taking hold and root, there has been an upsurge of ethnic nationalist politics in the UK. What has often been missing in calls for civic nationalism and citizenship education, such as that of New Labour and Gordon Brown, is a focus on structural inequalities, social class and social justice. The MarxistJewish social philosopher, Max Horkheimer famously stated in 1939, ‘Whoever is not prepared to talk about capitalism should also remain silent about fascism’, which can serve as a critique of New Labour’s conception of civic nationalism and citizenship education. Following both Brexit, and the outcome of the UK General Election of 2019, there is an urgent need for a critical citizenship education that is prepared to talk about capitalism and the victims of global capitalism - locally, nationally, and internationally. The rise of ethnocentric

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nationalist politics has made manifest deep seated and entrenched social divisions in the UK, with social media platforms such as Twitter and Facebook providing a platform for the expression of xenophobic and racial hate and prejudice.

Fundamental British Values and the New ‘Culture War’

‘Teachers should not be playing the role of fifth columnists in the ideological war currently being fought over national identity and our national sovereignty.’ (Chris McGovern, Campaign for Real Education)

If one wishes to destroy a nation and build a ‘brave new world’ you begin by indoctrinating and brainwashing the children. This process of re-education has started some years ago in our schools and we are now seeing its consequences in the suppression of free speech on our university campuses. (Chris McGovern, Campaign for Real Education)

The current UK Conservative government, including a recent Education Secretary, Gavin Williamson, can be seen to be engaged in a series of hegemonic or ideological battles, which have been termed ‘culture wars’ (Cunliffe, 2021). In the 1980’s and 1990’s, New Right Conservatives in the UK were engaged in an ideological assault on the post-war liberal and social democratic consensus, which garnered public support for neoliberal educational reforms and the marketization of further and higher education. On the ideological battlefield, the ‘cultural Marxist’ and/or liberal-progressive multiculturalist educationalist were cumulatively constructed as a dangerous ‘internal enemy’, directly militating against national interests and undermining the economic, social and cultural reproduction of capitalist society through the propagation of ‘alien’ ideas that ran contrary to the values, beliefs, morality, customs and traditions of British culture and society (Levitas, 1986). New Right ideologues pointed to what they saw as the pernicious and subversive influence of radical enlightenment thought, personified by the revolutionary ideas of Karl Marx. The New Right were set on purging educational institutions of what were deemed ‘fifth columnists’ and their ‘loony left’ totalitarian political correctness (Levitas 1986). The present UK Conservative governments promotion of fundamental ‘British Values’, prevent strategy, and recent declaration of ‘culture war’, are aimed at new ‘risks’ and threats, linked in discourse to ‘pathological’, ‘alien’ cultures and ideologies, including Islamic fundamentalism, ethnic nationalism and ‘cultural Marxism’. In the run up to the UK General election of 2019, the then leader of the Labour Party, Jeremy Corbyn, was repeatedly depicted by the mainstream right-wing British media in the UK as a dangerous Marxist, anti-Semite and terrorist sympathiser (Allied to both ‘old’ and ‘new’ terrorism) (Walker, 2019). Corbyn was characterised as being fundamentally unpatriotic, ‘un-British’ and an imminent threat to national security. The revival of the term ‘cultural Marxism’ is of interest. Historically, the term has been used by right-wing groups in North America in relation to the perceived destruction of Western civilisation, purportedly engineered by the first generation of Frankfurt School critical theorists, whose members were both Marxists and Jewish, and who are said to have been involved in a conspiracy to destroy the ‘natural’ conservative order of American society. The right in North America, argue that, in the 1960’s and 1970’s, the ‘alien’ and ‘un-American’ ideas of these Marxist-Jewish scholars successfully infiltrated, permeated, and colonised University social science and humanities faculties and campuses, and that this culturally corrosive influence remains today. In a UK context, it is interesting how this recurrent conspiratorial narrative, espoused also by Nick Griffin, when he was the leader of the British National Party, has been revived by leading UK Conservative politicians in the instigation of a new ‘culture war’, and how it was intensified as Jeremy Corbyn began to touch the ideological nerve centre of neoliberalism. It remains staggering, though perhaps not unsurprising, how the right wing media were able to

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successfully depict Corbyn, a principled politician who has consistently battled racism all his life, as a rabid anti-Semite. The successful portrayal of Corbyn and his social democratic agenda as dangerous, utopian, destructive and irrational, is testimony to the discursive power of the right-wing media in the UK. Notably, the socially divisive ‘culture wars’ have also been enacted in relation to the England football team, with the anti-racism gesture of England players collectively ‘taking of the knee’, in an attempt to express solidarity with marginalised BAME communities, met by criticism from Home Secretary Priti Patel, who has decried the act as “gesture politics” and defended the right of sections of the crowd to boo it (Stone, 2021). It was reported before one match that a small group of protestors were seen outside Wembley Stadium carrying a St George’s flag reading “Don’t Kneel For Marxism” (MacInnes, 2021). Perhaps unwittingly, the England Manager, Gareth Southgate, and his multi-ethnic and multi-heritage England team have found themselves at the very centre of the ‘culture wars’.

Fundamental British Values and the Rise of Ethnocentric Nationalism After ten years of Conservative austerity measures and structural violence (Cooper and Whyte, 2017), as leader of the Labour Party, Jeremy Corbyn fought the General Election of 2019 on a manifesto informed by social democratic principles and policies. In the aftermath of a crushing electoral defeat, questions were again raised about the failure of the mainstream political left in the UK. Simon Winlow et al. (2017) argue that the traditional Labour vote of the white post-industrial proletariat has been neglected and left behind by politicians on both the left and the right of the political spectrum, not least by New Labour. The culpability for this neglect is also said to lie with middle class liberal academics, who have been more concerned with identitarian social movements formed around issues regarding race, ethnicity, gender and sexualities, than with class, structural inequality and networks of state and corporate power. Winlow et al. suggest that anxieties and concerns regarding rapid changes in post-industrial working-class communities have long been dismissed by liberal middle-class commentators as being simply irrational expressions of xenophobia and racism. The Cantle Report into the urban disorder of 2001, that took place in deprived, post-industrial towns in the North of England, suggested that these anxieties and concerns were not being expressed and addressed, due in part to a climate created by anti-racial and religious hatred legislation, which can be seen to have socially stigmatised such sentiments (Cantle, 2001). Bosworth and Guild (2007) discuss how historically migrants tend to be spatially concentrated in densely populated areas of socio-economic deprivation and how these communities are more likely to experience the effects of changes resulting from migration as being beyond a ‘threshold of tolerance’. For Winlow et al., (2017), the white working class in these areas represent the existential embodiment of the uneven development of global capitalism - their voices and narratives marginalised from the dominant, largely middle-class discourse on multiculturalism and immigration. Right wing politicians, groups and parties have exploited the anger and resent felt in these communities, ‘giving a voice’ to those who feel chronically underrepresented and stifled by ‘political correctness’. Arguably, it was abandonment and neglect by the political left of its traditional base that contributed significantly to the Brexit vote and the incursions made into the so-called Labour ‘red wall’ by the Conservative party at the 2019 General Election. Alongside a deepening anger at political elites, sections of the electorate can be seen to have a cultural yearning for the secure identity of an earlier ‘imaginary’ civic order. These ‘imagined communities’ can be evoked by right-wing populist agendas which exploit anxieties and concerns surrounding immigration and local social control. Globalising capitalist processes can be felt and perceived as a threat to the survival of cultural traditions and ‘contexts of living’ (Negt and Kluge, 1993; Winlow, 2017) and ethnic nationalism forms a response to ontological and economic insecurity. Neoliberal economic restructuring and deindustrialisation in the 1980’s and 1990’s has broken apart traditional, industrial working-class cultures, estates and communities, and these processes have been accompanied by the

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systematic dismantling of welfare. Post-industrial Working-class communities are angry, fearful, resentful, and dissatisfied with the political elites on both the left and right of the parliamentary system who have forgotten them. Dominant discourses on immigration are shared by both mainstream politicians and far right groups and serve to create fears and a sense of both downward and upward relative deprivation (Young, 2007; Winlow et al., 2017). Downward relative deprivation can be seen in the mounting resent towards migrants perceived as ‘parasitic’ on an over-generous welfare state, taking jobs from the ‘indigenous’ population, placing increasing strain on infrastructures, and perhaps most importantly posing a threat to ‘national culture’. Upward relative deprivation can be seen in the cumulative anger at the political class and their privilege, and the experience of economic marginalisation and meta-humiliation in a time of recession and austerity. There are sections of the post-industrial proletariat who can be said to have internalised cultural goals of ‘commodious living’, whilst concurrently experiencing structural exclusion without ontological security (Young, 1999). These conditions are a breeding ground for ethnocentric nationalist politics, with the ethnocentric nationalist also constituting another dangerous subpopulation subject to the UK Government’s prevent strategy. Winlow et al. argue that during the current crisis of capitalism, immigration and the figure of the immigrant provides a convenient scapegoat for the problems experienced by the white working class, who rather than viewing the economic and social failure of capitalism as the source of their problems, are mobilised by right-wing politicians and political groups to blame ethnic minority groups and immigration for their plight (Winlow et al., 2017).

Alternatives to fundamental British Values

‘Not everything that is irrational can be dismissed as stupidity’ (Ernst Bloch)

The white working class represent a section of the population who were neglected by a New Labour project more concerned with moral engineering, the governance of moral conduct and overcoming the perceived ‘cultural deficit’s’ of a cultural/ behavioural ‘underclass’. In an attempt to try and re-engage the working-class vote lost in the 2019 UK General Election, the UK Labour Party and other groups on the left have looked to contest the right on the ideological terrain of nationalism. This attempt can be seen in the emphasis on ‘progressive nationalism’ or ‘progressive patriotism’ by candidates during the Labour Party leadership campaign of 2020, candidates who were also keen to emphasise their working class heritage and credentials:

Over the next few years, our task is to rebuild the broad base of support that will get us into government and this work must begin immediately. From ex-miners in Blyth Valley to migrant cleaners in Brixton, from small businesses in Stoke-on-Trent to the self-employed in Salford, we have to unite our communities in all their diversity. Britain has a long history of patriotism rooted in working life, built on unity and pride in the common interests and shared life of everyone. This history is internationalist: as in 1862 when Lancashire’s mill workers supported Abraham Lincoln’s anti-slavery blockade of cotton from the American south. To win we must revive this progressive patriotism and solidarity in a form fit for modern Britain. While Boris Johnson criticises single mothers and likens Muslim women to bank robbers, we must stand for pride in our communities, dignity in our work and a common purpose that unites communities across the country. (Rebecca Long-Bailey, 2020)

Historically, the political left has neglected to adequately address issues concerning heritage, regarding nationalism as an ‘irrational’ position. The constructions of the populist political right on British culture, community and identity have not been effectively challenged. The UK Labour party’s response to right-wing populism in the General Election of 2019 was to create its own left-wing populist agenda, but this did not touch

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upon issues of immigration and multiculturalism. The left arguably failed to effectively contest the terrain of the ‘irrational’, and to re-function the categories and concepts of community and heritage. It is this re-functioning that can form the basis for an alternative, multi-heritage, civic nationalism and critical citizenship education. In the Labour Party leadership campaign, the ‘progressive patriotism’ position represented an attempt to compete on this ground and reclaim the lost working-class vote. Recently, the new leader of the Labour Party, Keir Starmer, has returned to this theme, attempting to outflank ethnic nationalism, by championing civic Britishness. This has been heavily criticised by many on the political left, including those on the left of the Labour Party. Clive Lewis (2021) has described it as ‘phony flag-waving’ aimed at winning back the ‘red wall:

… attempting to distil the complexity of national identity and patriotism into a “brand values” shorthand is not only dangerous but self-defeating. Dangerous, because patriotism has a side that touches on the darkest aspects of our humanity (one need only look at its relationship to the brutality of empire to understand this). Self-defeating, because it simply doesn’t speak to the multi-faceted reality of our lives … If our country is to prosper in an increasingly hostile century, we must face it together – as a unit. But before we can do that, we must confront our past – in all its goodness and, yes, all its darkness. And we must acknowledge that our present-day nation is so much more colourful than the red, white and blue cliches. Whether controversial statues, the teaching of our history, or how we relate to one another, the common theme is one of complexity. We cannot shy away from that. Trying to stuff patriotism and identity into a cheapened caricature from the 1950s is not the answer. Our party, our people and our country deserve more than that. (Lewis, 2021)

In seeking to analyse and explain the success of Nazism and failure of the left in the Germany of the 1930’s, Ernst Bloch wrote his ‘Heritage of our Times’ (1935; 1991). Here he discussed the social and cultural conditions and myths that he argues were appropriated and exploited in the service of National Socialism. Bloch believed that the success of the Nazi’s and their propaganda could be significantly attributed to the subjective and objective non-contemporaneity that existed in Germany. He argued that while people could be physically contemporaries, meaning that they inhabit the same space, they could also at the same time be non-contemporaneous in terms of being culturally and emotionally rooted in earlier times. Historically, the right seems highly adept at tapping into this yearning for community, identity and belonging, exploiting the vacuum created by ontological insecurity and a lack of contexts for living. Alienation and cultural memories can be fertile terrain for reactionary nostalgia. The ontological insecurity experienced by sections of the post-industrial working class in late modernity is a potential source of ‘paranoid nationalism’, which is arguably a legitimate adaptive response to a sense of anomie and crisis of meaning. Bloch would argue that the right exploits these yearnings to arrest social change, divide-and-rule, scapegoat and divert attention from the economic and social failure of capitalism: ‘it uses the antagonism of a still living past as a means of separation and combat against the future dialectically giving birth to itself in the capitalist antagonisms’ (Bloch, 1991:109). The Left has arguably failed to provide a coherent cultural discourse to effectively oppose the fetishism of the Nationalist collective self and anti-immigrant ideology, which has an affinity with sections of the post-industrial working class and has increasingly become a socio-political imperative and means for existential self-identification in a threatening world. A critical citizenship education would be an alternative discourse to fundamental British Values and its related ethos of surveillance, risk, exclusion, prevention, and control. A multi-heritage, multi-ethnic working class critical citizenship education would not only pay attention to human rights and human dignity, but also to promoting cultural, social and political literacies and a qualitatively different approach to history and heritage which works towards a future of social and environmental justice. Rather than dismissing ‘patriotism’ as irrational, the left arguably needs to work towards an alternative cultural

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discourse and the development of meaningful identities, ‘refunctioning’ unmet needs and yearnings and reclaiming them from their right-wing appropriation. Instead of nostalgic reconciliation with an imagined past and fixed identity, Bloch refers instead to an anticipated state of reconciliation with conditions that do not-yet exist and will not exist until present socio-economic conditions are radically changed. There is a need to salvage the utopian content of the multi-heritage past in a mobilisation of progressive forces, as an alternative to the regressive cultural synthesis of nationalism and national identity offered by fundamental British values and ethnic nationalism. This would entail sober and rigorous analysis of historical trends and tendencies, sensitivity to local conditions, and engagement with the complex plurality, messiness and lived experience of the lifeworld of communities. It will also crucially involve the ability to begin to reconcile the past and to imagine that another future is possible.

References Bloch, E. (1991) Heritage of Our Times, Oxford: Polity Press. Bosworth, M. and Guild, M. (2008) ‘Governing through migration control: Security and Citizenship in Britain’, British Journal of Criminology, vol.48, pp.703-719. Bowcott, O. and Adams, R. (2016) Human rights groups condemns Prevent anti-radicalisation strategy, Guardian Online, [online] (Last updated 00.01 on 13th July 2016). Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/ jul/13/human-rights-group-condemns-prevent-anti-radicalisation-strategy (Accessed on 14th July 2016). Brown, G. (2007) ‘Full text of Gordon Brown’s speech’, Guardian Online, [online] (Last updated Wednesday 27 February 2007). Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2007/feb/27/immigrationpolicy.race (Accessed on 4th March 2021). Cantle, T. (2001) ‘Community Cohesion: A Report of the independent Review Team’, London: Home Office. Cooper, V. and Whyte, D. (2017) ‘Introduction: the violence of austerity’, in V. Cooper and D. Whyte (eds.) The Violence of Austerity, London, Pluto Press. Cunliffe, R. (2021) ‘The Tories are learning that culture wars make you enemies as well as friends’, The New Statesman, 14th July 2021. Gilroy, P. (1987) Ain’t No Black in the Union Jack: The Cultural Politics of Race and Nation, London: Routledge. Levitas, R. (1986) ‘Competition and compliance: the utopia’s of the new right, in Levitas, R. (ed) The Ideology of the New Right, Cambridge: Polity Press. Lewis, C. (2021) ‘Phoney flag-waving is not the way for Labour to win back the red wall’, Guardian Online, [online] (Last updated Wednesday 3 February 2021). Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/ commentisfree/2021/feb/03/labour-red-wall-voters-patriotism-keir-starmer (Accessed on 4th March 2021). Long-Bailey, R. (2020) ‘We can take the Labour party back into power. Here’s how’, Guardian Online, [online]. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/dec/29/rebecca-long-bailey-labour-party-britain (Accessed on 7th September, 2021). MacInnes, P. (2021) Boos drowned out by applause as England players take knee at Wembley https:// www.theguardian.com/football/2021/jun/13/england-players-take-knee-wembley-euro-2020-boos-applause (Accessed 31st August 2021).

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McLaughlin, E. (2009) ‘Community cohesion and national security: rethinking policing and race’ in Bloch, A. and Solomos, J. (eds) Race and Ethnicity in the 21st Century, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Negt, O. and Kluge, A. (1993) Public Sphere and Experience: Towards an Analysis of the Bourgeois and Proletarian Public Sphere, London: University of Minnesota Press. Siedel, G. (1986) ‘Culture, nation and ‘race’ in the British and French New Right in Levitas, R. (ed) The Ideology of the New Right, Cambridge: Polity Press. Stone, J. (2021) Priti Patel says fans have right to boo England team for ‘gesture politics’ of taking the knee, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/priti-patel-taking-knee-boo-england-b1865409.html (Accessed 31st August 2021). Winlow, S., Hall, S. and Treadwell, J. (2017) The rise of the Right: English nationalism and the transformation of working-class politics, Bristol: Policy Press. Young, J. (1999) The Exclusive Society, London: Sage. Young, J. (2007) The Vertigo of Late Modernity, London: Sage.

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Is Die Hard a Christmas Movie? A brief investigation into the application of genre Ashley Lister

Abstract Die Hard (1988) is the first in a series of American action films starring Bruce Willis. The story shows armed gunman taking control of the Nakatomi Towers whilst occupants of the building are engaged in Christmas festivities. Online discussion over the past few years has argued as to whether or not the film should be described as a Christmas movie. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate that such genre labels are descriptive rather than prescriptive and to illustrate that the purpose of genre classification is often more important than the limits imposed by an arbitrary label.

Introduction Die Hard (1988) is the first film in an American action series that was adapted from Roderick Thorp’s novel Nothing Lasts Forever (1979). The film stars Bruce Willis, as off-duty police officer John McClane, trying to rescue his wife and other hostages held in the Nakatomi Plaza, a high-rise office building, after they have been caught there on Christmas Eve. Hans Gruber (Alan Rickman) is the resourceful master criminal pitting his wits against McClane. The genre of the film has come under a substantial amount of discussion as some argue that it is a Christmas movie, including the film’s writer, Steven E de Souza (Ainsworth, 2018), and the film’s Director, John McTiernan, who took some of his inspiration from the classic 1946 Christmas movie, It’s a Wonderful Life (Cooper, 2020). Others say it is an action movie with events that merely take place at Christmas, and this is supported by an online survey that claims 62% of respondents say it is not a Christmas movie (Ainsworth, 2018). Perhaps the most telling aspect of this feature is, when ‘don‘t know’ votes are taken into account, only 25% of adult respondents described Die Hard as a Christmas Movie. Famously, during his Comedy Central roast (2018), Willis himself announced: “Die Hard is not a Christmas movie. It’s a god damn Bruce Willis movie!” The complexity of this issue of classification arises from two areas: the notion that genre is monolithic and the purpose of genre. To discuss the first of these areas, it seems somewhat reductive to ascribe any piece of fiction to a single genre. If we build on Todorov’s (1990:18) notion that genre consists of both the semantic and the syntactic, then we can immediately see there is a potential for two genre labels. For example, a typical heteronormative romance will have the syntactic structure of a heteronormative romance (boy meets girl and they fall in love; they’re parted; they get back together). However, if an author puts that story (with its syntactic structure of a romance)

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aboard the semantic location of a spaceship, the genre does not stop being romance to become science-fiction. Instead, it becomes a romantic/science-fiction story: a hybrid. The same thing would happen if the previously described syntactic romance was set against a semantic content of western tropes or fantasy tropes: it would be described in the terms of a hybrid as a romantic/western or romantic/fantasy. In such a fashion, Die Hard could probably be described as a Christmas/Thriller or a Christmas/Cop Movie. It should be noted that, on a syntactic level, Die Hard could be perceived as a romance because McLane joins his partner in the first act, is separated from her in the second and reunited in the third. However, this argument is hampered by the content of the movie’s semantic level, which includes the guns and violence of a thriller or action film, along with the decorated trees, seasonal music and ugly jumpers that we associate with Christmas. Curiously, when discussions of Die Hard’s genre occur, there are few people, who allocate the label romance to this film, even though it would clearly fit under the hybrid label of romance/action/Christmas movie. These hybrid descriptions lend themselves to an overview of the second point that needs discussing, which is the purpose of genre. Todorov said genre ‘is nothing other than the codification of discursive properties’ (1990: 18), a sentiment which echoes Derrida’s observation of genre that ‘[o]n the one hand it commits one to nothing. Neither reader nor critic nor author are bound to believe that the text preceded by this designation conforms readily to the strict, normal, normed or normative definition of the genre, to the law of the genre or of the mode.’ (1980: 214). However, whilst Derrida argues that neither reader nor critic nor author are bound by a genre label, it should be acknowledged that the reader, the critic and the author are also at liberty to append the genre labels that they see as being appropriate. This line of thinking allows genre labels to become a broad (and often variable) rubric that is there only as a superordinate term to label a single aspect of the whole. In other words, Thorp’s original novel can be listed on Amazon under genre labels such as Terrorism Thrillers, and Adventure Stories and Action, whilst I can watch the film derived from that novel and describe it as either a romance or a Christmas film, depending on my needs to apply a label. In a similar fashion, a film such as Deadpool (2016), can legitimately be released by the studio as a superhero movie, it can then be described on a meta-level, within the film, as a romance, and an audience can tell their friends about it, describing it as a comedy, an action film, a Ryan Reynolds movie or a hybrid of any or all of the aforementioned genres. Which leads to the conclusion that Die Hard is a Christmas movie if we want it to be a Christmas movie. It is also an action movie, a cop movie, a romance, a Bruce Willis movie, as well as being a combination of any or all of those labels depending on the needs of the person describing the title. All of which can be used as a framing device for those teaching English subjects, to present texts that are perceived as difficult or inaccessible in a more palatable light. For example, if we present a title such as Wuthering Heights to students, telling them it is classified as a story of forbidden love, this sounds more exciting and engaging than introducing them to something described as an exemplar of the Victorian romance novel. Similarly, Of Mice and Men, does not seem exciting when presented as a representation of Steinbeck’s flawed American dream, however, it can be seen as more appealing when it is described as an authentic story of life and death in the old wild west. Keeping in mind Todorov’s aforementioned observation that genre ‘is nothing other than the codification of discursive properties’ (1990: 18), and Derrida’s caveat that, in a discussion of genre ‘[n]either reader nor critic nor author are bound to believe that the text preceded by this designation conforms readily to the strict, normal, normed or normative definition of the genre, to the law of the genre or of the mode.’ (1980: 214), it seems apposite to describe this approach to genre as a way to positively frame and encourage student expectations.

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Bibliography Ainsworth, C (2018), Surprise! 62 Percent of People Say Die Hard is Not a Christmas movie. Available at: https:// www.mentalfloss.com/article/566350/most-people-say-die-hard-is-not-a-christmas-movie (Accessed: 19/03/2021) Comedy Central Roast (2018) CBS Studio Center, 29th July. Cooper, G (2020) Is Die Hard a Christmas Movie? Available at: https://www.cnet.com/news/is-die-hard-achristmas-movie-director-john-mctiernan-has-thoughts/ (Accessed: 19/03/2021) Deadpool (2016), [DVD] Tim Miller, USA, Twentieth Century Fox. Derrida, J. and Ronell, A. (1980) ‘The Law of Genre’. In Critical Inquiry, Vol. 7, No. 1, On Narrative (Autumn). Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 55-81. Die Hard (1988), [DVD] John McTiernan, USA, Twentieth Century Fox. Thorp, R (1979/2011) Nothing lasts Forever. USA: Graymalkin Media. Todorov, T. (1990) Genres in Discourse. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

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Safety Culture and Cadets: assessing cadet values relating to safety and the impact of teaching and learning strategies on those attitudes Alex Barlow

Abstract Safety culture has been a staple of safety literature for around a quarter of a century and soft skills are an often-undervalued aspect of a technical field such as the merchant navy. This report set out to establish the attitudes of merchant navy cadets towards safety culture and to examine the impact teaching safety culture would have on those attitudes. The investigation reviewed a wide range of literature on safety culture and teaching, learning and assessment strategies. Data collection was completed in the form of a rating-scale survey and focus groups on selected students who would study one of two educational packages that taught about safety culture using different strategies. A follow-up focus group sought to identify any shifts resulting from the educational package. Whilst the initial sample size is too small to draw widely applicable conclusions, it was clear that there was development in the attitudes of some participants. There was also a range of design improvements that would aid data collection for a wider-reaching data collection approach that would have the opportunity to gather more widely applicable findings.

Background Maritime Education and Training (MET) programmes must cover many areas of competency prescribe by the International Maritime Organization (IMO, 2010); this includes how to participate in and manage operations safely. The UK’s merchant navy officer training programme prescribed by the Merchant Navy Training Board (MNTB, 2017) utilises a combination of Higher Education (HE) and industry placement to fast-track cadets into jobs as officers. Experienced seafarers can utilise their experience, in combination with HE to become officers. Safety culture for those with managerial responsibilities, such as those that merchant navy cadets are preparing for, can benefit from an appreciation of the role of people within complex systems – understanding how and why people get things wrong (Reason, 1990). This can form a foundation for understanding how to shape the shipboard safety culture. Understanding the role of humans in complex systems can help us to learn better lessons from accidents and near misses (Dekker, 2017). Understanding how organisational drift (Beerman & Ackroyd, 2006) can corrode safety over time (Anand, 2017) can equip students to take measures to ask the difficult questions that may make the difference between success and failure. With that in mind, this action-research project had the aim of evaluating the effectiveness of various teaching

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strategies at developing safety culture related attitudes in UK-based merchant navy cadets during their higher education programmes.

Literature Review Definition of Safety Culture Safety culture has become an important part of the global safety and corporate lexicon, spanning multiple industries over the past half-century including high profile incidents such as the Piper Alpha disaster of 1986 (Cullen, 1990), the Herald of Free Enterprise sinking of 1987 (Sheen, 1987) and the Chernobyl disaster of 1986 (INSAG, 1992).

Turner et al. (1989, p. 4) define safety culture as “the set of beliefs, norms, attitudes, roles, and social and technical practices that are concerned with minimising the exposure of employees, managers, customers and members of the public to conditions considered dangerous or injurious”.

It has also been defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA, 1991) as the “characteristics and attitudes in organisations and individuals which establishes that, as an overriding priority, [safety issues] receive the attention warranted by their significance”. The UK’s Health and Safety Executive use the following definition:

“The safety culture of an organisation is the product of individual and group values, attitudes, perceptions, competencies, and patterns of behaviour that determine the commitment to, and the style and proficiency of, an organisation’s health and safety management.” (Gadd & Collins, 2002, p. 6)

The literature review identified a range of factors impacting safety culture, many of which relate to senior management’s role in creating and maintaining a safety culture (a theme also found in Greenstreet Berman’s report to the Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA) on safety culture (Brook-Carter & Leach, 2006)). The key factors from these reviews that related to the behaviours of workers directly involved in safety critical activities were as follows: • Working Safely

• Taking work-related risks

• Communication about safety

• Reporting near misses and accidents

Definitions Relating to Teaching and Learning The research objective is to examine the ‘effectiveness’ of different teaching and learning strategies. The determination of an effective strategy, therefore, would, logically, precede and inform the selection of contrasting strategies. Effectiveness A range of criteria were considered for how to define effectiveness, including consideration of the views of Ofsted, the UK Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAA) and the PSRB for the cadet programmes, the Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA). However, as the topic was targeting the affective domain, it was considered that the effectiveness would need to be measuring a shift in attitudes, not simply knowledge. To that end, however, Exley (2004), in her study

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on high school students with dyslexia, needed to find a way to determine subjects’ preferred learning styles – something that is not a simple knowledge test. To determine the preferred learning style, the researcher utilised an assessment style where students self-assessed the applicability of certain statements to their use of learning strategies with statements such as ‘usually’, ‘sometimes’ or ‘never’. Strategies Vygotsky (1978 cited in McLeod, 2019) proposed that during earlier stages of development, children learn best in the presence of a ‘more knowledgeable other’ (MKO). Vygotsky proposed that the MKO might model behaviours to be replicated or provide instructions that would be interpreted and acted upon; in other words, interaction with others is educationally beneficial. The concept of scaffolding relates to the extent to which an educational activity is led by the instructor (McLeod, 2019). Scaffolded learning could be contrasted to discovery learning, which is often used as a catch-all phrase for approaches such as problem-based-learning (Ozdem-Yilmaz & Bilican, 2020). Although scaffolded learning and discovery learning can be contrasted, they are not mutually exclusive and are complementary concepts.

Methodology Procedure The procedure is discussed in detail below but the overarching procedure for data collection was as follows:

1. Select the sample for the study and divide them into two subgroups

2. Survey the students quantitatively on their attitudes towards safety-culture values

3. Conduct a focus group with each subgroup of students to gain a more detailed understanding of their attitudes towards safety coming into the study

4. Deliver each group one of two variances of a lesson on safety culture

5. Conduct a second focus group with each subgroup of students to try and measure any difference in attitudes towards safety culture Sample Selection With this being an action-research project taking place within the author’s employment context at B&FC, this necessarily influenced the sample selection, with there being a restricted pool of candidates being available from which to sample. The sample was therefore purposively selected using the following criteria: 1. Students studying at B&FC on a merchant navy officer training programme (in order to limit it to trainees) and available to timetable within the period of the data collection window. 2. Cohort constituted primarily of students with sea experience (primarily, but not exclusively because many cohorts have exceptional-case students that needed to return without experience due to the impact of COVID-19) 3. Students in a cohort of at least six, in order to ensure a given cohort had enough students to be able to be divided into sub-cohorts for comparison. Sample Subdivision It was decided to leave the selection of students to random selection (students were placed in alphabetical order on a spreadsheet and allocated a random number by Excel and then ordered by the random number). As the students were from the same broad discipline of marine engineering (some being Marine Engineering

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cadets and some being Electrical and Electronics Engineering cadets), this was felt to be more representative of how a cohort’s formation in the real world – potentially mixed ability, or potentially high/low performing in comparison to purposively dividing the students into subgroups. Teaching and Learning Strategies For ease of reference, the two strategies will be referred to as tutor-centric and student-centric. In order to try and keep as many parameters as possible between the two classes constant whilst still measuring something that could be useful to know, it was decided to use the same broad approach to the lesson. The key parameter that was varied was the extent of scaffolding and lecturer input. Consequences of this decision are discussed later in the report. Case Study Both variances of the lesson were based around a case study. The rationale for centring both around the same case study was that it would provide all students with the same base context for their learning experience. The case study was a pared-down, renamed version of the accident report into the enclosed space incident on board the tanker Hallam. This case was selected, as it has aspects that relate to the key concepts of safety culture that are being considered and provides opportunity for discussion relating to those concepts. Extent of Scaffolding As noted in the literature review, one variable that could be modified would be the extent to which a lesson is scaffolded (the extent to which the instructor structures the lesson to model, or otherwise dictate, the intended lesson). In the case of the students that are under consideration, as they were selected based on the stage of their training to have some initial education and industrial experience, it was reasonable to anticipate that they would have a reasonable amount of educational and, potentially, career experience. They were not, though, expected to be specialised in the subject of safety culture. As such, it was determined that in both variances, there should be a clear framework given to the students for their learning. Tutor-Centric Variance In the tutor-centric variance, the MKO was the lecturer – the lesson was structured so that at each stage of the lesson, the students would be interacting with the lecturer. The students first suggested what comprises safety culture and the lecturer collated these ideas and guided the addition of other elements as required. The lecturer then grouped up the ideas into the key concepts identified in the literature review. The students were then given time to individually read the case study and highlight aspects of the case study that related to the key concepts. The lecturer then had specific questions relating to the key concepts that related back to specific parts of the case study that would focus the students’ learning and suggested what values were important. These questions were more scaffolded that the questions given to those following the studentcentric variance. Finally, students reflected on their learning by suggesting what things they could see themselves doing when they went on board to apply what they had learned. Student-Centric Variance In the student-centric variance, the MKOs were the students-as-peers, where they could combine their different prior experiences and knowledge to grasp different aspects of safety culture and explore with more of a ‘discovery learning’ approach to the topic. In this model, the lecturer’s role was mostly in the planning and then checking that the students were getting on with the work and to be available to answer any questions if called upon. The students were divided into small groups of three or four and given the case study and some general

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questions to discuss. This meant that rather than being told what to think by the lecturer, they would, in theory, develop the ‘right’ answers for themselves, based on the evidence presented in the case study. They would then write a short reflection on their learning from the case study and discussion, culminating in actions they could take on board. The action points from these individual reflections were reported back to the lecturer. Survey As a key element of the study was to establish the safety culture-related attitudes of the students, it the first element of data collection was to conduct a short electronic survey. This survey comprised fully of self-evaluation rating-scale questions that were divided into four categories, aligned to the four key concepts. Entry Focus Group The first focus group was designed in a manner that tried to not subvert the aims of the lesson by directly discussing the key concepts of safety culture. Rather, they were more indirect and designed to be aligned to, but not directly identifying, the key concepts. This was similar in style to the survey. Field Notes During Teaching It is inevitable that there may be useful observations to be made during the conduct of teaching, which may be relevant for interpreting results in other parts of the study. The author kept a note of personal observations during the deliveries, and these are mentioned during analysis of the outcome of the study, where appropriate. These notes are, by their nature subjective, but they can provide useful context. Second Focus Group In the second focus group, students would already be familiar with the key concepts of safety culture, and the lines of questioning could be less coy about the key topic areas of interest. The questions covered the same topic areas but not in directly the same format as in the first focus group.

Findings Survey Results The survey questions were broken into four key areas and can be considered individually, in blocks and comparison to each other. Working Safely Safety rules, as well as individual judgement were both rated highly as important for safety. What is interesting, however, is that the universal agreement becomes more uncertain in the question on their role of safety advocacy – nearly 25% of the cohort were ambivalent to negative as to their responsibility. This could be viewed in light of both their junior position in the hierarchy, but also the safety messages that pervade many companies that safety is everybody’s responsibility and that everybody looks out for everybody else. The final question of the section related to the interaction between individual professionalism and rules. This one could be expected to be more in the centre as this is less of a standard question with a “right or wrong” answer. 61% felt that rules were the most important. This, again, could be a reflection the students being relatively entry level; it could alternatively, reflect the priority that the industry as-a-whole places on rules and procedures through instruments such as the ISM Code.

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Figure 1 Survey results relating to working safely from full cohort studied Work Related Risk Students seem to be quite exposed to pressure to cut corners for safety, with around 54% of students have been encouraged by a peer to work faster at the expense of safety, compared to 39% who hadn’t. 31% said they had been pressured by a superior to prioritise expediency, versus 46% had not. That the pressure the students report experiencing, on the face of it, seems to come from peers, ties into a phenomenon described by Dekker (2017), wherein bureaucratisation of the workplace creates conditions where teams of workers are keen to demonstrate themselves to be more capable than their ‘rivals’ and so take steps that guarantee that dominance. There is also ambiguity as to who the cadets consider as their peers and they may not see the pressure coming from higher up in the organisation as they are not directly pressured, themselves. Students do mostly seem to have due scepticism about the sufficiency of PPE; only around 24% were confident PPE would save them regardless of their carelessness.

Figure 2 Survey results relating to Work Related Risk Communication Whilst students were of a single mind that safety was important during safety briefings and they could explain a technical safety procedure from memory, they were essentially split down the middle as to whether they talk about safety outside of an official ‘safety meeting’ context and whether they would be able to confidently state their company’s safety policy to a surveyor. These rating poorly suggest that communication is not valued highly by this group. With these being engineering students, this could tie into Kalauz’s (2015) previous findings that those in technical fields underestimate the value of ‘soft skills’.

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Figure 3 Survey results relating to Communication Reporting on Safety An interesting observation that can be made from the final section is that cadets seemingly felt more empowered to report safety incidents or near misses than when they project themselves into the shoes of their future, qualified selves. This could reflect the latter questions being a bit more forceful that they would report any incident. Even then, it is interesting to note that, although a marginal difference, the students seemed more worried about reporting incidents they were involved in, compared to those they observed. This suggests that they may have absorbed a culture where they are afraid of having an incident reflect badly upon themselves.

Figure 4 Survey results relating to Reporting Focus Groups In the entry focus groups, there was much more of a freedom for students to answer in any way they choose, so the themes of the conversations were identified and those themes are be discussion of the potential meaning of those themes with regard to safety culture. Given that all the attitudes expressed are, by nature, self-declared and not empirically observed, these views should be viewed with caution. They can serve as a useful indicator of how the students might behave or aim to behave, it does not reflect any actual observed behaviours. Data was collected by a recording that was subsequently reviewed and themes transcribed. Working Safely The questions on the response to a relieving officer being drunk show a diversity of opinion between the two groups, Group 1 being primarily focused of the safety threat and a secondary concern that there might be some mitigation or reporting the situation potentially causing friction on board. Group 2 gravitated more to the notion that ‘mountains’ needn’t be made out of ‘molehills’ and that the most expedient way to deal with

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the situation would be to quietly send the drunk officer away and cover the watch. Likewise, when put in the shoes of the cadet, Group 1 gravitated more towards calling out the ‘blind eye’ being turned by the OOW; whereas Group 2 shied away from raising any concerns, feeling it wasn’t their place to get involved. In the second question, which may have felt more technically oriented, both groups felt that it was a false economy to rush work. The difference was more in the tone of that view than the content – in Group 1 when it was suggested that there could be workarounds to allow the unreasonable pace to continue, that was quickly shut-down and not reopened; Group 2 on the other hand, whilst very clear that rushing was a false economy, seemed less sure about whether they would raise the matter as they were concerned that, as junior team members, their perception may be wrong. Group 1 then can be said to have shown a slightly stronger tendency to follow safety procedures and advocate others to do so, Group 2 acknowledged the procedures but also felt a need to contextualise that amongst other concerns. Work Related Risk In question 3, both groups had due scepticism for how safe a ship is – recognising that you cannot eliminate all hazards and individual risk-taking behaviour could undermine an otherwise ‘safe’ system. Group 2, however, went slightly further and drew out that people can get too casual, and this can amplify risk-taking behaviours. In question 4, however, the groups took the question in slightly different directions making direct comparison difficult though discussion was nuanced in both cases. However, the general sense from Group 2 was that there needed to be serious risk of harm, whereas the general sense from Group 1 was to frame the matter in terms of ‘what would the company safety manager think?’ In comparison to Group 1, Group 2 seemed to show a slightly higher awareness of the risks present in the workplace, but also a slightly higher threshold of tolerance for accepting that risk. Communication There was a marked difference in attitude towards communication on safety matters between the two groups. In question 5, it was clear that Group 2 felt that safety communication from outside the ship should be filtered through senior officers on board and that there was a mistrust that shoreside management could have any useful impact on safety. They did, however, feel that senior officers had a strong role in setting the tone for safety on board (whether that was restating company policy or using their own professionalism). Group 1, on the other hand, seemed to have a much more positive experience of managerial communication on safety matters, favourable recounting a variety of formal approaches to safety, including daily safety case studies, fleet safety-circulars and an open culture for discussing safety. The groups were more aligned in question 6, agreeing that formal messaging may set the tone, but it is often the informal conversations about those messages that drive the point home – a discussion may start in a briefing, but then carry on informally. Informal conversations might also be the forum where uncertainties could be clarified. Group 1 did, however, have some concern that raising a safety concern informally could be seen as an attack, if the person took it the wrong way. Group 2 identified, favourably, that when the rule doesn’t fit the circumstance, it is the informal conversations about safety that give a positive outcome the best chance. Reporting Group 1 generally put across the idea that incidents should be reported if they had caused serious harm or if they had preventative merit for other people or ships in the fleet. Group 1 felt this, despite some having

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experiences that conflicted directly with this – one student reporting having been told ‘if you hurt yourself, don’t tell anyone’, when they joined a ship. Group 2 on the other hand felt that it should be reserved for the most serious incidents, such as fatalities. As for barriers to reporting, both groups agreed that the concern of reputation harm for themselves, their colleagues and their ship/company would be a barrier to reporting, as well as interpersonal conflict on board if they were seen to have reported something too minor. Lecturer’s Observations from Teaching The students appeared to engage well across the board – some were more willing to jump in with questions and to appear on camera, but that has shown itself as a norm with online learning as much as with face-toface learning. One observation with the students taught was that the author’s assumptions about what would constitute a base level of knowledge about what would constitute a safety culture and what was done on board to address those matters was perhaps overly optimistic. Reflecting on the process of teaching the two lessons, the author noted that, in his experience, the more scaffolded lesson was slightly easier to design as the exploration of topics could be staged out better. The author also felt the more scaffolded lecturer was more engaging to teach – but was also mindful that this observation is probably reflective of it positioning the lecturer as the conduit and that, whilst that made him more aware of everything that was going on in the lesson, that didn’t mean that this would be the case for the students, and that in having to self-organise the task completion in the less scaffolded lesson (and not knowing the extent to which they would be questioned on what they had worked on), the students needed to centralise and organise the learning for themselves. Exit Focus Group The level of engagement with the second focus group was very poor in comparison to the first group. This is likely due to two main issues: first was scheduling – the session had to be scheduled on the afternoon after the students had a four hour online exam in the morning, in the middle of a heatwave. The second issue was that, given the fairly short nature of the intervention and the short interval between focus groups and the intervention, the second focus group up to perhaps feeling repetitive and students may have been trying to not sound like they were just restating things they’d already said in the lesson or previous focus group. The responses, such as we given can be compared to the first literature review thus: Working Safely Group 1 remained strong advocates of the role rules play in safety. Group 2 advanced from being relatively dismissive of the role of rules to seeing them as a framework from which safety could be built, rather than something to be acknowledged but worked around. Both groups converged on feeling that it would be a good idea to check with a superior how much latitude was available to take a flexible approach to rules. Work Related Risk Group 1 didn’t seem to exhibit much of a shift in their attitudes towards work-related risk. Group 2 on the other hand made a small shifted towards exercising critical judgement on work-related risk and not simply deferring to authority.

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Communication As with previous two categories, Group 1 did not exhibit a marked shift in their answers related to communication. Group 2, on the other hand seemed to have developed a noticeably more positive attitude towards the role that ‘formal’ communications from the company on safety matters could have to play. Formerly, they had seen such communications as probably-irrelevant and a waste of time, being issued by people who didn’t understand the real job onboard; now, they saw this communication as setting the tone for safety and an important building block for such communication to take place more widely. Reporting Neither group showed a marked shift in their attitudes towards reporting accidents and near misses - both groups continued to see it as something exceptional that was not really desirable but, reluctantly, necessary.

Conclusions There are two main questions that this study set out to answer:

1. What are the attitudes of merchant navy cadets relating to safety culture?

2. What is the effectiveness of the teaching and learning strategies and are any strategies more effective than others? With regard to the first of these questions, what can be seen is that there seems to be a very clear appreciation, at least on paper, of the importance of rules and procedures, alongside individual professionalism, although some did not show a tendency to want to apply ‘managerial’ rules. There was likewise a range of attitudes towards work-related risk, but there was a general sense of confidence that they would only take on work they understood and would push back if they were instructed to do something they felt was dangerous. With communication, the students showed a clear interest in talking about safety – for some the impression is that it might not come naturally, but they could see the value of discussing safety outside of safety briefings. What the students did not rate so highly on was the benefits of reporting an incident. The general sense from the students was that they didn’t really see the value of reporting, even if they saw the value in reviewing the product of others’ reports. With regard to the second aspect, the lecturers’ observations were that there seemed to be clear evidence of learning taking place, evidenced through the ‘lessons learned’ that both cohorts exhibited. There were also some notable shifts in Group 2 (who were exposed to the less scaffolded, student centric lesson), in that they seemed to become more attuned to certain aspects of safety culture and seemed more open to some of the behaviours that would be markers of safety culture. Group 1 did not especially advance against these markers but, seemed to be starting from a starting point that was further along the scale to begin with. As has been alluded to already, however, flaws in the design of the study (the use of two focus groups not turning out to be the right way to acquire the data) limited the ability to fully and objectively address the second of those questions. What has been acquired, though, is the data on what was wrong with the design of the study so that recommendations can be made for further data collection in the future to more effectively answer the second question. Likewise, since there was only one cohort studying each lesson, it is too soon to extrapolate to a broader

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population with a high degree of confidence. However, both cohorts exhibited good engagement with each set of learning materials and Group 2 especially seemed to progress their attitudes after being made to work in the less scaffolded context, but more sampling with other cohorts would be necessary to take forward any actions from those observations.

Recommendations With only one set of samples for comparison, it is too early to recommend using one strategy over the other. However, both strategies seem to have been, at least to a limited extent, effective so either could be used in the meantime. In the focus groups, it was identified that the value of incident reporting is not highly rated by the students, even though it has been shown to be a good indicator of safety culture. There were also a range of attitudes experienced by the cadets on board regarding safety. There would be value in extending the study to other cohorts to get a broader picture of what prevailing attitudes towards safety cadets are exposed to during their placements, without reference to any placement provider so there is no sense of conflict of interest. Methodological Improvements Recommended Second Survey The first recommendation is to use surveys both before and after the study. The first survey highlighted some areas that students scored lower in, such as willingness to take work related risks. A second written survey could provide some interesting quantification of change in attitude resulting from the learning. This could be in the form of some suggested actions they might take on board that are similar in topic to the first questions, but more phrased in a more forward-looking, future tense format, compared to the more present-tense form used for the entry survey. Having an exit survey would also be an opportunity for students to write down some of their learning and aspirations – the focus group data collection appeared to form part of their learning process (as discussed in the next paragraph), so having the written survey would give the students the opportunity build on the reflective elements of the lesson and would probably give a clearer impression of their proposed actions than the focus group. Exit Focus Group The second recommendation is to remove the second focus group – given that the intervention was quite short, the amount of time in focus groups ended up being about the same duration as was spent (officially) learning. The students seemed to have run out of things to say about the topic by the time they attended the second focus group. Learning Tool Design Aside from the data collection tools, the other methodological challenge presented was the aspect of pedagogy varied in the experiment. With the activities being broadly similar, but the degree of scaffolding and lecturer guidance being the main thing varied, it was difficult, given the less-than-enthusiastic second focus group, to have a clear picture of the difference between the two options. One way to address this would be for the proposed exit survey to include some knowledge-retention questions. Whilst, as was stated in the methodology section of this report, the point of the learning was to shift attitudes and behaviours, as was noted in the author’s field notes, the foundational level of knowledge did not seem to be as high as anticipated, and so establishing the level of knowledge on the topic would

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potentially be beneficial for understanding the effectiveness of the learning alongside their inclination towards action. Selection Whilst, originally, it was decided to only select cohorts that could be subdivided for ‘internal’ comparison, based on the experience from conducting the survey, it seems that it would not be detrimental to increase the sample size by selecting smaller cohorts and picking one or other teaching style, provided that across the whole study, the number of cohorts studying with each lesson type was kept roughly equal. This, combined with enhanced surveys, would give a better chance of collecting sufficient data to make statistically significant conclusions. Summary of Recommendations 1. Further survey the experiences of cadets with sea experience as part of understanding their attitudes towards safety

2. Quantify extent of seagoing experience

3. Quantify age of candidates

Sample further cohorts with revised form of the study a. Include smaller cohorts without subdivision b. Remove exit focus group c. Introduce exit survey d. Include knowledge-based questions in exit survey

References Anand, N. (2017). 30 Years On: In Search of Broken Components. Seaways, pp. 10-11. Anand, N., & Hilduberg, O. J. (2016). Imaginary checklists and defensive procedures: When safety tools serve another purpose. Seaways, pp. 12-15. Baumler, R., De Klerk, Y., Manuel, M., & Carballo Piñeiro, L. (2020). A culture of adjustment, evaluating the implementation of the current maritime maritime regulatory framework on rest and work hours (EVREST). Malmo: World Maritime University. Beerman, J., & Ackroyd, P. (2006). ORGANISATIONAL DRIFT – A CHALLENGE FOR ENDURING SAFETY PERFORMANCE. Reading: Greenstreet Berman Ltd. Berg, H. (2013). Human Factors and Safety Culture in Maritime Safety (revised). TransNav: the International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 7(3), 343-352. Brook-Carter, N., & Leach, P. (2006). Organisational Structures: The Influence of Internal & External Structures on Safety Management Performance, a review for the Maritime and Coastguard Agency. Greenstreet Berman. Bryman, A. (2012). Social Research Methods (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cooper, M. (2000). Towards a model of safety culture. Safety Science, 36(2), 111-136. Cullen, W. (1990). The Public Inquiry into the Piper Alpha Disaster. London: HMSO. Dekker, S. (2011). Drift into Failure: From Hunting Broken Components to Understanding Complex Systems. Boca Raton: CRC Press. Dekker, S. (2017). The Field Guide to Understanding ‘Human Error’ (3rd. ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press.

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Dekker, S. (2017). The Safety Anarchist. London: Routledge. DMAIB. (2016). Proceduralizing marine safety - Procedures in accident causation. Valby: DMAIB. Exley, S. (2004). The effectiveness of teaching strategies for students with dyslexia based on their preferred learning styles. British Journal of Special Education, 30(4), 213-220. Gadd, S., & Collins, A. M. (2002). Safety Culture: A review of the literature. Sheffield: Health & Safety Laboratory. Glendon, A. (2000). Perspectives on Safety Culture. Safety Science, 34(1-3), 193-214. IAEA. (1991). Safety Culture (Safety Series No 75- INSAG-4). Vienna: International Nuclear Safety Advisory Group, International Atomic Energy Authority. IMO. (2010). International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping (as amended ed.). London: IMO. INSAG. (1992). The Chernobyl Accident: Updating of INSAG-1 INSAG-7. Safety Series, 75. Kalauz, M., Hudee, G., & Valentina, K. (2015). Soft skills perception among students: importance and performance. (pp. 89-95). Varazdin: Croatia. Karakasnaki, M., Vlachopoulos, P., Pantouvakis, A., & Bouranta, N. (2018). ISM Code implementation: an investigation of safety issues in the shipping industry. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs, 17, 461-474. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s13437-018-0153-4 MCA. (2015). MSN 1865(M). Retrieved August 14, 2021, from https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ msn-1865-m-uk-requirements-for-emergency-occupational-safety-security-medical-care-and-survival-functions McLeod, S. A. (2019). What is the zone of proximal development theory? Retrieved August 14, 2021, from https://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html MNTB. (2017). Merchant Navy Training Board / MNTB - Education & Training. Retrieved 11 25, 2020, from http://mntb.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Training-standards-programme-principles-requirements-andapproval-criteria-March-2017.docx Nunan, K., Lie, J., Reniers, G., & Ponnet, K. (2018). Bibliometric analysis of safety culture research. Safety Science, 108, 248-258. Ofsted. (2021). Education inspection framework. Retrieved 08 14, 2021, from https://www.gov.uk/government/ publications/education-inspection-framework/education-inspection-framework Oksavik, A., Hildre, H., Pan, Y., Jenkinson, I., Kelly, B., Paraskevadakis, D., & Pyne, R. (2020). Skillsea: Future Skill and Competence Needs. Online: Erasmus+. Ozdem-Yilmaz, Y., & Bilican, K. (2020). Discovery Learning - Jerome Bruner. In B. Akpan, & T. Kennedy (Eds.), Science Education in Theory and Practice (pp. 177-190). Springer Texts in Education. QAA. (2018). UK Quality Code for Higher Education: Part B: Assuring and Enhancing Academic Quality: Chapter B3 Learning and Teaching. Retrieved 05 10, 2021, from https://www.qaa.ac.uk/docs/qaa/quality-code/ chapter-b3_-learning-and-teaching.pdf?sfvrsn=3500f781_8 Reason, J. (1990). Human Error. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Reason, J. (1997). Managing the risks of organizational accidents. Aldershot: Ashgate. Sheen, H. M. (1987). MV Herald of Free Enterprise: Report of Court No. 8074 Formal Investigation. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office.

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Turner, B., Pidgeon, N., Blockley, D., & Toft, B. (1989). Safety culture: its importance in future risk management. Position paper for the Second World Bank Workshop on Safety Control and Risk Management. Sweden: Karlstad. Wahl, A., & Kongsvik, T. (2018). Crew resource management training in the maritime industry: a literature review. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs, 17, 377-396. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s13437-018-0150-7 Williams, A.-M. C. (2015). Soft Skills Perceived by Students and Employers as Relevant Employability Skills. Minneapolis: Walden University.

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The application of innovative technology in online teaching Dr Fraser N. Hatfield

Introduction In March 2020, the nation went into lock-down due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Prior to this date, Blackpool and the Fylde College had been steadily introducing its academic staff to the Microsoft Teams software in the previous year. This was very fortunate, as all teaching went on-line and Teams became the platform to facilitate this. The movement to online working happened extremely quickly, and for my part I felt under-prepared. I found the first few weeks were quite difficult, learning how to use Teams and continuing to deliver teaching from home using PowerPoint.

Strategies and interventions employed and rationale behind them Fortunately, my home computer was a workstation-level laptop, running Windows 7 that was powerful enough to do most things I needed. Over a period of a few months and as my confidence in online teaching began to improve, the system I used started to expand. The hardware and software expansion evolved organically. I continued to try out different combinations of equipment and software and different ways of teaching, to find the most suitable methods for myself and my students. Over a period of time my laptop computer started to resemble a full computer system. The following peripherals were added in tentative steps to the system. My system eventually expanded to include: • An additional USB keyboard. This keyboard was used instead of the laptop keyboard. • Two monitors were added to the side of the laptop and complementing the laptop screen. My focus was then moved away from the laptop, and towards the screens, emulating a normal workstation setup. • Storage space was increased with two Portable hard drives. • Printer. • Webcam. • Headphones with microphone. • ‘Snowball’ Microphone and Speakers. • Graphics Tablet and Pen (‘Ugee’ 10 x 6-inch Tablet), [UGEE,2021]

• Epic Pen Software, [Epic Pen, 2021]

The graphics tablet and pen were used for writing on the screen in PowerPoint and Word documents. The

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Epic Pen software was used for writing over the main display and was used to annotate other graphics package demonstrations. All of this had to run in Windows 7. In parallel to these developments, I installed a software package called, ‘3D Studio Max’, [Autodesk,2021]. I used this to develop 3D computer graphics models and animations to support the learning outcomes in the online lessons. As the system expanded, I could see benefits to my teaching and assessment from all of these incremental improvements in my working arrangement. My online delivery became more professional and effective. Over a period of time, I developed a suite of computer graphics models and animated sequences to support the learning outcomes in all of my Marine Engineering Modules. The graphics were combined with PowerPoint, along with the use of the graphics tablet within the Teams sessions. Figure 1 displays the resources used and how they were combined.

Figure 1. Combining online resources in Teams: Graphics Tablet and Pen, Epic Pen Software, Computer Graphics, and PowerPoint. For these developments, I received excellent verbal and written feedback from my students. Also, the Graphics Tablet allowed me to mark online exam papers and assignments submitted to Canvas. This method of marking is particularly effective and is very efficient. For example, the same question number can be marked-up across all papers very easily and it helps to maintain consistency in marking. I received a college ‘SurfacePro’ tablet pc approximately 2 months into this period of online teaching. This is a very useful piece of hardware with many capabilities. But I found using this machine for online teaching and assessment difficult, due to the following: • Limited screen space for writing on and marking formative and summative assessments using the attached pen.

• Software issues.

• Limited Memory (8GB RAM).

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Also, the limited memory and processing power meant that I was unable to install the 3D Graphics program used in my teaching, and so was unable to continue to present graphics demonstrations for each learning outcome over Teams. For this reason, most of my teaching and attendance at online meetings was done on my expanded laptop computer system. During this period of evolution in my teaching, I was still learning to use Teams. One feature which I found to be interesting, was the ability to have a static background image to my webcam display in lectures and meetings in Teams. For me this was a problem, because this feature was supported in Windows 10, but not in Windows 7. After a great deal of searching on the internet to find out how to do this, I discovered a popular open-source software package, which runs on Windows 7 and 10, called ‘Open Broadcast Software’, OBS, [OBS 2021]. This software combines a webcam image with any other imagery you wish, and outputs a ‘Virtual Webcam’ which you can select, when you choose which input camera you would like to use in Teams and Zoom. The discovery of this software to solve, what appears to be a simple problem, has opened a range of exciting possibilities for teaching and learning. OBS is a software suite used for recording and live streaming video. It allows the user to combine resources such as: webcam, PowerPoint, computer graphics simulations, graphic pen software, video and audio into one output stream, which can then either be live streamed over the internet or viewed within Teams and Zoom via the virtual webcam feature. The software can also be used with a ‘Green Screen’ background. Filters within OBS remove the green screen image from the webcam footage. The removed background can then be replaced with any other resource required. To use the software, I acquired a sheet of green fabric, 6-foot-wide x 10-foot-high attached to frame, and some additional lights to create a uniformly lit background. The software can work with any colour; it just needs to be uniform. This setup then allowed me to combine my webcam video with all of my interactive resources into one output display, and which is then screen-shared with the students in Teams. Some example images from my teaching sessions in Teams are presented in figures 2a-2j. Similar imagery can be found in a video created for the Staff Development Day on 2nd July 2021, “Online Teaching Using OBS, A Green Screen and Computer Graphics to Create Engagement and Enhance Student Learning.” Green Screen Presentation

Figure 2b. OBS Green Screen Filter.

Figure 2a. OBS Main Screen.

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Figure 2c. Webcam image superimposed onto a background Image (CERN).

Figure 2d. Combining webcam, text and a background image in OBS.

Figure 2e. Combining webcam output with a desktop application (Astronomy).

Figure 2f. Combining webcam output with a web-browser application (Astronomy).

Figure 2g. Combining webcam output with 3D computer graphics of a ships bridge.

Figure 2h. Combining webcam output with an interactive 3D computer game.

Figure 2i. Combining live action video with graphics tablet and Epic Pen software.

Figure 2j. Combining animated graphics sequences with graphics tablet and Epic Pen software.

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The Impact of the Intervention These technological innovations were deployed to:

• Demonstrate the relevance of physics and maths to Marine Engineering.

• Generate interest and enthusiasm.

• Engage students in their learning.

• Create enjoyment.

• Improve understanding and knowledge retention.

• Improve student retention on programmes.

• Improve assessment grades.

• Improve student satisfaction.

I have received excellent verbal and written feedback from my students. I have been told by the student reps, that the groups have really appreciated the extra effort put into the lectures and it has enhanced their learning, and that they really look forward to these sessions. Also, there are clear improvements in summative assessment results.

Recommendations The resources I have identified have proven to be extremely helpful and have enhanced my online delivery and student engagement. But there is much more that can be done with this technology, and its application in the classroom and online will become more widespread. To promote these methods, I have given a number of presentations on the application of Computer Graphics and Green Screen software to colleagues in Fleetwood Nautical Campus. From this several members of staff are now looking into using these techniques in their own delivery. Now that all staff are returning to college following the relaxing of lock-down rules, it is my aim is to continue to develop the use of these methods of teaching for both in-class delivery and for the creation of further online resources accessible to students on campus and studying at a distance. Finally, it is my aim to give presentations on these methods to colleagues across the college.

References Autodesk, 2021, https://www.autodesk.co.uk/products/3ds-max/overview Epic Pen, 2021, https://epic-pen.com/ OBS, 2021, “Open Broadcast Software”, https://obsproject.com/ UGEE, 2021, “Graphics Tablet”, http://www.ugee-tablet.com/ugee-m708-drawing-tablet-10x6-inch-artgraphics-tablet.html

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What the...! System Failures Alan Harding

Abstract Failures of artifacts and systems usually take us by surprise albeit we know things do fail. This piece is reading for the new Maritime Management BSc top-up engineering module to introduce concepts around system failures relevant to systems engineering. It is an overview of the topic that is then explored in depth in the lecture series. The use of some pre-reading material that is not over long or involved can help garner interest in a subject and provide an early view where a series of topics is headed, giving some of the drier content more meaning. We can learn much about a subject from exploring failures from the past, and particularly accident reports, where the multifaceted nature of accidents is analysed in detail. An accident that occurred in aerospace is briefly broken down in this short paper. This is then used as a template for student analysis of maritime accidents such as the Costa Concordia.

Introduction We can learn much about an engineering subject from exploring failures of components and systems from the past, and particularly accident reports, where the multifaceted nature of accidents is analysed in detail. In this article an accident that occurred in aerospace is briefly broken down. This can be used as a template for student analysis of maritime accidents such as the Costa Concordia as part of their maritime technology management module.

Why Systems Fail The failure of an electronic or mechanical system often comes as a surprise. If the system is safety critical for the function, such as a structural failure, the result can be a disaster. A system performing a function is often more than the equipment but includes the operators. Those operators function in an environment that includes the ambient conditions, ergonomics, culture and training. All systems will eventually fail. Even the pyramids crumble, albeit after millennia. Failures occur for a variety of reasons that includes, for example, wear, crack growth from defects, and radiation embrittlement. We often deal with these by ascribing a life to a component. However, this cannot always be determined and so we end up with estimated failure rates that are often based on historical data. However, software is different as it is either right or wrong for the circumstance that arises. Manufactured parts can include defects, and under mechanical stress those defects can result in cracks that grow over time, some components are given an operating life. That life has a margin of error ascribed and at the end of an operating period the component is inspected, repaired or replaced. Because software is either right or wrong, its integrity is assured by the design, test, and inspection process. Those processes are governed by engineering standards that are applied to various industries such as the nuclear industry.

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Because systems fail, we have risks of the failures occurring. We have become used to accepting some risk. For example, in the UK we experience some 3 x 10-9 deaths/km when driving and that is accepted, although some improvements are sought. For civil aircraft, a rate of 10-7 failures/hr is an agreed engineering standard. This is attained by design, maintenance, regulations, and training.

Failure Rates and Fault Trees The causes of a particular failure can be varied. To enable analysis of this we use fault trees. A fire can occur for a variety of failure reasons and rates of those failures based on historical data and engineering knowledge can be ascribed. An example is shown below, where either a fuel leak or an electrical defect could cause a fire: C

The probability of C = (probability of A) + (probability of B) However, if both failures are required to result in the outcome, then: C

The probability of C = (probability of A) X (probability of B) A fault tree can include human factors and environmental conditions:

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Human factors can include environment (e.g. illumination, communication, culture, ergonomics, and training). Environmental factors can include weather, temperature, vibration etc. Poor instrumentation, for example, has led aircraft pilots to shut down the wrong engine in an engine failure event. Hot brakes have led to fuel fires where fuel leaks have occurred. Software induced failures may occur where an operation is conducted outside the conditions envisaged or tested. These are not failures of the software, but failures of the software development process. Code does not fail, but its implementation may result in an error. One misconception about failure probabilities is that if the rate is low, say 1 failure per 100,000 hours, then a failure will not happen in the first hours. Just after the RAF Tornado entered service one made a big hole in the Queen’s Sandringham estate. The failure had a 1x10-6 probability. The likelihood at any time depends on the failure mode and a rare event can happen at any time, if time is not a factor in the failure mode.

Mitigations The results of a system failure can be mitigated. Mitigations do not stop failures but lessen their impact. Lifeboats and parachutes and insurance are mitigations against fatal hazards. Fire extinguishing systems are mitigations, but also can be included in a fault tree to address a top hazard (out of control fire).

Redundancy One approach to system failures is to introduce redundancy. A back-up generator, two engines or multiple channels of control. This has an Achilles heel: a common mode failure. In 1982 a British Airways 747 flew through a volcanic ash cloud just off Indonesia and all four engines failed. Common mode failures can result from design, manufacture, operation and environment. One way round this is to have different design and manufacture for the channels.

Accidents Accidents invariably result from a chain of events. This is often referred to as a Swiss Cheese model in that if all the events (or holes in the cheese) do not line up the accident will not happen. The events can be quite historic compared with the accident. For example, poor training, that may have occurred years before can become significant. An aircraft accident in 2009 shows how small occurrences can build. Air France 447 was flying from Brazil to France when it plunged in to the Atlantic. The cause was icing of a sensor and the pilots subsequent actions causing the aircraft to stall and fall out of the sky. However, there was a sequence of events any one of which might have prevented the outcome. • The pilots were briefed about weather on route: they could have avoided it. • The captain decided to fly through the weather. • The captain decided to take a break just before the bad weather leaving the less experienced crew in control. • The pilots in control did not comprehend the sensor failure warning and the effect on the flight control system.

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• The pilots took opposing actions and did not communicate.

• One pilot took, and continued with, a fatally incorrect action. To this list can be added poor training of the pilots and, possibly, poor company regulation and culture. The captain of AF447 re-entered the cockpit as the aircraft plunged earthwards. I imagine he exclaimed ‘ce que…!’.

Bibliography Aviation Safety Network Database: www. aviation-safety.net/database Avreesky D.R. (Ed), (1992) Hardware and Software Fault Tolerance In Parallel Computing Systems, Chichester, Ellis Horwood Dale C, Anderson A (Ed) (2009), Safety-Critical Systems: Problems, Process and Practice, London, Springer-Verlag

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Development of a MEMS Hotplate-based Photoacoustic CO2 Sensor Lucky A. Ishaku, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Blackpool and The Fylde College David Hutson, Institute of Thin Films, Sensors and Imaging,University of the West of Scotland Des Gibson, Institute of Thin Films, Sensors and Imaging,University of the West of Scotland

Abstract Instead of the conventional use of micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) hotplate for metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) or nondispersive infrared (NDIR) gas sensing, it was used for photoacoustic (PA) gas sensing. A low-cost MEMS microphone was used for the development of this MEMS hotplate PA carbon dioxide (CO2) sensor. To the knowledge of the authors, this is the first time that a MEMS hotplate and a MEMS microphone are combined for use in gas sensing with high modulation frequency. These components offer advantages of low-cost, small size and low power consumption. The hotplate as a blackbody is a good infrared emitter which is suitable for CO2 detection around the 4.26µm absorption band. Despite the significant radiation power loss due to high modulation frequency, the remaining/reduced power radiation power was still sufficient to excite CO2 molecules for PA signal generation. Temperature analysis on the sensor showed that PA signal decreases with an increase in temperature, which implies that compensation must be provided for such temperature effects. This work provides alternative optical gas sensing that is comparatively inexpensive compared to the conventional NDIR sensors and the use of components that can be easily massproduced, means that it will make valuable contribution to the fight against air pollution and global warming. Key words: Photoacoustic, carbon dioxide, sensor, MEMS hotplate, MEMS microphone, resonance.

Introduction Many natural and anthropogenic processes are sources of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission into the atmosphere. The natural processes cannot be stopped; however, something can be done regarding the emission that comes from human activities. As an insidious gas, CO2 concentration in the atmosphere is increasing rapidly (Lee et al, 2012) and it has a remarkable contribution to air pollution and global warming. To improve indoor air quality, it is essential to monitor and control CO2 concentration in buildings, transport areas (Gibson and McGregor, 2013) and the environment. Apart from the need to monitor CO2 concentration in the atmosphere because of its harmful effects, it is also extremely important to measure its concentration because of its widespread industrial applications. Some use of CO2 in industry include food packaging, production of chemicals, fire extinguishers, refrigeration, welding, purification of water, beverage manufacture and bacterial growth inhibition in agriculture (Oblov et at, 2016). There is a growing demand for gas sensors that are low power consuming (Gibson and McGregor, 2013), inexpensive and small in size (Ishaku and Hutson, 2016). Therefore, in this work a photoacoustic (PA) CO2 sensor was developed using a MEMS hotplate and a MEMS microphone. Combination of components in this PA sensor is novel because this is the first time that this is done, to the best of our knowledge. NDIR sensors use much more expensive photodetectors compared to the MEMS microphone used in this work. The MEMS hotplate and MEMS microphone have the desired characteristics of low power consumption, small size and low cost. The use of MEMS hotplate here is for the development of a photoacoustic CO2 sensor.

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Radiation spectrum of a BB is shown in Figures (1), generated from Microsoft excel using Equation (1).

Figure 1: Black body radiation curves for temperatures at 873K, 773K and 673K, generated from Microsoft Excel using Equation (1). The total areas under the curves increase with temperature, signifying that a hotter body radiates more energy per unit volume. A black body radiation is the EM radiation emitted by a BB in thermal equilibrium. This radiation is emitted based on Planck’s energy distribution, given as (De Luca et al, 2013):

(1) Figure (1) as a representation of Planck’s distribution, confirms that the maximum emitted power is shifted toward shorter wavelengths when the temperature is increased. The emitted radiation power of a BB at the wavelength of 4.26μm is considerably higher when the temperature is at 873K compared to the very low value obtained around 10μm at the same temperature. The heat transfer in a micro hotplate is based on three processes, they are (i) thermal conduction (ii) convection and (iii) thermal radiation (Xu et al, 2011). This transfer of thermal energy within the micro hotplate is what is referred to as heat transfer. The photoacoustic effect was discovered by Alexander Graham Bell in 1880 (Bell, 1880) and has gone through many phases of advancements up to this present time (Li et al, 2011). The PA effect in gases occurs when a modulated radiation is absorbed by gas molecules and they become excited to higher energy states. Their collisional de-excitation generates heat and pressure (acoustic) waves that are periodic, in line with the modulation of the radiation. In PA gas sensing, microphones are used to detect the acoustic signal which is proportional to the gas concentration. The PA effect occurs in gases because most of them have characteristic fingerprints of radiation absorption. For CO2, its absorption is around the wavelength of 4.26μm (Ishaku et al, 2018). The acoustic signal generated when heat H (r, t) is produced by the absorption of light by the gas sample can be represented by the lossless inhomogeneous wave Equation (Ishaku and Hutson, 2016):

(2) Where p is the acoustic pressure, c is the velocity of sound and y=c_p/c_vis the specific heat ratio or adiabatic constant of the gas. This equation is loss free because it does not include the viscous and thermal losses. Taking the Fourier transform of Equation (2) gives,

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(3) And (4)

(5)

Equation (3) can be solved by taking the time Fourier transform on both sides and expressing the solution p(r,t) as an infinite series expansion of the normal mode solution pj(r,t) of the homogenous wave equation which are determined by the boundary conditions. The walls of the PA cell are assumed to be rigid, implying that the normal derivative of the pressure is zero at the walls or boundary. This is described by equation (4):

(6) This equation represents the assumption that the walls of the cell are sound-hard. The generation of PA signal involves two processes, namely the production of periodic heat followed by the second step which is the generation of PA signal. Both processes are dependent on the absorption of modulated light energy. For vibrational excitation (which dominates in the target gas of this work, CO2), photon radiation and photochemical reactions are insignificant, because the radiative lifetimes of vibrational levels are longer than the non-radiative lifetimes in the PA process. In addition, the photon energy is insufficient to cause a photo chemical reaction. When the modulation frequency of the radiation is slower than the rate of the nonradiative relaxation, the latter dominates, giving rise to PA signal generation (Baumann et al, 2008).

Characterisation of Sensor Components It is essential to understand the behaviour of the key components used in this sensor before the design will be discussed. Therefore, the characteristics of the MEMS microphone and the MEMS hotplate which are central to this work will be briefly explained. I. SUP01410HR5H-PB MEMS Microphone This microphone has a dynamic range of 0 – 10 kHz as shown in Figure (2). The plot of this microphone output signal against frequency in the laboratory shows that ambient noise dominates from 0 Hz to the region close to 1 kHz. The plot was captured by a Hewlett-Packard (HP) 7470A Plotter Emulator which was used to connect the signal analyser to the computer. The output of the microphone placed on the cell was connected to the analyser. It can be seen that from approximately 1 kHz – 10 kHz the microphone frequency response is less affected by 1/f noise. This spectrum helped in determining the modulation frequency and hence the PA cell length, as explained further in the sensor design section.

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Figure 2: Microphone frequency response when there was no gas in the cell and the radiation source was switched off. II. The EMIRS 200 Micro Hotplate The EMIRS 200 micro hotplate packaged in TO-39 compact casing with a reflector was used as the radiation source in a non-dispersive infrared (NDIR) arrangement for this characterisation. Lead selenide (PbSe) was used as the detector. PbSe is a photoconductive detector whose resistance changes when it is illuminated by IR radiation. This characteristic makes it possible to measure the amount of radiation that it receives. Measurements were performed in two ranges; 5 – 100 Hz and 500 Hz – 4 kHz and the plots of Figure (3) show what happened.

Figure 3: How the power output of the micro hotplate reduces with increase in modulation frequency (a) frequencies between 5 and 100 Hz (b) frequency range of 500 – 4000 Hz.

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These graphs show that higher modulation frequencies led to significant power loss from the micro hotplate. However, in a trade-off the higher frequencies offer lower 1/f noise and smaller sensor size. High frequency modulations are easily achieved with LEDS and lasers but not micro hotplates.

Design of the Sensors The PA cell was designed to have a 40mm long acoustic resonator with 14mm diameter. Dimensions of the two identical buffer volumes attached to both sides of the resonator are 20mm and 48mm for length and diameter respectively. Diameter of the resonator was determined based on the dispersion of the micro hotplate radiation, to ensure that all or most of the radiation passes through the resonator. The two identical buffer volumes diameters were derived from Equation (8):

(8) Where rbv is the buffer volume radius and rres is the resonator radius. The length of the buffer volumes are quarter wavelength of the resonance frequency so that they are used as acoustic filters against ambient noise coming into the cell. Figure (4) shows the cell configuration.

Figure 4: The photoacoustic cell showing resonator, buffer volumes, microphone, gas inlet/outlet and radiation passage. The microphone is placed on the middle of the resonator as shown; because it is the position of maximum acoustic signal (antinode). Openings were created on the buffer volumes for the infrared windows where the radiation will pass into and out of the cell. Due to the influence of 1/f noise on PA systems, lower frequencies were avoided. Characterisation of the microphone shows that frequencies below 1 kHz should not be used in such applications, see Figure (2). The relationship between the resonance frequency and resonator length is given by:

(9) Where f is the modulation frequency, n is the number of longitudinal modes, c is the speed of sound and L is the resonator length. From the cell dimensions given above and the speed of sound in air (343 m/s), the fundamental longitudinal resonance frequency is 3543.14 Hz when the effective length of the resonator was used. The inner walls of the stainless-steel PA cell were coated with gold to reduce the effect of background signal caused by cell wall radiation absorption. Zinc selenide (ZnSe) windows with antireflective coatings were used. Figure (5) is the resonance profile plotted from PA signal measurements made around the cell’s resonance frequency.

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Figure 5: Resonance profile of the PA cell. It shows results of PA signal measurement when the modulation frequency was tuned between 2.92 – 3.22 kHz. The resonance profile was plotted from measurement data at about 42% gas concentration and normal atmospheric conditions. For high quality factor, Q is defined as:

(10) Where Q is the quality factor, f0 is the resonance frequency and FWHM is the full width at half maximum described as the interval between the points where the amplitude is at 1/√2 the value of the peak amplitude. More design details can be found in previous works (Ishaku and Hutson, 2016; Ishaku et al, 2018).

Experimental Set-up and Measurement An electronic circuit was designed and used to modulate the hotplate radiation as well as track the resonance frequency of the cell. Resonance tracking is needed because of the variation of resonance frequency with respect to gas composition/concentration and temperature changes. The radiation was directed into the cell which had CO2 (target gas) and N2 (buffer gas) flowing through it. Gas flow into the cell was controlled by the MKS Multi-Gas controller 647B. It had mass flow controllers connected to it and they were used to set CO2 and N2 flow rates in standard cubic centimetres per minute (SCCM) based on calculated proportions, thereby producing specified gas concentrations for PA signal measurements. Generated PA signal detected by the MEMS microphone is analysed using the HP 3561A Dynamic Signal Analyser. Connected to the signal analyser is the HP 7470A Plotter Emulator which captures the PA signal spectrum for display, printing or storage on the computer. Figure (6) is the PA sensor used as part of the set-up for measurement.

Figure 6: The constructed PA cell with inlet/outlet pipes connected and microphone cable shielded against interference.

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The cell was placed on two stands to reduce the effects of mechanical vibrations. Gas flow pipes connected to the inlet and outlet are also shown. Cables from the microphone were shielded with woven mesh of copper wires (braid shielding) to avoid interference on the PA signal. Measurements were carried out by allowing different gas concentrations to flow into the cell then PA signal were recorded for each concentration.

Results and Discussions Measurement results for gas concentrations starting from 100% N2 to almost 90% of CO2 in the cell was plotted and shown in Figure (7). The measurements were carried out at room temperature.

Figure 7: Change in PA signal with respect to CO2 concentration increase at room temperature. The graph shows that the PA signal is directly proportional to increase in the concentration of CO2 in the cell. This means that more gas molecules were excited at increased concentration for higher signal generation. The linear variation of PA signal with CO2 concentration has an R2 value of 0.99. Sensitivity of the sensor at room temperature is 4.6µV/%, calculated as the gradient of the graph. Uncertainty values were computed from three different results obtained for each concentration and they lie between 4.4 – 6.0µV. Figure (8) is a PA signal spectrum captured from the signal analyser.

Figure 8: PA signal of the hotplate sensor measured at room temperature for a CO2 concentration of about 62.5% in the cell.

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Temperature analysis was performed on the hotplate sensor, as an essential requirement for resonant PA systems. Such examination provided important information on any challenges that could arise due to temperature variation, to find ways of overcoming them. The Weiss WKL 34 temperature and climate test chamber were used to experimentally measure the PA signal for increasing CO2 concentrations, within the temperature range of −200C to 500C at intervals of 100C. Resonance frequency tracking was applied in each measurement. Figure (9) are graphs plotted for results of PA signal against CO2 Concentration for the different temperatures.

Figure 9: PA signal variation with CO2 concentration for different temperatures from -200C to 500C. These graphs show the effect that temperature has on PA signal – higher temperatures decrease PA signal output. These graphs clearly illustrate the dependence of PA signal on temperature. At every fixed concentration of the gas and changing temperature, there is a corresponding change in PA signal. To further explain this effect, the PA results for CO2 at a concentration of 25% in the cell was plotted as shown in Figure (10).

Figure 10: How PA signal varies with change in temperature at 25% CO2 concentration in the cell. Calculations showed that there is approximately 77% loss of PA signal from −200C to 500C and the rate of signal reduction is 4.4 µV/0C. For an interval of 100C, between 100C and 200C (room temperature at the time of measurement), there was about 15.3% signal loss. Again, this agrees with the theory, that PA signal decreases with increasing temperature. Compensations for these temperature effects will be taken into account in future work. Detailed variation of PA signal with temperature can be found in earlier work (Ishaku et al, 2018).

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Conclusion The use of MEMS hotplate to develop PA CO2 sensor has been presented in this work and it reveals the suitability of these hotplates in PA gas sensing as well as the potential of such sensors. Huge availability due to ease of mass production and the low cost of components means that this type of sensors can be mass produced at cheaper cost. This work indicates that hotplates can be worthy alternatives to expensive light emitting diodes (LEDs) and lasers. MEMS hotplate’s emission of high intensity radiation in the infrared wavelength band makes it suitable for use in sensors that detect gases having characteristics absorption in the infrared region. A large sensor size would reduce the resonance frequency and hence modulation frequency. Experimental measurements showed that higher hotplate radiation power is achieved when modulation frequency is low. Results from the sensor show that PA signal varies linearly with CO2 concentration, with very low uncertainties of a few µV.

References Baumann B., Kost B., Wolff M. and Groninga H. (2008) ‘Modelling and Numerical Investigation of Photoacoustic Resonators’, Modelling and Simulation, Petrone, G. and Cammarata, G. (Ed.), InTech Education Publishing, Chapter 2, pp. 17-38. Bell A. G. (1880) ‘On the production and reproduction of sound by light’, Am. J. Sci., 20, pp. 305 – 324. De Luca A., Cole M. T., Fasoli A., Ali S. Z., Udrea F. and Milne W. I. (2013) ‘Enhanced infra-red emission from sub-millimeter microelectromechanical systems micro hotplates via inkjet deposited carbon nanoparticles and fullerenes’ J. Appl. Phys., 113(21). Gibson D. and MacGregor C. (2013) ‘A Novel Solid State Non-Dispersive Infrared CO2 Gas Sensor Compatible with Wireless and Portable Deployment’, Sensors, pp. 7079-7103. Ishaku L. A. and Hutson D. (2016) ‘A Resonant Photoacoustic CO2 Sensor Based on Mid-IR LED and MEMS Microphone Technology Operating at 4.3µm’, Innovative Systems Design and Engineering (ISDE), 7(8). Ishaku L. A., Hutson D. and Gibson D. (2018) ‘Temperature Effects on Photoacoustic Carbon Dioxide Sensor Developed using Mid-IR LED’, IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference, Houston USA, 14-17 May 2018, pp. 1 – 6. Lee T. J., Lee O., Kim J. and Shterengas L. (2012) ‘CO2 Sensor with Data Logger System’, Systems, Applications and Technology Conference (LISAT) 2012 IEEE Long Island, pp. 1 – 7. Li J., Chen W. and Yu B. (2011) ‘Recent progress on infrared photoacoustic spectroscopy techniques’. Applied Spectroscopy Reviews, 46(6), pp. 440 – 471. Oblov K. Yu., Ivanova A. V., Soloviev S. A., Zhdanov S. V., Voronov Yu. A. and Florentsev V. V. (2016) ‘Carbon dioxide gas sensor based on optical control of colour in liquid indicator’, IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering [Online]. Available at: https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/ 1757-899X/151/1/012031/pdf (accessed 5th march 2021). Xu L., Li T., Gao X. and Wang Y. (2011) ‘Development of a Reliable Micro-Hotplate with Low Power Consumption’, IEEE Sensors Journal, 11(4), pp. 913 – 919.

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The Most Important Cog in the Machine: Business Analysis and 5S Implementation in an Engineering Company Margarita Georgieva, Andrew Heaton, Abdelrahman Abdelazim Matthew Worthington, NIS Ltd., United Kingdom

Abstract The focus of this paper is the 5S process, incorporating a real working example of how this method can positively affect a business in terms of managing change and continuous improvement. The benefits that 5S implementation can bring to a manufacturing business focus on every-day work with a holistic approach that intends to bring order both in the material environment and in the ethical values that support it. There are many factors that should be addressed when introducing 5S into a company, including some less tangible ones like moral and ethical principles, environmental factors, sustainability, and risk management. The backgrounds of the project featured in this work is in the field of nuclear waste management. The development of 5S practices are significant to this field because the methodology is known to increase safety and improve overall performance. However, it is also important to analyse what other aspects 5S could impact in an engineering company in this business. This work will therefore investigate the wider aspects of engineering management practice before delving into more specific questions on manufacturing process improvement with a particular focus on the impact 5S will have on workshop organisation and changing operator and technician culture. This will include a discussion of an industry relevant project and how 5S has impacted it. The project in question is entitled Soffit Plate Project and is a batch production project where a quantity of 282 Soffit plates are assembled with over 100 components in each plate. In total there are thousands of components that need to be managed throughout the contract with added paperwork and manufacturing process management as required. The work evidences that a normal approach would not be sufficient or sustainable for profitability and that 5S should be implemented from the beginning. The discussion focuses on the implementation of 5S and its effect on engineering business management.

1. Introduction 5S as a lean manufacturing approach can be seen as a framework intending to shape workplace management and to add a dimension to engineering project management. 5S can be easily borrowed from its lean contexts and integrated as a standalone methodology within any project management approach as a means of preserving order and systematisation, or for the sake of standardising processes and procedures. (Viranda et al.) The advantage of 5S lies in its agility and on its impact on safety management (Sukdeo, 2017), risk reduction and overall quality improvement as shown in a number of studies. The practice of 5S aims to embed the values of organisation, consistency, neatness, cleanliness, standardisation and discipline into the workplace (Osada, 1991). In Japan, 5S practice was initiated in the

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manufacturing sector and then extended to other industries and services sectors. The Toyota Production System provides a well-known example of 5S principles in practice. (Kobayashi et al, 2008) Some scholars (Kobayashi et al, 2006) imply that 5S receives focus on specific applications only as opposed to being adapted in their holistic meaning, and while 5S can be a universal approach, only a total of 84 Japanese organisations publicly describe 5S on their organisational web sites (Kobayashi et al, 2008). In addition to that, Douglas (2002) and Ho et al (1995) both suggest that 5S is underutilised by Western organisations. Whether this is a matter of corporate vision or a more philosophical approach to engineering company organisation, a review of the literature on 5S implementation does reveal a rift between East and West, where India, China, Japan as well as the Middle East and parts of South America seem to more readily focus on strict 5S implementation, whether by integrating it within lean approaches or other existing project management methods. Womack, Jones and Roos (2007) believe that the fundamental ideas of lean production are universal and applicable anywhere by anyone, and that many non-Japanese companies have already learned this. An overarching review of 5S principles utilised across industry reveals (Vipulkumar C. Patel et al, 2014) that engineering companies tend to prefer quick implementation of 5S, rather than full implementation of lean or six sigma as a holistic approach. It appears that 5S is seen as a quicker and easier method to make noticeable and impactful changes without the added extra difficulty of thorough process and operations overhaul that may be required when moving to Lean Six Sigma throughout. The buy-in that can be obtained for a 5S project may, however, lead to a wider adoption of lean toolkits, eventually moving to Lean Six Sigma. This paper documents the implementation of 5S at an engineering company whilst incorporating business analysis into the process. 1.1. Company Background and Motivation NIS Ltd. provide bespoke engineering solutions to the nuclear industry. NIS Ltd. have decided to introduce kaizen (continuous improvement), and a lean mindset in the company through a soft and non-intrusive approach. 5S has been selected for this purpose and implemented through an adapted kaizen tactic which involved traditional business modelling to understand current state and approach it with continuous improvement goals. Before the project initiation, a review of 5S implementation examples has been conducted to enrich lessons learned. 1.2. Project Background – Soffit Plate Project The project which is subject to this study is entitled Soffit Plate Project. It is a batch production project where a quantity of 282 soffit plates. (Figure 1) Each plate consists of over 100 components which need to be assembled. In total, there are thousands of components throughout the contract. All components and the final assembly need supporting paperwork to accompany the manufacturing process.

Figure 1 Design of a soffit plate and a soffit plate sample

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The soffit plates will then be placed within concrete box packages (Figure 2), intended for the storage of nuclear waste.

Figure 2 Design of a concrete waste storage box, indicating the position of the soffit plate The soffit plate is an important element in the box design and is intended to close the box hermetically, sealing completely the contents. The production process prior to the introduction of 5S involves machining, welding and assembly steps with elements of the soffit plate available in the workshop but not strictly subjected to any particular systematic organisational approach or lean methodology except those required legally and by the corresponding health and safety as well as quality standards which are closely followed and monitored. There is usually increased number of movement around the workshop floor and significant amount of time needed to move and store elements and the ready product. It was believed that the usual production approach adopted would not be sufficient or sustainable for profitability, and would result in wastes, inefficiency and bottlenecks. It was important that 5S be implemented from the beginning, but it was also important that time and care was taken to determine the best ‘style’ to implement this and to allocate time for the training of teams.

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2. Methods In order to deploy 5S across the production process, four steps have been taken to study what adaptations will be needed and to evaluate the impact of the project on the organisation as a whole. 1.

As a first step, a business model canvas for the company was created in order to better understand company positioning and activities, and to help reflect on strategy and identify the principal areas that may be affected by 5S practice. The business model canvas includes key partners, activities and resources of the organisation that also impact soffit plate production. Customer relationships, segments, and channels are used to frame the value proposition. The financial aspects of this analysis are broadly developed through the cost structure and revenue streams. The canvas was created after dialogue with key internal stakeholders.

As a result of this dialogue, the business model canvas was complemented by an extended stakeholder analysis in order to identify the best approach to communicating kaizen and performing 5S. Both internal and external stakeholders have been considered along with their relative power and influence. The stakeholder analysis helped reveal some aspects that can be used in a SWOT and McKinsey 7S analyses, which were completed as a third step.

3. SWOT and McKinsey 7S analyses were performed in order to understand the repercussions and impact of change management that 5S implementation will involve and to aid in the identification of associated risk. 4. The fourth step involved the planning and implementation of 5S. This consisted in a focussed literature review prior to the launch of 5S to help outline the manner in which the methodology should be deployed within the company, based on the findings on the business analyses. The collection of observations on the changes 5S has had on the organisation was performed during the project by the project team. The significance of this type of approach and the associated research is that it blends traditional business and market analysis approaches with kaizen and 5S in order to facilitate their integration.

3. Focussed Literature Review A review of the literature reveals a number of approaches to 5S implementation. Most of them adopt blended approaches to this process and show significant creativity and innovation in their adaptations in context. A number of studies show that 5S implementation results in optimisation and efficiency, and its adaptability contributes to improved quality. For the purposes of this study, a set of 5 papers on case studies were utilised in order to draw out ideas and patterns for a blended approach towards generalising 5S practice across an engineering company, focusing on each step of the process. 5S Steps

Detail of Implementation Ideas

Sort Involves sorting of materials, tools, equipment and others to bring order, simplify inspection, reduce distraction, eliminate obstacles, increase space availability.

Sureja et al. (2017) plan and divide the sorting process into sub-steps that include a list of actions, resources and target outcomes for the step. The removal of unnecessary items is kanbanized by red-tagging areas as well as items. This visualisation methodology intends to clearly differentiate not only between what remains and what is thrown out, but between what is recycled, sold, relocated or disposed of. There is an added dimension of sustainability practice in this approach.

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5S Steps

Detail of Implementation Ideas

Set / Straighten Involves smoothening and facilitating workflows by implementing work-cell design, finding and fixing the best place for each item, tool or piece of equipment.

Gupta and Jain (2014) define 5S as a step towards kaizen and develop a methodology where 5S is integrated in a continuous improvement that differentiates operations as value-adding and non-value adding. Within this framework, spaces, tools and work stations were examined by process walks (gembas) in order to identify the problems along with their root causes, and to allocate specific actions for the set stage of the holistic kaizen process.

Shine Involves inspecting and cleaning spaces, tools and equipment to improve health and safety, to increase efficiency, to minimise or eliminate waste, and prevent production defects.

Zhang and Tan (2011) develop the questions of workshop maintenance as institutional priority and examine rules, regulations and standards, especially as concerns industries such as electrical/electronics design and development where the need for clean room facilities requires specific attention and higher-level management. Machining and production environments, which tend to generate more waste, are also considered. The lessons learned here include clear communication of rules and regulations and well as vigilance over actual implementation.

Standardise Involves establishing processes and procedures for the systematic repeatability with maximally similar results across different operators of the first three practices.

Filho et al. (2017) initially investigate several productivity increase methodologies, including “getting things done” (GTD), Pomodoro as well as six sigma, but 5S was selected due to the standardisation element, which favours continuity in time and helps preserve the positive change. This study notes that one of the most important factors for successful standardisation was clear communication and strong interaction among team members. Among the lessons learned was initial stress, resulting from change of methodology and the perception of disrupting the work environment.

Sustain / Self-discipline Involves training and discipline to ensure that everyone follows the 5S standards, which become the basis for lean production.

Ayabakan and Eken (2014) examine industrial application towards sustainable process development and frame 5S within a “lean manufacturing house” where the purpose of 5S is ultimately to make the process “habitual” and foundational, aiming to stabilise all other improvement processes. This sustainability is achieved through a combination of training to minimise resistance to change and systematic application as well as celebration of good results.

Table 1 5S Implementation Examples: Summary of Key Literature The variety of approaches revealed by the studies in Table 1 reveal that 5S can be flexibly adapted to specific company needs, taking into account all the aspects of internal and external operations. This is known to generate high levels of returns and has an indirect impact on distribution and well as customer service, creating flow and stability across workshop floor operations. (Bonilla-Ramirez et al., 2019) Some studies note that 5S or similar production maintenance approaches will impact an organisation’s productivity as a result of enhanced collaborative work, improved awareness of team members’ contributions, ultimately creating more synergistic environments. (Ngozag, 2020) In all cases, the changes implemented in the case studies were driven by an overarching strategy, whether this was health and safety, or improvement of team work and communication, or reducing production waste, and additional methodologies were used to strengthen the application of 5S. This shows that prior knowledge to some strategic directions, aims and goals of a company or project are essential for the success of 5S. Prior knowledge will be developed by the use of business analysis tools to investigate the company business model, its stakeholders and its readiness for change.

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4. Business Analyses 4.1. The Business Model Canvas The Business Model has been used to understand and analyse the current position in which NIS Ltd. operates. It will specifically examine how the company tenders for work in specific industries (cf. Table 3 presenting a Business Model Canvas for NIS Ltd.) and to analyse the nature of the various aspects of its operations. While application of 5S if oftentimes considered on an everyday operations level, this case study considers that the introduction on a new methodology should be considered on a business development level in order to evaluate its impact across all company activities. It is interesting to note that the company subject to the present study has a long-standing history in its areas of activity and has thrived through the dramatic technological and economic changes that occurred since the last decades of the 20th century. This shows an agile and flexible approach to market positioning and a responsible, stable approach to partnership development. Its key activities are focused on engineering projects with services and products for the nuclear sector, requiring strong expertise. The nature of NIS Ltd.’s key activities determines core requirements for its projects which include security, safety, bespoke design, and high-precision, yet cost-effective solutions. This is also linked to its core value proposition which is centred around ISO compliance. This indicates that a 5S approach would be beneficent to the company as its impact should promote the higher efficiency, timeliness and resourcefulness, ultimately resulting in better quality overall. The cost structure and revenue streams also indicate that reduction of wastes can be a positive strategy overall. A 5S approach would have to principally focus on improving the value proposition. 4.2. Stakeholder Analysis The stakeholder analysis presents and reflects information to determine whose primary interests should be taken into account when developing or implementing a process (Schmeer, 2020). In this case, key stakeholders have been identified and categorised in order to determine how their relative power and influence will affect the 5S implementation process. Table 2 identifies and categorises stakeholders that may influence or affect the 5S implementation for NIS Ltd. The stakeholders identified in this example will be the individuals/companies/departments that will benefit from the introduction of 5S throughout the business. Stakeholder

Detail

Owner

Has the most power and influence. Provide initial funding for change implementation.

Directors

Must OK the 5S process before any funding can be authorised.

HSE

The HSE is a governing body which has the power to shut down any business susceptible to unsafe workplace and negligence in respect of the regulations.

Client

Impacted by leaner manufacturing as cost savings result in lower price.

Competitor

Has a direct influence to any business as they are the companies rival business.

Manager

Managers have more power and influence than employees, due to their supervisory position within the company.

Employees

The direct workforce has a small amount of power but holds valuable influence on company productivity.

Table 2 NIS Ltd. Business Stakeholders Within the Business Model Canvas (Table 3), these stakeholders have a central place as part of NIS Ltd.’s value proposition either as creators or users of value. It is important, however, to determine which of these stakeholders have the most power and influence on impacting and changing the value proposition in the most favourable and sustainable manner possible.

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Table 3 Business Model Canvas for NIS Ltd. Each stakeholder identified has been assessed based on their power and influence within NIS Ltd. based on a relative score, ranging between one and 10, where one reflects the lowest level and 10 reflects the highest level. Two sets of data have been gathered as follows: • Stakeholders with the highest power score would have control over financial aspects and strategic decision-making for the future of the company. • Stakeholders with the highest influence score would be those who have a direct impact on the methodologies and processes, as well as operations and the day-to-day activities of delivery-level personnel. The diagrams have been produced to include the scores from both sets of data and to cross-compare the changes and implications for stakeholder interests. Prior to the 5S change, this is completed relative to the organisational structure of the company pre-5S implementation. (Figure 3) It appears that the employee

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Figure 3 Organisational Structure Pre-Change layout for NIS Ltd., showing key stakeholders reporting structure within the business, is a traditionally layered vertical structure, which tends to favour change management originating within leadership.

Figure 4 Pre-5S Power and Influence Diagram It becomes evident that the owner in this case has the highest decision-making power as well as the highest influence. (Figure 4) Added to this are the power and influence of the director, which is equivalent to the upper managerial levels of the company. The Health and Safety Executive (HSE), a regulatory body, has very strong influence over decisions, especially linked to operations that may involve risk for human health and safety. These three combined possess over 50% of the power and influence within the company. While this may be important in terms of strategic decision making, one could ask the question whether it is not a good idea to increase the influence of customers and employees, especially in terms of health and safety as well as in product quality, given that they are the ones to directly benefit from any positive developments of those. Figure 2 is based on the position NIS Ltd. are in before the implementation of 5S. It demonstrates the power and influence that each stakeholder has within the company, and provides additional insight into the

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distribution of strategic decision-making as well as overall management and process controls within the company. It is obvious that most stakeholder interests converge in the value proposition, while only some stakeholders have strong power and influence over its control. While this has resulted in a consistent and streamlined directive power to-date, this also shows that positive change within the lower layers of the structure could increase quality, value, and boost employee engagement as well as help improve customer relationships through utilitarian actions that are under the control of employee-level staff. A SWOT analysis could help further understand the impact of such a change. 4.3. SWOT Analysis The development of a SWOT analysis, followed by McKinsey’s 7S model for change management will delineate the impact of the 5S project on the company as a whole. Bismark et al. (2018) suggest that analysis models have been the tools that most professional institutions use to evaluate overall performance of the organisation. However, in this case, the aim will be to evaluate the impact of an intended change in order to better understand its impact in the organisation before implementing it. Similar utilisation of business analysis tools for understanding the impact of a 5S project has been presented by Bharambe et al. (2020) who consider the utilisation of 5S and just-in-time (JIT) from the point of view of opportunities and strengths they create for organisations. For the present study, both the SWOT analysis and McKinsey’s 7S models are expected to provide the opportunity to reflect in-depth on NIS Ltd.’s performance as well as on aspects that may be impacted by the 5S project and the changes on employee level it will bring. These models may demonstrate some areas of the organisation as deficient, while other may be found to flourish. The SWOT reflection (Table 4) has revealed that the opportunities created by 5S implementation will increase the influence of employee-level operatives. It is expected that initiative and autonomy will create an increased awareness to health and safety, reduced production or work times and improved quality of experience. A 5S project will directly impact work, which means that weaknesses will be found in case the project is seen as a leadership initiative. It will be crucial to strategically communicate the project as an employee initiative and stress the increase of personal autonomy and opportunity to show initiative that the project will bring. The impact of a mini-5S project may have unexpected positive results, i.e. could develop into training and continuous professional development opportunity. It could potentially result in a change of organisational culture and become more widely adopted. This is clearly evident in the opportunities analysis.

Table 4 SWOT Analysis (5S Implementation)

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The purpose of utilising McKinsey’s 7S model (Table 5) is to better analyse NIS Ltd. in a set of categories such as: organisational structure, systems, management and leadership as well as working styles, staff, skills and training or continuous professional development opportunities, overarching organisational strategy and company shared values (Hanafizadeh, 2011). The importance of linking these seven categories together is to show that a weakness in one area can ultimately create a weakness in the remaining areas, and to link that weakness to a potential solution, which in this case is the application of a 5S process. Implementation of a new process is not to incite stricter rules to follow, but to improve the current situation one stage at a time until the whole business is connecting the dots, and working towards one common goal. It is also important to note that using these models with special attention to NIS Ltd.’s organisation culture will bring greater success, development and growth to the business (Bismark et al, 2018). This is in conjunction with Akyeampong (2016) who comments that the growth and success of organisations largely depends on the organisation’s culture. McKinsey’s 7S thus reveals that the focus of the 5S project, apart from the concrete application of the methodology, should be strongly oriented towards organisational culture and any communication and continuous professional development efforts should target the culture aspect above all.

Table 5 McKinsey 7S Analysis

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5. Change Implementation Figure 5 displays an example of the 5S project that has been implemented at NIS Ltd. This began with the company’s welding consumable storage area, which is considered to be a pivotal space for the soffit plate production. This area, due to the nature of its activities, is well controlled, as there may be undesirable effects of the natural environment on welding electrodes. Decluttering the area has led to improved traffic through the facility as well as reduced time for finding, borrowing and replacing tools. Overall, this has reduced the time for producing soffit plates as more time overall was spent on core activities for the project.

Figure 5 5S Example of NIS Ltd.’s welding consumable cupboard Lixia and Bo (2008) propose that to ensure 5S becomes a culture within the workplace, a committee between eight and ten staff members should be produced. Such a committee will help define a strategy and action plan to drive change throughout the organisation. This is also supported by Grover (2012) who infers that 5S is implemented by establishing a cross-functional team. A team to conduct regular audits and frequent meetings, to hold people accountable for actions, has been selected to enforce a departmental approach. The committee consists of a sponsor, area champion as well as team leaders who oversee the spaces depicted on Figure 5 and maintain the continued implementation of 5S. A first step to implement change has been to promote an employee into a change and improvement managerial position, with the sole focus being based on leading change within the business. The individual would report directly to the Managing Director, as demonstrated in Figure 6. This reduces any risk of impact from the director’s opinion. However, it would be difficult for the manager to implement the 5S change across all areas and involve all other employees directly. Therefore, the introduction of employees specifically trained in Lean Six Sigma intends to help deploy the methodology across the facility and improve the communication between managers and employees. This will also create continuous professional development opportunities for employees.

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The organisational structure post-change includes the introduction of change agents who are Lean / Lean Six Sigma trained and who know well the daily routines and environment of the facilities within which the change will be operated. While the vertical structure is not fully disrupted, it now allows for improved access of employees to management levels through the medium of continuous improvement and favours dialogues towards this goal.

Figure 6 Revised Employee Layout Diagram for NIS Ltd. The Power and Influence diagram (Pre-5S Figure 7) has changed dramatically since introducing 5S into the business, as revealed in Figure 7. Some key changes can be easily observed. For example, the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) still controls a vast amount of power within the business as all teams are bound by legal requirements, but with the introduction of 5S the team has taken ownership of the kind of measures taken and the manner of their deployment, which has created greater freedom overall. In addition, if the organisation is able to showcase the improvements made during the 5S and simplifying the system, the HSE will have an increased trust gained in the approaches and methods adopted by the company. The simplicity of the system makes safety become the everyday normality. The perception of health and safety being an obligation and a requirement to which all are bound by law has gradually become integrated in a sense of control over the production process. Employees are now focussed on the impact of 5S on facility of movement and retrieval of tools, while health and safety improvements have become the natural consequences of the process. Grover (2012) suggests that Safety can be the ‘6th S. Grover (2012) also implies that key components of the 5S philosophy are safety measures and good housekeeping. They have to be maintained and ensure that optimal organisation is sustained in the long run. This is further supported as a study indicating that the 5S technique is an effective way to improve health and safety standards, environmental performance and housekeeping (Rahman et al, 2010). When examining Figure 4 and Figure 7, it is also clear that a notable change occurs for the competitors. A reason for this would be because the business has out-performed the competition in all areas of capability. The 5S system has embedded itself well throughout the company and areas are starting to see minor improvements to the everyday routine. This has had a positive impact on the power and influence of employees as well as on the relative standing of the organisation as a whole on the market. Key managers and staff are considering Lean and Lean Six Sigma certification, which also indicates engagement in continuous professional development.

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Figure 7 Post-5S Power and Influence Diagram

6. Business Impact Naturally, there will be a resistance when implementing any change, and Lixia and Bo (2008) state that only 5% of staff will embrace the change, 90% of “fence sitters” will look for leadership and 5% of “concrete heads” will resist. The strong leaders will create progression and as a company, the change should be recognised and rewarded which will ensure the 90% category will gradually accept the change or adjust to it, and merge with the top 5% bracket. 6.1. Continuous Professional Development In the case of the Soffit Plate Project, the effort to promote and sustain the change has resulted in staff training and development, which helped bring the teams together and created more unity among individuals. To keep the business sustainable, further education of employees will be required in this case. NIS Ltd. is an engineering company working on projects with high health and safety impact as well as with a strong focus on staying up to date with technology trends. To keep its relevance, the 5S team working on the Soffit Plate Project engaged in continuous professional development. As a result, a 5S Nuts and Bolts game was produced for company-wide training, using surplus mechanical fasteners from the completed project. The game follows simple 5S methodology to show in practice and visually the amount of time saved and the greater consistency across operators when 5S is applied. Filho et al. (2017) suggest that the low-cost nature of the 5S method is an adequate start in quality improvement. However, Gomes, Lopes, Carvalho (2013) propose that a benefit of 5S is reducing cost and better use of materials in a manufacturing perspective. There is a positive correlation between introducing 5S and reducing costs to the business. Steering the process away from the high-power, high-influence stakeholders, will allow the employees to feel the implementation of change as their own success. It will positively affect their working life as well as the future reputation of the company. 6.2. Waste Management Waste is an unfortunate product of most processes, but it can be reduced and also re-used if controlled

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correctly. Andanari & Goto (2013) imply that successful implementation of a recycling system may not only create a new source of income but also help to protect the environment and health. In support of this, Zhou et al (2018) claims that a proper implementation at organisational level requires the waste management model to consider environmental, economic and social factors to provide better waste treatment options than just incineration or landfills. Understandably, waste is not just limited to material and consumables. Waste can also be stated as time, or excessive time spent looking for tools or components as well as distractions from external influences (i.e. talking too much, excessive time spent on breaks and also the use of phones in the workplace) (Lin, 2019). As this waste is an attribute to only human operators, it is important to find a balance with the right amount of discipline. At NIS Ltd. phones are forbidden from being on the shop floor as these pose a security risk, given the type of confidential projects on site. This is supported by Bromwich (2016) who states that risk associated with the use of smart phones to store images in industry can be a security risk. With the particular industry that NIS Ltd. operates in, the use of cameras could potentially endanger national security. 5S tools can help reduce waste and boost productivity and having the correct equipment on hand will reduce time spent looking for items. In addition to this, having a system where the use of tools is monitored will ensure that equipment will be accounted for and be checked for defects on return. This will simplify the process in re-ordering tools when they become defected, as the business are aware of what inventory they already possess.

7. Conclusions and Future Work For NIS Ltd., with the introduction of 5S, there will be a positive impact almost immediately at a small cost. However, the small cost will turn into profit within a matter of time once implemented and sustained correctly. It is recommended that NIS Ltd. focus on changing outdated 20th-century culture and look towards a future that will see continuous change and improvement as intrinsic to organisational growth. The importance of producing a sustainable culture where stakeholders strive, while employees thrive can be a sustainability goal min- to long-term. The most important cog in the machine is the employee. Driven by the cog of the powerful and influential stakeholders, supported by the introduction of a lean culture, an employer must ensure that the system works smoothly to support core service, which drives the business. “If employees are to prosper in this environment, companies must offer them a continuing variety of challenges. That way, they will feel they are honing their skills and are valued for the many kinds of expertise they have attained.” (Womack, Jones and Roos, 2007) A key challenge for employees here, and a fundamental area to focus on, is additional 5S training and a precursor to Lean Six Sigma methodology deployment. Training of staff will help the business become more sustainable, while further demonstrating the benefits of continuous improvement both organisationally and in terms of personal professional development. Ideally, all staff will be trained in basic lean manufacturing techniques, allowing the method to flow throughout the core of the business. Including this in the company business plan will also ensure that the goal is not undermined and leadership buy-in is maintained. Future work in this respect can focus on the manner in which Lean Six Sigma or lean manufacturing methods will be implemented across the organisation and the various projects resulting from this effort. Further studies can look at human capital projects as well as at learning of other workshop areas. The introduction of Kanban systems can be another aspect to develop and study. The combination of 5S and Kanban systems together can further be supported by the gradual implementation of process walks until a complete lean methodology is progressively applied. Continued future work can also focus on implementing similar bespoke 5S practice into

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the operations of another organisation to determine whether the effects are similar. Further studies should also investigate personnel training and education needs in order to sustain 5S practice.

References Andarani, P. & Goto, N. 2013. Potential e-waste generated from households in Indonesia, using material flow analysis. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10163-013-0191-0 Journal of Material cycles and Waste Management 16 pp. 306-320 (Accessed 29/10/2020) Akyeampong , E. O. 2016. Ethical and Principled Leadership, Fasteens Publisher 2nd Edition. Available from: http://www.ijrbem.com/doc/60.pdf (Accessed 12/11/2020) Ayabakan, M. Eken, Ö. 2014. Creating 5S climate at the shopfloor, Proceedings of PICMET ‘14 Conference: Portland International Center for Management of Engineering and Technology; Infrastructure and Service Integration, Kanazawa: Japan, pp. 1907-1928. Bharambe et al. 2020 Implementation of 5S in Industry: A Review, Multidisciplinary International Research journal of Gujarat Technological University, vol. 2, no. 1, ISSN: 2581-8880 Bismark et al. 2018. Utilising McKinsey 7S Model, SWOT Analysis, PESTLE and Balance Scorecard to Foster Implementation of Organisational Strategy. Available from: http://www.ijrbem.com/doc/60.pdf (Accessed 12/11/2020) Bonilla-Ramirez, K. A. et al. 2019. Implementation of Lean Warehousing to Reduce the Level of Returns in a Distribution Company, IEEE International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management (IEEM), pp. 886-890, doi: 10.1109/IEEM44572.2019.8978755. Bromwich, M and R. 2016. Privacy Risks when using mobile devices in health care. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5008929/ (Accessed 16/11/2020) Douglas , A. 2002. Improving manufacturing performance. Quality Congress. ASQ’s Annual Quality Congress Proceedings. Vol. 56, pp. 725-732 (Accessed 05/11/2020) Dyson, R.G. 2004. Strategic Development and SWOT Analysis at the University of Warwick. Vol. 152, Issue 3, pp. 631-640 Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0377221703000626 (Accessed 12/11/2020) Filho, W, V. Brtio, A. L. de. Crestana. B, Z. and Santos Prado. M. Dos. 2017. Implementing the 5S Methodology to create a new culture. IEEE Technology & Engineering Management Conference (TEMSCON), Santa Clara, CA, 2017, pp. 400-403 (Accessed 22/10/2020) Wilson, J. 2013. Henry Ford vs. Assembly line balancing. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/ 10.1080/00207543.2013.836616 (Accessed 26/11/2020) Ghodrati, A. Zulkifli, N. 2012. A review on 5S Implementation in Industrial and Business Organisations. Available from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/132f (Accessed 26/11/2020) Gomes, D.F. Lopes, M.P. Carvalho, C.V.de. 2013. Serious Games for Lean Manufacturing: The 5S Game. IEEE Revista Iberoamericana de Tecnologias del Aprendizaje, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 191-196, Nov. 2013 (Accessed 22/10/2020) Grover, J. 2012. 5S Workplaces: When Safety and Lean Meet. [online] Available from: https://www.ehstoday. com/safety/article/21915202/ (Accessed 29/10/2020) Gupta, S. Jain, S. K. 2014 The 5S and kaizen concept for overall improvement of the organisation: a case study International Journal of Lean Enterprise Research, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 22-40

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Hanafizadeh, P. 2011. A McKinsey 7S Model-Based Framework for ERP Readiness Assessment. Available from: https://www.igi-global.com/article/content/60403 (Accessed 12/11/2020) Hubbard, R. 1999. Case Study on the 5S Program: the five pillars of the visual workplace. [online] vol. 20, p. 24 (Accessed 26/11/2020) Ho, S.K.M. Cirmcmil, S. Fung, C.K. 1995. The Japanese 5S Practice and TQM training. Training for Quality. Vol. 3, No 4. Pp. 19-24. (Accessed 05/11/2020) Ho, S.K.M. 1998. 5S Practice: a new tool for industrial management. Industrial management and data systems vol. 98, pp. 55-62 (Accessed 26/11/2020) Kobayashi, K. Gapp, R. Fisher, R. 2008. Implementing 5S within a Japanese context: An integrated management system. Emerald Insight 0025-1747 pp. 565-579. Available from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/19f8/ 78a95a200369a039a2e53f64a09508ef1687 (Accessed 05/11/2020) Lixia, C and Bo, M. 2008. How to make 5S a culture in Chinese Enterprises. 2008 International Conference on Information Management, Innovation Management and Industrial Engineering, Taipei, 2008, pp. 221-224 (Accessed 22/10/2020) Lin, T. 2019. Smartphones at Work: A Qualitative Exploration of Phycological Antecedents and Impacts of work-related Smartphone Dependency. Available from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/ full/10.1177/1609406918822240 (Accessed 16/11/2020) Middleton, A. 2019. First Man In. 2nd Edition. Harper Collins Publishers, London, UK. p. 259 Ngozag, L. A. et al. 2020. The Need for an Effective Collaborative Production-Maintenance Approach to Improve Productivity, Industrial Engineering Letters, Vol. 10, Issue 3, DOI: 10.7176/IEL/10-3-04 Patten, V. 2006. A second look at 5S. Quality Progress Vol 39 p. 55 Plautus, M, T. c. 200BC. “You must spend money to make money”. [online] Available from: https://www.inspirationalstories.com/quotes/titus-maccius-plautus (Accessed 05/11/2020) Rahman et al. 2010. Implementation of 5S practices in the Manufacturing companies. American journal of Applied Sciences pp. 1182-1189 (Accessed 26/11/2020) Sari et al. 2017. An economic analysis of a system wide Lean approach. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/pmc/articles/PMC5543735/ (Accessed 26/11/2020) Schmeer, K. 2020. Stakeholder Analysis Guidelines. [online] Available from: https://www.who.int/ workforcealliance/knowledge/toolkit/33.pdf (Accessed 15/10/2020) Sukdeo, N. 2017. The application of 6S methodology as a lean improvement tool in an ink manufacturing company, IEEE International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management (IEEM), pp. 1666-1671, doi: 10.1109/IEEM.2017.8290176. Sureja, J. V. et al. 2017 Application of 5S Methodology in Small Scale Casting Industry, Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Emerging Trends in Mechanical Engineering, February 24th - 25th, G H Patel College of Engineering & Technology, V V Nagar - 388120, Gujarat, India ISBN: 978-93-84659-77-6 Osada, T. 1991. The 5S’s: Five Keys to a Total Quality Environment. Asian Productivity Organisation, Tokyo, Japan. (Accessed 05/11/2020) Viranda D. F. et al. 2020. 5S Implementation of SME Readiness in Meeting Environmental Management System Standards based on ISO 14001:2015 (Study Case: PT. ABC). IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 722 012072, Available from https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/722/1/012072/ meta (Accessed 25/05/2021)

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Vipulkumar C. P. et al. 2014. International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications www.ijera.com ISSN : 2248-9622, Vol. 4, Issue 3 (Version 1), pp.774-779 Womack, J. Jones, D. Roos, D. 2007. The Machine that changed the world. 2nd Edition. Simon & Schuster. London. pp. 7 (Accessed 24/11/2020) Zhang, S. Tan, Y. 2011. Defects and Improvement of 5S Implementation in the Workshop of MTO Electronic Assembly Industry at the Pearl River Delta Economic Zone, International Conference on Management and Service Science, Wuhan: China, pp. 1-4, doi: 10.1109/ICMSS.2011.5999274. Zhou Z. CHi, Y. Dong, J. Tang, Y. 2018. Model development of sustainability assessment from a life cycle perspective: A case study on waste management systems in China. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/328855875 Journal of Cleaner Production 210 (Accessed 29/10/2020)

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Focus on Scholars The People Behind the Papers This feature of the Scholarship Review showcases the individuals who have contributed to this year’s edition through their projects funded by SRDS, research papers, case studies, features and reflective think pieces. A big thank you to all contributors.

Scholarship Profile:

Françoise Peill Biography Françoise Peill is the Senior Tutor Scholarship and Research for Society, Health and Childhood. Prior to working at B&FC she gained 25 years’ experience working in the sector with Early Years children and Young People. Later in her career she specialised in supporting the inclusion of Special Education Needs into mainstream provision as she took the role of Chief Executive of a successful local Charity supporting children and young people with disabilities and additional needs. Françoise has a First Class Hons in Early Childhood Studies and is currently studying in her final year at the University of Aberdeen for her MA in Education (Early Years). She is a Fellow of Advance HEA and also attends external meetings as a Network Member of the RAISE (Researching, Advancing & Inspiring Student Engagement) the worldwide network of staff and students in Higher Education and also the Lancaster University Partnership Group (Sharing & developing teaching confidence through collaboration & partnership). She is passionate about inclusive education and equality and her current research critically evaluates the impact of poverty on child health and wellbeing within the Blackpool area.

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Scholarship Profile:

Richard Dunston Biography I am currently the Programme Leader for Maths & English in Society, Health & Childhood and have been at the College since 2008 initially working for the National Gaming Academy liaising with employers to train and staff casinos and cruise ships around the world. My background prior to B&FC found me in the gaming industry working around the globe in locations including the Caribbean, the Middle East, Europe and the UK. At B&FC, I returned to education after a 20 year hiatus and, having completed my Honours degree, PGCE (M) and Mathematics Specialist Diploma, I graduated from Manchester Metropolitan University in 2017 with an MSc (with Distinction) in Education (STEM). My passion for learning, research and selfdevelopment is such that, even at my age, I now find myself in the latter phase of my Doctorate in Education focusing my current research around Continuing Professional Development and quantifying its efficacy as a tool for change. My other research interests focus on, as you can imagine, effective pedagogy in mathematics and, more so, the works of Pierre Bourdieu and Paolo Freire who I find fascinating and, combined I believe, help us to better understand ourselves as practitioners enabling us to be more effective ‘versions’ of our professional selves.

Scholarship Profile:

Colette Mazzola-Randles Biography Colette Mazzola-Randles is a Senior Tutor and a PhD student at Lancaster University (Technology Enhanced Learning). Beginning her teaching career in 2013, Colette teaches a diverse range of subjects including: Cyber-psychology, User Experience, User Interaction, Web Programming and Graphic Design. Colette is an external examiner at Newcastle College and Grimsby Institute for digital technology programmes, further to this she is a product reviewer for NCFE. In 2015, Colette achieved the status of Higher Education Fellow with the HEA. In her role she is constantly researching innovative technologies, developing, and refining prototypes and breaking them down to create scaffolded resources for her students. In 2019 Colette presented at the Association of Colleges (AOC) HE Research and Scholarship Conference at Newcastle University on 10 and at EDULEARN19, 11th annual International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies which was held in Palma de Mallorca (Spain) in July 2019. Her current research is situated in the realms of belonging online, creating environments that promote enhanced emotional connections.

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Scholarship Profile:

Graham Mason Biography Graham Mason is the programme leader for the BSc (Hons) in Sports Coaching and Performance and the BSc (Hons) in Physical Activity, Nutrition and Health. He started his career in football at Wigan Athletic before going onto pursue a career in coaching football both at home and in the USA. As a non-traditional student he continued to coach several sports alongside gaining a degree in Sports Studies and Psychology before completing a PGCE in Secondary Physical Education. After several years teaching in Secondary schools he moved into Further Education and gained a MSc in Sports Community Development which eventually led him into becoming a Programme Leader here at B&FC. His main research area is currently centred on mental well-being and the connection of a healthy diet. He is also voluntarily involved in several local interventions mainly associated with the de-stigmatisation of mental health amongst males and the crucial role sport and physical activity can play.

Scholarship Profile:

Mark Belfield Biography Mark Belfield is a Specialist practitioner in the Hospitality and Catering Department within the Leadership Management and Lifestyle curriculum area. He started his career within the hospitality industry where he developed a passion for the culinary arts. Mark Belfield has had key role in the delivery of the hospitality and catering curriculum since 2015, with the main focus on training and developing students for industry. He actively promotes physical activity and the role of balanced nutrition. This has led to him pursuing a deeper understanding of health, through him currently studying a BSc (Hons) in Physical Activity, Nutrition and Health. His main area of research is the impact of nutrition on the mental wellbeing of students in Further Education.

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Scholarship Profile:

David Hayes Biography David Hayes is a lecturer on the Fd and BA (Hons) Criminology and Criminal Justice programme, with an MA in Social Sciences. His research interests include the interface of contemporary critical criminology and political philosophy, critical ethnography and critical pedagogy. David has presented academic papers at a range of conferences in the United Kingdom and Europe, and conducted ethnographic research into contemporary social and environmental protest movements. He has had articles published in a number of academic journals and is a regular reviewer for PRISM, an open-access journal that seeks to foster innovative approaches to the advancement of critical perspectives spanning all domains of learning and teaching. David is an external affiliate of the Centre for Educational Research (CERES) Group at Liverpool John Moores University, and a member of the Utopian Studies Society, an international, interdisciplinary society that aims to co-ordinate and encourage the diverse work currently taking place on the subject of utopianism. He is also an active member of the Cultural Difference and Social Solidarity Network (CDSS). David is currently conducting research into the experience of ‘non-traditional’ students studying Criminology and Criminal Justice in a dual sector institution.

Scholarship Profile:

Dr Ashley Lister Biography Ashley Lister studied at Blackpool and the Fylde College for a Lancaster University degree and graduated with first class honours in English Language, Literature and Writing. After studying his PGCE at Blackpool and the Fylde College, he secured a teaching post with Professional Studies. Ashley is the author of several academic articles, more than fifty full-length titles of fiction and non-fiction, and countless short stories. In 2018 Ashley completed his PhD at Bolton University with a thesis that explores the relationship between plot and genre in short fiction. Part of the ideas that support his thesis are incorporated into his latest non-fiction title, How to Write Short Stories and Get Them Published, which will be released in December 2019 and is published by Little Brown. He is currently the Programme Leader for BA(Hons) English: Language, Literature and Writing.

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Scholarship Profile:

Alex Barlow Biography Having spent a number of years working as a Merchant Navy officer, navigating some of the biggest vessels in the world to all corners of the globe, Alex brought his BSc(Hons) in Marine Operations Management to Blackpool and the Fylde College’s Fleetwood Nautical Campus in 2015. In the time since joining the college he rapidly became programme leader for one of the leading maritime qualifications in the United Kingdom. Alex brought his specialist knowledge and interest in safety management in a maritime context to his teaching and in 2019 embarked on an MSc in Shipping Operations focusing on this specialism. Throughout his time at the college, one of Alex’s core aspirations has been to give his students the best possible chance to be safe on board ships and, accordingly, his research interests are closely aligned to that goal.

Scholarship Profile:

Dr Fraser N. Hatfield Biography Dr Fraser N. Hatfield is a Senior Tutor for Scholarship and Research, and lectures in Marine Engineering in the School of Maritime Operations at Fleetwood Nautical Campus. His background is in Physics and has previously worked in the fields of High Energy Particle Physics and Medical Imaging. He has a great interest and enthusiasm for teaching and has been developing, delivering, and leading on digital learning in Physics, Engineering and Maths for many years. Over the last year he has developed a suite of computer graphics demonstrations and web-based physics computer games which align with the learning outcomes of his modules. These teaching tools have been developed to generate interest, engagement, and knowledge retention in Marine Engineering. Similar methods were employed while lecturing at the University of Liverpool, and in 2006, Fraser was awarded a National Teaching Fellowship by the Higher Education Academy.

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Scholarship Profile:

Alan Harding Biography Having spent over 30 years in aerospace roles in the UK and US, I was looking for a challenge in retirement and teaching at Fleetwood fitted the bill. The maritime industry offered a new area of interest and teaching enabled me to explore new subjects. I have worked on RAF squadrons, at MoD, on the design of various aeroengine systems, the F35 in the US and on the Typhoon for Saudi Arabia. Leading the F35 fuel system development in the US from concept to first flight was the high point of my career. I have been a STEM ambassador as I strongly believe a career in engineering offers so many possibilities of excitement, travel and interesting challenges.

Scholarship Profile:

Dr Lucky Ishaku Biography Lucky Ishaku is the Senior Tutor Scholarship and Research for Engineering & Science and he leads the Electrical/Electronic and Mechatronic Engineering Team of Advance Engineering. He has both local and international HE teaching experience. His research is in the development of gas sensors, mainly using photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS) and non-dispersive infrared technology (NDIR). These sensors are very useful for air quality control and monitoring of carbon emission. He also has research interest in biomedical engineering (covering engineering and medicine or biology) and interdisciplinary curriculum development. Lucky’s research, which includes collaboration with colleagues and students, are published in peer-reviewed journals. He is a fellow of the Higher Education Academy (FHEA) and a member of a few professional bodies.

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Scholarship Profile:

Dr Abdelrahman Abdelazim Biography Dr Abdelrahman Abdelazim is Curriculum Manager for Advanced Engineering at Blackpool and the Fylde College (B&FC). He holds a BEng (Hons) degree in Digital Communication and a PhD degree in Engineering, both from the University of Central Lancashire (UCLAN), UK and an Executive MBA from Lancaster University, UK. From 2012 to 2017 he worked as Associate Professor of Computer Engineering and Head of Department at the American University of the Middle East (AUM). Between 2008 and 2012 he worked as Lecturer in Electronics within the School of Computing, Engineering and Physical Sciences (CEPS). His experience includes leading the implementation of a number of academic and industrial projects. His research interests are in the field of image and video processing, engineering management and leadership, and in education. Abdelrahman is member of the IET since 2006. He is a chartered engineer and a Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy.

Scholarship Profile:

Dr Andrew Heaton Biography Andrew obtained a BSc(Hons) in Aerospace technology with Management from the University of Hertfordshire, a Master’s in Aerospace Engineering from Brunel University and PhD from Cranfield University where his research focussed on Integrated Vehicle Health Management systems for unmanned aircraft (drones). Following his PhD studies he joined the Civic Drone Centre at the University of Central Lancaster investigating the legal, ethical and political aspects of drones. He is currently a Lecture at Blackpool and The Fylde College teaching across both the Engineering HNCs and the degrees. He is interested in working with students to get it ready for publication.

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Scholarship Profile:

Dr Margarita Georgieva Biography Margarita Georgieva obtained her PhD from University of Nice Sophia – Antipolis (France) in 2011. She is also a certified mediator and project manager. After gathering experience in teaching and education management across Europe and the Middle East, she joined B&FC in January 2018. Margarita is interested in experiential learning, informal and natural education and innovative teaching experiments across all educational disciplines. She is the author of 2 books with Palgrave Macmillan and Cambridge Scholars Publishing and has numerous articles in the humanities with a more recent interest in pedagogy and teaching.

Scholarship Profile:

Matthew Worthington (Student) Biography Matthew Worthington is a Welding Engineer for a local engineering firm, NIS LTD, based in Chorley, Lancashire. Matthew’s main tasks at work revolves around welding coordination and all welding related activities that take place. Matthew obtained his BEng honours degree at Blackpool and the Fylde College through Lancaster University. During his time studying Matthew completed a research project looking into the affects that welding defects can have on a materials characteristic. Matthew also worked alongside his tutors to produce a 5S implementation article detailing techniques to support an engineering business. One two occasions Matthew presented the 5S article for Lancaster University as well as, publishing the article in the industrial engineering letters. Matthew completed an apprenticeship in fabrication and welding and over the years he has also acquired three non-destructive inspection qualifications (VT, MT and PT).

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Lancaster University Undergraduate Research Conference 2021 In March 2021 Lancaster University held its second Undergraduate (UG) Research Conference. This conference was the first UG conference held solely online, and the first to include students from all of its’ UK and oversea partners. Blackpool and Fylde College students responded positively to the conference by the agreed deadline. With applications submitted from the following curriculum areas: Blackpool School of Art, Computing and Digital Technologies, Engineering and Science, Leadership, Management and Lifestyle and Society, Health and Childhood. Unfortunately, some students had to withdraw from the conference owing to personal mitigating circumstances caused by the pandemic. The abstract reviewers were impressed by the range of topics covered in the undergraduate research projects undertaken at B&FC; representing the diverse nature of the subject disciplines within each curriculum area. The impact of participation in relation to student scholarship and professional development was demonstrated through the positive feedback and outcomes achieved by B&FC students. Notably a level 6 student on the BSc Physical Activity, Health and Nutrition Leadership, Management and Lifestyle presented her research and received excellent feedback and won the prize for the best presentation in the Social Sciences category at the conference. In addition to this accolade, the student has also been approached by Lancaster University to be involved in some research on their own mental health services.

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A submission was made by the following students:

Leadership Management and Lifestyle (LML) BSc (Hons) Physical Activity, Health and Nutrition Hannah Farquhar - “A Critical review of current health and wellbeing policies and their effective implementation at English HEIs”

Society, Health and Childhood (SHaC) BA (Hons) Early Childhood Studies Claire Leeds - Early Years Education or Prep School – “To play or not to play”

Computing and Digital Technologies BSc (Hons) Computer Science and Digital Technologies Daniela Tyliszczak - Website: Improving Accessibility: “Creating a small video game prototype which allows a range of input methods to improve player experience and player skill level” Andrew Mbavaya - “Digitization of the five human senses for communication purposes (Survey Paper)” BSc (Hons) Software Engineering (Game Development) Joel Whittle - “Exploring a Bigger Search Space through Genetic Evolution” James Roskell - “The Impact of Sound on Player Progression” James Armer - “Student Engagement with Augmented Reality in Distance Learning” Daisy Ball - “How Effective is Augmented Reality as a Marketing Tool?” Andrew Hearn - Website Pretension: “Does VR have an affect on player’s emotion within video games?”

Engineering and Science BEng (Hons) Engineering (Mechatronics Engineering) Liam Winder - “The Importance of High Voltage Harness Strategy in Medium Duty Battery Electric Vehicles” BEng (Hons) Engineering (Mechanical Engineering) Matthew Worthington - “The Most Important Cog in the Machine: Using 5S in a Local Engineering Company

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Blackpool and The Fylde College Annual Teaching and Learning Conference 2021 In early July 2021, the HE Annual Learning and Teaching event comprised of a series of keynotes delivered by external academics and breakout sessions presented by B&FC colleagues on the topic of developing graduate attributes and transferrable skills, in addition to presentations from the Scholarship Review 2020. A range of complementary HE self-paced materials were also made accessible on the day. Topics included education for sustainable development, critical theory and work based learning. Over 100 colleagues who deliver and support HE attended the event and breakout sessions. We welcomed our first keynote speaker of the day, Dr Lynne Crook, Senior Tutor and Course Leader in Character and Personal Development at University Academic 92. Lynne captured the audience with her presentation “Embedding Character and Personal Development in the Curriculum at UA92” In her presentation Dr Crook outlined the challenges they faced in embedding personal and professional skills within the curriculum, including pivoting their approaches in response to student feedback and needs. It also covered future plans to provide real-world experiences which contextualise students’ degrees in the world of industry. Our second keynote was delivered by Dr Jan McArthur, Senior Lecturer in Education and Social Justice, Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University. Jan led us through her engaging research “Graduate attributes and social justice: adopting a critical position between unquestioning adherence and elitist hostility” Dr McArthur discussed how graduate attributes can be firmly associated with greater social justice within and through higher education. How they have a special relevance for the so-called non-traditional student, how they can develop confidence and a sense of purpose and how they can prepare graduates for an uncertain working environment without making them simply compliant workers or seeing work as the only factor in living a fulfilling life. Throughout the day there were four breakout sessions with presentations available from which the delegates could select several options that covered a breadth of topics as outline below: • Using career theory and models to support graduate employability. Anna Brady, Partnership and Careers Team Leader • The HE learner digital journey Dr Arfan Ismail, Head of Digital and LRC • Developing graduate attributes through undergraduate research activities (Student experiences from the Global Lancaster University Undergraduate Research Conference 2021) o Françoise Peill (Senior Tutor, Scholarship and Research, Society Health and Childhood) o Claire Leeds (Student BA (Hons) Early Childhood Studies) o Graham Mason (Programme Leader, Leadership Management and Lifestyle) o Hannah Farquhar (Student BSc (Hons) Physical Activity, Health and Nutrition)

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• Work based learning: A review of the B&FC cross-college module. Jane Mahon, Partnerships and Careers Manager • Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) intersections across graduate attributes Penny Mackay, Assistant HE Academic Registrar The day was further enhanced by presentation on “Power to Progress: Embedding graduate attributes in progress tutorials” delivered by Marc Potter, Curriculum Manager from Leadership Management and Lifestyle and Hannah Emery, Academic Achievements Manager. This session was a chance for colleagues to be introduced to ‘Power to Progress’, which is a new, innovative digitally based programme, available on our VLE Canvas designed to provide a comprehensive student-directed progress tutorial solution for all HE students. The day continued with eight presentations from both curriculum and service area staff who have received funding from the Scholarship and Research and Development Scheme during 2020-21 as details as follows: • Research Serendipity: A case study Alan Harding, Lecturer, Maritime Operations Management •

The extent to which education prepares students of the 21st century to become self-regulated, future proofed students, using networked, technological environments Colette Mazzola-Randles, Senior Tutor, Learning Teaching and Assessment, Computing and Digital Technologies

• An evaluation of a bespoke progress meeting scheme of work to improve student retention and achievement at level 4 study in Society Health and Childhood Françoise Peill, Senior Tutor for Scholarship and Research, Society Health and Childhood Parvonay Amirkhani, Senior Tutor for Student Progress, Society Health and Childhood • ‘Solving issues by myself ’. An exploration of student resilience, self-efficacy and perceptions of independence Hannah Emery, Academic Achievements Manager • Creating Creative Communities of Practice: Research and scholarship in Blackpool School of Arts Dr Jill Fernie-Clarke, former Head of Blackpool School of Arts • Building Houses on Sand: A reflective consideration of the student-as-customer metaphor in light of the COVID-19 pandemic Lisa Kelly, Lecturer, Blackpool School of Arts • Counting on Success: The maths pilot scheme in Blackpool School of Arts Mark Johnstone, Curriculum Manager, Blackpool School of Arts • Rethinking and redefining resilience in a college-based higher education environment Rachael Leitch, Senior Tutor Scholarship and Research, Leadership Management and Lifestyle The feedback from our external guests, presenters and delegates was very positive and we are now looking ahead to next year’s conference.

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Validation Showcase Congratulations to all the staff involved in curriculum design who have researched, analysed, designed and progressed their curriculum through very successful validation and revalidation this academic year. Through this process, the integration of market research and pedagogic design principles are distilled and synthesised to create curriculum which meets the needs of students, employers and communities. This has been another successful year with many of the programmes validated having no or few conditions reflecting our maturity and excellent academic curriculum design practice.

Acting BA (Hons) Lancaster University GOOD/INNOVATIVE/COMMENDABLE PRACTICE • Exceptional support to the students particularly during the pandemic • The impressive links with local industry and wider community focusing around the Blackpool ethos

Fine Art Professional Practice BA (Hons) Lancaster University GOOD/INNOVATIVE/COMMENDABLE PRACTICE • Ambition and progressive thinking around embedding creative industries and local community careers into the programme • Investment in the community, the locality and the environment

Commercial Illustration BA (Hons) Lancaster University GOOD/INNOVATIVE/COMMENDABLE PRACTICE • The fusion of the traditional and digital approaches • Relationship with the industry that is beneficial to both parties

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Hospitality and Events Management / Tourism Management Fd & BA (Hons) top-up Lancaster University GOOD/INNOVATIVE/COMMENDABLE PRACTICE • • •

Efforts to embed sustainability into all modules Links with employers, and accreditation from the Tourism Management Institute (TMI) Exploration of accreditation from the Chartered Management Institute (CMI), which will provide additional value to the programme

Network Engineering (Cyber Security / Systems Administration) Fd & BSc (Hons) top-up Lancaster University GOOD/INNOVATIVE/COMMENDABLE PRACTICE • Innovation of the teaching team by introducing two new modules and refreshing the existing provision • Proficiency and adaptability during the current COVID-19 situation

Nuclear Engineering Fd & BEng (Hons) top-up Lancaster University GOOD/INNOVATIVE/COMMENDABLE PRACTICE • Development of the Energy Centre and particularly the nuclear simulator • Relationship with the industry that is beneficial to both parties

Project Controls Professional Fd & BSc (Hons) top-up Lancaster University GOOD/INNOVATIVE/COMMENDABLE PRACTICE • Positive relationship with the industry that is beneficial to both parties • Embracing a new market in the form of T-level qualifications

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Marine Engineering FdEng Lancaster University GOOD/INNOVATIVE/COMMENDABLE PRACTICE • Positive relationship with the industry that is beneficial to all stakeholders • Effort in obtaining world-leading resources such as the engine room simulator • Encouragement of the continued development of the Women in Engineering initiatives

Maritime Operations Management BSc (Hons) top-up Lancaster University GOOD/INNOVATIVE/COMMENDABLE PRACTICE • Development of a forward-looking curriculum covering contemporary topics in the maritime industry and informed by practice • Positive relationship with the industry that is beneficial to both parties

Leader in Adult Care (level 5) Higher Apprenticeship GOOD/INNOVATIVE/COMMENDABLE PRACTICE • Positive relationship with the industry that is beneficial to all stakeholders

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The Scholarship and Research Development Scheme (SRDS)

Blackpool and The Fylde College has established a fund to support the scholarly activity of members of academic and support staff who wish to enhance their scholarship and develop their role in the College. The Scholarship and Research Development Scheme (SRDS) was developed and piloted as part of the Teaching Quality Enhancement Project during 2007. Since its inception the scheme has supported a wide variety of projects centered in and around the development of subject expertise and the scholarship of teaching and learning.

What is Scholarship? There have been various debates about what actually constitutes scholarly activity and in particular how scholarship is actually relevant to vocationally based higher education. Blackpool and The Fylde College has developed a hierarchical model of scholarship (see Fig 1) which can be used as a framework upon which to organise scholarly development and to inform teaching and learning quality enhancement.

Fig 1:

The Blackpool and The Fylde Hierarchical Model of Scholarship

New Knowledge (Discovery & Conception)

Action Research

Reading and Research

(Integration, Application & Communication)

(Informed Teacher)

Reflective Teaching Practice

(Integration & Application of Knowledge)

Scholarship is the driving force that influences and informs the development of curriculum which is not only about what we teach and who we teach, but also how we teach.

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We welcome applications on a broad range of topics however, we encourage applications concerned with the following Scholarship themes: • Communication, information and digital skills • Graduate attributes and transferrable skills • Enterprise and entrepreneurship • Ethical and sustainable practice (including climate change) • Societal and civic engagement • Equality, diversity, inclusion (including decolonisation) • Health, wellbeing and resilience

What Kind of Activities Can Be Classed as Scholarship? Scholarship can be informed and generated by participation in a variety of different activities including: • Attendance at scholarly events, exhibitions and conferences. • Organising or speaking at a scholarly event, exhibition or conference. • Consultancy relevant to subject expertise. • The writing of conference papers, poster presentations, refereed articles for academic journals, chapters for academic texts, or contributions to professional or academic publications or exhibitions. • Professional and industrial updating, workshop attendance or employer engagement. • Field research, including visits to centres of academic excellence, good practice or with specialist facilities. • Action research relevant to teaching and learning in HE. • Authoring appropriately challenging, well referenced and contemporary course materials to support flexible learning. These activities might in themselves be scholarly, but it is in the reflection, dissemination and incorporation of what has been learned into curriculum which defines scholarship. That is the fundamental difference between staff development and scholarship.

What is the Difference between Professional Development and Scholarship? The hallmark of true scholarship is in the production of scholarly artefacts or outputs, some examples of which are listed below: • High quality appropriately referenced teaching and learning materials to support flexible modes of study in HE. • Published work (paper, journal article, academic poster or book). • Published conference/exhibition papers or posters. • Dissemination workshops. • The development of materials for the purpose of sharing good practice.

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• A report detailing quantitative and qualitative evidence to inform College strategy and operation. • A report detailing quantitative and qualitative evidence to support improved learner experience. • A detailed action research report to inform Curriculum Area strategy and operation.

How Do I Apply for Funding? Applications are welcome from full time and part time staff involved in teaching and the support of learning. Applications for funding must be made on the Scholarship and Research Development Application form obtained from the HE Directorate.

What Type of Projects Does the College Provide Funding For? • Pedagogic research linked to the professional standards and Curriculum Area / College professional and Quality Improvement Plans (QIP). • Subject updating through industrial placement and industry led development, conference attendance and presentation. • The development of lecturer skills to support flexible modes of study, work-based and placement learning, online learning and the development of quality teaching and learning materials of appropriate challenge, differentiated and available for asynchronous access. • Good practice sharing activities. • Collaborative research with Lancaster University or other external partners. • Collaborative research and development projects with industry. • The production of scholarly resources such as text books, e-books and journals. • Curriculum Area / College centred entrepreneurial activities. • The development of new curriculum from concept phase through to validation/revalidation.

When is Funding Available? Applications for funding can be submitted at any time during the academic year, but these must be supported by a clear timetable of activities and with the endorsement of the Head of Curriculum Area. In order to facilitate forward planning and timetabling it is highly recommended that project proposals and applications for funding are made well in advance of the start of the academic year. The SRDS panel meets four times per year to consider applications. The panel dates are available via the HE Directorate.

Project Support The HE Directorate can help you to formulate your project objectives, proposal, application for funding and subsequent project planning, implementation and evaluation. Bespoke one-to-one coaching and mentoring is provided.

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Writing for The Scholarship Review Instructions for Authors Authors are invited to submit original work for publication in the next edition of the College’s Scholarship Review Journal. Contributions are invited from colleagues who are currently engaged in action research and scholarship. We would be delighted to receive: • Full academic papers • Short abstracts • Case studies • Reflective accounts • Action research projects

We would also be pleased to hear about any experiences you have had: • Writing journal articles, textbooks or chapters in textbooks • Presenting a paper or poster at a conference • Engaging in professional practice • Curating or exhibiting artwork • Script writing and directing • Broadcasting via local or national TV and radio stations • Consultancy work with local and national employers • Consultancy work with voluntary sector organisations • Experience in writing a blog We would like to support you in producing a scholarship showcase in the journal. Whatever you are doing, if you are doing it well, this is an excellent opportunity for you to showcase your work, share good practice and motivate your colleagues and students.

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How do I go about contributing? Submit your abstract, idea or full paper to Helen Fogg, HE Director helen.fogg@blackpool.ac.uk

Producing an Academic Paper for the Scholarship Review Your paper should be between 1,000 and 3,000 words. You need to include a short abstract summarising your paper in no more than 300 words. • Use conservative British, not US spelling, for example programme not program; centre not center; analyse not analyze, etc. • Use single ‘quotes’ for quotations rather than double “quotes”, unless the ‘quote is “within” another quote’. • Only use the upper case for the first word in paper titles and all subheadings. • All acronyms should be spelled out the first time they are introduced in text or references. Thereafter the acronym can be used if appropriate for example: College Higher Education (CHE). • The preferred local (national) usage for ethnic and other minorities should be used in all papers. • Material to be emphasised should be italicised, please use such emphasis sparingly. • When referring to numbers in a study the abbreviation (n) should be used similarly % for percent should be used. • When referring to decimals the form 0.05 (not .05) should be used.

Referencing Please use the Harvard system of referencing. The name of the author and the date of publication provide a key to the full bibliographical details, which are set out in the list of references. For example: Schön (1983) cited in the main text, appears in the references as follows: Schön, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner. How professionals think in action, London: Temple Smith. References should be indicated in the typescript by giving the author’s name, with the year of publication in parentheses. The references should be listed in full at the end of the paper. Tables and figures should be referred to in text as follows: figure 1, table 12. Each table and/or figure must have a title that explains its purpose without reference to the text.

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Criteria for acceptance of articles The abstract must provide a clear and complete summary of the aims and scope of the paper. The subject of the study should be exciting and innovating. The issues/questions/problems that led to the study must be clear. The relevant research literature the study relates to and builds on must be discussed and analysed. The methodological and/or theoretical approaches that informed the study should be made clear. The paper should discuss how the findings have been, or can be, used in improving learning and teaching.

Producing an Abstract Abstracts are written to provide a brief summary of your research. The research you present may be taken from your dissertation thesis, some action research that you have completed as part of your job role at the College (lecturing, management or administration) or your own contemporary review or analysis of developments in a specific subject area or discipline. A good abstract should provide sufficient information so as to allow the reader to quickly ascertain the paper’s purpose and usefulness. Abstracts are normally submitted to the editorial boards of academic journals or conference organisers; they are used as the basis for selecting for publishing or presentation. Abstract length varies by discipline and publisher requirements, but typically ranges from 100 to 500 words (one page). A well written abstract should convey the overall theme or ‘flavour’ of the research and should include details regarding the background, relevance, introduction, objectives, methods, results and conclusions of the study.

Producing Case Studies and Reflective Accounts Case studies can be a way of sharing the results of small scale action research or reflective activity with peers. They are particularly useful for showcasing innovative practice and can be used as a means of capturing experiences or critical learning incidents such as for example, your management of an unusual occurrence or circumstance, a story of individual student success or the impact of your scholarly activities on the student learning experience. Each case study should be between 500 and 1000 words and should be organised as follows: • The Title • Author’s name, department and email contact The Case Study outlining: • The context

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• The initial prompt/problem • Strategies and interventions employed and rationale behind them • The impact of the intervention • An analysis of costs/benefits • An evaluation • Recommendations • References

Producing Action Research Reports Action research reports should be between 1,000 and 3,000 words and should be organised as follows: • The Title • Author’s name, department and email contact • The context • The initial prompt/problem • Literature review • Strategies and interventions employed and rationale behind them • The impact of the intervention • An analysis of costs/benefits • An evaluation • Recommendations • References

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Scholarship Review 2021

Articles inside

The Scholarship and Research Development Scheme (SRDS

The Annual Teaching and Learning Conference

Lucky A. Ishaku, David Hutson and Des Gibson

Validation Showcase

Margarita Georgieva, Andrew Heaton, Abdelrahman Abdelazim, Matthew Worthington

Lancaster University Undergraduate Research Conference

Alan Harding

Fraser N. Hatfield

Alex Barlow

Ashley Lister

David Hayes

Richard Dunston

Colette Mazzola-Randles

Helen Fogg - Director of Higher Education

The Editorial Team

Graham Mason and Mark Belfield

Françoise Peill