CONFERENCE PROCEEDING The 4th International Conference
S.ARCH 2017 07-09 June 2017 I Hong Kong
The 4th International S.ARCH Conference 07-09 June 2017, Faculty of Architecture, the University of Hong Kong
>>> S.ARCH 2017 I Sustainable Architecture
CONFERENCE PROCEEDING ISBN 978-3-9818275-4-5 JULY 2017
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The 4th International Conference on Architecture and Built Environment with AWARDs
S.ARCH 2017 07-09 June 2017 I Hong Kong
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CONTENT
T1 State of Affairs and Future Visions 1.01
Neda ABBASI, Darryl O’BRIEN - Central Queensland University, Australia POST OCCUPANCY EVALUATION OF ACADEMIC LIBRARY SPACES: Key considerations and major challenges
1.02
Jason GRIFFITHS - University of Nebraska–Lincoln, USA ENGINEERED LUMBER AND “TACIT KNOWLEDGE” OF NEW CRAFT IN ARCHITECTURE.
1.03
Dan Jezreel A. ORENDAIN, Sheena Marie R. FRANCO, Angelo A. REGALADO - University of the Philippines – Mindanao, Philippines A COMPARATIVE VISUAL ANALYSIS OF THE ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS OF POST-WAR ANCESTRAL AND VERNACULAR HOUSES IN GLAN, SARANGANI PROVINCE
1.04
Maurizio MERIGGI - Politecnico di Milano, Italy CHINESE URBAN-RURAL CONTINUUM AS FRAMEWORK FOR THE GREEN CITY OF THE FUTURE IN EAST PEARL RIVER DELTA
1.05
Claudio VEKSTEIN - Arizona State University, USA ARCHITECTURAL EXTIMACY
1.06
Christo VOSLOO - University of Johannesburg, Republic of South Africa ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION AND TRAINING FOR SOUTH AFRICAN ARCHITECTURAL STUDENTS.
1.07
Wen PAN, Rongbo HU, Thomas BOCK - Technical University of Munich, Germany RETHINKING VERTICAL CITY – TOWARDS VERTICAL DYNAMIC URBANISM
1.08
Ece CEYLAN BABA - Yeditepe University, Turkey FROM INDUSTRIAL USE TO RESIDENTS: FORMATION OF LOFT CONCEPT AND ITS DEFORMATION
1.09
Wei SHI, Beisi JIA, Alessandra PONTE, H.Koon WEE - The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong / Université de Montréal, Canada MULTI-LAYER SYSTEM OF URBAN OPEN SPACE - STUDY IN MONTREAL
1.11
Florian SCHÄTZ - Studio Florian Schätz, Singapore ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING OF OPTIMISED MODULAR TROPICAL BUILDING ENVELOPE
1.12
Ade AMELIA, Vania Dwi Amanda SURYA - Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia “A[PARK]MENT” FUTURE PROJECTION ADAPTIVE REUSE OF PARKING BUILDING
1.13
Hatice SADIKOĞLU, Ahsen ÖZSOY - Bahçeşehir University / Istanbul Technical University, Turkey DESIGNING & LIVING IN A RESIDENTIAL CONDOMINIUM
1.14
Ferdinand OSWALD - Graz University of Technology, Austria HONG KONG RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS WITH REDUCTION OF THE UTILISATION OF AIR CONDITIONING
1.15
Foong P. CHAN; Tony SEE - City of Vancouver, Canada NEGOTIATING CHINESE SPACE IN VANCOUVER: CONTROL AND ESCAPE
1.17
Karen JS McKINNEY - University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA BUILDING PRESERVATION AND THE STUDY OF HISTORY SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP?
T2 Conceptual and Methodical Concepts 2.01
Lingyi QIU, Xuemei ZHU - Texas A&M University, USA IMPACTS OF HOUSING AND COMMUNITY ENVIRONMENT ON CHILDREN’S INDEPENDENT MOBILITY: A SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW
2.02
Nina UGLJEN-ADEMOVIĆ, Senka IBRIŠIMBEGOVIĆ - University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina CREATIVE IMPROVEMENT IN ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION THROUGH INCLUSIVE DESIGN ASPECTS AND METHODICAL CONCEPTS
2.04
Carlos ROSA-JIMÉNEZ, Maria-José MARQUEZ-BALLESTEROS, Alberto GARCIAMORENO Universidad de Málaga, Spain RESILIENT COMMUNITIES: NEIGHBOURHOOD COOPERATIVES AS AN ALTERNATIVE FOR URBAN AND SOCIAL REGENERATION. A CASE STUDY IN MALAGA (SPAIN)
2.05
Antonio IPPOLITO - University of Basilicata, Italy NATURE-CITY. MATERA AND TARANTO TWO “RESILIENT” CITIES
2.06
Bronne DYTOC - Kennesaw State University, USA ACTIVATING GRAPHICS AND COLLABORATION IN ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES EDUCATION
2.07
Juan Pablo ASCHNER - Universidad de los Andes, Colombia DECONSTRUCTION OF CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE IN SEVEN TRENDS
2.09
Guliz OZORHON, Ilker FATIH - Ozyegin University, Turkey DIMENSIONS OF DIVERSITY IN HOUSING SETTLEMENTS IN PERIPHERY OF ISTANBUL
2.10
Sonja RADOVIC JELOVAC - University of Montenegro, Studio synthesis a&d, Montenegro PRAAUD© - PROJECTIVE RESILIENCE ASSESSMENT FOR ADAPTIVE URBAN DESIGN
2.11
Hernan CASAKIN - Ariel University, Israel METAPHORICAL LANGUAGE IN AN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN TEAM
2.12
Smilja MILOVANOVIC-BERTRAM - University of Texas at Austin, USA LEARNING FROM DISPLACEMENT
2.13
Sri Astuti INDRIYATI - Universitas Persada Indonesia Y.A.I, Indonesia BEHAVIORAL ARCHITECTURE: THEORIES AND DESIGN METHODOLOGY
T3 Holistic Environmental Perceptions 3.01
Neda ABBASI, Kenn FISHER, Robert GERRITY - Central Queensland University / University of Melbourne / University of Queensland, Australia DESIGNING BETTER WORKSPACES FOR ACADEMIC LIBRARY STAFF: Case study of University of Queensland Library
3.03
Myrafe SEBASTIAN, Jovianne Angela VALDEZ, Dan Jezreel ORENDAIN - University of the Philippines – Mindanao, Philippines INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENT: A CASE STUDY OF SPECIAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF DAVAO CITY, PHILIPPINES
3.05
Sonja RADOVIC JELOVAC - University of Montenegro, Studio synthesis a&d, Montenegro SOCIAL - ECOLOGICAL RESILIENCE AS FOUNDATION FOR RESILIENT URBAN DESIGN AND SUSTAINABILITY. TOWARD A NEW INTEGRATIVE SYNTHESIS
3.06
Mahmoud HAGGAG, Ahmed HASSAN - UAE University, United Arab Emirates
COST-BENEFIT COMPARISON OF VEGETATED AND PLANT-SHADED BUILDING FAÇADES IN HOT CLIMATE
T4 Interactive Structures 4.01
Juan ROLDÁN - American University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates TEMPORARY RETAIL SPACES IN CASTILLA LA MANCHA (SPAIN) DURING THE XIX CENTURY: FLYING MERCHANTS AND DEPLOYABLE STRUCTURES
4.03
Vasilija Abramovic - Czech Technical University, Czech Republic PLUG-IN HOME
T5 Urban Ecology and Climate 5.01
Dan HAN, Yukun ZHANG, Rui ZHANG, Jie ZHENG, Bin WANG - Tianjin University / Harbin Institute of Technology, China PRODUCTIVE REVIVAL OF ROAD SPACE
5.02
Jin Young SONG - The State University of New York at Buffalo, USA THE FUNCTION OF URBAN DECAY
5.03
Xiaoying Ding, Yukun Zhang*, Wen Zhang, Rui Zhang - Tianjin University, China RESEARCH ON THE PHOTOVOLTAIC POTENTIAL OF URBAN BUS STATION
5.06
Iftekhar AHMED, David O’BRIEN - University of Newcastle / University of Melbourne, Australia DYNAMICS OF THE URBAN BUILT ENVIRONMENT IN VIETNAM
5.07
Marc BELDERBOS - KU Leuven, UC Louvain, Belgium IS THERE AN OIKOS-LOGICAL ARCHITECTURAL SPACE OF THE CITY? A SUSTAINABLE TOWN OR AN ECO-LOGICAL CITY?
5.08
Farasha ZAMAN, Badruzzahan AHMED - BRAC University, Bangladesh UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF GEOGRAPHIC TERRAIN AND CULTURAL FORCES IN SHAPING THE SETTLEMENT PATTERN OF SOUTH ASIAN TERTIARY CITIES THROUGH BAGERHAT AS A CASE-STUDY
5.10
Alper BODUR, Yurdanur Dulgeroglu YUKSEL - Istanbul Technical University, Turkey SOCIAL HOUSING PRODUCTION IN ISTANBUL AS A CONSTRUCTIVE DESTRUCTION AND CHANGE IN LIFE QUALITY
5.11
Daniele SANTUCCI, Thomas AUER, Ata CHOKHACHIAN - Technical University of Munich, Germany IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY IN OUTDOOR SPACES: DEPENDENCY STUDY BETWEEN OUTDOOR COMFORT AND PEOPLE´S PRESENCE
5.13
Patrycja HAUPT - Cracow University of Technology, Poland GREEN ROOFTOPS - EXTENDED URBAN RECREATIONAL SPACE
5.15
Oumr Adnan OSRA, Paul JONES - University of Sydney, Australia PROCESSES OF URBAN TRANSFORMATION: EXPLORING THE NEXUS BETWEEN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT AND ISLAMIC IDENTITY IN SAUDI ARABIA BETWEEN 1938 AND 2005
5.16
Wojciech BAL, Magdalena CZALCZYNSKA-PODOLSKA - West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Poland
ANALYSIS OF SOCIO-SPATIAL RELATIONS AND LINKS CREATED ON THE BASIS OF LANDSCAPE AND ARCHITECTURE INTEGRATION
T6 Bioclimatic and Cultural Sensitivity 6.01
Peter Winston FERRETTO - The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong ADAPTING VILLAGES: AN ARCHITECTURAL FRAMEWORK FOR REGENERATING DONG MINORITY SETTLEMENTS.
6.03
Timothy Daniel BROWNLEE, Ernesto CESARIO, Elisa FERRATO, Angela Giovanna LEUZZI, Maria Federica OTTONE - University of Camerino, Italy SMALL SCALE OUTDOOR ARCHITECTURE WITH HIGH SCALE IMPACT IN PALESTINE
T7 Materiality 7.02
Carina CARMO, Phillipe COSTA - Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil CARTESIAN AND THE SYSTEMIC GEOMETRIZATION: A PRACTICAL ESSAY
7.03
Ashley FRIDD, Dirk KROLIKOWSKI - The Bartlett, University College London, United Kingdom CANOPY RESEARCH VESSELS, PANAMA - APPLICATION OF ALUMINIUM DEPOSITION FABRICATION AND TOPOLOGICAL MATERIAL DISTRIBUTION STRATEGIES
7.05
Marc BELDERBOS - KU Leuven, UC Louvain, Belgium AESTHETICS CLOSE TO ETHICS
T8 Investments and Constructions 8.01
Ruveyda KOMURLU, David ARDITI – Kocaeli University / Illinois Institute of Technology, Turkey / USA RESOLVING AND PREVENTING CLAIMS AND DISPUTES IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CONTRACTS: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF GENERAL CONDITIONS IN THE U.S. AND TURKEY
Proceeding of the 4th International Conference S.ARCH-2017 07-09 June 2017, Hong Kong
POST OCCUPANCY EVALUATION OF ACADEMIC LIBRARY SPACES: KEY CONSIDERATIONS AND MAJOR CHALLENGES Neda Abbasi*, Darryl O’Brien Central Queensland University 400 Kent Street, Sydney, NSW 2000, Australia n.abbasi@cqu.edu.au d.obrien@cqu.edu.au
Abstract The past decade has witnessed major developments in many university libraries around the world. Innovative pedagogies, the knowledge about how the new generation of students learns and Information and Communication Technologies have faced academic libraries with the challenge of providing a variety of learning, social, and informal spaces. This brought to the fore the need to better understand space utilisation in academic libraries, examine the effectiveness of these spaces, and assess their impacts on learning and teaching in higher education as well as students’ experiences of university life. This paper examines the major challenges involved in the processes of evaluating physical spaces in academic libraries. It draws upon a literature review of existing post-occupancy evaluation studies of library spaces and the lessons learned from evaluation studies of academic library spaces of three Australian Universities (2011-2015). The paper concludes with a checklist of key factors to be considered by designers, librarians or anyone who aims to carry out or lead evaluation studies of library spaces. This checklist addresses four sections on (1) how to establish the grounds for an evaluation study of library spaces i.e. preparation and collecting documentary data related to the backgrounds and context of the library under study; (2) what methodology to adopt i.e. participation of students and staff, data collection methods and analysis; (3) how to carry out or lead the evaluation processes; and (4) how to use the findings of the evaluation to inform future decision-making in relation to space development.
Keywords Post-occupancy Evaluation, Academic Libraries Spaces, Building Evaluation.
1
Introduction
What constitute a responsive and effective space differs for buildings designers and building users. In other words, building designers and building users may have different expectations S.ARCH-2017 101.1
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and spaces which are satisfactory for the designers may not necessarily meet the building users’ expectations [1]. Moreover, as the users occupy built spaces, the life of these spaces start and evolve and the building users come up with all the new ways of interacting with spaces which have not been thought or anticipated by the designers and architects. Post occupancy evaluation of spaces provide the opportunity to examine the life of the built spaces and consider how theses spaces are being used and perceived by their users in functional, technical, cultural, social, and operational terms. Post occupancy evaluation improve building use by “providing lessons and feedback for the architect and the construction industry” and empowering end-users through the provision of benchmarks and a research pool on architecture and buildings to show the various ways that the building design and its management may meet users’ needs [2]. Preiser [3] defines post occupancy evaluation as “the process of systematically comparing actual building performance i.e. performance measures, with explicitly stated performance criteria. Compared to this definition which focuses on the performance criteria documented in the facility program and incorporated into the design brief, the definition presented by Blyth et al. [4] focuses on the building’s lifecycle and considers post occupancy evaluation as the process of “providing feedback throughout a building’s lifecycle from initial concept through to occupation” the outcomes of which “can be used for informing future projects, whether it is on the process of delivery or technical performance of the building.” In a similar vein, Zimring et al. [5] define post occupancy as the process of studying the effectiveness of built spaces for the building users. The common theme in these definitions of post occupancy evaluation and similar definitions is “feedback concerning a building’s performance during its occupational cycle compared to its designed intent” [6]. In the context of library buildings and spaces, efforts have been made to address the importance of performance measurement in relation to all aspects of a library including its building and spaces and develop framework for post occupancy evaluation. In the report by Wilson and Pitman [7] prepared for Department of Education, Training & Youth Affairs on best practice for Australian university libraries, a section was dedicated to Performance Measurement as a tool to be used to improve the performance of the library. Nitecki [8] also highlights the importance of purposeful assessment of space to better understand the impacts of changes and improvements to academic libraries’ evolving purpose as “accumulator, service provider, and collaborative partner in learning and knowledge creation” and introduces “a framework to consider different factors affecting such an assessment.” Standardized surveys have also been developed for collecting data from library users and other stakeholders such as LibQUAL+® [9] developed by the Association of Research Libraries, which measures library users’ experiences across three dimensions of service, information, and space. While post occupancy evaluations have been conducted by different people and organizations and have covered a range of building type, the challenge still remains as a lack of structured, systematic, and ongoing post occupancy evaluation studies. Moreover, there are barriers to post occupancy evaluation associated with stakeholders in a building project. The project client may have the perception that “the building should be right on day one of occupation” and show resistance to post occupancy evaluation due to its cost and the belief that “the benefits of post-occupancy evaluation will be for others, not them, maybe even resulting in standardisation rather than individual solutions to their perceived unique
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problems.” The design and building team may also show resistance or be reluctant to conduct post occupancy evaluation believing that “they will be blamed for any problems unearthed.” Finally, building users may find that “more disruption can only be a bad thing especially if it identifies issues which are already the subject of staff complaint”[2]. Challenges and barriers to post occupancy evaluation of academic libraries are then the focus of this paper. Drawing upon the lessons learned from three post occupancy evaluation of academic libraries in Australia from 2012 to 2015, a framework is outlined to address key considerations in library space evaluation.
2
Case Studies of Evaluation of Academic Library Spaces
One of the authors of this paper was involved in three evaluation studies of academic libraries in Australia. In the following sections, a brief is presented for each of these case studies to highlight some of the challenges faced as well as lessons learned throughout the process of space evaluation.
2.1 Evaluation of Deakin University (DU) Library Spaces at Burwood Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, 2012 Driven by Deakin University interest in determining the right balance between informal learning spaces and more formal teaching spaces on all its campuses and following a series of refurbishment to Burwood campus library to better accommodate students’ needs and to support individual study and collaborative work, Burwood branch of DU library was selected for an evaluation study [10]. The evaluation study began as a trial to test Tool for Evaluation of Academic Library Spaces (TEALS), which was being developed as a commissioned project by DU Library in Australia between 2011 and 2012 [11, 12]. The vision for TEALS was to create an easy-to-use computerized tool, which would specifically focus on the library as a place and be dedicated to assessing the dimension of physical spaces, compared to some existing tools and surveys such as LibQUAL+®[9]. The process started with determining the Criteria of Quality in Academic Libraries and identifying measures to assess the criteria. The tool was anticipated to include an observational study checklist and two survey components; one for library users and another one for library staff [11]. 2.1.1 Notes and Lessons Learned in DU Evaluation A) Walk-through exploratory observation of spaces A walk-through observation preceded the more structure observation of library spaces. This exploratory observation allowed the researchers to become familiar with library spaces and get a sense of the various ways, both predicted initially by the design and refurbishment teams and unpredicted by them but emerged through students’ creative use of spaces, students are using these spaces. B) Focus groups with students Four sets of focus groups with eight to ten students in each focus groups were conducted prior to administering the student survey. Participants were invited via two emails sent to all students enrolled in a course or program in the Burwood campus. The incentive offered to participants was a book which they could pick from available options in the focus group
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sessions. All students attending the focus groups were found to be very eager in commenting about their library spaces and provided invaluable insights into areas of weakness and strength in relation to library spaces. Most importantly, the researchers could refine the draft of the student survey drawing upon the comments made by the participants who were also asked to complete the survey in the focus group sessions.
Figure 1: In the first walk-through observation, loose furniture items among the shelves and in different collaborative zones attracted the researchers’ attention and later were found to be popular among students in the focus groups. 2.1.2 Challenges of DU Evaluation The first trial of TEALS in DU Library at Burwood Campus presented a number of challenges to overcome. Firstly, conducting an observational study and making use of the data were among these challenges. The walk-though observation was an invaluable source of information and assisted in developing an observational study checklist. However, it was found to be difficult to properly conduct the structured observation i.e. finding the trained observer and being time-consuming. In addition, making the most of the data collected from the structured observational study was found to be challenging. Secondly, promoting the student survey and encouraging library users to complete it posed as another challenge. Finally, feasibility of computerised integration of the qualitative data collected from the structured observational study and the quantitative and qualitative data collected from survey was found to be difficult.
2.2 Evaluation of University of Queensland (UQ) library spaces with a focus on libraries at St Lucia Campus, Brisbane, Australia, 2013-2014 Evaluation of UQ library was driven by three events: •
The Library Client Survey had been carried out by insyncsurveys in 2012 and ‘facilities and equipment’ was found one of the three highest priority categories for the library users along with ‘information resources’ and ‘library staff’ [13].
•
The library had recently completed refurbishment of spaces at Walter Harrison Law Library (WHLL) and was interested to examine the outcomes of the changes in terms of students’ experiences and patterns of library use.
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•
The library was about to refurbish two levels of the Biological Sciences Library (BSL) and required some evidence-based design improvement recommendations, most importantly about the right balance of individual and group study spaces.
The study aimed to determine whether or not the library spaces are effective and responsive to students’ and library staff needs, to identify the area of weakness and strength, and to outline a set of design-related recommendations. Data was collected using two survey instruments, one for students and one for the library staff, and a series of observational studies [14].
Figure 2: In each of the three branches of UQ in St Lucia Campus, post occupancy evaluation focused on certain design-related aspects of library spaces. Photos show the refurbished spaces in Walter Harrison Law library where the focus of the evaluation study was on students’ perceptions of new spaces and the outcomes of design improvements. 2.2.1 Notes and Lessons Learned in UQ Evaluation A) Refined student survey instrument with an incentive for participation The draft of the survey instrument ‘Students’ Experiences and Perceptions of Library Physical Spaces’ was discussed with the head librarians and a number of library staff in two meetings. S.ARCH-2017 101.5
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The outcomes of these discussions assisted the researchers to refine the survey instrument in order to best respond to the context and needs of the library and collect the most relevant data. The survey also included images of certain spaces in different UQ libraries and asked students to comment on the quality of these specific spaces, how often, and for what purposes they use these spaces. An Ipad to be awarded to a survey participant in a draw was also considered as an incentive for survey participation. B) Library staff survey instrument In UQ evaluation, the researchers also decided to collect data from the library staff on their perception of and satisfaction with workspaces in the library. Staff comments not only were useful in developing a better understanding of weakness and strengths of existing staff workspaces in UQ libraries but also assisted in refining the survey instrument for any future use. 2.2.2 Challenges of UQ Evaluation In UQ evaluation, the researchers chose not to adopt an approach to try to integrate the qualitative data collected from the structured observational study and the survey data. This was found to address the challenge initially faced in DU evaluation. However, conducting the structured observation was still found to be challenging and time-consuming. Staff survey was administered pretty smoothly and while no incentive was offered, a good response rate was achieved. In order to tackle the challenge of promoting the student survey and encouraging library users to complete it, a relatively valuable incentive was offered and 900 survey were completed by students on the first day of administering the survey. One area of concern was realised to be the reliability of some of the survey responses. In other words, the researchers assumed that some of the participants chose to complete the survey solely for winning the Ipad and may have lacked any genuine motivation to give correct and thoughtful responses. After close examination of the survey inputs, the researchers found that from a total of 1505 survey completed between 900 to 1200 students comments were recorded to open-ended survey questions. This alleviated the concern about the reliability of the data as open-ended survey questions were optional to answer and the survey participant could simply proceed in the survey without even responding to them (All survey questions except open-ended survey questions needed a response before a survey participant could further proceed in the survey).
2.3 Evaluation of University of Canberra (UC) library spaces, Canberra, Australia Evaluation of UC library followed the same pattern as that of UQ evaluation with slight changes to suit the context of the library under study. The key driver of the evaluation study of library spaces was the need to better understand necessary design improvements for an upcoming space upgrade to UC library. Similar of the case of UQ library, the Library Client Survey carried out by insyncsurveys in 2015 suggested ‘facilities and equipment’ as among the three highest priority categories for the library users after ‘information resources’ and ‘library staff’.
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Figure 3: In addition to lickert scale questions, the student survey for UC evaluation included photos of some informal spaces in the library and asked students to comment on these spaces and mention any possible changes or improvements to these spaces. 2.3.1 Notes and Lessons Learned in UC Evaluation A) A staff survey instrument to include all the university staff in addition to the library staff In UQ evaluation, the staff survey instrument was developed to collect data from the library staff about their opinions of and experiences with their workspaces in the library. The survey instrument developed for UC was further expanded and modified to include all the university staff including academic and administrative staff in addition to the library staff. 52 university staff including academic and administrative staff and 29 library staff completed the survey. B) Use of an Ipad and a pre-designed online tool to record observational studies of library spaces In order to improve the process of observational studies and reduce the amount of time required to conduct each round of observation, a tool was designed within an online survey platform. One of the researchers used an Ipad to record each round of observation. Using this method, recording the observation data was found to be relatively quick and required less spatial skills from the person conducting the observational study of spaces. Challenges of UC Evaluation The main challenge that the research team had to overcome was getting student participation in the student survey. The researchers was advised by the university IT department that the Vice Chancellor has directed all teams not to send mass emails to students and staff in order to cut down on the amount of bulk mails. Given this, the researchers had to use another method to promote the surveys. The links to the surveys were added to the student and staff portals in the university website. These links were also published in the student and staff bulletins. Finally, hardcopies of the surveys were placed in the library help desks and reception. The staff survey response rate was satisfactory. However, the student survey response rate did not meet the researchers’’ initial expectations. Another factor which may have influenced the response rate of the student survey when compared with the case of UQ library evaluation was the incentive offered to complete the survey. Due to the requirement of Human Ethics Approval Guidelines of the researchers’ institution, only rewards of the value of up to 50 dollars could be offered to a study participant.
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3
Conclusion
Drawing upon the lessons learned from the three case studies of post occupancy evaluation of academic library spaces in Australia and a review of literature, we suggest a number of considerations when making decisions about conducting a post occupancy evaluation of academic library spaces. These considerations are outlined in what follows, under four phases of an evaluation study: establishing the grounds for an evaluation study of library spaces; planning for the evaluation study; conducting the evaluation study; and publicising the results of the evaluation study.
3.1 Establishing the grounds for an evaluation study of library spaces 3.1.1 Identify the type of information that you need to collect. It is important that early on in the process of evaluation of a library and conducting a space assessment the stakeholders including the library management teams and staff as well as any external consultants involved have a clear understanding of the type of information needed for future planning and improvement strategies to library spaces. This understanding will assist in determining what type of data needs to be collected, and how to collect and analyse it. 3.1.2 Give proper thoughts to data collection and analysis. While the library team and other stakeholders are outlining a brief for post occupancy evaluation and setting out the aims and purposes, it is also necessary to examine data collection and analysis strategies. According to Organ and Jantti [15], data collection and presentation were tasks that were historically overlooked within library organisations, “though the gathering of loans and collection statistics has long been a standard practice.”
3.2 Planning for the evaluation study 3.2.1 Form a Space Evaluation Team, train them and provide support for them through inviting external consultation. Library staff has first-hand invaluable knowledge of library service, processes, and how students use the library. Libraries benefit from involving a team of staff as a space evaluation team early on in the process of evaluation. The team needs to be trained about spaces and be the first point of contact with any other external consultants engaged. An example of such a team was formed in University of Wollongong Library, as part of the critical evaluation and forward planning process and realizing the need to space expansion in near future. The University Librarian formed a Quality Team, the Space Exploration Team, in early 1996, which had the mission “to review current utilisation of space in the Library and recommend strategies to accommodate future growth and development” [15]. When the library team are to conduct the evaluation internally, it is important to be aware of existing guides and frameworks which may assist them in developing an evaluation plan i.e. strategies, approaches and methods to conduct the study. Guide to Post Occupancy Evaluation developed by the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) to act as S.ARCH-2017 101.8
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a toolkit on good practice guidance in post occupancy evaluation in the Higher Education sector is one example of these guides [4]. There are also standards and frameworks for determining quality in libraries and specifically academic libraries that need to be considered. The key question in the beginning of a space evaluation should be: how would you define a good library space? or what are the criteria for quality in library spaces? Standards for Libraries in Higher Education developed by Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) is one of these standards. The principle of space is one of the nine principles stated to be among the key expectations which apply to all academic libraries [16]. The eight performance indicator for the principle of space are stated as follows: 1) The library creates intuitive navigation that supports self-sufficient use of virtual and physical spaces. 2) The library provides safe and secure physical and virtual environments conducive to study and research. 3) The library has the IT infrastructure to provide reliable and robust virtual and physical environments needed for study and research. 4) The library uses physical and virtual spaces as intellectual commons, providing access to programs, exhibits, lectures, and more. 5) The library designs pedagogical spaces to facilitate collaboration and learning, and the creation of new knowledge. 6) The library’s physical space features connectivity and up-to-date, adequate, well-maintained equipment and furnishings. 7) The library provides clean, inviting, and adequate space, conducive to study and research, with suitable environmental conditions and convenient hours for its services, personnel, resources, and collections. 8) The library’s physical and virtual spaces are informed by consultation with users [16].
In Australia, two other standards were also developed for public libraries: Standards and Guidelines for Australian Public Libraries commissioned by the Australian Library and Information Association (ALIA) [17] and People Places-A Guide for Public Library Buildings in New South Wales commissioned by the State Library of NSW and undertaken by architects Francis-Jones Morehen Thorp (FJMT) [18]. The ALIA standards and guidelines emphasize on the role of public libraries as “safe and trusted public spaces where everyone is welcome” and address key qualities of these spaces e.g. adaptability and environmental comfort [17]. The state Library of NSW guide clearly focuses on the design and planning of library spaces and addresses key design issues, trends, and factors. Finally, the works by McDonald [19, 20] on ten key qualities of good learning space also assist in starting to think about a framework of qualities of good library spaces: functionality; adaptability; accessibility; being varied; interactivity; being conducive; being environmentally suitable; safety and security; efficiency; and being suitable for information technology. 3.2.2 Examine pros and cons of adopting either a standardized/existing toolkit or developing your own evaluation tool. Once the library team discussed the aims of an evaluation of spaces and agreed on such issues as objectives, timeline, and an outline of the evaluation strategy and approach e.g. how to collect data and whom to get involved, it is the time to consider how to carry out the evaluation study. Whether a library team aim to conduct an evaluation of spaces internally or an external consultant is engaged, it is important to examine different aspects of adopting an existing tool when compared with developing a tool.
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There are different surveys and toolkits available internationally for post occupancy evaluation of different building types such as Design Quality Indicator (DQI) [21] and for evaluation of library quality i.e. services and spaces such as LibQUAL+® [9]. When the firm, organisation, or body that developed the toolkit also conducts the study and provides the finding reports, the evaluation can be conducted fairly quickly and the results can be compared with the results of other evaluation studies for other libraries or similar buildings. However, the downside of using a standardized evaluation survey or tool is that changes to the methodology and structure may not be readily possible. For example, the library team may not be able to ask for certain survey questions to be added or removed from the standardised survey. It may also be difficult to examine students’ and staff perceptions or certain spaces in the library under the study or focus the evaluation study on certain aspects rather than the ones already included in the standardised toolkit or survey being used. Developing an evaluation tool or plan specifically for the library under study, however, allows the library team to direct the focus of the evaluation study on certain aspects of the library spaces and even study certain spaces or areas in the library buildings in terms of patterns of student use and students’ experiences with these library areas. If a survey is to be used to collect the data from students and staff, survey questions can be included to address the specific aims and concerns of the library under study. Nevertheless, such a process is time consuming and require training of the library staff, if the study is being conducted internally. For example, designing a survey from the scratch takes time and the validity and reliability of such a data collection tool need to be studied. Data collection i.e. conducting focus groups or interviews, and observation of library users’ patterns of library use as well as analysis of the survey or questionnaire data, observation notes, and interview or focus group transcripts require expertise and training.
3.3 Conducting the evaluation study 3.3.1 Start from a general space audit, if enough spatial data is lacking. A preliminary space audit may also involve preparing detailed floor plans of the library, and if such plans are available, updating them according to the space audit. A shelving survey may also be required to determine current collection and future collection growth. 3.3.2 Give proper thoughts to the design, recording, and making use of observational studies data While observation is a useful method in evaluation of academic libraries, thoughtful planning is required to properly conduct it, collect useable data, analyse and report it. One example could be observation of students’ use of library seating. In the case study of UQ library evaluation, the observation was structured to record the number of students occupying the library seating. The first round of observational study presented the challenge of students’ occupying a seating spot for a short period of time and then moving to other places as well as personal belongings left with no one occupying the seating. It was then become clear that it is important to define measures for such concepts as “occupancy;” how would you define library seating occupancy? In the library seating survey conducted by Organ & Jantti [15], the authors defined occupancy as “a client physically located in the seat, or evidence of occupancy such as papers, bag and work materials if the client was absent from the seat.”
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3.4 Publicizing the results of the evaluation study Our final note has to do with the importance of publicising the results of the post occupancy evaluation and sharing the lessons learned. For our three case studies of evaluation of academic library spaces, we chose conferences focused on library assessment and quality improvement as platforms to present our findings: (1) annual conferences of the International Association of Technological University Libraries (IATUL); (2) annual conferences of Australian Library and Information Association (ALIA); and (3) Library Assessment conferences of the Association of Research Libraries (ARL). We found these very useful and recommend similar forums and platforms to publicise outcomes of post occupancy evaluation of library spaces.
References [1]
Enright, S., Post-occupancy evaluation of UK library building projects: Some examples of current activity. Liber Quarterly, 12, (2002), 1, pp. 26-45.
[2]
ibid.
[3]
Preiser, W.F.E., Post-occupancy evaluation: how to make buildings work better. Facilities, 13, (1995), 11, pp. 19 - 28.
[4]
Blyth, A., A. Gilby, and M. Barlex, Guide to post occupancy evaluation, Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE), 2006.
[5]
Zimring, C., M. Rashid, and K. Kampschroer. Facility Performance Evaluation (FPE) Whole Building Design Guide, 2008, accessed on 31/05/2017 from: https://www.wbdg.org/resources/facility-performance-evaluation-fpe.
[6]
McGrath, P.T. and M. Horton, A post-occupancy evaluation (POE) study of student accommodation in an MMC/modular building, Structural Survey, 29, (2011), 3, pp. DOI 244-252, 10.1108/02630801111148211.
[7]
Wilson, A. and L. Pitman, Best practice handbook for Australian university libraries, Evaluations & Investigations Programme, Higher Education Division, Department of Education, Training & Youth Affairs, Canberra, 2000.
[8]
Nitecki, D.A., Space assessment as a venue for defining the academic library, The Library Quarterly, 81 (2011), 1, pp. 27-59, DOI 10.1086/657446.
[9]
The Association of Research Libraries, LibQUAL+ÂŽ accessed on 25/05/2017 from: https://www.libqual.org/home.
[10] Abbasi, N., H. Elkadi, A. Horn and S. Owen, Transforming an academic library's spaces: an evaluation study of Deakin University Library at Burwood campus using TEALS, ALIA 2012: Discovery: Proceedings of the 2012 Australian Library and Information Association Biennial Conference, Sydney, Australia, 2012a, p. 1-13.
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[11] Abbasi, N., H. Elkadi, A. Horn and S. Owen, TEALS (Tool for Evaluation of Academic Library Spaces) Project: evaluating physical library spaces, Library Assessment Conference: Building Effective, Sustainable, Practical Assessment, Association of Research Libraries, Charlottesville, Virginia, 2012b. [12] Elkadi, H. and N. Abbasi, Development of a tool for evaluation of academic library spaces (TEALS), Society for Research into Higher Education (SRHE) Conference: Positive futures for higher education; connections, communities and criticality, Newport, Wales, 2011. [13] Abbasi, N., R. Tucker, K. Fisher and R. Gerrity, Library spaces designed with students in mind: an evaluation study of University of Queensland libraries at St Lucia campus, IATUL 2014: Proceedings of the 35th Annual International Association of Scientific and Technological University Libraries Conference, Espoo, Finland, 2014a. [14] Abbasi, N., R. Tucker, K. Fisher and R. Gerrity, Evaluation of University of Queensland Library Spaces: three case studies at St Lucia Campus, ALIA 2014: Proceedings of the 2014 Australian Library and Information Association Conference, Australian Library and Information Association, Melbourne, Australia, 2014b. [15] Organ, M. and M. Jantti, Academic library seating: a survey of usage, with implications for space utilisation. Australian Academic & Research Libraries, 28 (1997), 3, p. 205216, DOI 10.1080/00048623.1997.10755015. [16] Iannuzzi, P. A., T. Abbott, J. Brown, S. Gibbons, L. King, S. Mccaslin, M. Reichel, J. Ruelle, L. Stillwell and M. J. Petrowski, Standards for Libraries in Higher Education, Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL), Chicago, 2011. [17] Quinn, S. and I. McCallum, Beyond a Quality Service: Strengthening the Social Fabric Standards and Guidelines for Australian Public Libraries, The Australian Library and Information Association, Australia, 2012. [18] The State Library of New South Wales, People Places: A Guide for Public Library Buildings in New South Wales, Sydney, 2012. [19] McDonald, A., The ten commandments revisited: the qualities of good library space, LIBER quarterly, 16 (2006), 2. [20] McDonald, A., The Top Ten Qualities of Good Library Space, in IFLA Library Building Guidelines: Development & Reflections, (K. Latimer and H. Niegaard), K. G. Saur, Berlin, 2008, p. 13-29. [21] Design Quality Indicator, accessed on 25/05/2017 from: http://www.dqi.org.uk/casestudies/education-and-research/.
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ENGINEERED LUMBER AND “TACIT KNOWLEDGE” OF NEW CRAFT IN ARCHITECTURE. Jason GRIFFITHS UNL\ Architecture Hall, 1400 R St Lincoln NE 68588, USA
Abstract Notions of “tacit knowledge” in architecture are often (erroneously) presented by the profession as a counter-productive resistance to automation (i.e. craft v manufacture etc.) This paper suggests that this (false) dichotomy has been challenged by new making methodologies of engineered lumber and the re-emergence of mass-timber structures. It presents the pedagogy of “design-build” teaching as a reappraisal the craft ethos within education in the light of both Mathew Crawford and Richard Sennett’s ideas on new work activities. At its core lies the notion that “learning by doing” and the American Arts and Crafts’ ontological study of authenticity is a unique branch of architectural education - an approach once characterized by the reactionary individualism of American architecture summarized by Charles Greene’s mantra of “fingerspitzengetfuehl” (“fingertip feeling”). The reason to revive this discourse is based on the re-emergence of wood (in the form of advanced engineered lumber) as a credible alternative to modernist industrial construction technology. In essence this new materiality is more akin to pre-industrial “tacit knowledge” than industrialized buildings per se and therefore requires its own intellectual context. The paper asks how traditional themes of craft are reappraised in contemporary work that is both “useful and intellectually absorbing” and how the visceral pleasure (“corporeal anticipation”) of making is played out through emerging forms of materiality. However this proposal also recognizes that design-build has a uniquely ambiguous relationship with conflicting notions of work ethics. While it must encompass the craftsman’s intuitive approach it is also part of a much broader collaborative (architectural) network of “knowledge workers” and suggests ways that craft positively challenges increasing Taylorist simplification of tasks in favour of new cognitive skills within architectural production.
Design-build In our collaborative paper Design-build: service beyond community i Mackenzie Gibbens argues that the origins of design-build belong to the English Arts and Crafts. ii “John Ruskin was the first to implement construction and design-build type projects within the University in the 19th century. His students took part in a community service project by building a road through Ferry Hinksey, a marshland southwest of Oxford, England. This first project was tied directly to providing a service for the community. It may be interpreted that Ruskin’s influence in the Arts and Crafts Movement in Britain during this time had an impact
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in his drive for community and social service, and therefore influences the inception of designbuild in academia.” iii While MacKenzie goes on to debate the significance of design-build upon community activism this social component is also related to “visceral” acts of physical making. In fact Ruskin’s notion of the social benefit of artisanal production lies at the core of almost all design-build studio. In the US the craft rhetoric of Ruskin and Morris was translated into a discourse on authenticity in vernacular buildings and timber construction. In his 1974 publication, “The Shingle Style Today or The Historian’s Revenge” Vincent Scully’s describes the historical narrative of the search “identity” in American architecture For Scully’s this begins with the founding fathers and the “Struggle Period” of Colonial Architecture (inherited from English medieval style) and then re-emerges in phases of conscious expression of humility, meritocracy and the “soul of the workman” iv. These phases include interpretations of Single Style (and Regency Stick Style), through the Craftsman Cottage to the postmodern period and “impoverished” plans of Charles Moore, Venturi Scott-Brown. Scully repeated draws upon core key themes that underpin this Americanized version of Ruskin such as the “Semiotics of ancient virtue”, the archetypal pitched roof, rural escapism, Pluralism and so on. Perhaps the most persuasive of Scully’s various themes is the association between timber buildings and a pluralistic society. While this is obviously another swipe British Colonialism, Scully’s notions of Pluralism are argued through ethnic diversity and the range of multicultural associations found in formal, material and symbolic elements of the architecture. Intended to symbolize America’s openness to “cultural democracy” v, the sense of a heterogeneous whole, reappears in several projects and historical periods. And yet while cultural associations look east vi and west vii it is interesting that it doesn’t exclude selected elements of the English Arts and Crafts viiidespite a prevailing anti-British (aristocratic) sentiment of the Shingle Style rhetoric. What is common to all of these projects is the dominance of wood and the workmanlike “virtuous acts” implied in its fabrication. Although many architects of this period adopted this this stance perhaps it is the work of Greene and Greene and their iconic houses around Arroyo Seco that provide the best links to today’s design-build pedagogy. Thomas Hines ix carefully reminds us of the Greene’s unique Pluralistic blend of the Midwestern sentiment, Spanish Colonialism, Gustav Stickley, Japan and so on. Through Hines we understand how the Greene’s early training and career was defined by a rejection of European styles in favour of a search for a particular version of American identity. Charles Greene in particular appears to have lead the protest in his rejection of the Beaux’s Arts and the overly historicist education he received during his short time at MIT. “Our students go to France and learn a jumble intended for educated Frenchmen.” x By contrast Greene’s adopted the visceral slogan “fingerspitzengetfuehl” or “fingertip feeling” as the most apposite description of their “perfectionist bent” xi towards timber craft. Hines suggest that their early education at The Manual Training School S.ARCH-2017 102.2
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In St Louis was far more significant than their formal architectural training. Their appreciation for manual skills allowed them to recognize and nurture the talents of the carpenter/craftsman Peter Hall who was instrumental to the quality of the Greene’s most significant houses.xii Although Greene’s were rediscovered own lifetime they experienced a radical decline in favour from the 1920’s xiii onward. Both the dissolution of their style into the Craftsman Cottage (and then suburbia) along with the rise of The International Style undermined any serious continuity of the craft tradition until it re-emerged in the late 1960’s. Scully argues for two distinct stages (1876 and 1970’s) in his “revenge” appreciation by focusing upon key buildings from each era. This typically the work of H.H. Richardson, Mckim, Mead and White from the first phase and Charles Moore and Venturi Scott-Brown (among many others) from the second. This “revenge” was also a criticism of modernity and particular Gropius’ attempt to remove history from the curriculum at Harvard. The re-emergence of wood and particularly the work of Charles Moore in Northern California is very similar to the Arts and Crafts along and the emotional benefits of an “honest” lifestyle. This re-emergence of craft tradition coincided with the first design-build programs in the US. While its origin is widely recognized to be Charles Moore’s Yale Building Project 1967 designbuild has since grown to include some 25 programs nationally with a range of themes that reflect both the socio-cultural context and technical issues of individual schools. Other programs such as Auburn University’s Rural Studio sends students to assist an underserved population in West Alabama’s Black Belt region. As of spring 2016, Rural Studio has built more than 170 projects. xiv “The Rural Studio philosophy suggests that everyone, both rich and poor, deserves the benefit of good design.” - Rural Studio Thomas Dutton from Miami University in Oxford, Ohio established the Over-the-Rhine Design/Build Studio in 1996 in an attempt to bring this idea of social justice to the forefront. His aim was to design and rehabilitate housing for residents in the Cincinnati neighbourhood of Over-the-Rhine. This has since developed into The Miami University Center for Community Engagement, which opened in 2002.xv While the content of these studios varies from one school to another they all carry traces of Greene’s protest and the need to return to the fundamentals of craft.
Work “Lack of experience diminishes our power of taking a comprehensive view of fundamental facts…those whom devotion to abstract discussions has rendered unobservant of facts are too ready to dogmatize on the basis of few observations" Aristotlexvi
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This paper suggest that recent discussion in the nature of contemporary work environments have provided the opportunity to reconsider craft and to seek contemporary equivalents of the Arts and Crafts rejection of industrial methods of production. Both Mathew Crawford and Richard Sennett have explored the divergent trajectories of new world “knowledge workers” and work associated with manual effort and trades. Crawford, who holds a PHD in political philosophy, argues that there is a dichotomy between the increasingly abstracted activities of “knowledge workers” and work that cannot be detached from “concrete sites” xvii. As both fellow at the Institute for Advanced Studies in Culture at the University of Virginia and owner of Shockoe Moto Crawford is capable of arguing the broad sociological significance of the trades (shop class, community colleges) against an education that leads to outsourcing. (radiologist, accountants, digital design). Crawford cites his experiences of working by hand on motorbike repair as the kind of intellectual absorption that creates individual responsibility. Here external “objective standards” determine success or failure and in so doing present an immediate test of competence he describes as “heedful consequences”. xviii Crawford laments the decline in shop class since 1980s and the manner in which schools and universities give little credence to manual trades. For him the fear of having ones life determined by a trade not only discredits a vital sector of the workforce but also propagates the political implications and passive consumption. The visceral nature of work in the trades is key to the advancement of design-build in architectural education. There are distinct parallels of “consequence” for students building small structures and trade related activities. Crawford thoughts can be easily applied to the design-build slogan “learning by doing” and appear uncannily similar to the protestations of Charles Greene in the period between leaving MIT and establishing their practice in Arroyo Seco. xix However to draw distinctions between types of work runs counter to the multivalent nature of the practice of architecture and design-build. In truth the discipline is dependent on all types of work and is equally well served by a discourse on work networks as one which isolates a single trade per se. Placing a student in the position of the tradesman must be seen in relation to the whole profession rather than to offer it as the basis for alternative practice. In effect Crawford’s notion "the infallible judgment of reality" xx allows students to appreciate, in a direct way, the consequence of their actions once they become an architect. Without this the dispensation of work effort is a purely abstract activity that emanates indirectly from the works stages of the profession. An abstraction that may prove counterintuitive to the longterm benefits of a profession which is ultimately dependent on the health of individual trades. Design-build has a uniquely ambiguous relationship with conflicting notions of work ethic. While it must encompass the unique knowledge of the craftsman intuitive approach it is also part of a much broader collaborative network of “knowledge workers”. It is both a profession and a business and as such equally subjected to the rigors productivity and performance.
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Applying Mathew Crawford’s ideas to design-build education gives us the opportunity to reassess the relationship between education and contemporary work environments. Richard Sennett (The Craftsman) puts it differently suggesting that the psychic benefits of craft (“making is thinking”, “corporeal anticipation” and "interplay between tacit knowledge and self-conscious awareness”) are underscored by intimate long-term discipline. However contradictory scenarios are often the most fertile in creative terms this is certainly true of the design-build studio. The notion of craft disrupts the move towards increasing simplification of tasks and the unchecked deployment Frederick Winslow Taylor’s “Principles of scientific Management” (suggested by Crawford as two sides of a political class Capitalism and Communism - I.e. corporations and central government) – in essence those “developments” in management that separate out cognitive skills and reduce pay for unskilled workers and ultimately denigrate the white-collar worker.
CLT Happily the re-emergence of wood in the form of engineered lumber in recent years has allowed the discourse on craft to return in a new way. The material associations between wood and the history of craft within American architecture has been given a new impetus by mass-timber construction methodology (particularly Pacific North West). Architect Alex de Rijke has argued that if steel was the material of the 19th Century, concrete the 20th then wood is that of the 21st.
Figure 1: “Emerge” retreat – UNL CoA by Jason Griffiths (Instructor) and 2016 Summer Design-build students. Of the many advances in high-tech timber production perhaps the most important is Cross Laminated Timber (CLT). In Europe there is an emerging trend of prefabricated, fast-track building systems that all deploy CLT mass (ive) timber components to make buildings. For S.ARCH-2017 102.5
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many years Austria has lead the way in the production of CLT components that are transported internationally within Europe and as far afield as Australia. To date the USA has been slow to pick up on this trend while major developments in Canada are demonstrating engineered lumber is a credible alternative for mid-rise buildings. It is interesting to note that while the US has lead the post-war boom in industrial production and application of forestry products (i.e. stud construction) there is little to demonstrate its adoption of the most contemporary uses of timber. This is even harder to understand when considering that for so long American architecture adopted wood as a pragmatic and symbolic expression of its chosen material for making homes.
CLT and Design-build This paper suggests that the practice of engineered lumber has the potential to transform design-build in architectural education. While design-build is a mainstay of architectural education in the US is has, at times, received criticism for its discordant relationship to formal curricular structures. In some sense this is another version of the dichotomy between abstract managerial types of work and the visceral hands-on nature of trade activity that Crawford describes. In the past this has forced design-build projects into various scenarios that marginalize its effectiveness through no fault of its own. I want to suggest that this produces two scenarios that prioritize “engagement” on one hand and “craft” on the other. The first example refers design-build projects that engage with low-income families that are established to provide a much-needed service to local communities. These projects often engage students in the labour of erecting the whole building (including the primary structure) providing both a “real” building experience and a reduced construction expense (to benefit low-income clients). However this also runs the risk of exploiting student fees and efforts, exposes them to unacceptable risk (according to HR and university procurement regulations) and places unacceptable demand upon university facilities. These courses survive because they play a vital and admirable part in engagement and service to local communities. However the amount of hard labour in these projects also means that students rarely experience craft in the sense that Sennett suggests and are perhaps “over experiencing” the trades in Crawford describes. The second example prioritizes computation fabrication as a specialization with the aim of advancing digital design within the curriculum. These projects are, by necessity, technologically deterministic and inherently dispersive in the relationship of form to program. Materiality and construction are similarly speculative which at times allows for formally subjective organic form or biomorphic metaphors to dominate unchecked. The speculative nature of these programs and the short schedule of a single semester often means that the end result is a free-standing installation within the controlled environment of the studio, exhibition space etc. or a sculptural piece on university property. Although this constraint is again understandable it avoids the kind of “real-world” conflict of the “engaged” design-build in the first example.
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In many cases this computational version is explained as problem of scale. Often the parametric style installation is based on a “paradigm sifts” in construction technology that is inherently futuristic. While this has gone a long way to advancing full-scale fabrication towards mass-customization and “file to factory” production information it is also in danger of promoting a marginalized and prohibitively expensive form of architecture.
Design-build at UNL The introduction of CLT into the design-build curriculum has overcome many of these issues and has the promise of revamping design-build education in the US. This development occurs in two key areas: 1. “Non-paradigmatic” approach to CNC fabrication. 2. Prefabricated primary structures and the reduction student labor. In my practice at UNL I have had the opportunity to rethink the relationship between digital design to architectural education. This evaluation was also framed by studies of “ordinary” fabrication practice of engineered lumber. In this sense the emerging methodologies of digital have advanced from scholarship of techniques to “applied” research based on design-build design-build requirements. I now practice teaching digital design strictly through techniques that grew from traditional woodworking tools (circular saw, chain saw, and router) and that have been adapted to 5-axis control mechanisms i.e. through the legacy of tools familiar to many people who work with wood. This connection is critical to success of working with industry standard “mass-timber” fabrication methodology and hence its application to the “real-world” constraints of design-build. This concentration has allowed close collaboration with industry specialist like DR Johnson, Structurlam and Smartlam. What has been critical to this success was to consider digital fabrication as a development of strictly analogue methods rather than framing it as a “paradigm shift” away from something outmoded. Our research is based on “in-the field” studies of industry standards particularly those based on large panel processing i.e. for machinery: “Hundegger….machines enable joinery, panel processing, large sheet processing, and wood truss creation. Of their machines, the Hundegger PBA Panel Processing Machine is designed specifically for the processing of large panels, which can easily process CLT. The PBA Machine enables the creation of precise openings (doors/windows), slots for knife connections, grooves for joinery, recesses for the addition of physical connectors, recesses for electrical, rabbeting, and 5-axis drilling for angular pocketing.” And software: “All Hundegger machines incorporate CAMBIUM, which is software created by Hundegger for 3D modelling of components and operation of their machines. CAMBIUM enables the entire production process from design through the work preparation to the finished component.” xxi
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Figure 2: “Emerge” retreat – UNL CoA by Jason Griffiths (Instructor) and 2016 Summer Design-build students,
The student’s comprehension of this process plays a key part in the construction sequence and is essential in overcoming the problems associated with building the primary structure. Assembling a prefabricated CLT wall and floor system is efficient and specialized with the physical effort is mainly concentrated on the fixing process. The students get the experience of a fast-track assembly system with minimum exposure to hazardous activities. Furthermore they experience an emerging trade (by going to the fabrication plant) as a direct outcome of their work as digital designers i.e. their part as “knowledge workers” in relationship to manual skills.
Learning by doing. Removing the sweat-equity and labour of the primary structure allows students to concentrate on the “Learning by doing” aspect of the design-build in a particular way. In all design-build projects incorporate “student supplied items”. These are components of the building that provide the greatest level of craft experience like cladding systems, stairs, builtS.ARCH-2017 102.8
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in furniture and so on. The student’s control of the digital model allows them to prefabricate these elements in campus wood shops etc. This gives them the visceral experience that is key to design-build while remaining under the universities insurance and reducing the repetitious tasks associated with heavy construction. Currently we have three projects about to go on site: 1. Santee Sioux Reservation Child Services Center, NE 2. The Cedar Point Biostation cabin in Ogallala, NE 3. South Sioux Orchard Storage and Meeting Facility
Figure 3: “South Sioux Orchard Storage and Meeting Facility” – UNL CoA by Jason Griffiths (Instructor) and 2016/17 DR Design-build studio. Of these the most imminent is the South Sioux Orchard Storage and Meeting Facility. This project engages wood at two levels that provide examples types of work i.e.: 1. Designing and coordinating a prefabricated CLT primary structure 2. “hands on” making of cladding and furniture with reclaimed Ash from local trees affected by the Emerald Ash Borer This project is intended as symbol for community sharing and gathering; a place for volunteers to harvest apples and honey to donate to the public, in addition to educating young members of the community on themes of food production. It consists of a two-storey S.ARCH-2017 102.9
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structure, a footprint of 256 square feet, plus on-site volunteer parking. The main function of the building is to store the tools and supplies necessary to maintain an orchard. Secondary functions include interior and exterior gathering spaces for education and the processing of the harvest. The storage facility is conceptually a large jewellery box, utilizing exterior awning doors for exterior access to tools and to create shade for exterior gathering. At the end of each day, the doors fold back into the façade creating a seamless box. This project was developed in collaboration with the Gene Maffit, Parks Director of South Sioux City, and Lance Hedquist, City Administrator, and is part of a series of public buildings that advance architecture in the community. Our proposal was developed in direct consultation with user groups and city residents through presentations at council sessions and at CoA reviews. Students have been actively involved negotiating costs, building control, and working with consultants while preparing construction documents. This project will be the first CLT building in Nebraska. The entire primary structure of floor, walls, and roof will be prefabricated and assembled on site and act as a showcase for advanced construction methodology with the community. The use of CLT makes this an exceptional design-build experience and presents students with the additional challenge of introducing non-traditional construction methods to City building control officers, the construction team and consultants. This level of engagement advances the discipline of architecture within Nebraska and engages research with practice through physical construction. This has had a particularly beneficial effect for city officials and the engineer (Shaffer & Stevens PC) who are using CLT for the first time and expanding their knowledge base in anticipation of widespread use of engineered limber. In this case the “student supplied items” are derived from our engagement with of South Sioux City’s Ash reclamation program. Working in conjunction with SCC’s Landscape department’s Steve Rasmussen and Adam Smith of the Nebraska Forestry Service, students have developed a cladding system that utilizes Ash from local trees affected by the Emerald Ash Borer beetle. This process involves harvesting trees under quarantine in a process that mitigates the propagation of the beetle and reduces the infestation. This activity advances the design-build ethos of “learning by doing” by engaging architecture directly with the wider issues of material supplies and regional environmental concerns. Students are also involved in an on-going evaluation of the process as part of the studio commitment to engage research with graduate level learning. This documentation will form part of a post-occupancy report that will provide content for proposed courses in the CoA curriculum based on advanced timber fabrication methodology. The project has also provided evidence for a pending application for grant funding via FY2017 U.S. Forest Service Wood Innovations award in collaboration with Adam Smith and the UNL’s Nebraska Forestry Service.
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The South Sioux Orchard Storage and Meeting Facility has provided students with an exceptional design-build experience. Engagement with the community, clients, consultants and suppliers has exposed them to a process that not only provides them with basic practice experience but also provides a showcase for innovative construction methodology and environmental design in Nebraska.
Conclusion The aim of this paper is to present contemporary design-build education as an extension of the American Arts and Crafts tradition. It suggests that this connection implies a discussion about social value of different types of work that involves students, fabricators and construction teams. While the origins of this discussion lie in the late nineteenth century theory of “learning by doing” it is necessary to update the notion of work to encompass today’s work environments of “knowledge workers” and people involved in traditional trade activities. This discussion has emerged because of the similarities between new methods of building with mass-timber and significant periods in architectural history that considered wood to be the most important material of American identity. This discussion is exemplified by my design-build pedagogy and applied to current design-build projects in my work at the University of Nebraska Lincoln.
i Mackenzie Gibbens and Jason Griffiths, Design-Build: Service Beyond Community, ACSA, Detroit, USA, 2017, (for proceedings) ii Vincent B. Canizaro, Design-Build in Architectural Education: Motivations, Practices, Challenges, Successes and Failures, International Journal of Architectural Research 6, no. 3 (November 2012): 21. Mackenzie Gibbens and Jason Griffiths, Design-Build: Service Beyond Community, ACSA, Detroit, USA, 2017, (for proceedings) PP.1 iii
iv Vincent Scully - Shingle Style Today Published by George Braziller Inc. 1974 ISSN 0- NY, USA, 1974, pp. 9 v Ibid 9. vi Ibid 5. vii Ibid 11 viii Ibid 5 ix Thomas Hines, A Leaven in the Blood, Architecture of the Sun, Rizzoli International Publications, inc. New York, 2010. PP 22.
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x Ibid 23 xi Ibid 38 xii Ibid 38 xiii Ibid 49 xiv “Rural Studio: About,” Purpose & History, accessed September 7, 2016, http://www.ruralstudio.org/about/purpose-history. xv David Sokol, “Teaching by Example: Design-build educators talk pedagogy and real politick,” Architectural Record, October 16, 2008. xvi Mathew Crawford, A Brief Case for the Unusual Arts, Shop Class as Soul Craft, Penguin Books, 2010. P23 xvii https://www.c-span.org/video/?292685-11/shop-class-soulcraft xviii Ibid. xix Thomas Hines, A Leaven in the Blood, Architecture of the Sun, Rizzoli International Publications, inc. New York, 2010. PP 22. xx Mathew Crawford, A Brief Case for the Unusual Arts, Shop Class as Soul Craft, Penguin Books, 2010. P15 xxi Sean Coffey. M.Arch student. CoA UNL 2017.
S.ARCH-2017 102.12
A COMPARATIVE VISUAL ANALYSIS OF THE ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS OF POST-WAR ANCESTRAL AND COMMON DOMESTIC HOUSES IN GLAN, SARANGANI PROVINCE Dan Jezreel A. Orendain, Sheena Marie R. Franco*, Angelo A. Regalado* University of the Philippines - Mindanao Mintal, Tugbok District, 6000 Davao City, Philippines, daorendain@up.edu.ph
Abstract Architecture has been a strong indicator of the cultural identity within a region. During the American Colonial period, migrants from Cebu brought with them a hybrid of American Colonial building traditions to Glan – the tsalet. The design and typology of these houses are said to have influenced the locality hence the proliferation of Post-War ancestral houses in the area. The historical value of a structure is an essential factor that can influence the nature and characteristics of other structures in the vicinity. This research aims to determine the evolution of the ancestral houses vis-a-vis vernacular houses.
Figure 1: Existing post-war ancestral house and architectural details.
The study showed a commonality in the type and form of the architectural elements between the Ancestral Houses and the Common Domestic Houses. The persistence of architectural elements is measured through the percentage of frequency distribution in ancestral and vernacular houses. Most common elements in both houses are said to have persisted over the years. This study also provides invaluable information and data for the enrichment of the cultural and historical wealth of Glan and can be utilized further in developing Heritage Conservation Policies and Design Guidelines for Sarangani Province.
1
Introduction
Architecture has always been a strong indicator of a region’s identity. Throughout humanity’s history, buildings were not only constructed for the sole purpose of providing shelter but also reflected – whether intentional or phenomenological – the practices, religion and beliefs, technological prowess, and of course, the political order of a group of people. S.ARCH-2017 103.1
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With the Philippines having a rich and culturally-diverse history, delving deep into cultural and heritage architecture would contribute to the better understanding of what defines or constitutes ‘Philippine Architecture.” Understanding the cultural and heritage architecture in the country is often concentrated within the Luzon and Visayas regions with little and seldom updated or popularized information on Mindanao Cultural and Heritage Architecture. Additionally, books discussing Mindanao Architecture seldom includes Colonial and Ancestral Houses and usually tries to encapsulate the region’s identity within the confines Indigenous Vernacular Houses e.g. Maranao Torogan’s okir and the Sama Badjao’s houses-on-stilts which is seen by some as offensive to the rich cultural building traditions of the Mindanao.
Figure 2: The Sama Badjao house-on-stilts (left) and the “panolong” with “okir” motifs of the Maranao torogan (right).
Although Spanish and American colonization in Mindanao is not as deep-rooted in compared to Luzon and Visayas, there are cities in Mindanao that boast Ancestral Houses which through time, developed their own unique identity as the “indigenous” styles/motifs and building traditions were incorporated or adapted within and into the “imported” forms. Unfortunately, there is little to no regard for the Architectural, Cultural, and Historical Significance of these structures. In the study area alone, a huge percentage of the houses documented are in a state of disrepair – most of them abandoned and close to ruin. The local government themselves – pursuing economic growth and development – often disregard these culturally-rich aspects of their cities and consequently, jeopardize their existence without any proper documentation and eventual preservation. This study provides additional information on the Ancestral Houses, specifically of Glan, to contribute to the growing interest in preserving these structures. The American Colonial Ancestral Houses in the municipality is quite unique because it is situated in the southernmost part of Mindanao which historically was not heavily influenced by Spanish or American Colonial Building Styles. Most of Spanish and American Colonial Structures are located in the northern regions of Mindanao like Zamboanga City and the Surigao Region. Furthermore, these Ancestral Houses are visually analysed vis-a-vis the Common Domestic house to establish a possibility that the former were crucial in influencing the building form and design in the region.
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1.1 Evolution of Colonial Domestic Architecture in the Philippines Before delving into the Ancestral Houses of Glan, it would be beneficial to briefly dicuss the evolution of the Philippine Domestic House. It may be traced back to prehistoric times – from the Tabon Cave Complex in Palawan, to lean-to shelters of nomadic tribes (with the discovery of lashing and rope-making), to arborial houses (as a natural defensive solution), to the famous Bahay-Kubo – this form evolved due to the climactic conditions and geographical bearing striking similarities with indigenous thatch houses in the Tropical Region. The domestic house form of the Philippines then drastically changed with the Spanish colonization. The Spanish conquistadors initially built their homes like the locals, but the purely-wooden houses often fell prey to fire and decay. Thus their next solution was to construct stone houses which yet again proved to be a misstep as it is extremely vulnerable to earthquakes as recorded in 1645 and 1658. Arquitectura Mestiza – an amalgamation of the two earlier Figure 3: A partially-restored bahay-na-bato in Samboan, Cebu. Notice the coral stone walls of the ground floor and forms – emerged as the best heavily wooden structure of the upper level. The GI sheet solution to the unique conditions roofing came later as it became a cheaper alternative to clay of the country. It features a ground roof tiles. floor (used generally for storage) made of stone walls and a second floor (the living spaces) entirely out of wood. The building construction techniques the Spaniards brought were used to “modernize” the building form and space typology of the “bahay-kubo”. This form is further divided according to Fernando Zialcita into the geometric and the floral style. This type of Colonial Architecture is quite evident in Luzon and especially in Cebu being the first island to be converted to Christianity. Spanish Colonial houses in Mindanao, on the other hand, are more minimalistic in terms of design due to local Islamic motifs and building traditions. After the Spaniards, Americans who incorporated the concept of “sanitation” into the house form gave birth to a new type of domestic architecture – the tsalet. This form was further subdivided into two with the sanitary urban house (a quick solution to the growing barrios) and finally evolving into the ideal sanitary house after fire-proofing and modular construction was introduced. This type of Colonial house is also evident in Luzon and in Visayas. As shown in Figure 3 on the next page, the American Colonial house borrowed numerous architectural elements and detailing from the Spanish Colonial houses which in turn was also a derivation of the bahay-kubo. This building form is now more closely-related to the term “Ancestral House” as most bahay-na-bato houses did not survive the war. These were eventually replaced by the modern tsalet. The emergence of middle-class families during the American Colonial period paved way for the proliferation of this building type as these families tried to emulate/copy the “grandeur” of West. Again, this building form is S.ARCH-2017 103.3
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quite uncommon to Mindanao as historically, the region had a very tumultuous relationship with the American colonizers hence the lack of American influences. What then paved the way for this American tsalet form to exist in Glan?
1.2 A Brief History of Glan To further understand how this building style emerged in Glan, Sarangani province, it is important to look into the political history of the region. Originally, this region was inhabited by native highlanders particularly B’laans, Manobo, Tagacaolos, and Tagabelles while the coastal parts were occupied by the Sangil group. The Sarangani shore prehistorically, was also a trading port for Chinese and Arab traders. By the 14th century, Muslim missionaries arrived and introduced Islam converting most of the Sangils (Figure 4). In the Hispanic period, the fourth expedition to the Philippines sent by the King of Spain which led by Ruy Lopez de Villalobos had reached Mindanao particularly sailed towards Sarangani Bay. “It reached the island on February 2, 1543 and named the place Mindanao: Caesaerea Caroli in honor of King Charles I. By sailing along Sarangani Bay, in search of provisions, Villalobos fortuitously baptized the whole archipelago: Islas Filipinas: Philippine Islands, in honor of Prince Philip of Austrias who became King Philip II.” -Fr. Josemaria S. Luengo, PhD Figure 4: Location map of Glan. Notice its distance from the “center” of colonial rule which were Manila and Cebu.
There are historians though that posits Mindanao as the first landing site of Magellan. Ironically, Mindanao never became a stronghold of the Spanish Colony as the Muslims and other indigenous tribes were fiercely protective of the region thus making colonization harder. With this, it is of course not surprising that there are only pockets of Spanish Colonial building heritage in Mindanao. During the American Colonial Period, the Colonization Law of the Speaker of the House of Representatives Don Sergio Osmeña Sr. led to numerous migrations of Luzon and Visayas settlers to Mindanao. Most of the cultural conflict to this day is a result of this sudden and other historians would say, ill-planned migration. Sixteen Christian families from Visayas settled in the southern parts of Mindanao such as Agricultural Colony No. 9 which is now Glan, Sarangani Province. Governor General Francis Burton Harris then appointed Don Tranquilino Ruiz of Cebu as the Superintendent of this colony. This migration marked the birth of the town in October 18, 1914. Most of the colonos (as they were later called) tilled the land for corn and coconut. A second wave arrived in March 10 the next year. This sudden appearance of the colonos pushed the native highlanders higher up into the mountains and the coastal tribes further away from the center of Glan. S.ARCH-2017 103.4
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Figure 5: An example of one of the ancestral houses in Glan.
The colonos did not only bring with them their families and livelihood; most of them brought the building traditions of Cebu (Figure 5). Some of them even carried disassembled building parts and furniture and later were used in their new homes. Artisans and carpenters from Cebu were also employed by the richer families to build what is now considered as Glan’s Ancestral Houses. Currently, Glan is recorded as the largest town in Sarangani Province. Geographically, it is bounded on the north by the Municipality of Malapatan, on east by Davao del Sur, on south by Sarangani Bay and on the west by South China Sea. Its terrain is characterized by flatlands, rolling hills and mountains and most land areas have been converted to agriculture and fishponds. According to the NSO Population Census, it has reached 83, 051 populations as of May 1, 2000. Glan can be accessed with a 45-minute drive from General Santos City airport.
1.3 Defining Ancestral and Common Domestic Houses What is then the difference between an Ancestral House and the typical and common domestic dwelling? In the country, the National Historical Commission of the Philippines (NHCP) is the governing body which declares houses as heritage structures. This assertion is founded on the basis of architectural features and supplementary criteria. Ancestral houses are determined by the number of years of their age as well as to how many generations of the family have owned and preserved it. Another indicator of ancestral houses is their significant role in the area’s cultural, architectural and historical identity. It will establish concrete evidence of the colonial and historical past of the Philippines. The tropical imagery of the country is depicted by the ancestral houses through incorporation of natural resources in to the structure such as ventilation through openings, indigenous materials like nipa, cogon, and hardwood. Thus, ancestral houses relatively represent the culture and environmental conditions of an area.
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For the purpose of this study and as based on the list provided by the Glan Tourism office (Annex A); a. the Ancestral Houses are estimated to be as old as 50 years and more, b. were constructed by the colonos and their families and, c. were passed down to the succeeding generations. The common domestic houses were identified through the records in the Municipal Registry of Deeds which were ideally constructed at the same decade as that of the Ancestral House built by the “lesser” families – basically those not identified by the local government.
2
Methods Employed 2.1 Purpose of the Study and Objectives
Primarily, this study provides a rich database of American Colonial Building Traditions which will aid the local government of Glan. Currently, the LGU are aiming to transform the town into a Heritage Center to further amplify their tourism potential. Although Sarangani Province is known for its beaches, the addition of a Heritage Town allows the LGU access to better funding from the government and probable increase in tourist influx (oftentimes foreigners) preferring this type of tourism. Secondly, this study aims to show evidence that the Ancestral Houses brought by the colonos influenced the building traditions of the locals. This study further reinforces the theory that the architecture of the dominant group – in this case the economically-dominant colonos – can and will influence the lesser group (the families working for them). In order to do this, the common design/type of the different categories of architectural elements for the Ancestral Houses was determined. The same sets of information were gathered for the Common Domestic Houses. These common elements were then compared to determine any similarity or discrepancy between the types of architectural elements. Unique types were also highlighted to show the influences of the local indigenous cultures in the region. A side-to-side comparison with a tsalet located in Cebu (known for its Heritage Architecture) to an Ancestral House in Glan further solidifies the claim that these houses has a significant role in the Cultural, Architectural, and Historical identity of the Mindanao and consequently the country.
Figure 6: The American tsalet in Carcar, Cebu and an ancestral house in Sibonga (left and center) as compared to the Ancestral House in Glan (right). [Photos by the researchers]
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2.2 Visual Analysis A pioneering study on the documentation of the Ancestral Houses was conducted by Joanna Eve Alexandra Ramos which was used as one of the references to verify the data collected in this study. She was able to preliminarily investigate and document all of the 59 Ancestral Houses listed by the Tourism Office. In a research paper by S. Buyukkilic, M. Hamamcioglu-Turan and F.N. Kul in Izmir Turkey, “Documentation of the Architectural Characteristics of a Historical House�, architectural characteristics of a 19th century Izmir House were documented for heritagevalue identification through visual analysis including photo documentation, sketching and mapping of historical places. Different architectural elements were identified and subcategorized into different types and variations according to their aesthetic characteristics. These elements were tabulated with their associated symbols and photograph. In the analysis, the evaluated architectural characteristics were compared to similar houses in Izmir presented in literature and archives. It also evaluated the originality of the architectural elements and spaces through the years by comparison. Through visual analysis involving tabular comparison of spatial and architectural elements supported by symbols and photographs, it was found out that these elements were sustained, thus conservation is encouraged. Table 1 Subcategorized Architectural Elements
The table from the above became the model for the researchers to develop a similar visual analysis table.1 To determine the ideal architectural elements to be used by category, the Philippine Ancestral Houses by Zialta and Tinio,Jr. was used as the major reference as well as other Philippine Architecture History books to verify the catergorizations. As observed by Mulrenin and Geser (2001) there is a demand for cultural institutions to integrate knowledge for preservation of heritage wherein digital management play a great role in this line. According to the National Initiative for a Network Cultural Heritage (NINCH) in 2002, preservation of culture will be efficient if it involves digitization method. To document each house, the researchers also developed a tool to visually collect the information necessary for ease of collation 2. On-site visits were conducted and numerous 1 2
Refer to Annex B: Architectural Elements Categorization Refer to Annex C: Sample House Documentation S.ARCH-2017 103.7
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photographs were taken. Interviews with the owners and caretakers were also conducted to provide additional information especially on unique characteristics of the Ancestral Houses. To further illustrate the flow of the documentation and subsequent analysis, please refer to the flowchart shown below. Table 2 Process Flow of the Study 1. IDENTIFICATION OF HOUSES 3 Ancestral Houses: List from Tourism Office
Common Domestic Houses: Registry of Deeds
2. DOCUMENTATION OF THE HOUSES
3. TABULATION OF EACH HOUSE PER CATEGORY OF ARCH. ELEMENT Roof Columns Calados Awnings
Ceiling Doors Transom Windows
Wall Floors Ventanilla Balusters
4. SYNTHESIS OF THE ARCH. ELEMENTS (VISUAL ANALYSIS PER HOUSE TYPE) 4 Finding the commonality per category.
5. VISUAL COMPARISON OF THE ANCESTRAL AND COMMON DOMESTIC HOUSE TYPES Compare and Contrast of the architectural elements between the two house types.
Figure 7: Clockwise from the top - Late Vice Mayor Augusto Alegado Ancestral House, Jose Hombrebueno Ancestral House, Clemente Lapaz Ancestral House, and Late Mayor Emilio Alegado Ancestral House (Photos by Franco) 3 It is good to note that not all of the houses agreed to being documented especially with the Ancestral Houses. Some houses were empty during the data collection. 4 Refer to Annex D: Visual Analysis Table of the Arch. Elements
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Of the 59 Ancestral Houses (Figure 7) in their municipality the Tourism Office of Glan identified, only 35 (59%) of these houses were documented. The other weren’t documented because the houses were either closed or the owners refused entry for personal reasons. Some houses could not be accessed because the owners themselves stated that the house is in a state of disrepair making documentation difficult and dangerous. For the common domestic houses, 55 houses were documented. The owner’s name, location, and the estimated year of construction were also determined. The image below shows sample images of the Ancestral Houses and Common Domestic Houses (Figure 8).
Figure 7: Clockwise from the top - Alfredo Barcelona House, Daniel Lara House, Hilario Lee, Sr. House, , Augustin Watin House (Photos by Franco)
3
Results and Discussion
The table below shows the top common types/designs per category of architectural element. The last column briefly discusses the results.
WINDOW
Cat.
Ancestral House (AH)
Table 2: Results and Discussion
Common Domestic Houses (CDH)
Discussion
WDO 1 Sliding Capiz Panes (20.63%)
WDO 3 Persiana Style (29.90%)
WDO 3 Persiana Style (19.05%)
Glass jalousie (16.49%)
The Persiana, Capiz, and Frosted Glass Panes are common in both types. IN the common domestic, the glass jalousie came second. It can be said that it cheap cost makes it the go to style for the CDH
WDO 9 Frosted Glass Panes (15.87%)
WDO 9 Frosted Glass Panes (15.87%)
WALL
CEILING
ROOF
WDO 1 Sliding Capiz Panes (10.31%) R 6 Upturned Hip Roof (70.59%)
R 5 Gable Roof (61.82%)
R 5 Gable Roof (20.59%)
R 6 Upturned Hip Roof (18.18%)
C 2 Grid Style Ceiling (41.03%)
Plain ceiling (33.33%)
The gable roof came on top for the CDH as its construction is cheaper.
C 2 Grid Style Ceiling (23.61%) C 1 Ribbed Ceiling (30.56%) Exposed Roof Structure (27.78%)
Notice the large percentages esp. for the CDH. This is due to the fact that most houses employed different styles compared to AH.
Plain ceiling (13.89%)
W 4 Panel of Wood Planks (30.88%)
Concrete Wall (32.52%)
Concrete Wall (30.88%)
W 4 Panel of Wood Planks (28.46%)
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BARANDILLAS
TRANSOM WINDOW
CALADOS
DOOR
Proceeding of the 4th International Conference S.ARCH-2017 07-09 June 2017, Hong Kong W 3 Plaster-coated Wood Planks (30.88%)
W 6 Exposed Structural Parts (17.89%)
W 6 Exposed Structural Parts (10.29%)
W 3 Plaster-coated Wood Planks (30.88%)
D 1 Plain Double-Leaf Wooden Door (50%)
Plain Single-Leaf Wooden Door (52.24%)
Plain Single-Leaf Wooden Door (37.5%)
D 1 Plain Double-Leaf Wooden Door (50%)
Geometric Forms and Patterns (53.33%)
Geometric Forms and Patterns (58.33%)
Cal 6 Wooden Lacework (26.92%)
Cal 6 Wooden Lacework (33.33%)
Tr 5 Geometric Forms (21.82%)
Tr 7 Frosted Glass (20.00%)
Tr 7 Frosted Glass (20.00%)
Tr 4 Square and Diamond-Shaped Capiz (21.05%)
Tr 9 Persiana Style (18.18%)
Plain Panel Transom (19.30%)
Plain Panel Transom (18.18%)
Tr 9 Persiana Style (17.54%)
Geometric patterns (35.71%)
Geometric patterns (54.24%)
Br 2 Turned Wooden Balusters (23.81%)
No barandillas (22.03%)
No barandillas (21.43%)
Br 2 Turned Wooden Balusters (11.86%)
flood that destroyed most of the wooded walls hence the owners decided to rebuild it with concrete.
These are the two most common designs on all of the houses documented. The geometric patterns may be attributed to the geometric motifs of the indigenous tribes in Mindanao
Not included in the table is the preferred column type; Simple column of square section (pillar) with 79.41% for the AH and 88% for the CDH. One would expect dressed log as the most common even for the AH but the owners had to be practical and as previously mentioned, a major flood prompted the owners to used “sturdier” materials esp. for the structural elements. Most of the ground floors have also been renovated because of this. The category for the floor was also not included in the table; F 2 (slatted floor slabs) came out on top on both types with 78.05% for the AH and 65.85% for the CDH. For the awnings, lacework patterns are common in the AH but only 6 of the 35 houses exhibited this architectural element. This is divergent from the AH in Cebu and Luzon as most of them are known for their lacework pattern soffits on the awnings. Another peculiar thing to note about the AH and CDH especially in the patterns is that it incorporated the T’nalak Patterns of the T’boli which of course could not be found in the AH of Cebu. It is good to note that compared to the lacework patterns common in Luzon or Cebu Ancestral Houses, geometric patterns (See Table 3 on next page) are a go-to designs for the AH here in Glan. Perhaps the strong aesthetic influences of the indigenous tribes played a role on this. The ease in construction may also be a factor. One “anomaly” in the architectural elements is the lack of the use of the ventanillas in the CDH. The patterned design ventanillas are the most common the AH with 53.85% of the AH documented whereas only two of the CDH exhibited this architectural element. It is also good to note out of the 35 AH documented, less than half exhibited this architectural feature. There reason for the absence of this element should be determined in future studies of the houses. After determining the common elements of the two types, it can be said that the AH has a huge probability of influencing the building form and styles of the CDH. Notice that in S.ARCH-2017 103.10
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most of the architectural elements discussed, most of the top styles are common in both house types. To further develop and synthesize commonality between the two house types, the table on the next page summarize the common elements on all the houses. Table 4 Summary of the Common Architectural Elements ELEMENT DESCRIPTION
PHOTO REFERENCE
ELEMENT DESCRIPTION
PHOTO REFERENCE
ELEMENT DESCRIPTION
Roof Up-turned hip roof
Floor Slatted floor slab
Transom Geometric patterns
Roof Gable roof
Door Plain double-leaf wooden door
Ventanillas Patterned designs
Ceiling Grid-style ceiling
Window Sliding window with capiz panes panel
Barandillas Geometric pattern on barandillas
Wall Panel of wood planks
Window Persiana style
Awning Lace-like cut work as protective shade
Wall Concrete
Calados Geometric forms and patterns on calados
Column square section
Transom Geometric patterns
PHOTO REFERENCE
The table above is particularly important especially for the Glan in crafting a set of design guidelines for future development and planning of their Heritage Town. If the LGU commits to promoting Heritage Tourism, this database can provide a prototype for designers to follow so that the structures in the municipality will share common elements. Like any Heritage Town in the country, it is crucial that new development and surrounding structures will try to emulate or blend in with the heritage structures in the area. This is evident in Vigan and in Bataan. This summary provides a logical and wellresearched guide rather than a random application of design elements. Since these designs/forms are persistent in most of the houses, it can be said that this may be the aesthetic inclination of the region. During the documentation, the time was also included to aid further studies that will incorporate time in the analysis of the structures. There is also a need to conduct more detailed documentation studies that will include documentation of the construction methods, assembly methods, materials, evolution of the form and design, and the like. It would also be beneficial to digitize the plans, elevations and detailing of the AH to further preserve the data for further studies. If the LGU of Glan is serious in its thrusts to promote S.ARCH-2017 103.11
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these structures, the current conditions should also be determined to further develop a Conversation Policy for the houses and determine which of these houses need immediate restoration. This study is just one of the proofs of the cultural and historical significance in the architecture context of these structures which in turn will aid the LGU in presenting evidences for these structures to officially be declared as HERITAGE STRUCTURES. Recommendation for further continuation to validate the study to provide baseline information in the historical identity of Glan, Sarangani Province should be conducted.The political, social, and aesthetic significance of these structures are also good areas to delve into. The relationship of the AH of Glan and the AH of Cebu – especially the areas the colonos were originally from – should also be studied as it further strengthens the cultural and historical significance of the AH of Glan. The local residents should also become participants in another study to determine the social effects/influences/significance of the AH – to determine whether the locals are socially-aware and inherently proud of their historical and cultural identity. Additionally, an over-arching study should compare and contrast the historical and cultural building traditions of all the Agricultural Colonies in Mindanao.
Acknowledgements The researchers are deeply indebted to the owners of the houses for allowing access to their private homes. It is indeed by their generosity that this study came into fruition. It is also important to mention the wisdom they shared during casual interviews. The local government of Glan, especially the Tourism Office, greatly assisted the researchers in providing key information on the Ancestral Houses. Without their help, identifying these houses would have been more challenging. The Registry of Deeds also aided the research and for that, the team is thankful. Additionally, the researchers would like to thank those individuals who offered advice, necessary critique, and the like to help streamline this study. Credit is also due to Ms. Ramos for providing an extensive visual reference on the Ancestral Houses of Glan. Without her pioneering study that aimed to document all of the houses, this study would not come into fruition. The team would also like to thank the authors who we used as invaluable reference in crafting and building the core of this study. Finally, the main author would like to thank his co-authors for their significant contributions to this study.
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References [1]
Antonio, S. Lean, Interpretations from Philippine Vernacular Architecture, N.D. http://leanurbanism.org/wpcontent/uploads/2014/06/Antonio_PhilippineArchitecture .pdf
[2]
Awadh, G.O, “Tourism and Heritage Conservation: 21st Century Challenge” Case: Zanzibar Stone Town. N.D. From http://www.bk.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/Faculteit/BK/Actueel/Symposia_en_congressen/Af rican_Perpectives/Programme/Built_Heritage/doc/APD_wp_5_awadh_paper.pdf
[3]
Buyukkilic, S., Hamamcıoglu-Turan, M. Kul, F. N. Documentation of the Architectural Characteristics of a Historical House, http://cipa.icomos.org/fileadmin/template/doc/PRAGUE/031.pdf
[4]
Glassie, H. (1990). Architects, Vernacular Traditions, and Society TDSR vol. no.1.
[5]
de Jesus, E., Diamante-Fabunan, D., Nañola, C., White, A., Cabangon, H. (2001) Coastal Environmental Profile of the Sarangani Bay Area, Mindanao, Philippines. Cebu City, Philippines. Coastal Resource Management Project.
[6]
Lico, G. Arkitekturang Filipino: A History of Architecture and Urbanism in the Philippines. University of the Philippines Press 2008.
[7]
Mata, R., Heritage Conservation: Applying Scientific Method in Architecture-The Lingayen Capitol Building (1918). MUHON: A Journal of Architecture, Landscape Architecture and the Designed Environment, issue no.3. From http://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/muhon/article/view/1317/1286
[8]
Mata, R., STREET(E)SCAPE: A Site-Specific and Contextual Approach in Documentation, Design Interventions, Cultural Mapping and Conservation of Sta. Catalina, Carcar, Cebu. MUHON: A Journal of Architecture, Landscape Architecture and the Designed Envi ronment, issue no.4. From http://upca.upd.edu.ph/uploads/1/8/5/4/18549486/08_street_e_scape.pdf
[9]
Ramos, Janine Eve Alexandra, DocumentationVisual Analysis of the Ancestral Houses in Glan, Sarangani Province, BSA Undergraduate Thesis AY 2014-2015
S.ARCH-2017 103.13
CHINESE URBAN-RURAL CONTINUUM AS FRAMEWORK FOR THE GREEN CITY OF THE FUTURE IN EAST PEARL RIVER DELTA Maurizio MERIGGI Politecnico di Milano – Dep. of Architecture, Built environment and Construction engineering Via Ponzio, 31, 20133, Milano Italia – maurizio.meriggi@polimi.it
Abstract The issues here presented have been produced following a research program outlined by the School of Civil Architecture, Politecnico di Milano, and the Huizhou Municipality Technical Bureau, in the framework of a Cooperation Agreement signed in 2008 and still ongoing between the Italian Government and the Guangdong Province of the People’s Republic of China. The research focuses on problems of conservation and enhancement of Hakka architectural heritage, considered as a key feature of the landscapes concerned in the Huiyang area - District of the Huizhou Municipality, Guangdong Province. Shaped as monumental fortified villages, Hakka rural settlement are a distinguished feature of the Pearl River Delta. This aspect emerges by considering the historical evolution of the network of marketing community and towns of this part of China as described by G. William Skinner in his famous writings on Marketing and Social structure in Rural China. By following the “Christaller model” used by Skinner, we can recognize in Huizhou Prefecture a network of Hakka villages based on the historical network of marketing communities. Here several historical market towns (that later became commune headquarters) are still playing the role of secondary hub in the network of settlements comprised between the most important market city of the area that today are Huizhou, Huiyang and Huidong. Each of these poles is then surrounded quite homogeneously in all directions by a lower level of market towns composed by groups of “weilong type” fortified villages of Hakka families. In our consulting activity for the Huizhou Municipality we proposed a strategy of development of the city of Huiyang based on the integration in the frame of its Official Masterplan of rural “landscape units” containing groups of “weilong type” fortified villages. These “landscape units” should still maintain an appreciable ratio of agricultural land to form part of the “green structure of the future”. In this way, we identify a strategy of development that at a regional scale could provide new opportunities of urban growth alternative to undifferentiated sprawl. This approach could be expressed with the slogan “rebuilding from the countryside within the city of the future” as opposed to “undifferentiated growth of the city at the expense of the countryside. We present in our paper the cases of the two minor market town of Xiang Ling and Weibu in the surroundings of Huiyang. Keywords: Chinese rural-urban continuum, contemporary planning strategies Topic: 1. Planning, 2. Building types, 3. Sustainable landscape design.
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1 State of conservation of Hakka architectural Heritage in East PRD. As soon as we move out of the urban fabric of Shenzhen east district of Longgang we can appreciate how the rural landscape is dominated by the presence of a specific architectural type named weilong. This is an horizontal fortified village enclosed into a continuous wall with towers at the corners, one or three door on the main faรงade in front of which we find a water pond of half circular shape. These are the traditional residences of the Hakka, an Han sub ethnic group, that until the reforms of the 80ies, before the fast urbanisation process of the area, was one of the main ethnic group of the local population. Their presence in the area last several centuries with a progressive increase in XVI century due to immigration weaves from Meizhou county that lasted until XVIII century. Notwithstanding the fast urban development of 80ies we can still find some of such ensembles hidden in between the densely built up blocks of all the cities of the East Pearl River Delta, as Hong Kong and Shenzhen and in the countryside territory of Huizhou (Fig. 1). The problems of Conservations of the hundreds of weilong in the countryside are several. We list in the next paragraph a state of the art based on the surveying of our research group concerning two different levels: the conservation state of each single building; the conservation risks due to the Planning tools and fast urbanisation processes of the units building/rural landscape.
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Figure 1: Samples of Hakka “weilong� landscape units in Pearl River Delta: A. Sha Tin (Hong Kong), Plan and views of Tsang Tai Uk residence (1848); B. Kengzi (Shenzhen), Plans and views of Longtian residence (1837) and Xinqiao residence (1753); C. Zhoutian village (Huiyang, Huizhou), Plans of Lao Wei residence (1655) and Hui Xin Lou (1936), views of Lao Wei residence, Gong Xiu Liu residence (1850), Bi Yan Lou residence (1883) and Hui Xin Lou residence; D. Tie Men Shan village (Huiyang, Huizhou), Plans of Shi Go Wu residence (1662) and Guilin Xin Ju (1745), views of Huang Zhu Li residence (1690), Shi Go Wu, Nan Yang Shi Ju (1695) and Guilin Xin Ju.
1.1 Buildings Conservation State.
a) Abandoning: almost all the weilongs are not inhabited anymore by the original Hakka villagers who moved in the great cities of the PRD; lack of human stable presence provokes deficency of ordinary maintenance of the roofs that protect the rammed-earth buildings; in such conditions the walls of buildings that lasted some centuries are reduced in mounds of earth in few years. b) Unappropriated maintenance interventions: when still inhabited – a very rare case - the weilong residential units are often repaired by using unappropriated materials - as ceramic tiles, or concrete, or metal that are incoherent with the rammed-heart structure of the building, the wooden finishing of frames, windows and doors - provoking other kind of wastes. c) Partial restoration: in some cases the core of the village, that is the ancestral hall and a sequence of sky well alternated to minor halls, is quite accurately restored since it is still used by the members of the family clan for ritual meetings. d) Protection status: an insignificant ratio of the weilongs belongs to the list of protected buildings at national level, few are in the provincial list, a certain number are in the municipal heritage list, many are not included in any protection list. c) Surrounding agricultural land condition: in several cases the agricultural land is still accurately cultivated by non-local farmers who live in temporary huts in the fields; in some other cases the land had been rent by the villagers to industrial companies that built up in the rural fields factories and dormitories for the employed personnel; in some other cases the original Hakka population built nearby the weilong new 3-4 stories high single or more families houses.
1.2. Landscapes conservation risks depending on Urban Development processes
a) Extensive and intensive occupation of the soil by the Official Masterplan. Weilong units that by the Masterplan are located in industrial or mixed residential/commercial areas are totally surrounded by factories, residential and commercial buildings with high density (Fig. 2_Shenzhen and Huiyang cases, 2). Only a minor part of the rural areas with weilongs and other forms of villages are by the Masterplan bound to maintain their landscape feature as agricultural park (Fig. 2_Huiyang cases, 1; Fig. 1, C -Zhoutian village). b) Indifference to the landscape morphology: in general the road network of the blocks of the planned new industrial, residential or commercial, and even areas of public facilities (as urban green), overlaps on the hilly morphology of this area with a rectangular modules grid supposing a totally flat land (Figure 2_Shenzhen cases, Huiyang cases, samples 3-6). c) Indifference to architectural and landscape heritage: quite often the planned blocks and road network, following an orthogonal scheme, cut the weilongs in pieces as if they would not be there and the hilly landscape would be flat (Fig. 2_Huiyang cases, samples 4-6).
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d) Banality of the new housing models: when the weilongs are included in an rectangular block of the planning grid, it is not suggested by the Master Plan any particular care concerning building morphology - as for instance limitation of height of the new buildings, typological specifications, orientations adequate to the one of the weilongs inside the block (Fig. 2_Shenzhen cases).
1.3 Solutions of conservation from the common practise.
Considering cases in which urban development had already occurred – as in Shenzhen districts of Longgang and in Hong Kong New territories – and those where the process is ongoing – as in Huizhou-Huiyang - we could observe as follows: a) In Hong Kong New Territories many Hakka weilons and other forms of fortified villages are still inhabited in a way more or less similar to the European way to inhabit in historical centres, i.e. maintaining the original morphology (even if here the modifications of the historical buildings are less controlled than in European countries). Isolated weilongs are usually surrounded by green areas – as for instance in Tsung Tai Uk residence in Sha Tin district (Fig. 1, A); some of them are used as small historical museums of the site and of the local community; in general their spaces are part of the cultural facilities of the new city (Fig. 2_Hong Kong cases). Fortified villages survived in many of the New Towns of the New Territories, becoming a part of it; even if surrounded by new housing these are, at least, still visually linked with the agricultural surroundings (as for instance in the New Town of Fang Ling). b) In Shenzhen Longgang district the most important weilongs survived to the demolition provoked by fast urban development being transformed in museums of the Hakka culture – as for instance in Longang Hehu Xin Ju residence, Pingshan Pinghuan residence, Kengzi Longtian residence (Fig. 2_Shenzhen cases, 1,3,4). Some other are in precarious conditions and inhabited by immigrants (Fig. 2_Shenzhen cases, 2,5). In almost all Shenzhen cases the weilongs are surrounded in all directions by the a dense urban fabric of houses, small shops and stores. c) In Huiyang almost the weilongs are partially restored, and partially inhabited and the building/rural landscape units are still almost untouched. Masterplan 2020 seems to forecast a complete occupation of rural landscape and the demolition of several weilongs (Fig. 2_Huizhou cases, 3-6).
Figure 2: Conservation state and Planning forecast of Hakka weilongs in Hong Kong, Shenzhen and Huizhou. The colours of symbols are those commonly used in Chinese official planning. S.ARCH-2017 104.4
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2 Chinese urban-rural continuum as a structure for new planning layout Considering the great number of Hakka weilong still existing in Huiyang county and also in the near county of Huidong of the same Huizhou prefecture, the up mentioned solutions of conservation are not easily practicable for the following simple reasons: a) it is not possible to make a museum in any of the hundreds weilongs of Huiyang and Huidong as happened in few selected cases in Shenzhen and Hong Kong; b) it is not possible to restore them all without a plan that foresees how to reuse and integrate them in the new city for contemporary needs; c) considering then the particular kind of this heritage - as units composed by a building and his surrounding agricultural land, accurately integrated with the weilong following fengshui rules – the conservation of the building in an alien and densely built up context, where at least is provided sometimes a buffer of 10-20 metres of protection area, results ineffective because it can be applied only to few selected special cases; d) on stake it is not just an handful of historical buildings but a whole landscape – cultural, historical, physical. Indeed the weilongs and their fengshui ruled rural landscapes are what remains of architectural heritage of Chinese traditional urban-rural continuum in this area – an area where cities had lost in recent years the great part of their historical building heritage. On the base of the up mentioned issues we arrived to the conclusion that any intervention of conservation of the single weilong should concern both the scale of the detailed project of architectural restoration and the scale of urban planning. It should be found a use also for the respect area that cannot be shaped as the residual space of urban development neither as just an offset boundary following the shape of the building without any usage; on the contrary these areas should be integrated in the life of the new city. By assuming this approach we are proposing to design a form of settlement able to combine new urban fabric and pieces of countryside including the historical heritage of Hakka settlement (see paragraph 3). To achieve this goal we retained necessary to understand the structure of the historical settlement of the countryside before the reforms of the 80ies with the aim to check the possibility to use this historical structure to outline the form of new city development. We give in the following paragraph what we learned from the literature on this specific subject.
2.1. Rural marketing and Chinese urban-rural continuum territorial model.
Scholars had since long time argued about the structure of the Chinese traditional settlement. Of the various interpretations and models we assumed the definition proposed by G. William Skinner of Chinese settlement as a “urban-rural continuum” based on a spatial model of distribution of marketing communities in the territory (Skinner, 1977). Indeed, by using his data and his interpretation of Walter Christaller spatial model of the hexagonal grid constructed on “central places” of various marketing hierarchical level, we could recognise the original structure of Hakka rural settlement in Huizhou area before the modifications impressed on the territory of East PRD with the institution of Shenzhen Special Economic Zone and the fast developing processes occurred in surrounding districts as Huiyang. S.ARCH-2017 104.5
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We just remind here the main terms of the hexagonal tales model (Fig. 3): a) it is supposed that to form a marketing community is necessary a certain number of buyers located in a catchment area (standard marketing area) where the most disadvantaged buyer cannot reside longer than a certain distance on foot (nearly 4 km.); b) market places are distributed in the territory following a hierarchy whose top is the “central market town” and in a descending order the “intermediate market town”, the “standard market town”, the “minor market”.
Figure 3: Marketing “central places” spatial theoretical model (after Skinner, 1964; graphic elaboration by the author).
2.2. Spatial Guangdong.
models, Hakka building types and settlement forms in East
On the base of these features Skinner’s works (Skinner, 1965) illustrate several variable models of increasing complexity depending on geographical conditions, population density, distribution, quantity and types of settlements. These variable models are associated to density of population, number of villages/market places referring to Guangdong geographical regions. We shortly illustrate here the relationship between variable settlement patterns of spatial models of marketing central places and Hakka building types (Fig. 4). We assumed that a certain kind of spatial model can be associated to distinguished settlement morphology that are characterized by prevailing buildings type. In Figure 4 (map) we associate the East regions enlisted by Skinner (Skinner, 1965) to “cultural areas” of prevailing building types of Hakka culture (Shenzhen Museum of Cultural Relics, 2001; Qingzhou, 2008): orange area – “tulou” type; yellow area – “castle type”; blue area – “weilong” type; green area – “fortified mixed” types. In this ordering we could observe the following phenomena: “tulou” and “castle” types characterise settlements in mountain areas with low density population and enucleated villages (North East Hakka and Fujian, North Hakka and Jiangxi, Fig. 4, group A); “weilong” type (not fortified) characterise the settlements of the hilly and plain areas of Mei River basin where villages are homogenously distributed settlements (North East Hakka, Fig. 4, group B); “fortified mixed” types characterise settlements in Huizhou and Hong Kong areas (Fig. 4, group C, Fig. 5), where city network is more dense and articulated and population is more dense. We just remind that this complexity is historically given by the overlapping of Hakka ethnical group settlements on indigenous population settlements during the Hakka emigration of XVI-XIX centuries from Mei River basin (Leong, 1998). Concerning morphological models of Hakka villages schematically enlisted in Figure 4 we could recognise at least 3 different type present in all groups: S.ARCH-2017 104.6
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a) isolated castle model, characterised by high density. Village is indeed collected in one big building with residential units grouped in several floors. When a village/building is saturated a new one is built close to the former (Figure 4, group A, 1,2). We could find this settlement form in mountain areas in narrow valleys. A sample of this model can also be found in Tsang Tai Uk (a mixed version with simplified weilong type without the arched complex on the back) that once was dominating Sha Tin bay landscape before the reclamation works in late 1970s (Fig. 1, A; Fig. 4, 13). Another sample of similar kind, but of gigantic scale is Chongling residence (Fig. 4, group C) where the castle is dominating the intersection of three valleys. b) enclosed hamlet model, characterised by a medium density. Village is enclosed of 2-3 stories high walls with gates and is composed of residential units with sky well grouped in horizontal terraces of 1 floor. We could find this model in hilly territories in Huidong and Boluo districts of Huizhou (Fig. 4, 6, 10), but also in Hong Kong New Territories (Fig. 4, 14) - i.e. in more dense and advanced models of marketing network. (Fig. 4, group C).
Figure 4: Hakka architecture cultural areas in East Guangdong Province, settlement morphology of villages and building types. c) archipelago of built up islands, characterised by a medium and high density depending on the level of saturation of built up ratio of the “island� - usually a hill. In Meizhou area Villages S.ARCH-2017 104.7
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are formed by groups of weilongs of open kind (Fig. 4, group C, 3-5) reaching very high density because of the quantity of buildings grouping together; we could find a fortified version of the weilong (with walls and towers) in Huizhou and Longgang area (Fig. 4, group C, 7, 8, 11,12), where to increase the density of population the original residence is enlarged by a new belt of houses following a sort of matryoshka principle.
2. 3. Chinese Urban-rural continuum and Hakka countryside in Huizhou.
Following the suggestion of Skinner’s model for Chinese rural marketing network (Skinner, 1965) and the historical reconstructions of dynamic of territorial development of Hakka settlement in PRD (Leong, 1998; Faure, 2007) we shortly illustrate here the general structure of Huizhou territory (Fig. 5). Huizhou city plays the role of the “central market” of regional scale of East Central region (Fig. 4, map); Danshui (today Huiyang) and Pingshan (today Huidong) play the role of “intermediate market town". The three cities are displayed in a way to form a triangular scheme whose west and east sides are enhanced by the Danshui and Xizhi navigable rivers that flow into the Dong river in Huizhou. Each of the three centres are surrounded by standard and minor market centres displayed in a quite regular scheme of hexagonal tiles.
Figure 5: Market town network in Huizhou territory. For a more detailed reconstruction of Huiyang marketing communities (Fig. 6) we used as source of information the Map of Huizhou Prefecture of 1963, rich of geographical, topographical, administrative and demographical data with place names up 10 to 100 inhabitants.
Figure 6: (left) Marketing network of Huiyang territory with the “minor markets” of Weibu and Niu Lang Jing (in the centre of the red circle with radius of km. 4) in Xiang Ling village(brown area); S.ARCH-2017 104.8
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(right) Xiang Ling village – a sample of archipelago of built up islands settlement model. Using these information we could recognise the structure of the urban-rural continuum of Huiyang with minor markets of Niu Lang Jing and Weibu. Each of the marketing community of these minor markets had a variable population of 12.000-15.000 members displayed in several villages within a radius of nearly 4 km. and shaped as archipelago of built up islands of groups of Hakka weilongs positioned at the foot of the hills and following fengshui rules in accordance with agricultural fields ordering in front of them.
3 A revisited urban-rural continuum for Huiyang
We synthetically describe here the methodological approach used in our proposal of Enhancement Plan for Huiyang Hakka villages (Fig. 6), aiming to give answers to the critical points enlisted in paragraph 2.
Figure 6: Enhancement Plan for Huiyang Hakka villages of Zhoutian, Tie Men Shan, Xiang Ling Weibu and Lin Hu villages. Chen Z., Meriggi M., Tan Z., Huiyang “Green Corridor” general lay-out; Acuto F., Meriggi M.(with Lin J., Parenti L., Vismara S., Zodo K.), New building types for Huiyang “Green Corridor”; Belli E., Meriggi M., Housing for a low density block in Xiang Ling village. S.ARCH-2017 104.9
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a) The Plan proposes the establishment of an area of special regime to be considered in the Official Huiyang Masterplan 2020. This area takes the shape of a “green corridor” linking the south coastal and central ecological corridors of East PRD (Comprehensive regional Ecosecurity System of the Greater Pearl River Delta Township, 2009) crossing Huiyang city. This “green corridor” includes agriculture areas still untouched of Zhoutian and Tie Men Shan villages and includes also part of the territory of Xiang Ling, Weibu and Lin Hu villages. b) Tie Men Shan village and Zhoutian village agricultural land must be for the great part preserved with their weilongs. Here are admitted only low density new interventions (as housing of villa type) and the facilities (education, health); higher densities are admitted in the edge areas. C) In Xiang Ling and Weibu villages territory (the former Huiyang minor markets) building activity is allowed with special rules as: conservation of weilongs with an adequate buffer of green area (following for instance Hong Kong experience); new housing and other buildings for other functions (administration and industry as well) should be designed respecting the landscape morphology (hilly territory); in the areas at the border with Zhoutian and Tie Men Shan should be admitted only a medium low building density. In Figure 6, central part, is illustrated a possible solution for new buildings in the “green corridor”: technology centre in Weibu, secondary school in Lin Hu, enucleated low density housing and hospital in Tie Men Shan edge areas. In figure 6, lower part, is shown a sample of medium and low density housing with mixed types inspired to different Hakka buildings following the morphological model of the “archipelago” described in paragraph 2. 2. A more exhaustive description of the Research investigation and proposals will soon be published in English and Chinese language with the title “Hakka Heritage in Huiyang. Surveying and enhancement projects” edited by Z. Chen, M. Meriggi and Z. Tan in collaboration with Huizhou Rural and Urban Planning Technical Bureau (for Zhongshan University Press).
References [1]
Faure, David, Emperor and Ancestor. State and Lineage in South China, Stanford University Press, Stanford, California, 2007.
[2]
Leong, Sow-Theng , Migration and Ethnicity in Chinese History. Hakka, Pengmin, and their Neighbors, SMC Publishing INC, Stanford and Taipei, 1998.
[3]
Qingzhou, Wu, Zhongguo Kejia jian zhu wen hua (Chinese, Architectural culture of Hakka China), Hubei Education Press, Wuhan, 2008.
[4]
Shenzhen Museum of Cultural relics, Nan Yue Ke Jia Wei (Chinese, Hakka Houses in south Guangdong), Shenzhen Museum of Cultural relics Press, Beijing, 2001.
[5]
Skinner, G. William, Marketing and Social Structure in Rural China Part I, II, III, The Journal of Asian Studies, Volume XXIV, 1, 1964,pp. 3-43; Volume XXIV, 2, 1965,pp. 195228; Volume XXIV, 3, 1965,pp.363-399, DOI number2.
[6]
Skinner, G. William, Cities and the Hierarchy of Local System, in The City in Late Imperial China, (Skinner, G. William), Stanford University Press, Stanford, California, 1977, pp. 275-351. S.ARCH-2017 104.10
ARCHITECTURAL EXTIMACY Claudio Vekstein Associate Professor, The Design School, Arizona State University 810 S. Forest Mall, DN Room 77, Tempe, AZ 85287, claudio.vekstein@asu.edu
Abstract As an attempt to critically unfold and reconcile the mingled public/intimate frameworks in architecture we propose the intimate-extimacy relationship to turn the breach into a bridge, since they are not reducible to a dialectical synthesis, and do not act as opposites but work as a continuous differing from the conventional public/private antagonism. Slavoj Žižek describes Psycho, Alfred Hitchcock’s masterpiece as an opportunity for bridging the parallax gap through “the staging of an architectural antagonism”: is Norman not split between the two houses, the modern horizontal motel and the vertical Gothic mother’s house, forever running between the two, never finding a proper place of his own?” (Žižek, 2009). We offer a dramatic traversing of the public/intimate gap, as a critical short-circuiting between the two apparently distant aspects, the internal closeness, intimate convolutions of the disciplinary object with the open common good of the social, public ingenuousness. Extimacy, the term coined by Jacques Lacan extimité from the term intimité which is a superlative of the Latin positive adjective intra or within, its comparative interior or deeper than, and superlative intimus or deeper of all, innermost. In the same manner extimacy is not the contrary of intimacy and it problematizes the apparent oppositions between inner and outer, between container and content. As Jacques-Alain Miller proposes, “it is necessary in order to escape the common ravings about a psychism supposedly located in a bipartition between interior and exterior. (…) The exterior is present in the interior. The most interior— this is how the dictionary defines “intimate” (l’intime)—has, in the analytic experience, a quality of exteriority” (Miller, 2008). At the inner-outer surpassed deadlock, internal and external architectural worlds have no more consequential meaning for its micro-territorial extimacy, revealing a namely public intimacy. By losing contrast they become reversible: the extime refers now to the innermost, the intimate, which is found on the outside—as the culture determining the subject, referring to a topology that vacillates between interior and exterior. Architectural extimacy, being very intimate and familiar becomes radically strange. Here being intimate turns into the most distant and un-localized… the familiarly unknown. For Lacan, the inner-center of the subject is out, it is ex-centric. The Other as "something strange to me, although it is in my heart" (Lacan, 1959-1960) becomes a programmatic architectural engine, revealing and undertaking the shock of the overwhelming Real—the primordial object, as the mysterious something of the ordinary object where the sublime dimension shines through it.
Keywords: Extimacy, Intimate, Public, Unhuman, Desolation Topic: T1_State of Affairs and Future Visions_Aesthetic and Concept S.ARCH-2017 105.1
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1
Unhuman Desolation
With the title “Phoenix, Arizona” opens its first scene the movie Psycho (1960), Alfred Hitchcock’s masterpiece, along the second movement “The City” from the “Psycho: A Suite for Strings” (1960), music composed by Bernard Herrmann. Some background sounds of motors and car horns characterize an everyday urban public scene, in an elevated panoramic wide shot of Downtown Phoenix a camera pans right across from the NE to the SE, and after some slight dissolves, it ends with a slow zoom onto a distant hotel building. The scene cuts faintly to a high shot looking down on a few floors of façade windows of the former Jefferson Hotel on Jefferson and Central Ave—later the Barrister Place Building. Another slight cut takes us further from a fly’s point of view of the camera moving all the way through a barely opened window into an indiscreet, intimate sight, this time already at a stage set of a hotel room at Universal pictures. There a couple, Marion Crane (Janet Leigh) and a divorcé named Sam Loomis (John Gavin) are spending an illicit lunch hour encounter together, remarkably hot for December. Marion lives in Phoenix and is unhappy in her relationship with her boyfriend, who is in too much debt to marry her. Marion rejects his idea to take the afternoon off and rushes back through the Phoenix streets to her job at the storefront real estate office where the story unfolds. Having lived myself in this city for the last 15 years, I’ve been wondering why Phoenix was chosen to incubate Psycho more than 50 years ago… Even though Phoenix was then a thriving and growing city well on its way to becoming a modern desert metropolis, extreme climatic conditions have always pushed the city of Phoenix to exhale a singular sense of unhuman desolation. Recently evoked by social and cultural activist Andrew Ross as the “bird on fire” [1], Phoenix has faced significant urbanistic and environmental, as well as cultural and sociological challenges. It’s vital ambition as a city reborn from the ruins of a former civilization, is to eternally resurge (Post fata resurgo), as the long-lived mythical bird that transfigures itself from the ashes of its sentenced fatal destiny. But what defines inhuman, or unhuman conditions? Being inhuman, meaning not being human in nature or character, or not worthy of conforming to the needs of human beings (like living in inhuman conditions traditionally associated with the ghetto), it entails a condition not good enough for people to use or live in, like extremely poor, dirty, unhealthy or desolate... While the word inhumane was originally a synonym of inhuman, literally “not human” or anti human, it fell out of use and revived in the 1800s to mean the opposite of humane. The adjective inhumane may mean cruel and heartless, reflecting lack of pity or compassion. Whenever someone acts without contemplating the pain or discomfort of another person or an animal, one may describe their actions as inhumane. Also, a cruel government that keeps prisoners in terrible conditions is inhumane, and the treatment of farm animals is sometimes revealed to be inhumane by investigators. Further then, unhuman might be a distinct condition of being stripped or surpassed of human qualities or attributes, being totally dehumanized, not even belonging to or produced by or appropriate to human beings… Unhuman could mean something supra-human or in some way beyond humans—like certain animals that might be described as having superhuman strengths. Superhuman qualities would be qualities that exceed those found in humans—like those found in some fictional characters, especially as superheroes, being portrayed as having
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psychic abilities, flying abilities, impossible strength, or exceptional proficiency beyond human capability. Unhuman might also turn reversibly into a super-humanness! French Philosopher and sociologist Jean-François Lyotard asks in this context, “what if human beings, in humanism's sense, were in the process of, constrained into, becoming inhuman? And what if what is 'proper' to humankind were to be inhabited by the inhuman?” [2]. So, could inhuman be regarded as an alienated or educated option, and the metropolis be its most suitable environmental condition? Then resumes Lyotard “In 1913, Apollinaire wrote ingenuously: ‘More than anything, artists are men who want to become inhuman. And in 1969, Adorno again, more prudently: ‘Art remains loyal to humankind uniquely through its inhumanity in regard to it’.” Further in Domus and the Megalopolis, continues “Baudelaire, Benjamin, Adorno. How to inhabit the megalopolis? By bearing witness to the impossible work, by citing the lost domus. Only the quality of suffering counts as bearing witness. Including, of course, the suffering due to language. We inhabit the megalopolis only to the extent that we declare it uninhabitable. Otherwise, we are just lodged there. In the closure of time paid off (security), await the catastrophe of the instant, wrote Benjamin. In the inevitable transformation of works into cultural commodities, keep up a searing witness to the impossibility of the work, wrote Adorno. To inhabit the uninhabitable is the condition of the ghetto. The ghetto is the impossibility of the domus.” In the extensive sea of the metropolis grows back the desert in the alienated desolation of the ghetto, now without physical coerces or boundaries. Right there appears Phoenix Inhuman, or rather unhuman… While not reaching human qualities it also turns inhumane as it treats its inhabitants, as we know it, to inhabit Phoenix constitutes an absorbing work by itself. One of the questions becomes, why do humans may create infra-human conditions? Those given “extreme conditions” of Phoenix are already at the verge of human inhabitation; different but not much further perhaps than in Norway or Alaska... although its conceived urban form pushes it to the extreme of complete human desolation or unhumanness, almost as a defiant test of humanity, a fascinating “Phoenix Challenge”. A sense of desolation feeds its particular feel of unhumanity, the condition of been deserted, uninhabited, not lived in… Desolation is emptiness but it also becomes radical hopelessness, an active loss or the defeat of faith. We know desolation could well describe both a poor, dirty, treeless town but also a broken heart. Desolation is not only depressing but also stark and bleak. People arriving at the scenes of natural disasters, like tornadoes, often speak about the blunt sense of desolation around them... They are mostly talking about the destruction, but they are also implying a sense of emptiness and terminal futility, complete senselessness. Desolation could also describe unwelcoming, ugly landscapes: cold, lonely towns in New Hampshire or hot, dusty, empty towns in Nevada or Arizona. You do know desolation when you experience it, because you not only feel lonesomeness but ruthlessly hollow inside: being deserted, a sense of loss, seclusion and anguished misery… Being Desert. Phoenix’s unhuman desolation may then be bleakness, bareness, abstract severity and plainness or even unnaturalness… and so be an unparalleled, ultimate (supra) human condition, a perfect stage for Psycho’s hypercritical test of humanity.
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2
Public Intimacy
The referred passage in Psycho’s opening scene, which takes us in one sequence from a fly’s panoramic urban public scene, zooming and traversing smoothly through a narrowly opened window into an indiscreet gaze of the couple’s intimate conversation, materializes a radical, provoking path directly from totally public to private life, and yet further into the intimate… Marion: Sam: Marion: Sam: Marion: Sam: Marion: Sam: Marion: Sam: Marion: Sam:
Sam, this is the last time. For what? For this. Meeting you in secret so we can be secretive. You come down here on business trips, the occasional lunch hour, and I wish you wouldn't even come. All right, what do we do instead? Write each other lurid love letters? I can come down next week. No. Not even just to see you? Have lunch? [smiles] In public. Oh, we can see each other. We can even have dinner, but respectably—in my house with my mother's picture on the mantle, and my sister helping me broil a big steak for three. And after the steak, do we send sister to the movies? Turn mama's picture to the wall? Sam! [begrudgingly] All right. Marion, whenever it's possible I want to see you and under any circumstances, even respectability. You make respectability sound disrespectful. Oh no, I'm all for it. But it requires patience, temperance, with a lot of sweating out. Otherwise though, it's just hard work. But if I could see you and touch you, you know, simply as this, I won't mind. [He nibbles at her neck]
Here it seems suitable to inspect some conceptual distinctions between differing conducts in a public realm, a private sphere and further in an intimate one, as they are outlined by Argentine law philosopher Ernesto Garzón Valdés; “that is, to trace the limits of three spheres of which at least the first two are often confused or treated as at least partially if not totally overlapping. (…) The sphere of intimacy is the realm of our thoughts, our decision-making, of doubts that sometimes cannot even be clearly formulated, of what we repress, of what has not yet been expressed and perhaps never will be, not only because we do not wish to express it, but because it cannot be expressed; (…) With Hobbes, the veil that protects our intimacy could perhaps be called ‘the veil of discretion’. This is a veil of total opacity that can only be lifted by the individual itself. (…) Privacy is the sphere where only the desires and preferences of the individual reign. The existence of such a space is a necessary condition for the exercise of individual freedom. (…) The public sphere is characterized by free access to the conduct and decisions of people in society. Moreover, when people hold offices endowed with political or legal authority, the publicity of their actions is an essential feature of the rule of law. (…) While the intimate was characterized by total opacity, the characteristic feature of the public is transparency. Between the two extremes, we can place the sphere of the private as that space where there is relative transparency. Privacy, as it is understood here, presupposes the presence of at least two agents. Their interaction is what makes total opacity impossible since this would exclude all communication. In the private sphere, we accept rules of community life which, on the one hand, tend to preserve our intimacy and, on the other, erect barriers against intrusions by the public. In this sphere too, there are kinds of behavior we prefer to perform without witnesses, as well as thoughts we jealously keep to ourselves. Often it is also the most appropriate realm for revealing some part of our intimacy (because, in general, this is less dangerous here than in the public sphere). (…) When we enter the public sphere, we come equipped with the veil of our intimacy and the cloak of our privacy.” [3] S.ARCH-2017 105.4
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In order to trace the particular relationships between the three spheres, Valdés proposes to walk two itineraries of opposite directions, the first running from the intimate to the public, and the second the other way from public to intimate, like it follows the case of the movie’s opening scene. We then choose to counter it by walking the first, from the secretive and intimate transitioning towards the public sphere, which entails some risks and surprises, depending on the extent to which one’s intimacy or privacy is unveiled. As an attempt to critically trespass, unfold or perhaps reconcile the established public/private antagonism—in architecture, we propose to turn the breach into an extended bridge between the distant but conceivably intermingled public/intimate frameworks. This possible conflation is our conjecture and thesis, since they do not act as strict opposites but a fluid continuous as it appears in the film where one aspect can’t be reduced to the other or be sanctioned to a dialectical, higher synthesis. Psycho exposes those perils and blows derived from this liquid infringement. On the evening of Saturday December 12th, 1959, Marion Crane steps accidentally into Norman Bates’ public grounds at the Bates Motel and his routine gets actually disturbed. When she signs into the motel under a false name—Marie Samuels, Norman is hooked; feeling certainly attracted he books Marion into the cabin adjacent to his office. And then invites his future victim to join him for dinner in the parlour next to his office, where she gets to access his privacy… and a glimpse of intimacy. To denote this, during the scene he is visually described and united in the frame with the various stuffed birds collected in the room. Marion: Norman: Marion: Norman: Marion: Norman: Marion: Norman: Marion: Norman: Marion: Norman:
[about Norman's taxidermy] A man should have a hobby. Well, it's, it's more than a hobby. [He fondles a stuffed bird on the bureau next to him] A hobby's supposed to pass the time, not fill it. Is your time so empty? No, uh. Well, I run the office and uh, tend the cabins and grounds and, and do a little, uh, errands for my mother. The ones she allows I might be capable of doing. Do you go out with friends? Well, a boy's best friend is his mother. You've never had an empty moment in your entire life, have you? Only my share. Where are you going? I didn't mean to pry. I'm looking for a private island. What are you running away from? Wh-why do you ask that? People never run away from anything.
Also in the film's trailer, Hitchcock personally associates Norman with the birds he sews up: "his favorite spot was the little parlour behind his office in the motel ... I suppose you'd call this his hideaway. His hobby as you see, was taxidermy. A crow here, an owl there. An important scene took place in this room. There was a private supper here. And… uh oh, by the way, (pointing to a medium-sized painting on the wall) this picture has great significance, because... uh, let's go along to cabin number I; I want to show you something there." Following the supper during which Marion questions him and becomes compassionate about his mother, slightly suggesting that he put her in a mental institution, he irately rejects the idea, and Marion retires to her room. Norman then spies on her intimacy undressing in the cabin through a peep hole in the adjoining wall behind that intriguing painting. Aroused and unable to repress his personality, he returns to the house, dresses up to become "Mother", entering Marion's cabin and killing her in the bathroom with a kitchen knife as she takes a shower. "Norma" then returns to the house and removes the blood-stained clothes. When S.ARCH-2017 105.5
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Norman regains consciousness, he disposes of Marion's corpse in a nearby swamp, covering up what he believes to be his mother's crime. As we could know, for many years Norma Bates (“Mother” and Motel owner) and Norman lived together "as if there is no one else in the world". After the death of her husband, Norma raised Norman with meanness, forbidding him to have a life away from her, teaching him that sex is sinful and all women (except herself) are whores (the original novel even suggests that their relationship may have been incestuous…). Norman’s intimate attraction to Marion suddenly threatened to break that particular bond and stirred Mother’s rage, menacing to kill Marion if Norman would let her into the intimacy of the house, which happened somehow in the private parlour. There are then three different scenarios at once: on one hand, the intimate and sinister Mother’s house (Norma), on the other the secretive private parlour (Norman the taxidermist), as well as the ordinary public motel (Norman who runs the motel), all ran by the same Norman, and all different ones at the same time... which may well describe a sort of parallax state. The term, derived from the Greek word παράλλαξις (parallaxis), meaning "alternation", is originally the apparent displacement, or difference of position of an object, as seen from different stations, or lines of sight. As a metaphor, it can also be the same story, or a similar story from approximately the same time line, from one book told from a different perspective in another book. This condition is noted by Slovenian psychoanalytic philosopher Slavoj Žižek in The Parallax View. He borrowed the concept of "parallax view" from the Japanese philosopher and literary critic Kojin Karatani. Žižek explains that “the apparent displacement of an object (the shift of its position against a background), caused by a change in observational position that provides a new line of sight. The philosophical twist to be added, of course, is that the observed difference is not simply "subjective," due to the fact that the same object which exists "out there" is seen from two different stations, or points of view. It is rather that, as Hegel would have put it, subject and object are inherently "mediated," so that an "epistemological" shift in the subject's point of view always reflects an "ontological" shift in the object itself. Or, to put it in Lacanese, the subject's gaze is always-already inscribed into the perceived object itself, in the guise of its "blind spot," that which is "in the object more than object itself," the point from which the object itself returns the gaze. "Sure, the picture is in my eye, but me, I am also in the picture" […] In his formidable Transcritique, Kojin Karatani endeavors to assert the critical potential of such a "parallax view": when confronted with an antinomic stance in the precise Kantian sense of the term, one should renounce all attempts to reduce one aspect to the other (or, even more, to enact a kind of "dialectical synthesis" of the opposites); one should, on the contrary, assert antinomy as irreducible, and conceive the point of radical critique not a certain determinate position as opposed to another position, but the irreducible gap between the positions itself, the purely structural interstice between them”. [4] Žižek describes Psycho’s architectural parallax as an opportunity for bridging this parallax gap, through “the staging of an architectural antagonism: is Norman not split between the two houses, the modern horizontal motel and the vertical Gothic mother’s house, forever running between the two, never finding a proper place of his own? In this sense, the unheimlich character of the film’s end means that, in his full identification with the mother, he finally found his heim, his home. In modernist works like Psycho, this split is still visible, while the main goal of today’s postmodern architecture is to obfuscate it.” [5]
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If one follows this formulation, and confronted with this contradictory struggle one refuses any efforts to downgrade one aspect to the other, or to conceive any “synthesis” or surpass of the opposites stating its irreducibility, if one declines adopting one radical position from both and inhabits the fundamental gap between them, then one may realize in the collapse of the two buildings, the horizontal motel with the gothic mother’s house, the desirous traversal of the public/intimate gap; by “directly combining the old mother’s house and the flat modern motel into a new hybrid entity, there would have been no need for Norman to kill his victims, since he would have been relieved of the unbearable tension that compels him to run between the two places…” This dramatic, critical short-circuiting between the two apparently distant aspects, should spark and deliver at once both the internal closeness, intimate convolutions of the uncanny object and its secretive disciplinary knowledge, along with its open, common well-being, embracing the public virtuosity and social ingenuity, together. “A short circuit occurs when there is a faulty connection in the network—faulty, of course, from the standpoint of the network’s smooth functioning. Is not the shock of short-circuiting, therefore, one of the best metaphors for a critical reading? Is not one of the most effective critical procedures to cross wires that do not usually touch […] which brings to light its "unthought," its disavowed presuppositions and consequences. […] Lacanian psychoanalysis is a privileged instrument of such an approach, whose purpose is to illuminate a standard text or ideological formation, making it readable in a totally new way. […] The point is, rather, to make him or her aware of another—disturbing—side of something he or she knew all the time”. [6] Public, private and intimate, external through internal spheres being one, transparent and multiples at once; field, figure and abyss, being reversible as wood, bark, trees and forest.
3
Architectural Extimacy
Alfred Hitchcock presents, personally in the original trailer, the perfect scenario for our operations, navigating the public to the most intimate spots, including the famous shower in only 6’30”: Title: Hitchcock:
Hitchcock: Hitchcock:
Hitchcock:
The fabulous Mr. Alfred Hitchcock is about to escort you... on a tour of the location of his new motion picture, “PSYCHO” Good afternoon. Here we have a quiet little motel tucked away off the main highway, and as you see, perfectly harmless looking, when in fact it has now become known as "the scene of the crime". This motel also has as an adjunct an old house which is, if I may say so, a little more sinister looking, less innocent than the motel itself. And in this house, the most dire horrible events took place. I think we can go inside, because the place is up for sale, although I don't know who's gonna buy it now. In that window on the second floor, the single one in front, that's where the woman was first seen. Let's go inside. You see even in daylight this place still looks a bit sinister. It was at the top of these stairs that the second murder took place. She came out of the door there and met the victim at the top, of course in a flash there was the knife and in no time the victim tumbled and fell with a horrible crack, I think the back broke immediately it hit the floor. It was, it's difficult to describe the way the... the twisting of the... well I, it's... I won't dwell upon it. Let's come upstairs. Of course, the victim or should I say victims hadn't any conception as to the type of people they would be confronted with in this house. Especially the woman, she was the weirdest and the most..., well let's go into her bedroom.
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Hitchcock: Hitchcock: Hitchcock:
Here's the woman's room, still beautifully preserved. And the imprint of her figure on the bed where she used to lay. I think some of her clothes are still in this wardrobe. Bathroom. This was the son's room but we won't go in there, because his favorite spot was the little parlour behind his office in the motel. Let's go down there. This young man, you had to feel sorry for him. After all, being dominated by an almost maniacal woman was enough to drive anyone to the extreme of... well let's go in. [7]
The operation consists of the physical folding of the two structures into a new queer object, proceeding through spatially collaging flat imagery of the motel and the mother’s house from the actual film frames or still images of the Psycho movie. These technical procedures collapse almost violently to short-circuit the parallax gaze to critically interlace and re-articulate the public/intimate breach, reformulating the argument necessarily after it so there will be no need for Norman to run from one building to another and kill his victims. The manipulation reestablishes undetected connections and potential new continuities, further proliferating sequences and avoids to leaving fragments secluded, forcefully linking them always to recreate the story through new outwards intimate/extimate relationships. The inner-outer movement arises from within the chosen materials and their fine-grain particulars, both interior and exterior of the two buildings. Through their close incidental interactions, a new, consistent, intra-logical tale emerges to assists the guidance of the process. In this internal movement, Intimacy turns into Extimacy. And because extimacy is certainly not opposed to intimacy, it problematizes as well the apparent antagonism between inner and outer, content and container, matter and form. The term Extimacy was coined by French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan—extimité, from the term intimité, which is a superlative of the Latin positive adjective intra or within, its comparative interior or deeper than, and superlative intimus or deeper of all, innermost. “There, there is an effort on the part of the language to reach the deepest point in the interior” argues Writer psychoanalyst Jacques-Alain Miller, sole editor of The Seminars of Jacques Lacan. “This expression ‘extimacy’ is necessary in order to escape the common ravings about a psychism supposedly located in a bipartition between interior and exterior. […] The exterior is present in the interior. The most interior—this is how the dictionary defines ‘intimate’ (l’intime)—has, in the analytic experience, a quality of exteriority. This is why Lacan invented the term extimité. […] Extimacy says that the intimate is Other-like a foreign body”. [8] By provoking and surpassing our commonly conflicting inner-outer architectural deadlock, the internal and external worlds would have no more consequential meaning, illuminating a comprehensive micro-territorial state of the object and its field which embraces both the intimate and public being. When losing contrast, internal and external realms become perfectly reversible referring to a topology that vacillates between interior and exterior: the extime refers to the innermost, the intimate, which is found on the outside—as the culture determining the subject. Architectural extimacy, being the very intimate and familiar, turns reversible… and radically absorbs the strange or alien. The most distant and un-localized, the familiar unknown, even unfamiliar or uncanny (unheimlich) reveals its form. Sigmund Freud, Austrian neurologist father of psychoanalysis, defined this as what is strangely familiar rather than mysterious. [9] Freud realized that at some point what defines as homely rapidly turns unhomely, the familiar and the strange oscillate. Because uncanny is still familiar yet odd, it provokes a cognitive
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dissonance which typically results in rejection more often than rationalization, due to the paradoxical nature of the subject being simultaneously appealed and repelled by the object. Another Slovene philosopher and cultural theorist Mladen Dolar points with Freud that the word unheimlich, supposed to be its opposite of heimlich as the standard German negation, it is actually directly implied by heimlich (familiar, homely, cozy, intimate), “arousing a sense of agreeable restfulness and security as in one within the four walls of his house" (Freud). What is then familiar but securely tucked away as hidden, concealed from the exterior, secret, "kept from sight. . . withheld from others" is also furtive, threatening, fearful, occult, "uncomfortable, uneasy, gloomy, dismal . . . ghastly"—that is, unheimlich or uncanny. As we can see, at some point the two meanings directly overlap and become inseparable, and the negation does not count—as Freud demonstrates it does not count in the unconscious: “The way in which dreams treat the category of contraries and contradictories is highly remarkable. It is simply disregarded. 'No' seems not to exist so far as dreams are concerned. They show a particular preference for combining contraries into a unity or for representing them as one and the same thing." [10] Dolar claims that “The English translation, "the uncanny," largely retains the essential ambiguity of the German term, but French doesn't possess an equivalent, l'inquiétante étrangeté being the standard translation. So, Lacan had to invent one, extimité. […] All the great philosophical conceptual pairs—essence/appearance, mind/body, subject/object, spirit/matter, etc.—can be seen as just so many transcriptions of the division between interiority and exteriority. Now the dimension of extimité blurs this line. It points neither to the interior nor to the exterior, but is located there where the most intimate interiority coincides with the exterior and becomes threatening, provoking horror and anxiety. The extimate is simultaneously the intimate kernel and the foreign body; in a word, it is unheimlich”. [11] Extimacy marks the traumatic passage for the subject from the plenitude of the Real to the de-centered universe of the Symbolic—since, for Lacan, the intimate inner-center of the subject is out, it is ex-centric. The subject remains nostalgic for what has been lost and seeks reunification; a subject who is an object outside of itself. “The prehistoric Other that it is impossible to forget—the Other whose primacy of position Freud affirms in the form of something entfremdet, something strange to me, although it is at the heart of me”. [12]. The Other has dwelt always inside architecture. Not just as the subject but as the culture, through the spiritual, symbolic or the everyday life, its core autonomic drive resides also outside of itself in its expansive heteronomous determination. Even following German philosopher Georg Hegel in his reasoning on architecture, its outward expression retracts out of the particulars of this external reality into itself to reconcile the two attributes, leaving again the objective existence free to be constructed autonomously. “Architecture is the art whose medium is purely external, so that here the essential differences depend on whether this external object has its meaning within itself or whether, treated as a means, it subserves an end other than itself, or whether in this subservience it appears at the same time as autonomous. […] the fundamental character of architecture proper consists in the fact that the spiritual meaning does not reside exclusively in the building (for, if it did, the building would become an independent symbol of its inner meaning) but in the fact that this meaning has already attained its existence in freedom outside architecture. […] Moreover, these two sides may meet”. [13] S.ARCH-2017 105.9
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These thoughts come along with the initial series of manipulations of the two original Psycho structures turned into a new queer object, crafted and re-engrained by my architecture students at a location neighboring the referred opening scene in Downtown Phoenix (see Epilogue* attached). They ignite a force of architectural revulsion and emancipation from aseptic autonomic experimentation, innovative systematic pragmatisms or contented idiosyncratic architectural dialects. By proliferating, twisting and hyper-articulating together objects and subjects, stories and reveries, structures and landscapes, people and other plants and animals, architecture regains a burning drive of advanced mastery over its materials and techniques, while paid for with a loss in the dominion over the material, as German philosopher and composer Theodor Adorno may put it. “Because there has not yet been any progress in the world, there is progress in art. […] Progress is not only that of the mastery over material and spiritualization but also the progress of spirit in Hegel's sense of the consciousness of freedom”. [14] From unhuman desolation as a hypercritical attribute of humanity to counteract the disavowal of the inhuman in the human, or the forms of otherness that dwell in "us". Through public, private and intimate short-circuits blown-up by their reversed immanent account, trespassing and liberating them from defensive identities or totalities. To the uncanny of the Other within, not as a disease to be surpassed or overcome, but a constitutive element of what architecture itself is. Architectural extimacy conceives of a revolting programmatic engine in architecture, which unfolds itself from the outer that burns within. It proves the crude and exquisite limitations of architecture when it struggles to be more than itself trying to undertake the shock of the overwhelming Real—the primordial object, the mysterious something of the ordinary that reveals the sublime dimension shining through it. Architectural extimacy manifests a senseless euphoric state of progress to release humans and nature, without melancholy… without delusion.
References [1]
Andrew Ross, Bird on Fire: Lessons from the World's Least Sustainable City, Oxford University Press, 2011.
[2]
Jean-François Lyotard. The Inhuman: Reflections on Time, Trans. Geoffrey Bennington and Rachel Bowlby, Stanford University Press, 1991. Trans. of L'Inhumain: causeries sur le temps, Galilée, Paris, 1988.
[3]
Ernesto Garzón Valdés, Intimacy, Privacy and Publicity, Analyse & Kritik. Volume 25 (2003), Issue 1, pp. 17–40.
[4]
Slavoj Žižek, The Parallax View, Cambridge, Massachusetts, The MIT Press, 2006.
[5]
Slavoj Žižek, Architectural Parallax – Spandrels and Other Phenomena of Class Struggle, Tilton Gallery, New York, 2009. http://www.lacan.com/essays/?page_id=218
[6]
Slavoj Žižek, Lacan at the Scene by Henry Bond, Shot Circuits Series Foreword, Cambridge, Massachusetts, The MIT Press, 2006. S.ARCH-2017 105.10
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[7]
James Allardice, The Alfred Hitchcock Wiki, https://the.hitchcock.zone/wiki/Psycho_(1960)_-_trailers#Trailer_1
[8]
Jacques-Alain Miller, Extimity. Universalism versus globalization. Text established by Elisabeth Doisneau and translated by Franรงoise Massardier-Kenney, in The Symptom 9, 2008, http://www.lacan.com/symptom/extimity.html
[9]
Sigmund Freud, The Uncanny, Penguin Classics, Trans. David McLintock, Penguin Books, London, 2003. Original work The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works, vol. XVII, Hogart Press, London, 1919.
[10] Sigmund Freud. The Interpretation of Dreams, Trans. James Strachey, in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works, vol. IV-V, Hogarth Press, London, 1953. [11] Mladen Dolar, I Shall Be with You on Your Wedding-Night: Lacan and the Uncanny. Source: October, Vol. 58, Rendering the Real (Autumn), The MIT Press, 1991. http://www.jstor.org/stable/778795 [12] Jacques Lacan, The Seminar of Jacques Lacan, Book VII: The Ethics of Psychoanalysis, Trans. Dennis Porter, Norton, New York, 1992. [13] Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Aesthetics. Lectures on Fine Art, trans. T. M. Knox, 2 vols., New York, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975. [14] Theodor W. Adorno, Aesthetic Theory, Trans. Robert Hullot-Kentor, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1997.
*(Epilogue: see attached)
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Epilogue Students:
Brianna Crittendon Mariah Gresko Noah Harrenstein Xiaohan He Thomas Ibrahim Shaghayegh Vaseghi Ryan Willison Elisa Wright Architectural Studio IV, Spring 2017 Instructor: Assc. Prof. Claudio Vekstein The Design School, Arizona State University
Melodramatic Mayhem Brianna Crittendon
Fig. 1: East elevation collage
Fig. 5: Aerial view first iteration, paper model
Fig. 2: North elevation collage
Fig. 6: Elevation first iteration, paper model
Fig. 3: Floor plan collage
Fig. 7: Aerial view of structural model
Fig. 4: Section collage
Fig. 8: Aerial view of structural model
Fig. 9: New building site plan collage
Fig. 10: Traced drawing of new site collage plan with elevation and section
Fig. 11: Final collage at Phoenix location, combined site plan and elevation
Maternal Parallax Mariah Gresko
Fig. 1: South elevation collage
Fig. 5: Aerial view first iteration, paper model
Fig. 2: North elevation collage
Fig. 6: Elevation first iteration, paper model
Fig. 3: Floor plan collage
Fig. 7: Aerial view of structural model
Fig. 4: Floor plan with elevation collage
Fig. 8: Aerial view of structural model
Fig. 9: Traced drawing of new site plan combined with elevation and section
Fig. 10: Final collage at Phoenix location, combined site plan and elevation
Heart of Stone
Noah Harrenstein
Fig. 1: East elevation collage
Fig. 5: Aerial view first iteration, paper model
Fig. 2: North elevation collage
Fig. 6: Elevation first iteration, paper model
Fig. 3: Section collage
Fig. 7: Aerial view of structural model
Fig. 4: Floor plan collage
Fig. 8: Detailed view of structural model
Fig. 9: New building site plan collage
2
Fig. 10: Traced drawing of new site collage plan with elevation and section
Fig. 11: Collage in Phoenix location
Fig. 11: Final collage at Phoenix location, combined site plan and elevation
Devouring Mother Xiaohan He
Fig. 1: Elevation collage
Fig. 5: Elevation first iteration, paper model
Fig. 2: Elevation collage
Fig. 6: Aerial view first iteration, paper model
Fig. 3: Section collage
Fig. 7: Elevation of structural model
Fig. 4: Floor Plan collage
Fig. 8: Aerial view of structural model
Fig. 9: New building site plan collage
Fig. 10: Traced drawing of new site collage plan with elevation and section
Fig. 11: Final collage at Phoenix location, combined site plan and elevation
We [ _ ]
Thomas Ibrahim
The city is the desert. Desolation. The blank structures are built as a façade to the world – a feigning forever. A false city built by men, but without men. Working only as machines and thinking only of the food that they will put on their tables in the far away. The city is merely development. Regression. The city is more primitive than the desert. Complexity lost. The city is a ruin. Not merely a ruin, but a monument to ruins. The city is where without why. Location without place. Existence devoid of substance. Characterless, monstrous, monotonous. The story of humanity has been unwritten by the ungodly contradictions. Plastered, posted, spaced, organized in a grid that facilitates disorder. The city, cannot be human. The city, cannot be organic. The city, cannot be like other cities. The city has no story. It has no order. No community. Decentralized, homogenized, dissatisfying. A spiritual wasteland. What is one to BE other than an unanchored point loitering and leaving mere lines on a 3-dimensional grid? No one is known. No one becomes. Everyone is normalized. Tamed. Fed. Fettered. Molded. Assimilated. Mass-produced. Factory farmed. Worthless. Forgotten. The innate qualities, our nature, is stripped from us. [sic] are blank. Tabula rasa. Dispassionate. Lethargic. Soulless. Not I, not [sic]. Just the image of the city.
Fig. 1: Elevation collage
Fig. 4: Elevation first iteration, paper model
Fig. 2: Section collage
Fig. 5: Aerial view first iteration, paper model
Fig. 3: Elevation collage
Fig. 6: Aerial view of structural model
Fig. 7: New building site plan collage
Fig. 8: Traced drawing of new site collage plan with elevation and section
Fig. 9: Final collage at Phoenix location, combined site plan and elevation
The Tragedy Loop
Shaghayegh Vaseghi
Fig. 1: North elevation collage
Fig. 5: Elevation first iteration, paper model
Fig. 2: West elevation collage
Fig. 6: Perspective first iteration, paper model
Fig. 3: Section collage
Fig. 7: Aerial view of structural model
Fig. 4: Floor plan collage
Fig. 8: Detailed view of structural model
Fig. 9: Traced drawing of new collage plan with elevation and section
Fig. 10: Final collage at Phoenix location, combined site plan and elevation
Sporadic Containment Ryan Willison
Fig. 1: East elevation collage
Fig. 5: Aerial view first iteration, paper model
Fig. 2: North elevation collage
Fig. 6: Aerial view iteration, paper model
Fig. 3: Section collage
Fig. 7: Aerial view of structural model
Fig. 4: Floor plan collage
Fig. 8: Elevation view of structural model
Fig. 9: New building site plan collage
Fig. 10: Traced drawing of new site collage plan with elevation and section
Fig. 11: Final collage at Phoenix location, combined site plan and elevation
Underground Alter Elisa Wright
Fig. 1: Elevation-section collage
Fig. 5: Elevation first iteration, paper model
Fig. 2: Underground Elevation collage
Fig. 6: Aerial view first iteration, paper model
Fig. 3: Section collage
Fig. 7: Aerial view of wire structural model
Fig. 4: Front elevation collage
Fig. 8: Elevation of wire structural model
Fig. 9: New building site plan collage
Fig. 10: Traced drawing of new site collage plan with elevation and section
Fig. 11: Final site plan collage at Phoenix location
Fig. 12: Final collage at Phoenix location, combined site plan and elevation
ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN ARCHITECTURAL STUDENTS Christo Vosloo University of Johannesburg P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park, 2006 Johannesburg, Republic of South Africa (+27) 011 559 1105 cvosloo@uj.ac.za
Abstract The Union of International Architects (UIA) and others believe that action is necessary so that architects can expand their role in society and regain their rightful place in the built environment. At the same time architects are finding that the traditional role and service of the architect is changing continuously and that practitioners and education programmes need to adjust to the changes in social and economic patterns to remain relevant. In response, Odile Decq and the American Institute of Architects (AIA) have called for entrepreneurship education and an entrepreneurial approach, while the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) points out that architects will “need to find ways to increase the financial reward that architects achieve”. In Germany, Tobias Maescher states that “Architects are clueing up to the fact that a successful business is as much down to the design of their business model as it is the design of their buildings”. All these statements point to a need for architects to become more entrepreneurial. The question is: how are architectural education and training institutions responding to these calls? The paper will report the results of an investigation into the role and degree of entrepreneurship education in architecture programmes at South African universities, and recommend steps that could ensure that architectural education across the world responds to the changing requirements.
Keywords Entrepreneurship, Education, Architects, South Africa
1
Introduction
In 2014 the UIA adopted the policy that it will promote and encourage “the continuing extension of the boundaries of architectural practice, limited only by the provisions of codes of ethics and conduct, and strive to ensure the corresponding extension of the knowledge and skills necessary to deal with any extension of boundaries” [1]. Identifying potential areas for expansion is a key aspect of entrepreneurship. Thus, for this policy to be achieved, architects S.ARCH-2017 106.1
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will have to become more entrepreneurial, and entrepreneurship education will help to facilitate this extension. Gafar, Kasim and Martin call for entrepreneurship education for architects because it will better prepare future architects for the economically competitive environment that they will operate in [2]. They argue that the inclusion of entrepreneurship education in educational curricula could result in a reversal of the weakening status of architects in the builtenvironmental professional team. Other advantages that they mention are employment creation and the creation of enduring firms. Architects are finding that the traditional role and service of the architect is changing continuously. Practitioners and education programmes need to keep pace with the changes in social and economic patterns in order to remain relevant [3]. Architectural practice and education are considered to be interdependent elements that must enable students, educators and practitioners to acquire and build the skills needed to enter and participate in the profession [4]. Research has found that “Architects who continue with the traditional methods of practice struggle to make it in such a challenging market. Therefore, employing architecture firms are more likely to seek new graduate architects who are schooled in the new issues affecting the architectural market to ensure their survival” [5]. As the above shows, calls for a more entrepreneurial attitude are becoming more common: Prominent architectural personalities such as Odile Decq believe that “we have to train the students to become architectural entrepreneurs” [6]. The American Institute of Architects’ (AIA) ask that increased prominence be given to the need for “an entrepreneurial approach” when starting a new firm [7]. The Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) believe that architects will “need to find ways to increase the financial reward that architects achieve” [8]. In Germany, Tobias Maescher states that “Architects are clueing up to the fact that a successful business is as much down to the design of their business model as it is the design of their buildings” [9]. Eric Reinholt believes that entrepreneurial thinking could change the way architects choose to design their practices and that the business model has remained unchanged for too long [10]. While these calls for an entrepreneurial approach, and hence entrepreneurship education, are relevant and appropriate, it is important to identify what is understood by entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship education [11]. Defining entrepreneurship remains problematic; a popular description of entrepreneurship would read something like “the emergence and growth of new businesses” [12]. However, growth per se is not always part of the intentions of those who start new businesses. Because of this ‘the emergence and establishment of new businesses’ might be more appropriate. However, many new initiatives do not primarily aim at starting new ‘businesses’ and do not have income generation as their main objective: architects, and others, increasingly start initiatives that have social upliftment as a main objective. Thus ‘new entry’ is regarded to be the essential act of entrepreneurship [13]. Hence, in the absence of a widely-accepted definition of entrepreneurship, this study will accept a definition based on Fayolle and Toutain’s definition, namely that “entrepreneurship is a social and economic phenomenon which occurs at the individual, organisational, institutional and societal levels. At the heart of this phenomenon is the entrepreneur who … creates and develops new economic and social wealth” [14]. S.ARCH-2017 106.2
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Similarly, a generally accepted definition for entrepreneurial education has not been agreed to [15]. The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (2010) accepted the following definition; “entrepreneurship education is the building of knowledge and skills ‘about’ or ‘for the purpose of’ entrepreneurship” [16]. Valerio, Parton and Robb hold that entrepreneurial education and training generally regard the transferring of certain mindsets and skills associated with entrepreneurship in addition to a variety of other entrepreneurship outcomes [17]. Because not everyone is born with the innate skills and attitudes to become entrepreneurs, entrepreneurship education is necessary; “taken together with indications that aspects of entrepreneurship can be taught and learnt, education and training systems are emerging as a key component of broader discussions about the promotion of entrepreneurship” [18]. One of the aims of entrepreneurship education is to create an entrepreneurial disposition in the learners. This is necessary because, in general, it has been shown that firms or initiatives started by persons with an entrepreneurial disposition and orientation will have a better chance of success than those started out of necessity [19]. Furthermore, the chances of someone becoming an entrepreneur are strongly influenced by education. It has been proposed that persons with an art-oriented education are more likely to become entrepreneurs than engineers [20]. Similarly, Elwell points to the fact that entrepreneurship is important because it provides a mechanism for realising the concepts that designers create every day [21]. Elwell also believes that becoming entrepreneurs provides the best way for designers to retain ownership of their designs [21]. Thus, entrepreneurship education for architects is not only about starting new initiatives; it will also allow architects to use their innate creativity to realise the product of their design prowess. Hence, entrepreneurship education should form an inherent part of all architectural programmes. The question is: how are architectural education institutions responding to these calls? This paper reports some of the results of a desktop investigation into the status of entrepreneurship education as part of South African university programmes in architecture. The system for the education of South African architects is validated by the South African Council for the Architectural Profession (SACAP) and the Commonwealth Association of Architects (CAA) - signatories to the Canberra Accord - and is heavily influenced by the system developed in the United Kingdom. The Canberra Accord is in turn aligned with the UNESCO/UIA Charter for Architectural Education [22]. Thus, the aims adopted by the UIA, as mentioned before, are relevant. Because of this, the South African situation represents a case study that can result in recommendations that can benefit architectural education elsewhere.
2
Entrepreneurship education required as part of architectural programmes
The discourse on the effectiveness of entrepreneurship education is an active one with various authors questioning the effectiveness of current or past offerings. However, there is wide consensus that entrepreneurship education is effective. One example is Rauch and Hulsink who, following research into the effectiveness of entrepreneurial education, found that entrepreneurship education to be effective, and that students who undergo entrepreneurship education have higher entrepreneurial intentions [23]. S.ARCH-2017 106.3
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Entrepreneurship education should not be confused with business management education: Valerio et al. believe that some of the most important differences between entrepreneurship education and business management education is that entrepreneurship education includes the development of mindsets and socio-emotional skills such as self-confidence, leadership, creativity, risk propensity, motivation, resilience and self-efficacy [24]. Perceptions associated with entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship are also covered. Naturally, general business knowledge, and the skills and knowledge required to start and manage a business, are included. General business management education, by contrast, normally only prepares students for a career as a manager within established businesses and hierarchies. Thus, while a degree of overlap exists, entrepreneurship education and training uniquely includes the conditions and problems associated with entrepreneurial action [24]. Figure 1 illustrates the relationship and difference between entrepreneurship education and training and business management education. Entrepreneurship education must also include creative thinking, negotiation and selling skills, leadership and people management [25].
Figure 1:
Entrepreneurship versus Business Management Education [28]
Another set of authors, Fretschner and Weber, provide the following guidelines for programmes of this type [29]: • The initial focus should be on developing an entrepreneurship attitude; the development of skills can follow at a later stage. • Instil in students the belief that starting and growing a business is an achievable objective. • Expound the advantages and disadvantages associated with your own new venture. • Involve entrepreneurial role models who can present a clear and realistic understanding of the reality associated with being an entrepreneur.
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• •
Avoid indoctrination and pressurising; rather offer support and encouragement. Include intrapreneurship as an option.
They believe that the need is for education with two distinct objectives. The first objective should be to raise entrepreneurship awareness because this is a forerunner for entrepreneurial intentions. This should then be followed by ‘start-up’ education that will let students develop, test and shape their entrepreneurship skills [30]. This view, broadly speaking, overlaps with the foregoing views, and those shared by Gstraunthaler and Hendry who believe that the development of entrepreneurs needs a dual-phased approach, with the first phase used for the development of an entrepreneurial mind-set, while the following phase is allocated to the development of entrepreneurial and business managerial skills [31]. Kozlinska believes that the most common aims of entrepreneurship education and training are to [32]: • Change attitudes, raise awareness and drive for entrepreneurship in order to promote new start-ups (possible in the confines of an architectural programme). • Train students in the skills needed to set up a business, to manage its growth (not possible in the confines of an architectural programme). • Build up knowledge and skills in the use of techniques, coping with business challenges and the creation of action plans (not possible in the confines of an architectural programme). • Enable students to cope with a changing environment (possible in the confines of an architectural programme). These goals can be subdivided into the aims, teaching modes and learning outcomes illustrated in prioritised order in Table 1. The time limits and content pressures found in architectural education will inevitably restrict entrepreneurial education for architects to Kozlinska’s first aim; to learn about entrepreneurship in order to understand what it involves. From the foregoing it would appear that if the entrepreneurship education offered forms part of an extended framework, university programmes in architecture should include as outcomes content that aims to develop entrepreneurial attitudes and ambitions amongst students, while possibly touching on the entrepreneurial process and the need for opportunity recognition and adapting to a changing environment. Should the entrepreneurship education offered not form part of a longer series of planned offerings, it will also have to include certain basic principles such as business planning, business models, etc. Table 1: Core aims of EET with teaching modes and learning outcomes [33]. Aim
Explanation
To understand To study entrepreneurship as a entrepreneurship phenomenon and academic subject S.ARCH-2017 106.5
Mode
Learning outcome
ABOUT
Knowledge
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To become entrepreneurial/ enterprising To become an entrepreneur
3
Focussing on the entrepreneurial process: enterprising/ entrepreneurial individuals discovering, evaluating and exploiting opportunities The knowledge base and skills needed to start, develop and grow businesses.
THROUGH
Attitude, ‘enterprising’ skills
FOR
Entrepreneurial skills
Architects’ education in South Africa
One result of South Africa’s Architectural Profession Act (Act 44 of 2000) is that SACAP has the duty of “guiding the profession and promoting the standards of education and training in the Built Environment” [34]. Because of this duty, SACAP plays a very important part in influencing the format and content of the architectural education and training framework of architectural professionals. Because of the role the CAA has in the validation process, they also monitor that the content offered aligns with international requirements and standards. The South African architectural education framework comprises five or six years of study at one of the eight validated Architectural Learning Sites (ALS) situated in a University or a University of Technology. This is followed by a two-year candidacy period leading up to a professional practice examination. After passing the exam a person can register as a Professional Architect with SACAP. Ongoing updating of knowledge and skills is ensured through SACAP’s Continuous Professional Development (CPD) system [34]. Architectural education in South Africa commenced in Cape Town in 1815 at the Technical Institute. Teaching here came to an end in 1822 [35]. The Cape Institute of Architects started offering part-time classes in architecture in 1902. In 1905 the Transvaal Technical Institute (which later became the South African School of Mines and Technology) introduced a course in architecture [36]. The University of the Witwatersrand (Wits) started the first university course in architecture in 1921. They were followed by the University of Cape Town (UCT) in 1925, the University of Pretoria (UP) in 1943, the University of Natal (now KwaZulu-Natal) (UKZN) in 1949, the University of the Orange Free State (now Free State) (UFS) in 1956, while the University of Port Elizabeth (now Nelson Mandela University) (NMU) started in 1965 [37]. Programmes are also offered at the Tshwane University of Technology (TUT) and the University of Johannesburg (UJ) [38]. The curriculum of each ALS is slightly different and they don’t all use the same nomenclature. The curriculum offered by each ALS is determined by various factors. Carter believes that a factor that influenced a particular curriculum is the platform from which it developed [39]. He distinguishes two such platforms, namely an arts platform, such as the classes offered by the Cape Institute of Architects, and a technical one, such as the course offered by the South African School of Mines and Technology. The courses on offer at the Universities of the Witwatersrand, Pretoria, Johannesburg and Tshwane University of Technology all developed from this course. A further determining factor is the Faculty in which the programme developed [39]. At UCT the programme was situated in the Faculty of Fine Arts and Architecture for many years. This reinforced the arts-based platform from which it developed. At UP the programme was situated in the Faculty of Science for many years. According to S.ARCH-2017 106.6
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Carter this resulted in a scientific ‘inflection’. Thus, architectural programmes in South Africa, according to Carter, have developed three distinct generic curricula patterns; the ‘fine arts curriculum’, the ‘building arts curriculum’ and the ‘engineering with arts curriculum’ [39]. The profession, initially through the South African Institute of Architects (SAIA) and later through SAIA’s role within SACAP, strongly influenced the curricula of the different programmes [39]. This is as a result of the institute’s involvement with started with the original part-time courses. The profession and the international links (CAA and through them UIA) it maintains, strongly influences the curricula. This is done via SACAP’s validation system (carried out with the CAA), the evidence of which is the Part 1 and Part 2 framework adopted from the CAA [40]. Another influence is the content prescriptions of both the CAA [41] and SACAP [42], imposed through the validation process. The South African Government, through the Department of Higher Education and Training (DoHET) and the Council on Higher Education (CHE), also has a limited influence the curricula of the different ALSs, mostly as far as the degree structures and nomenclature are concerned [43]. Within the guidelines and restrictions imposed by the foregoing, the academic members of an ALS must conceptualise, design and develop the curriculum of the programme they intend presenting and have it approved - first by the University’s management structures, and then by the DoHET and the CHE. Once the programme produces its first graduates, SACAP (and the CAA) will use the outcome prescriptions of both SACAP and CAA to validate the programme. To this end, the ALS has to provide evidence that indicates that the programme conforms to SACAP’s and the CAA’s minimum requirements. Without SACAP’s validation, graduates from a programme will not be able to practice architecture in South Africa. SACAP’s ‘Competencies for validation’ and (to a lesser extent) the CAA’s ‘validation criteria’ are quite demanding given the limited time frame prescribed by the qualification framework imposed by the DoHET. It must be acknowledged that these constraints leave limited opportunity for the introduction of entrepreneurship education as part of university programmes.
4 Entrepreneurship education offered as part of South African architectural programmes As part of the PhD(Architecture) study referred to, all eight South African Universities were contacted during 2015 to determine what entrepreneurship education, if any, is included in their programmes [44]. One of the ALSs did not provide any information and another provided some information, but did not provide information on the content of one of the subjects where entrepreneurship education could occur. The responses received from the other six ALSs indicate that one does not include any entrepreneurship-related content, three include very limited entrepreneurship-related content, and two include as much as can be expected within the limited time available (refer to Point 2).
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From the foregoing it appears that most South African Schools of Architecture believe that entrepreneurship content should form part of an architectural programme but that the place and importance it is granted is limited, if not non-existent. However, at least two of these ALSs managed to include entrepreneurship content that complies with the indications of Part 2 of this study. This implies that it is possible to include the minimally required content. What it also shows is that, regardless of the entrepreneurial content covered, these ALSs all received unconditional SACAP and CAA validation. At the time of writing, all the ALS’s were again contacted to determine if any changes had taken place since 2015. Not all responded, but those who did confirmed that there have not been any changes since 2015. The situation reflected by the above responses could be similar to the situation in many countries, but only a widespread international survey would be able to confirm or reject this statement. However, the calls made by a variety of individuals and organisations in Part 1 does imply that the situation is not what it should be and that some action is required to address this shortcoming. The question that must be asked is ‘what could be the cause of this shortcoming?’
Possible explanations
Keeping a balance between the requirements of the validating bodies (in this instance SACAP and CAA) and the time afforded within the qualifications framework could be to blame for this state of affairs. However, it could also be that the requirements set by the validating bodies are not reflecting the importance of entrepreneurial behaviour as highlighted in Point 1 above. Table 2 compares the validation/accreditation requirements set by the main international associations.
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Table 2:
Comparison of entrepreneurship related accreditation/validation criteria.
Accreditation/ Validation body Commonwealth Association of Architects (CAA) [45]
The National Architectural Accrediting Board (NAAB) [46] The Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) [47] International Union of Architects (UIA) [48]
Required outcomes related to entrepreneurship or business management • The CAA considers architecture to be an integrative design discipline which requires ... developing interpersonal and managerial skills. • Instruction in the basic professional and managerial practices, skills and knowledge necessary for initial entry into the profession, as a basis for subsequent development through experience and education in practice. • Business Practices: understanding of the basic principles of a firm’s business practices, including financial management and business planning, marketing, organisation and entrepreneurship. • •
No requirements at part 1 and part 2 levels. At part 3 level (Post-University) the requirements relate to commercial awareness, professionalism, delivery of services, practice and management.
•
Understanding of business principles and their applications to the development of built environments, project management and the functioning of a professional consultancy.
The table indicates that the main accreditation/validation bodies require that programmes contain some business management content. However, only the National Architectural Accrediting board (NAAB) specifically specifies entrepreneurship. As was shown in Figure 1, there are considerable differences between business management training and entrepreneurship education. This situation is at odds with the calls for an enhanced entrepreneurial awareness among architects - calls emanating from some of the same bodies responsible for compiling the criteria against which ALSs are measured during accreditation/validation visits.
4
Conclusion and recommendations
The foregoing investigation has found that there is wide consensus and agreement that architects should become more entrepreneurial, and hence that a need exists for entrepreneurship education as part of architectural education. While it was acknowledged that time pressures might be working against the achievement of this ideal, the case study revealed that some South African universities do find it possible to include adequate entrepreneurship-related content while others do not. Furthermore, the investigation found that the criteria for accreditation/validation relating to entrepreneurship education are, in most cases, not specific enough with regards to what S.ARCH-2017 106.9
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should be included in programmes. This ambivalence might be the reason why, in the South African example (and possibly around the world), entrepreneurship education could be lacking at many ALSs. Thus it is recommended that in order to improve the entrepreneurial performance of architects, a first step should be for the accreditation/validation bodies, to review the their documentation and accreditation/validation requirements to make the need for entrepreneurship education more explicit, without detracting from the requirements stated regarding business management.
Acknowledgements This article contains content and reports the results of minor survey conducted as part of the literature review of a PhD study at the University of Pretoria. The study was partially funded by the Universities of Johannesburg and Pretoria, and the South African Department of Higher Education and Training.
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[8]
Ostine, Nigel, Architect’s handbook of practice management, 9th edition, RIBA Publications. London, United Kingdom, 2013, p. 33.
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Maescher, Tobias, The archipreneur concept: how to develop new business models for entrepreneurial minded architects. Berlin: Archipreneur.com, 2016, p. 44.
[10] Reinholt, Eric, Architect and entrepreneur: a field guide to building, branding and marketing your start up design business, 30x 40 Design Workshop, Maine, 2015, [sp]. [11] Vosloo, Christo, Establishing viable architectural firms, Architecture South Africa, 73, (2015; May/June), pp. 60-64. Vosloo, Christo, Entrepreneurial Education and Training for Architects. Athens Journal on Architecture vol.2, (2016), issue 1, pp. 7-26. [12] Nieuwenhuizen, Cecile. The Nature and development of entrepreneurship, in Entrepreneurship: a South African perspective. 3rd edition, editors G Nieman & C Nieuwenhuizen. Pretoria: Van Schaik, 2014, pp. 3-23. [13] Lumpkin, G Tom & Dess, Gregory, Clarifying the entrepreneurial orientation construct and linking it to performance. Academy of Management Review vol. 21, (1996), issue 1, pp. 135-173. [14] Fayolle, Alain & Toutain, Olivier, Four educational principles to rethink ethically entrepreneurship education. Revista de Economia Mundial, vol. 35, (2013), pp. 165-176. [15] Valerio, Alexandria, Parton, Brent & Robb, Alicia, Entrepreneurship Education and training programmes around the world: Dimensions for success, World Bank, Washington, USA, 2014, p. 41. [16] Kelley, Donna, Bosma, Niels, Amorós, José, Global entrepreneurship monitor 2010, Global Entrepreneurship Research Association, 2010, p. 149. http://entreprenorskapsforum.se/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/GEM-2010-GlobalReport.pdf [17] Valerio et al., 2014, p. 41. [18] Valerio et al., 2014, p. 21. [19] Turton, Natasha & Herrington, Mike, Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, 2012: South African Report. Cape Town: the UCT Centre for Innovation and Entrepreneurship, Graduate School of Business, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa, 2012, p. 41.
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[20] Hรฅrsman, Bjรถrn & Daghbashyan, Zara, Entrepreneurship and arts-related education. Proceedings of the Western Regional Science Association 51st Annual Meeting, Hawaii, USA, February 8-11, 2012, p. 23. [21] Elwell, Michael, Why get a real job? Encouraging entrepreneurship in undergraduate design students, Proceedings, IDSA 2013 Education symposium, Chicago, USA, 2013, p. 1. [22] Canberra Accord, Undated information leaflet published by the Canberra Accord Secretariat, www.canberraaccord.org (Accessed 27.01.2017). [23] Rauch, Andreas & Hulsink, Willem, Putting entrepreneurship education where the intention to act lies: an investigation into the impact of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial behaviour, Academy of Management Learning & Education, vol. 14, (2015), issue 2, pp. 187-204, DOI: 10.5465/amle.2012.0293 [24] Valerio et al, 2014, p. 22. [25] Kuckertz, Andreas, Entrepreneurship education: status quo and prospective developments. Journal of Entrepreneurship Education, Vol 16, (2013), pp 59-69, DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.1862295 [26] Valerio et al., 2014, p. 35. Fretschner, Michael & Weber, Susanne, Measuring and understanding the effects of entrepreneurial awareness education. Journal of Small Business Management, vol. 51, (2013), issue 3, pp. 410-428, DOI: 10.1111/jsbm.12019 Gstraunthaler, Thomas & Hendry, Stuart, Entrepreneurial and accounting education through action-based learning: the Genesis Project, Journal of Entrepreneurship Education, vol. 14, (2011), pp. 125-146. Kozlinska, Inna, Fundamental view of the outcomes of entrepreneurial education. Research paper, Centre for Entrepreneurship, Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia, 2012, p. 21. [27] Pretorius, Marius & Wlodarczyk, Thomasz, Entrepreneurial training curriculum assessment: the case of new venture creation learnerships. The Southern African Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management, vol. 10, (2007), issue 4, pp. 504529, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/sajems.v10i4.1063 [28] Valerio et al, 2014, pp. 22-35. [29] Fretschner and Weber, 2013, p. 423. [30] Fretschner and Weber, 2013, p. 422.
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[31] Gstraunthaler and Hendry, 2011, p. 125 [32] Kozlinska, Inna, Contemporary approaches to entrepreneurship education, Journal of Business Management, (2011), issue 4, pp. 205-220. [33] Kozlinska, 2012, p. 12. [34] South African Council for the Architectural Profession, SACAP - SACAP Registration Conditions. http://www.sacapsa.com/?page=conditons (Accessed 13.02.2016). [35] Prinsloo, Ivor & Phillips, Jon (eds), Architecture 2000, Cape Town: Picasso Headline, 2000, p. 139. [36] Carter, Francis, Structures of knowledge and pedagogy, Architecture South Africa, vol. 61, (2013; May/ June), pp. 36-46. [37] Prinsloo and Phillips, 2000, p. 172. [38] South African Council for the Architectural Profession, Accredited Architectural Learning Sites. http://www.sacapsa.com/?page=accredited (Accessed 12.02.2016). [39] Carter, 2013, p. 37. [40] Commonwealth Association of Architects, 2007, p. 12. [41] Commonwealth Association of Architects, 2007, p. 13-14 [42] South African Council for the Architectural Profession, The Purple Book; Guidelines for the validation of courses in architecture by SACAP Visiting Boards. SACAP, Johannesburg, (2012), p. 16-23. [43] South Africa, Department of Higher Education and Training, About Us. http://www.dhet.gov.za/SitePages/AboutUS.aspx , (Accessed: 13.02.2016). [44] Vosloo, Christo, A Framework for entrepreneurship education and training for South African architects, PhD (Architecture) (underway), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa 2017. [45] Commonwealth Association of Architects, 2007, p. 11 [46] The National Architectural accrediting Board, 2014 Conditions for accreditation. 2014 Conditions for Accreditation Board, Inc. Washington, District of Columbia, USA, 2014. http://www.sdstate.edu/sites/default/files/arch/accreditation/upload/2014-NAABConditions-for-Accreditation.pdf, (Accessed: 27.01.2017). [47] Royal Institute of British Architects, RIBA Validation Criteria at part1 and part 2. London, United Kingdom, 2014, (Apendix to: RIBA procedures for validation and S.ARCH-2017 106.13
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validation criteria for UK and international courses and examinations in architecture). https://www.architecture.com/RIBA/Becomeanarchitect/Assets/Files/V alidationProcedures2011-SECONDREVISION2MAY2014.pdf , (Accessed: 27.01.2017). [48] International Union of Architects, UNESCO-UIA Validation system for architectural education (revised edition 2014). UIA, Paris, 2014. http://www.uiaarchitectes.org/sites/default/files/DOCVALID_EN_2014_0.pdf , (Accessed: 27.01.2017).
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RETHINKING VERTICAL CITY – TOWARDS VERTICAL DYNAMIC URBANISM Wen PAN*, Rongbo HU, Thomas BOCK Technical University of Munich 80333, Munich, Germany, wen.pan@br2.ar.tum.de
Abstract A city which can be considered as a sophisticated organism is constantly changing throughout its lifecycle, as a result of economy shifts, demographic change, and environmental pressures. Nowadays, megacities are facing unprecedented issues such as overpopulation, land shortage, lack of adequate infrastructures, and environmental challenges during the process of uncontrollable urban sprawl. Meanwhile, a considerable number of new developments claim themselves in the title of “Vertical City�, yet very few have represented the essence of a city. The definition of vertical city cannot be solely judged by its height, usage or investment return, but has to demonstrate the capability of adaption in response to urban transformation. This paper aims to propose a novel and lean-performance redefinition of vertical city that is adaptable, integrated, and interactive as an alternative response to the survival of megacities in China. Case study of existing building systems related to high-density urbanism will be conducted. On the basis of studying the state-of-the-art building technologies such as robotic prefabrication, construction robots, automated on-site factories, and ambient integrated robotics, an innovative prototype of vertical city, or in other words Vertical Dynamic Urbanism (VDU), will be comprehensively developed in the context of megacities in China, in which structural strategy, construction and future extension concept, overall work coordination sequence, inner transit system, and dynamic lifecycle management will be further discussed.
Keywords Vertical City, Vertical Dynamic Urbanism, construction automation, redefinition, megacities.
1
Introduction
This paper gives an overview of the novel concept of Vertical Dynamic Urbanism (VDU), which demonstrates the potential of the proposed construction methodology, innovativeness in high-rise building design and contribution in the sustainable development of the Chinese megacities. China has the largest population in the world, however it has limited arable land, in despite of the large landmass. Currently, China is experiencing a rapid urbanization process, in which urban population surpassed rural population for the first time in 2011 [1]. It was estimated that in the next 15 years there are approximately 300 million people will migrant from the rural region to cities. To achieve efficient urban land use as well as to accommodate the future urbanization trend becomes vital. The paper will investigates existing issues S.ARCH-2017 107.1
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experienced by the construction industry, urban planners, and analysis as well as identify the research gaps within the academic domain. The overall objectives and the potential impact of the concept will be described. Then followed by literature reviews and case studies to demonstrate the state of the art breakthrough in high-rise building design, advanced construction technology developments. In contrast, case studies that reflects the drawbacks in terms of conventional design from building scale to urban scale will also be discussed. The concept of VDU will be demonstrated through brief description in design, construction assembly, on-site logistics and lifecycle management. A research road map will describe the current research stage and provide a research guideline for a broader and cross-disciplinary audiences. Combining the automation technology, on-site robotics, and sustainable design, VDU will be a paradigm shift in the architectural design and construction industry in the near future. Furthermore, early occupation and perpetual usage in VDU will be possible by implementing state-of-the-art construction system. This will justify feasibility aspect of such development due to its enormous scale and considerable initial investment. Finally, the sky bridges will provide interlinkage between buildings which allows the five essential elements of a city, paths, edges, districts, nodes, and landmarks to be integrated in a VDU complex. The proposed concept will demonstrates an innovative approach in design, construction and lifecycle management of VDU complex in the Chinese context. The proposed concept will potentially change the way that a high-rise building will be designed, built, maintained, and managed. More importantly, the concept offers an opportunity to evaluate whether using construction automation can create a new building type in the form of interactive high-rise building. The research outcome offers a new typology of “Vertical City” that can be used as a guideline for researcher, architects, engineers, and planners when tackling similar issues in the future. Alternatively, the proposed concept is not only solve the issues with Chinese characteristics but also inspiring other countries that facing similar circumstances.
2
Methods
In this section, a rationale review of the state-of-the-art building technologies including Open Building, Robot-oriented Design, and automated on-site factory for both construction and deconstruction, which can be integrated into the formation of a VDU complex will be conducted as below.
2.1 Open Building Open Building is a cross-disciplinary approach to the design of buildings that takes account of the possible need to change or adapt the building during its lifecycle, in accordance with social, economic, and technological changes. The Open Building concept has emerged gradually in response to evolving social, political and market forces, to prevailing conditions and trends in residential construction, manufacturing and many other factors that demand more efficient and susceptive practices. The building is designed in different levels: support structure, infill system, fit-out and appliances. These have been reinterpreted and updated to harness the benefits of state-of–the–art industrial production, emerging information technologies, improved logistics and changing social values and market structures. In this sense, Open
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Building will never become redundant, but perpetually evolve in accordance with users’ requirements [2].
2.2 Robot-oriented Design Robot-oriented Design (ROD) was first conceptualized in 1988 by Thomas Bock. The concept emphasizes the idea that during final on-site construction processes, all parameters should have been already considered at the earlier design and production stages. When considering implementing automation in construction, the building structure, component, assembly method, and equipment selection need to be designed and planned in advance [3].
2.3 Big Canopy: an integrated construction system Big Canopy was designed by the Obayashi Corporation in 1995 and it was the first automated construction system applied in the construction of precast concrete structures. The Big Canopy itself is supported by four mass independent of the building. By placing the structure outside the building, it allows more flexibility than other previous systems. The system has a self-climbing temporary roof. Once the floor was erected, the canopy is jacked up one story at a time and always left a two-story space in between the canopy and the on-site factory floor. Furthermore, the system has a parallel material delivery system which consists of overhead cranes and material delivery lifts. Overhead cranes were operated by workers on the factory floor using joystick control kits (see Figure 1a). The Big Canopy system improves overall productivity and has been applied to several projects. The system achieved a huge reduction in rate of labor and in use of materials. Moreover, it showed the potential for automated construction systems; they can be flexibly altered with the shape and design of the building [4]. Construction automation has the capability to change every perspective of the construction industry. It could also generate many new business opportunities and demand a new generation of construction proletariat.
2.4 HAT Down: an automated deconstruction system Conventionally, a building will be taken down when it reached the end of its lifecycle. The conventional demolition methods critically impact the safety of the public and the surrounding environment, especially when the demolishing of tall buildings is taken place in congested high density urban areas. In Japan, due to the high-density urban feature, maintaining clean, safe and efficient demolition work is crucial. HAT Down method, which is a closed sky factory supported by building (moving downwards), was developed by Takenaka Corporation. The HAT Down system, which can be seen as a reverse of the automated on-site construction factory, consists of a series of integrated subsystems: sky factory roof structure, climbing system, horizontal delivery system, lowering shafts, material handling, sorting, and processing yard, real-time monitoring and management system, templates for cutting. In addition, deconstruction site requires some new types of end-effectors, such as material sorting for recycling, water-cutting, and laser-cutting (see Figure 1b) [4].
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Figure 1: Diagram comparing Big Canopy method and HAT Down method
3
Results
In this section, the initiation of VDU concept, its subsystems, the proposed design scenario, the proposed evolution scheme, and its advantages will be described in detail.
3.1 Concept of Vertical Dynamic Urbanism (VDU) Commonly a building will face an unpleasant destiny when it reaches the end of its lifecycle: to be demolished. Pruitt–Igoe, St. Louis designed by Minoru Yamasaki is arguably the most infamous failure of American social housing program. Due to poverty, crime, and racial segregation, the complex of 33 buildings were demolished with explosives in 1972, which later became a symbolic event of unreasonable planning and waste of construction resources [5]. This is because the traditional building lacks flexibility and variability in its volume, height, and usage. A silver lining can be observed in the design and construction process of Blue Cross Blue Shield Tower in Chicago (also known as 300 East Randolph), which is a 57-story twophased, vertically expanded office tower. The building’s 33-story first phase was completed in 1997, and more than 10 years later in 2010, phase two was completed, adding 24 stories on top of the original, fully occupied building [6]. This example shows that through the unprecedented concept of vertical expansion, a building can successfully consolidate operations while providing a plan for long-term growth without relocating. A city consisting of five basic elements: paths, edges, districts, nodes, and landmarks, is continually transforming throughout its lifecycle [7]. Similarly, a building entitled “vertical city” shall have the same urban elements, while keeping the ability to reconfigure, grow or shrink. Specifically, just like the city, a VDU complex has vertical and horizontal transportation systems as its paths, a flexible building envelope as its edges, variable mix-used functional blocks as its district, sky bridges and roofs as its nodes, and the complex itself as a landmark. Moreover, it can change its volume, height, and usage with the help of advanced building technologies, and responsively evolve in accordance with social, economic, and environmental changes (see Figure 2).
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Figure 2: Visualization of VDA complex in the context of urban fringe in China Technologically, VDU is a high-rise design and construction approach, which combines the above, analyzed state-of-the-art building technologies. To achieve maximum flexibility and to allow the building to evolve overtime the building will be designed as a set of interconnected building elements that act together to form a building that performs many functions, essentially the building will functioning as a living organism. In this section, the emphasis will not be placed on the aesthetic, layout or function of the building, but on a ground-breaking construction method that is tailor-made for VDU complex. In addition, it will be briefly demonstrated how the building changes its volume, height, and usage, thus responsively evolves in accordance with emerging context and conditions [8].
3.2 Subsystems Systematically, a VDU building system can be divided into 4 subsystems: structures, non-load bearing components, services and construction (see Figure 3). In general, structural systems include a series of steel beams and columns that are interconnected and provide a flexible box-shaped support system. The prefabricated concrete double ribbed floor panel also classify as part of the structural system. Non-load bearing component systems include sandwich precast concrete wall panels. Services system consists of interior fixtures, electrical, plumbing fixtures, and heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) of the building. Each part can be easily assembled or disassembles to allow the building system to be upgraded respond to the specifics need of each end-user. Construction systems consists of on-site construction factory (OCF), on-site logistic system, and sky bridges, which will be explained in detail in the following subsections.
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Figure 3: Subsystems explained in detail
3.3 Proposed design scenario The proposed design demonstrates a type of floor plan that is commonly used in the Chinese construction industry. There are four wings allocated around the central core structure. Each wing consists of eight units, which can be used as residential, commercial, office or public use that depends on the requirements from the stakeholders. There are dedicated void spaces located on either side of the wing where facilities the on-site factory self-climbing structure. The design of the building is relatively conventional. The type of the construction method is familiar for the construction industry, therefore, smoother communication and transformation between the concept and real execution can be achieved. With the help of the industrialized building design and the utilization of automation technology, the proposed concept attempts to transform conventional construction sites into on-site assembly environments. The OCF is designed to assemble the building with minimal human intervention. In total, there are five OCF is used for the erection process. Each one of them can function, extend and retract individually, yet they operate under a specific protocol that increase construction efficiency and improve safety. The design of the OCF is inspired by self-climbing crane and special crane application in the ship building industry. When the section of the wing is complete, the OCF will be retracted, hoisting equipment will be dissembled, and then the vacant frame structure will be lowered in to position and functions as the top section of the building. A description of the evolution scheme will be illustrated in later section. Apart from the central OCF, each OCF equips two automated gantry cranes. The gantry crane will cover the entire construction shop floor of the building. The central OCF benefits one automated gantry crane and a jib crane. The jib crane is reasonable for vertical material transportation for the central OCF and carry out the initial construction of the other four OCFs (see Figure 4). S.ARCH-2017 107.6
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Figure 4: On-site construction factory (OCF) The hoist module functions as the end effector of the automated gantry crane, which is equipped with the smart crane hoist system to keep delivery balanced as well as to provide vertical and horizontal transportation of the building components. The hoist module also equipped with a sensor controlled configuration system to help with identifying the location of the panel and following pre-programmed assembly sequences [9]. The motion displacement of the robot can be manually operated, and in case of emergency, it will switch into an autopilot control system. The robot control system is connected with the main site control facilities and the project management information system [10]. Once the building component reaches the correct assemble location, in this case columns are designed with auto alignment feature, and most of the connections are fastened by means of dry connection method. Welding and on-site casting will be minimized to increase assembly speed. There are four vertical material transportation platforms located on each wing that responsible transferring building materials to the right floor at the right time. The vertical material transportation platform (see Figure 5) is controlled by a lifting planning system that generates a lifting plan based on the data such as floor heights, acceleration distance, reduction time, number of stops, construction material input speed, lifting cycle, material transfer speed and waiting time. The data required can be collected from the RFID and ZigBee sensors that located on the building structure or embedded in the building materials [11]. The base of the building will functions as material loading, sorting and pick-up station during the construction, expansion and maintenance process. A programmable logic controller (PLC) is used for the control of the picking system. At the off-site factory, each building component is issued a RFID tag. When they arrive on-site, the tag will be scanned and the information read will show the exact assembly sequence and assembly position of each component. Then the components will be placed onto the picking station in the correct order, ready for lifting and assembly [12]. The sky bridge will be assembled by the correspondence OCF that depends on the direction where the sky bridge will reach out. The OCF will be extended out by using a smaller integrated crane on the upper deck of the mainframe structure. Then the sky bridge will be constructed by the automated gantry crane. At the time of this writing, the sky bridge can only be assembled during a new construction process, which means only a new building can be interconnected with an existing building. Ultimately, the sky bridge shall be interconnected form either side by using integrated retractable assembly systems (see Figure 5).
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Figure 5: Vertical material transportation platform and sky bridge construction
3.4 Proposed evolution scheme In general, the construction of the building follows a bottom-up approach, working from the ground section up. The construction sequence consists of five main stages. First, the assembly of the five OCF. Second, structural assembly, which the steel beams columns and the floor components will be assembled. Third, external faรงade finishing. Fourth, service installation, and interior decoration. Fifth, preparation or removal of the temporary installation fixtures, anchor systems. Finally, the entire OCF will be lift up by the self-climbing support structure. The building component will be installed following a programed pattern, a specific sequence of crane and robot manipulations will occur which synchronized by the project control program. When reconfiguration of the building is required, the interior can be easily modified; when relocation and deconstruction are required, deconstruction can be conducted in a reversed order to the construction process. One possible scenario for the future development over the lifecycle of a VDU complex is visioned below (see Figure 6).
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Figure 6: Development scenario of a VDU complex throughout its lifecycle
3.5 Advantages The proposed concept of VDU presents many advantages on production, construction, economical, post occupancy, and sustainability. A higher quality of building standard can be achieved by using off-site manufacturing facilities. The building is to be designed that encourages the use of construction automation and robotics. Maximized flexibility can be achieved, first, support structure allows a variety changes in the building’s height, span and volume. High degree of flexibility also provides a great canvas that the architects and engineers can embrace different ranges of building designs, varieties of function transformation, and enhanced building performance. Second, floor area can be altered by changing the structural units within the footprint of the building. Third, infill and service components can adapt to various functions to maximize the service life of the building and actively engaging the user’s requirements. Economic goal such as early occupation and perpetual usage can be easily achieved. Building can be disassembled and relocated elsewhere reacting to the local demand. Construction land can be effectively utilized and building will be no longer demolished but reused. On an urban scale, cities can be constructed or relocated in the same fashion. More importantly, the concept reflects the vibrant essence of a city that evolving overtimes and addresses needs of its inhabitant.
4
Discussion and conclusion
The research is a part of an ongoing doctoral research, which is an ambitious undertaking due to the complexity of construction process. In order to achieve operability, the research is systematically divided into four main phases: (1) initial research, analysis and scenarios; (2) development and detailing of the strategy; (3) verification and optimization of the strategy; and (4) implementation, validation, and feasibility study. This paper offers an overview of the Vertical Dynamic Urbanism (VDU) concept and initiates a foundation for the doctoral research. The information mentioned in the paper belongs to phase 1 of the research that can be divided into three stages of analysis. Stage 1 is to analyze current building typology in China and evaluate how to implement task-specific automation technology and single task construction robot in the construction industry. The aim of this stage is to increase productivity, yet minimize changes of the existing building method. Stage 2 is to analyze integrated construction system, semiautomatic construction system, and the potential applications based on the Chinese context. The aim of this stage is to evaluate a range of integrated systems that will increase the overall productivity yet adaptable, flexible and able to execute multiple work tasks. Stage 3 is to analyze the implementation of highly automated construction system and OCF. The proposed solution is to be tailor-made for the Chinese construction industry, yet it has wider audiences once the industry sector is to be reformed. For example, the future construction sector will expose a cross-disciplinary characteristic that many industries coexist and collaborate. In this sense, upgrading the performance of the construction industry not only has the positive implication on one industry but also it will grant much greater contribution to the prosperity development of the future. Furthermore, this topic will establish topic-specific or spin-off academic research which inspires future research development. A development of pilot projects that will attract industry deployment, introduce specialized construction equipment and multi-task S.ARCH-2017 107.9
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construction robots, and enhance Human-Machine Interaction within the construction industry to promote new measurement improving work environment safety. The research will attracts public awareness and involvement. Moreover, this research will assist urban planners to formulate a future framework for urban design and policy-making process which identifies key potential beneficiaries and stakeholder groups, and justifies potential stakeholders’ requirements to establish various versatile business opportunities.
References [1]
Yeh Anthony, Xu Jiang, Liu Kaizhi, China's post-reform urbanization: retrospect, policies and trends (Vol. 5), IIED, 2011
[2]
Kendall Stephen, Teicher Jonathan, Residential Open Building, E&FN Spon, 2000
[3]
Bock Thomas, Robot oriented design of variable building kits, Proceedings of the 7th ISARC, ISARC, Bristol, UK, 1990, Volume 1, pp. 230-236
[4]
Linner Thomas, Automated and Robotic Construction: Integrated Automated Construction Sites, Doctoral thesis, Technique University of Munich, Munich, Germany, 2013
[5]
Marshall Colin, Pruitt-Igoe: the troubled high-rise that came to define urban America – a history of cities in 50 buildings, day https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/apr/22/pruitt-igoe-high-rise-urban21, america-history-cities
[6]
Goettsch Partners, 300 East Randolph, IL, http://www.gpchicago.com/architecture/300-east-randolph/
[7]
Lynch Kevin, The image of the city, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, USA, 1962
[8]
Hargrave Josef, Wilson Ralph, Imagining the tall building of the future, CTBUH Journal, 2013, Issue 3, pp. 20-25
[9]
Pan Wen, Proposed Solution for Implementing the Housing Industrialization Strategy in China, M.Sc. thesis, Technique University of Munich, Munich, Germany, 2013
Chicago,
[10] Murray Norman, Fernando Terrence, Ghassan Aouad, A virtual environment for the design and simulated construction of prefabricated buildings, Virtual Reality, Volume 6, 2003, Issue 4, pp. 244–256, DOI: 10.1007/s10055-003-0107-8 [11] Park K., Jang M., Lee, H., An analysis of the optimal planning of material lifting in the high-rise building construction, Proceedings of AIK, 2001 [12] Neelamkavil Joseph, Automation in the Prefab and modular construction industry, Proceedings of the 26th Annual International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction, 2009
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FROM INDUSTRIAL USE TO RESIDENTS: FORMATION OF LOFT CONCEPT AND ITS DE-FORMATION Assoc.Prof.Dr. Ece CEYLAN BABA Yeditepe University 34755, Istanbul, Turkey, ece.ceylanbaba@yeditepe.edu.tr, eceylanbaba@gmail.com
Abstract As an unique architectural type "Loft" is a concept pertaining to the postmodern conception which requires the simultaneous co-existence of various historic conditions and a certain course of historic events. Loft architecture is postmodern in terms of conception, but it inherits its physical characteristics from modernist architecture. Before the Industrial Revolution, manufacturing was carried out in small spaces located in city centers, with manual tools, and did not require large machinery and a great number of workers. However, with the onslaught of the Industrial Revolution, solely functional modernist buildings, which were large enough to accommodate steam engines and the vast amount of steam they produced, and featured enormous windows for receiving optimal sunlight, were constructed. Fordist mode of production, required large production facilities and extensive pieces of land which offered the opportunity for horizontal expansion to enable manufacturing on assembly lines. Therefore, manufacturing facilities and warehouses in city centers were relocated to the peripheries of cities. Abandoned industrial buildings in city centers were then transformed by the pioneer gentrifiers, who did not modify the architecture of these buildings, but brought about a new architectural perspective. These buildings were stripped off their original functions and transformed into residences and art ateliers through a new conceptualization. The emergence of the loft followed more or less the same path everywhere in the world, and most particularly in New York, which was the most industrialized city of the time. Today, lofts have become a globally recognized and demanded type of residence. However, late-industrializing regions borrowed loft architecture as a postmodern concept. As these regions did not go through a proper modernization process, they also did not construct industrial buildings similar to their counterparts during the Industrial Revolution. Consequently, they implement loft architecture by building lofts from scratch, as mere replicas of their Western precedents, and fail to meet the fundamental characteristic of the loft, which is conversion from a preexisting industrial building, due to the absence of such buildings for conversion. This paper analyzes the reason why loft architecture is not genuine today, but only representation of the original concept can only be understood by comparing different types of Lofts in an architectural perspective.
Keywords Loft, Fordism, New York, Housing Marketing, Gentrification S.ARCH-2017 108.1
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1
Introduction
Loft is a concept which has emerged in New York in the 1950s. [1] The industrial buildings that were built in urban centers during the 19th century, following the Industrial Revolution, started to be abandoned from mid-20th century onwards. This trend was supported by the fact that the physical space required by the Fordist mode of production was bigger in scale than what the buildings in urban centers were able to offer, and the global shift of the U.S. and European industry to cheaper regions with the deployment of the Fordist mode of production to third world countries. In industrialized countries, first spatial constrictions, and then competitive cost pressures, have led to the collapse of industrial regions, due to the migration of industry to areas outside the city and elsewhere around the world.[2] This trend has caused a significant slump in the value of downtown properties and rents. Consequently, artists and bohemians seeking affordable housing and work space started to move into abandoned 19th century industrial buildings. American artists, who seized a lowcost opportunity to recreate the American versions of Parisian artist ateliers, used these spaces not only for work, but also for dwelling. This newly emerging lifestyle rejected the traditional housing structure and resulted in the domestication of industrial aesthetics. This industrial aesthetic, generally accompanied by problems such as lack of heating or plumbing, was also the by-product of a nomadic and transient lifestyle in pursuit of finding cheap shelter rather than a conscious attempt to create a lifestyle. Therefore, the concept that we today refer to as the loft was built by pioneer artists and bohemians who were unaware of what they were creating while they gentrified the decayed urban centers. [3] Arising out of artists' struggle against the principles of modernist urbanization, the foundations of the loft were laid in the 1950s through illegal activities, while the 1960s were marked by the struggle against preventive measures by regulatory authorities, and finally, it was accepted as an architectural type in the 1970s. [4] Lofts even became a fad in the U.S. during the 1970s. [5] Since the 1980s, the concept of loft grew increasingly sophisticated and spread into Europe after the U.S., becoming a type of housing in high demand in many cities throughout Europe, as well as other industrialized parts of the world. Nearly all cities which have old industrial buildings have been affected by the loft trend, as people aspire to live in renovated old industrial buildings in city centers which provide unique and innovative housing options. [6] The concept of loft has evolved over time, and its initial homogeneity was gradually replaced with diversity. Some buildings were nearly completely renewed or even built from scratch under the name of loft, going much beyond a simple conversion. These lofts have been subject to personalization and customization pursuant to diversified individual needs and desires of their owners in 2000s.
2
Formation of Lofts
Today, Lofts are defined as an indoor space which is large and uninterrupted by interior walls, once used for commercial or industrial purposes before being converted into a residence with high ceilings, exposed piping and ventilation systems, support beams and poles, wooden or concrete floors and large windows extending from the floor to the ceiling. [7] The Oxford English Dictionary, defines loft as “an apartment that is converted from part of an industrial building or a warehouse to be used for commercial or, more commonly, for residential purposes�. [8] According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, loft is “one of the S.ARCH-2017 108.2
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upper floors in a factory or warehouse which is undivided by partitions and often converted to be used as residences or artists' studios�. [9]
2.1
Construction of Industrial Buildings Later Converted to Lofts
It is noteworthy that all definitions share the assertion that lofts are converted from industrial buildings. The existence of an industrial region is only possible in highly industrialized countries and cities. Industrialization emerged very late in history, and the world remained under the influence of the agricultural revolution until the 1750s. [10] Manufacturers in the agrarian society were not mechanized, and used traditional production methods within guild systems. [11] These manufacturing facilities were generally small-scale ateliers which could only provide sufficient space for several people to work together. [12] Tools used for manufacturing were mostly hand tools, therefore, large buildings were not required to accommodate them. Similarly, mass production was not performed in these ateliers, so it was not necessary to build large buildings for storage. Consequently, industrial buildings which could later be converted to lofts were not built in agrarian societies. Besides, sufficient technological know-how was not yet accumulated to construct such buildings. Early industrial buildings were either stone or brick masonry, had wooden floors and a maximum of seven stories, in conformity with the architectural solutions known by late 18th century. [13] Due to the materials and construction systems available at the time, it was not possible to construct buildings with large, unobstructed indoor space. However, with the introduction of steam power to manufacturing, the use of steam engines became widespread, and large open indoor spaces were required to accommodate steam-powered machinery. This industrial requirement of large indoor spaces coincided with technological advances in construction systems and the introduction of new building materials, and a new architectural style emerged for building manufacturing workshops, warehouses and factories. The experience of big fires in factories in late 18th century also imposed the use of more durable and resistant building materials in comparison to wood. [14] All these requirements led to the rise of iron and steel as the new building materials of the time. Technological advances in the iron and steel industry during the Industrial Revolution enabled mass production of iron at a low-cost, making iron available for use as a building material. Iron became an essential construction material because it was flexible, suitable for use in prefabricated building systems, resistant against pull-out and shear forces, and it enabled covering large openings and provided advantages when used in multistory buildings. [15] Iron was first used in constructing lightweight roof structures, and then gradually as a load-bearing component. The relation between iron and construction was first developed in buildings which hosted the international industrial expos. [16] Eventually, industrial and service buildings were completely constructed out of prefabricated cast iron. A new multistory building system emerged with the use of metal frames, cast-iron pillars, beams and brick flooring. [17] Steel-iron, concrete and glass became the new building materials. [18] Lighting became an issue in the new buildings which now had deeper and more enclosed interior space with the closure of large openings. Skylights were opened in facades and roofs to provide brighter interiors. Thus, the architectural style of the period comprised of buildings that were cast-iron and framed structures, and had wide glass facades, skylights, free floor plans and large indoor spaces with high ceilings. [19] New industrial buildings were built with consideration for functionality, pragmatism, efficient arrangement and simplicity (which originated from rational and industrial thinking, technical culture). Now, building S.ARCH-2017 108.3
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solely meant organizing; it aimed to arrange social, technical, economic and spiritual spheres of life. [20] Although the new industrial architecture first emerged in London, the U.S. industry developed tremendously in the 19th century, making New York more popular than London for the construction of modern industrial buildings with the potential for conversion to loft. The U.S. further extended its lead, providing 42 percent of total production in the world. [21]In short, the U.S. was the global leader in industrial production, and New York was one of the most important industrial production centers. Therefore, the highest number of manufacturing facilities and warehouses, which had the potential for conversion to lofts, were located at the center of New York.
2.2
Abandonment of Industrial Buildings in City Centers - Fordist Revolution
Machinery high efficiency and low waste rates, symbolizes the fundamental production mode of modernism. Modernism was highly influenced by the success of machinery and aimed to arrange all spheres in life according to the principles of machinery, including the people who worked in manufacturing. [22] The most prominent theoretical attempt to identify machinery as the model of ‘ideal’ human and to mechanize human being was set forth by Frederick Winslow Taylor in 1911.[23] According to Taylor, if production was performed in a scientific and rational manner instead of following practical rules, significant increases in production would be achieved. In accordance with the overall assertion of modernism, Taylor defended that there was only a single way which was ‘the best’ and ‘the most efficient’ way in every industrial production process. [24] According to Taylor, efficiency in production was only possible by decomposing each production process into discrete pieces and arranging these pieces in strict conformity with the unambiguous standards of the ‘time and action’ analysis. [25] This innovation led to the delegation of manufacturing to machines and replacement of qualified craftsmen with unskilled workers. Only three years after Taylor's book was published, the first competent execution of his principles was initiated in the automobile factory in Dearborn, Michigan by Henry Ford, and Taylorism peaked during the1920s. [26] In this factory, discrete pieces of production processes were aligned on an assembly line, and workers deployed on the assembly line performed only a single task in the process. Thanks to this innovative production technology, in 1925, Ford was able produce the same number of automobiles it could only produce annually at an earlier time. [27] In the Fordist mode of production, workers relinquished control over the pace of production to machinery/management. [28] In the U.S., this type of labor process was established particularly in mass production of consumer goods, and gradually diffused into the manufacturing of standard intermediate goods/parts which were used in the production of these consumer goods. The technology of mass production on the assembly line became increasingly popular in the U.S. and spread into Europe in the mid1930s. To clear the way for Fordism to spread into Europe, it was necessary to await the consequences of the social transformation in class relations, which emerged in the 1930s and ripened in the 1950s. Favorable conditions for Fordism were thus established in Europe, with the gradual defeat of radical labor/class movements which were revived after the Second World War. [29] The Fordist production, which scaled up efficiency and production figures, could only be operated in large manufacturing facilities, and it could not fit in the S.ARCH-2017 108.4
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industrial buildings erected during the period between the Industrial Revolution and the spread of Fordism. In addition, the widespread use of electricity, the ease of transportation via trams and automobiles, the convenience of communication with the telephone made relocating to lower-cost buildings outside the city the from downtown buildings advantageous. [30] As the multistory buildings in city centers could not be expanded to accommodate the new requirements, new single-story and large industrial buildings were built on the open land outside the city. The transformation of commercial and industrial areas in the industrialized regions of the world, and especially in New York after 1950, led to the emergence of prosperous regions, but it also resulted in economic, social and physical decline in the city center. Throughout this period, which is defined by deindustrialization, downtown centers of industrial towns, which were once home to production, commerce and administration, experienced a big loss of jobs and population.[31] Social and physical issues such as high unemployment rates, crime, ethnic issues, abandoned vacant buildings and lots, were the most visible indicators of the economic decline in such cities.
2.3 Gentrification of Downtown New York and the Emergence of the Loft Concept In simple words, gentrification is the process which occurs with the relocation of upper classes to areas of urban decay where low-income families resident. [32] The term was first coined by sociologist Ruth Glass in 1964 to describe the purchase and renovation of houses in workers' neighborhoods in London by upper- or middle-income residents, thus changing the social characteristic of these neighborhoods. [33] For gentrification to take place, first the buildings which can be gentrified need to be available, and users of these buildings should be inclined to abandon the area or should not possess the social and economic means to continue living there. [34] Residents who live in an area before it is gentrified usually reflect consumption patterns that are associated with lower social classes, have a higher age average and a different ethnic identity from the gentrifiers. [35] In some instances, the areas subject to gentrification are already abandoned. The flight of important functions from the city center to avoid paying high downtown rent lies behind the abandonment and decay of prospective areas of gentrification. Collective flight from city centers decreases the value of the area and attracts new trends, opening the gate for transformation. With the renovation of historic buildings in cities and city centers, visible physical improvements occur. [36] Gentrification can also be defined as the rehabilitation of the social structure, especially in areas facing physical deterioration due to sociocultural blight and decay, and particularly in historic parts of cities. [37] The role of artists is critical throughout the gentrification process, as they often are the first gentrifiers. [38] However, artists also do not remain in the region they gentrify in the long term, because soon after an area is gentrified, ‘capital’ opens it up to high-income consumers, and the cost of living increases rapidly. This results in the eventual displacement of artists and the transition to the second stage of gentrification. [39] Loft living is directly correlated to the ‘gentrification’ process. Throughout the process, pioneers of gentrification, i.e. artists, architects and academicians, began to settle particularly in the Soho district of New York and improved the sociocultural fabric of the district. Individuals who needed large workspaces, such as painters, sculptors, dancers, S.ARCH-2017 108.5
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writers and TV producers, rented the dysfunctional industrial and commercial buildings in the Soho district for low prices, and began to use them for both work and living purposes. The first loft users were attracted to these buildings because they offered ‘the maximum space for the minimum price’. These buildings were available for low rents, were large, offered flexibility to users, had free unobstructed plans and received plenty of light through their large windows. Consequently, they were converted to mixed-use spaces where artists could not only produce and display their work, but also live in. [40] Thus, the loft concept first emerged in Manhattan, New York in the U.S. where cast-iron buildings with wide interiors and high ceilings densely occupied the urban landscape. Living in Manhattan, which was abandoned, blighted and decayed, became affordable; however, such conditions did not present an ideal environment for residential housing. Nevertheless, the area attracted artists because the buildings offered large and undivided space receiving plenty of daylight, which made them very suitable for artistic production, and rents were cheap. However, the first gentrifiers, who had limited income, could not renovate their lofts where they settled due to both economic and legal restrictions. Yet, these buildings were not appropriate for residential housing use without renovation. In summary, first lofts lacked the aesthetic and auxiliary elements necessary for housing, and they were not very capable of providing good quality of life for their inhabitants.
2.4
Transformation of Lofts into Commodities and Second Gentrification
The second transformation of lofts occurred when middle-class users who did not have anything to do with art started to demand living in lofts. Living in lofts was considered neither stylish nor comfortable until 1970s. Setting up a home in a desolate old industrial area conflicted with the middle class understanding of ‘home’. [41] On the other hand, artists and bohemians who were the only ones to consider living in these areas, did not have sufficient funds to renovate these lofts. However, after artists and bohemians brought about an artistic characteristic to these areas, lofts became an object of desire for the middle class, despite the poor living conditions,. According to Zukin, the most important reason the middle class developed this attitude had to do with the desirability of art and historic preservation, and even more so with the psychological factor that these two concepts were intrinsic to the upper-class neighborhoods of the past. [42] During the 1970s and the 1980s, realtors advertised the lofts in Manhattan to middle-class users as residences where they could enjoy the social and cultural values of the artists and experience the artistic lifestyle. [43] This campaign was successful, and middle-class users accepted and affirmed lofts as a package, which not only included unaesthetic characteristics. By the 1970s, the loft was considered as a sophisticated architectural style and evolved into an object of desire. It became a medium for marketing the artistic and bohemian lifestyle. Lofts, which could be rented for 10-50 dollars in the 1960s, became the symbol of luxury in the 1980s with rents ranging from 300 to 600 dollars. [44] As a consequence of increased rents, artists who gentrified the area had to leave Soho before the 1980s and relocate to Brooklyn, Jersey City, Hoboken and even further coastal neighborhoods. [45] Thus, they left the area to professionals and investors who sought them due to increased real estate rents and taxes, and who had substantial economic resources. [46] Rather than being a S.ARCH-2017 108.6
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consequence of the romantic trends observed in the housing market, the second stage of gentrification in Manhattan is thus a reflection of class-based restructuring taking place in the city center. [47] Lofts underwent major renovations upon the arrival of the new gentrifiers, and the neighborhoods marked by lofts became much different from the once desolate areas where only the first gentrifiers could dare to live in. In other words, the industrial origins of natural lofts were erased from the infrastructural components, with the introduction of walls, floors and plumbing. The original stone, concrete or wooden floors were mostly replaced with new flooring materials. Masonry walls were mostly plastered and covered with flexible coating materials, such as paint, ceramics or wallpaper, vinyl, fabric, cork, and the industrial feel was destroyed. [48] In summary, the organization of residential spaces, i.e. living spaces, bedrooms and wet areas in lofts after the 1970s, presented the same characteristics with the original lofts. However, finishing applications were diversified, and the components of buildings which were once exposed were concealed. Thus, after the 1970s, lofts diverged from the industrial parameters and evolved into middle-class homes. Also, the media and city administrations in the U.S. glorified lofts as the pinpoint of urban revival, further consolidating the loft trend. The media introduced loft living as a flamboyant and marginal lifestyle, while local authorities repealed legal regulations which hindered loft development. [49] Sponsors were another group who were also interested in the residential conversion of lofts in a different way. They did not own or rent lofts, but they were investors, real estate developers and construction companies. [50] Within the context of residential conversion, contractors estranged the loft concept by developing the loftapartment concept. By the 1980s, both the middle class perception of residential housing and the structure of lofts had changed in New York. The loft lifestyle has manifested itself throughout the world. From New York, where they first came into existence in the U.S., lofts spread into other cities, such as Los Angeles, San Francisco. The next phase of the proliferation occurred in European cities. London is where lofts first started to spread out in Europe. It was followed by Leeds, Manchester and Bradford. Lofts were also initially produced through individual ventures in other European countries, such as France, Germany, Belgium. In recent years, loft transformation areas have been established in these countries due to increased interest from investors. Thus, lofts which emerged with the conversion of vacant industrial buildings after the deindustrialization of city centers in the post-industrial society, came into existence in countries which offered a sufficient stock of industrial buildings. [51]
3
From Formation to De-Formation: Classification of Lofts
Based on the theme of transformation since its inception, loft architecture has also been going through a perpetual process of conceptual transformation. With each transformation, it moves further away from the characteristics it embodies, and follows a trajectory of becoming more comfortable and better aligned with the housing expectations of the middle class in general. The phases of this trajectory can be grouped under five headings. These five phases are “natural”, “real”, “intermediate”, “fake” and “new” loft periods.
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3.1 Natural Loft Late 19th century or 20th century steel frame buildings, also called raw loft or artist’s loft, were initially designed for industrial use as manufacturing facilities or warehouses. They are buildings with history and character. These building were either abandoned when their industrial or commercial function expired or used for both work and residential purposes by artists, who gave their name to the period. In general, these buildings did not go through significant restoration due to financial shortcomings or legal restrictions. Therefore, natural lofts are unfinished spaces which are not functional for residential use. They lack many functions of a residential housing unit of the 21st century and it is difficult to argue that they are suitable for quality urban living.
3.2 Real Loft As natural lofts in essence, real lofts are generated by the rehabilitation of industrial areas and conversion of old industrial buildings, which may date back hundreds of years, for a different functional use. Most people do not differentiate between natural lofts and real lofts, accepting both as the same type. Although it is possible to add new materials and new finishing elements to real lofts in contrast to natural lofts, it is essential that the space does not lose its industrial character completely after conversion in order to qualify as a real loft. In this sense, real lofts are very close to natural lofts, but they differentiate as a category with the adaptation of industrial materials to ensure a more comfortable use.
3.3 Intermediate Loft Intermediate lofts are located in converted industrial buildings, just like real lofts. However, an intermediate loft is different from a real loft which is produced by implementing certain arrangements on a natural loft. Although they meet the typical criteria for lofts, such as high ceilings, undivided floor plans, exposed structures and wide windows, they are different from real lofts with respect to certain architectural criteria, such as emphasis on the exposed structure and the finishing work. Therefore, in intermediate lofts, the fundamental architectural criteria for lofts, such as conversion from an old industrial building, free floor plan, high ceilings and wide windows are emphasized, but exposed building structure is concealed.
3.4 Fake Loft The limited number of old industrial buildings cause a shortage of available buildings suitable for loft conversion today, despite the increasing demand for lofts. In this respect, new indoor spaces with loft features are being designed for building from scratch. Fake lofts are typical new concrete structures which have been designed by mimicking the industrial character and typical architectural components of real lofts. Fake lofts, designed to look and feel like real lofts, make use modern construction techniques and materials. However, they do not have to be located in city centers where old industrial buildings are located since they are brand new structures, and in this sense, the location of fake lofts is indefinite. They can be located in city centers, as well as in areas outside the city. S.ARCH-2017 108.8
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3.5 New Loft New lofts are another loft variant, featuring high ceilings, large windows, a free floor plan and a spacious interior similar to real lofts, but they have not been converted from an old industrial building, and they can be located both within and outside the city similar to fake lofts. They represent a softer transition than fake lofts. They are much closer to contemporary residential housing units, and comfort is prioritized. Functionally, they are more similar to today's comfortable residential housing units than an actual loft. Ducts and fittings are not exposed, and high-quality materials and workmanship are used in kitchens and bathrooms. Furthermore, authentic and industrial looking construction materials are not preferred.
4
Conclusion
Residential housing or office units of the loft type, which have been derived from the conversion of old industrial building, as seen in examples from the U.S. and Europe, is next to non-existent. It can also be observed that successive projects carried out under the name of loft in recent years lack most of the architectural characteristics of lofts. Today, the trend of constructing different types of buildings inspired by the concept of loft has permeated into urban and suburban single-family detached housing market. The loft has relinquished itself from its historical identity shaped by necessities and transformed into an architectural concept and type which can be copied and modeled. The loft, which emerged as an economic and sociopolitical alternative to traditional housing models in the 1950s, became a prized high-value commodity in the 2000s. Today, this commodity draws an international demand.The marketing of such projects as lofts should only be perceived as a marketing strategy.
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P. Dahl and C. Dahl, Loft P, Tracing the Architecture of the Loft (Wien, Springer, 2012), p.9.
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A. C. G. Canizares, Lofts (New York, Collins Design, 2003), p.6.
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S. Zukin, Loft Living, Culture and Capital in Urban Change (Baltimore, The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1982), p.1.
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[8]
Oxford English Dictionary, Loft entry, http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/109725?rskey=uBp1cr&result=1#eid (accessed 11.03.2014)
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[10] A. Toffler, The Third Wave (translated by A. Seden) (Istanbul, Altin, 1981), p.44 (in Turkish). [11] S. H. McGrady, A Note-Book of European History 1400-1920 (New York, Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1928), p.179. [12] T. C. W. Blanning, The Oxford History of Modern Europe, Oxford, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000), p.115. [13] N. Pevsner, A History of Building Types (London, Thames & Hudson, 1976), p.274. [14] C. Mignot, The Architecture of the 19th Century (Taschen GmbH, 1994), p.168. [15] D. Sharp, ‘The 19th century’ in A. Blanc, M. McEvoy and R. Plank, eds., Architecture and Construction in Steel, (Cambridge, The Steel Construction Institute, 1993), p.15. [16] A. Batur and A. Batur, ‘Thoughts on industry, industrial society and the evolution of industrial structure’. Architecture, 80 (1970), p.33 (in Turkish). [17] C. Mignot, The Architecture of the 19th Century (Taschen GmbH, 1994), p.168. [18] G. Saylan, Postmodernism (Ankara, Imge, 2009), p.97 (in Turkish). [19] S. Taner, Refunctioning the Industrial Buildings in Istanbul within the Context of the Loft Concept (Master’s Thesis, Istanbul Technical University, Graduate School of Sciences, Department of Architecture, 2011), p.21 (in Turkish). [20] G. Monnier, The History of Architecture (translated by I. Yerguz) (Ankara, Dost, 2006), pp.129-130 (in Turkish). [21] I. T. Berend, An Economic History of Twentieth-Century Europe (translated by S. Caglayan) (Istanbul, Turkiye Is Bankasi Culture Publications, 2013), pp.54-55 (in Turkish). [22] B. Doray, From Taylorism to Fordism: A Rational Madness (London, Free Association Books, 1990), p.122 [23] F. W. Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (translated by B. Akin) (Konya, Cizgi, 1997), pp.62-63 (in Turkish). [24] F. Gilbreth and L. Gilbreth Fatigue Study (New York, Sturgis & Walton Co., 1948), p.113, 114.
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[25] D. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Istanbul, Metis, 1999), p.147 (in Turkish). [26] D. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity, (Istanbul, Metis, 1999), p.147 (in Turkish). [27] A. Artun, Organization of the Modern Art, Dissolution of the Aesthetic Modernism (Istanbul, Iletisim, 2012), p.121 (in Turkish). [28] E. Taymaz, ‘Crisis and technology’, Society and Science, 56-61 (1993), p.21 (in Turkish). [29] D. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Istanbul, Metis, 1999), p.155 (in Turkish). [30] I. Tekeli, ‘The city, urbanization, and the Turkish experience’ in I. Tekeli, ed., The City, Urban Rights, Urbanization and Urban Transformation (Istanbul, Historical Foundation Yurt Publications, 2011), p.33 (in Turkish). [31] S. Taner, Refunctioning the Industrial Buildings in Istanbul within the Context of the Loft Concept (Master’s Thesis, Istanbul Technical University, Graduate School of Sciences, Department of Architecture, 2011), p.25 (in Turkish). [32] A. Ciravoglu and T. Islam, “‘Gentrification’ and Istanbul”, Mimar.ist, 21 (2006) http://archive.is/wrexg (accessed 02.04.2014) (in Turkish). [33] N. Ergun, ‘The applicability of gentrification theories on Istanbul’ in D. Behar and T. Islam, eds., ‘Gentrification’ in Istanbul (Istanbul, Istanbul Bilgi University Publishing, 2006), p.15 (in Turkish). [34] R. Beauregard, ‘The chaos and complexity of gentrification’ in N. Smith and P. Williams, eds., Gentrification of the City (London, Unwin Hyman, 1986), p.47. [35] S. Zukin, ‘Gentrification: Culture and capital in the urban core’, Annual Review of Sociology 13 (1987), p.133. [36] T. Islam, ‘Outside the center: Gentrification in Istanbul’, in D. Behar and T. Islam, eds., ‘Gentrification’ in Istanbul (Istanbul, Istanbul Bilgi University Publishing, 2006), p.44 (in Turkish). [37] P. P. Ozden, ‘Opinions on the role of local governments in urban renewal projects and the case of Istanbul’, Istanbul University Journal of Faculty of Political Sciences, 23-24 (2000-2001) http://www.Istanbul.edu.tr/siyasal/dergi/sayi23-24/20.htm (accessed 03.04.2014) (in Turkish). [38] P. Tan, ‘Art and artist in the gentrification process’, Mimar.ist, 21 (2006) http://tanpelin.blogspot.com.tr/2006/09/gentrification-and-role-of-artist_26.html (accessed 02.04.2014) (in Turkish). [39] S. Cameron and L. Coaffee ‘Art, gentrification and regeneration - from artists as pioneer to public arts’. European Journal of Housing Policy, 5 (1) (2005), p.43
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[40] S. Taner, Refunctioning the Industrial Buildings in Istanbul within the Context of the Loft Concept (Master’s Thesis, Istanbul Technical University, Graduate School of Sciences, Department of Architecture, 2011), p.25 (in Turkish). [41] S. Zukin, Loft Living, Culture and Capital in Urban Change (Baltimore, The John Hopkins University Press, 1982), p.58. [42] S. Zukin, Loft Living, Culture and Capital in Urban Change, (Baltimore, The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1982), pp.58-59. [43] S. Zukin, Loft Living, Culture and Capital in Urban Change (Baltimore, The John Hopkins University Press, 1982), p.60. [44] K. O. Pamukcu, Evaluation of ‘Loft’ Spaces as a Consequence of Commercial and Industrial Relocation (Master’s Thesis, Yildiz Technical University, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Department of Architecture, 2009), p.9 (in Turkish). [45] Z. Karagoz, Loft Concept in Design (Master’s thesis, Istanbul Kultur University, Institute of Sciences, Masters of Interior Architecture and Environmental Design, Istanbul, 2007), p.130 (in Turkish). [46] A. Ciravoglu and T. Islam, “‘Gentrification’ and Istanbul”, Mimar.ist, 21 (2006) http://archive.is/wrexg (accessed 02.04.2014) (in Turkish). [47] Z. M. Enlil, ‘Reconquerence of old city centers and historical housing areas as a project of class structuring: Refunctioning and gentrification’. Domus, 8 (2000) (in Turkish), p.47. [48] Z. Karagoz, Loft Concept in Design (Master’s thesis, Istanbul Kultur University, Institute of Sciences, Masters of Interior Architecture and Environmental Design, Istanbul, 2007), pp.45-48 (in Turkish). [49] K. O. Pamukcu, Evaluation of ‘Loft’ Spaces as a Consequence of Commercial and Industrial Relocation (Master’s Thesis, Yildiz Technical University, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Department of Architecture, 2009), pp.7-8 (in Turkish). [50] Z. Karagoz, Loft Concept in Design (Master’s thesis, Istanbul Kultur University, Institute of Sciences, Masters of Interior Architecture and Environmental Design, Istanbul, 2007), pp.127-128 (in Turkish). [51] S. Taner, Refunctioning the Industrial Buildings in Istanbul within the Context of the Loft Concept (Master’s Thesis, Istanbul Technical University, Graduate School of Sciences, Department of Architecture, 2011), p.143 (in Turkish).
S.ARCH-2017 108.12
MULTI-LAYER SYSTEM OF URBAN OPEN SPACE ---- STUDY IN MONTREAL Wei SHI *, Beisi JIA, Alessandra PONTE, H.Koon WEE The University of Hong Kong Université de Montréal 999077, Hong Kong KB723,The Department of Architecture,The University of Hong Kong ailswanster@gmail.com
Abstract Montreal’s basic structures of metro and underground city were built in 1960s. Their spaces are well used today as the most important part of the city. Montreal’s urban open space (UOS) is full of rich and diversity art works. This makes it become the famous ‘art capital’ after almost 6 decades. Major art works are created by famous local-artists, spontaneous fresh-artists or amateur artists. However, these spaces were not vitality urban space without professional reorganized for whole UOS network after 2003.The multi-layer system offers the basic framework for the network of UOS in the process of rehabilitation. Each layer is reference to the influence for different scope of people. All kinds of UOS for different layers cooperate to work as the whole network, which encourage public to engage in. This study takes Place des Arts as an example because of it is special case, which is a UOS make efforts in all layers for the social cohesion. In this paper, the UOS of Place des Arts area is analyzed and interpreted according to the characteristics and attributions in every layer. And it discusses how the UOS drew general people involving in bottom-up designing for it. At last the strategies of the multilayer system in Place des Arts are summarized as considering as the efficient procedures for keeping people participate in the vital phenomenon of UOS positively. That plays important role in improving adaptability and resilience of UOS.
Keywords Multi-layer, Urban open space, Underground UOS, Bottom-to-up designing
1
Introduction
The requirements for social activities and optional activities (Jan Gehl 2010) in urban open space (UOS) are increasing rapidly with the acceleration of contemporary society. In order to achieve the efficiency and convenient cities without demolition of too many buildings for rebuilt, how to build dynamic spaces in inner cities became a very important proposition. The Place des Arts, as a successful case of recovering vibrancy UOS after reusing in Montreal, is studied in this paper. Most of the fundamental construction was built in 1960s. The beginning infill content was not as good as nowadays mainly because of the government was lack of S.ARCH-2017 109.1
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money to maintain the constructions after getting the huge debt from the 1967 Expo the 1976 Olympic. And the downturn economic was also influenced by the frustration of Quebec referendum in 1980s and 1990s. However, now these UOS have been full of vibrancy activities and events. They are used softly and flexibly in diverse ways. And it is the inclusiveness character of UOS leads Montreal to be the famous New-art and design city. Therefore, this paper aims to interpret the strategies of multi-layer system by analyzing the comprehensive case: Place des Arts.
2
Background
The first underground city was developed in 1962 beside the south of the Royal Mountain. The underground city named Rlace Ville-Marie including 500,000 square meters. After Montreal prepared to held the 1976 Olympic, the underground city starts its high-speed development period (Banham 1976). Four underground commercial corridors were constructed. Most parts of them are under the subway lines. In the 1990s, the underground public space has been a huge system linked to the diverse regional activities. The biggest underground city in the world became a reality at that time. The underground UOS let people avoid the terrible weather outside both in frozen winter and humid summer. The underground city connects to 60 buildings directly. Its tunnels cover more than 32 kilometers and 12 square kilometers. It services to shopping mall, hotels, offices and museums, etc. There are about 80% offices area and 35% commercial area included in this service area. The underground city directly covers 7 metro stations, 2 railway stations, 1 long-distance bus terminal and the Bell Center. And there are more than 200 metro enters lead a tight combine between the upground city and the underground city. (Figure 1)
Figure 1: Connected public resources around Place des Arts Place des Art actually is one piece of the whole Montreal’s UOS system. The whole system in the inner city is called Quartier des Spectacles after re-managed in 2003. Three main subway stations are involved: Place Des Art, Station Saint-Lauren and Station Berri-UQAM. The history of different stratums around Place des Arts can be traced back to the 19th century. In 1800s, the new Collège Sainte-Marie was built with Bibliothèque Saint-Sulpice moved to here. Then, in 1865, the Gesù theatre achieved in its opening. It leads to a number of theaters, art galleries and other cultural facilities has been widely established, such as the Gayety Theatre, Théâtre Saint-Denis and the Imperial Cinema, etc. And the achievements of these cultural facilities also attracted a lot of artists and performers gathered here. Gradually the Montreal received a reputation about hedonism. S.ARCH-2017 109.2
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In the 1950s, the recreational activities developed to be gradually specialization. After it experienced the unprecedented modernization in 1960. New government starts to develop the construction of Place des Arts. In the later decade, the venues for performing were constructed fast in Montreal. The usual empty small locations in the city are also becoming the link points for UOS network. The blend and flourish culture atmosphere is also what the new generation artists admiring. The continue import of talent resources helps the healthy growing of urban vitality, which is the intrinsic motivation of UOS development. (Figure 1)
3
Research Method 3.1 Layers of urban open space
Since the second half of 19th century, several urban theories about improving public environment were proposed, such as Garden City, comprehensive planning and exploring on naturalism, etc. After 1960s, propositions for ecological protection, heritage and landscape protection were increasing. And relative theories and methods were applied in urban planning and design. Since 1960s, the protection practice expanded from cultural heritage to the historical area. After some protecting practices in France, some international regulatory documents were issued, such as Convention For The Protection Of World Cultural And Natural Heritage in 1972 and Washington Charter in 1987, etc. At the same time, urban open space with historical value was gradually getting great attention by people. These places get protection and restoration. Not only the cultural heritage, but also the area has high visual value were protected and adopt in urban planning. This period is also the most fast development time for UOS in Montreal. Huge constructions were built for improving the possible of flexible use by influencing the theory of Archigram. The famous book: Megastructure about the development of Montreal’s urban facilities in that period is also representative writing of that trend. Several ideas about urban space in 1960s were accepted widely, including Archigram considered that separation of infill and integrate structure can help to achieve the flexibility and openness of urban facilities. And Metabolism pointed that renewal of construction itself is the key to make the design adapt to the social transformation. It emphasizes the influence from the participants, users and public, such as Jan Gehl emphasized the public activities in Life Between Buildings, Christopher Alexander emphasized people’s visual can influence the urban open space in A Pattern Language, Kelvin Linch emphasized that identification of places in people’s mind in City Image and Yoshinobu Ashihara emphasized the rhythm and dimension in The Aesthetic Townscape, etc. This paper developed the research mainly reference to the theory of Open Building, which combined the three ideas during that period: (1) using layer system to improving flexibility of building; (2) caring about the renewing and updating of separate parts; (3) emphasizing the reflection of diversity behaviors to space design. At early time, the theory of Open Building was focusing on the practices of housing (Stephen H. Kendall 2000). Nowadays, with the three concepts were widely accept, his idea about layers can be also help the construction of public facilities. This paper considers the urban open space can also be divided in five layers for achieving three goals for a nice place. The five layers are city, district, neighbour, block and plot.
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3.2 Attributions in every layer Since 1960s, people begin to pay attention to the multiple values or multiple attributions of built environment. And a lot of attentions are about public participation, maintenance of public places and conservation. The attributions of space are the essential things what people want to enjoy rather than the physical construction itself, especially for the big scale ones. These spaces can be evaluated by assessing their attributions. In this study, the UOS in every layer is also analyzed and interpreted by the three parts: public resources, ownership domain and UOS realm. Public resources refer to all resources for public consumption in one urban open space. These resources include the physical space with all tangible facilities and intangible services in it. Second, ownership domain of UOS refers to the management and control ways for UOS. At most time, the ownership of space tends to affect the management essentially. Third, the UOS realm refers to the scope of public can reach. It is a scope of physical area. In contemporary urban, a lot public-own spaces and private-own spaces are connected for public use. The public realm is no longer just in the edges of public places as the official document shows. Therefore, this study inspects the three main factors of Place des Arts and surroundings: activities and gates of access, ownership and management strategies, space pattern and situation of inside or outside.
Figure 2: Information flowing between UOS and people
4
Case analysis 4.1 Layer one - City: Soft integration of old and new
After 1960s, most giant constructions are completed in Montreal. People pay more efforts on improving the culture image of these basic structures. The soft integration methods were used widely for diversified urban spaces. Benefit by the fast modern information dissemination, the image of Place des Arts was established all around the city. With relative art institutions were improved constantly, the propaganda of its image was also being optimized. The people live far away can also understand and cognize the vital image of this place. Furthermore, They really desire to come and take participate in it. The space in this layer refers to the activity place for people all around the city. With the help of information technology, these spaces can attract and contain more people as the root of its vigor continuously. It is physical spaces related to the information connection or virtual reality. It is not only the virtual society in the Internet or the one-way information dissemination from the space to the public. For this layer, meaning of a place for a space is the information flowing and growing between people and the space bidirectionally. In this S.ARCH-2017 109.4
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process, the information technology provides help for bigger influence, which can hardly be reached decades ago. People in the specific physical space not only communicate with other people, but also with the UOS. The general people start to interact and contribute to the UOS. For example, people whom walk in to the scope of a place will received the notification about arts finding in the place. Information can exchange rapidly and fast between people about the environment. People record the interesting parts of events in the space, which also will be uploaded and shown in the medias, which are located in the space. This action definitely influences and improves the space attraction and phenomenon a lot. At this layer, both communication between people and interaction between people and built environment lead the achievement of the nice public place. (Figure 2) It is much better and affection than a place sends limit information to the public endless. The redesign of Place des Arts is doubtless a good example for bring activities and building nice image in the whole city layer.
4.2 Layer tow - District: Assemblage of lines and spots In Montreal, regular Festival events have been hosted 12 years, such as Nuit Blanche. These activities happened in 3 districts, which connect 8 neighbourhoods. At one time, more than 200 activities courage people to take participate in the city’s arts. Most of them are free. It can get 350000 visits in a matter of hours. The events improve the publicness of the space. People take participate in the events by two ways of transport: walking on the ground or taking metro underground. The two kinds of transport connect various energy UOS (Figure 3). The blue dashed line is the main path following Boulevard René-Lévesque in the south and Rue Sherbrooke in the north. And the two paths extend to Canadian Centre for Architecture, Berri-UQAM and Parc La Fontaine. That makes a complete circle for the whole area. The loop enlarges the influence area of Place des Arts. The evacuation is improved by the circle completes. The key for maintaining the stability and tension of this loop is the Rue SainteCatherine, which is parallel to the two paths. This street is the earliest commercial one in Montreal. Since 1801, several universities, famous hotels and cultural centers were established around it. It goes across the core area of Place des Arts and Complexe Desjardins. At the same time, two subway lines connect east and west parts with about 50 metro entrances (Figure 3). Therefore, in these district s people can reach everywhere by walking on the ground. The parking problems are totally avoided. Parking space is all used for people activities and communication area. The most important the vivid phenomenon does not gradually decay as circles around the Places des Arts, but spread to universities, churches and malls from the main spine Rue Sainte-Catherine, which is controlled by Place des Arts. The convenient underground walking streets is also a great choice for people to wander to anywhere of this area with suffering the extreme cold weather outside, besides subway. The
Figure 3: Network of UOS in Place des Arts S.ARCH-2017 109.5
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underground streets are not simple corridors but connected to the main entrance of commercial buildings, universities and museums. Countless pieces of original independent upground and underground UOS are assembled together as a dynamic and vibrant integrated system all around the year.
4.3 Layers three - Neighbor: Synchronous development Since 1860s, the art atmosphere began gradually formed in Place des Arts. Since 1960s, Place des Arts, Place des Festival and the other neighbors are linked closely to each other. In usual days, cars go through the Catherine Street. Underground connections can make sure the close relationship would not be cut off by the traffic. And these connections looks like that normal ground walking streets are moved to underground. And the underground street is built large enough as plazas with a lot of entrances to all institutions around. These underground entrances for buildings are usually the main entrances for pedestrian rather than side doors. The publicity of underground space is as well as ground ones. And these spaces are accessible for public population 24 hours. Both safety monitoring management and art design are strengthen in the underground floor. The irregular space is filled with various arts with special lights. The underground floor seems much more like the ground avenue in warmer cities with long-last vitality with the ground floor is playing a role of roof plaza for temporary activities. Because the climate is very cold in winter from October to April, it is hard for people walk individually in the outside plaza. Almost all pedestrians rely on the underground space in this period. The transition space with sufficient capacity paste Place des Arts with other neighbourhood closely. This is achieved by multiple connections as lines rather than point connections. (Figure 4)
Figure 4: Underground network of Place des Arts and neighbors The orange parts in the figure shows that underground space works as an octopus stretches its legs to multiple angles and grasps surroundings. (Figure 4) The underground space play an outstanding role in adhere adjacent neighborhood, especially in event days, such as Festival International de Jazz de MontrĂŠal and Nuit Blanche Ă MontrĂŠal. The whole area will be exclusive for vehicles. Street space is also returned to public people while the multiconnections show a tension with the whole area by offering an alternative active streets and plazas in parallel. S.ARCH-2017 109.6
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4.4 Layers four - Block: Comprehensive of under and up ground In Place des Arts, the underground space and the ground space system work at the same time. Multi-directional connection space let people enable to transfer between outdoor and indoor quite easily, fast and independently. Even in the crowded festival period, one major ground space can accommodate about 40000 persons without congestion. People have no impediments to change their locations fast no matter at the underground or up-ground. The frozen and snow weather in winter is the most important factor prompts the underground open space was built as large as the ground one. Influenced by the mega-structure theories during the period of 1960s. As a result, sufficient horizontal and vertical scale make people can gather together in the underground space without attacking by cold winds. The height above rails is more than 24 meters. Another extraordinary character of the underground floors is that people can see the natural lighting in every floor, even the second or third underground floor. With the natural lighting, the greening, fountain and seats on the public square underground works as same as the ground avenue. Moreover, the inlet windows are designed by considering the ground landscape features. By this way, it is more than just moving the common walking street to underground. When people look through the windows, they feel be encouraged to explore the other side. Attraction and openness of both sides are improved. Underground part works as the normal avenue naturally over the whole year. The ground square and landscape part are used specially with specialized climate. Facilities and equipment are settled temporary or seasonally, for example, the ice slide in winter, strop line in spring and performance stage in summer. During Festival Times, the indoor places are engaged with specific activities gradually. At the last two days of the festival such as Nuit Blanche, the ground traffic would be rechanneled. Whole area is converted to be a playground for whole city. The flexibility use of the ground square makes the place keep the freshness feeling for local people. It is an effective way for using city resources in different seasons. The huge capacity, changeable art characters, convenient transportation and comprehensive design of both up and under ground contribute Place des Arts to be a great living room of the city.
Figure 5: Section of Place des Arts
4.5 Layers five – Plot: Positive bottom-to-up design for UOS Montreal attracts various artists all over the world to come here for learning new media arts or trying freedom creations. The containment all kinds of arts offer fair and opportunities for all local and travel artists to make efforts in different size of UOS. And their creation works become the wealthy resource of special vitality. No matter the travel artists with simple musical instrument or professional dancers or famous curators can find suitable space for display. The first underground floor in Place des Arts is not really below the most streets’ plane. It likes a big plaza roof that connects several buildings. And big steps upon the roof are facing to the main street. Therefore, the whole plot is an urban complex implant the ground. S.ARCH-2017 109.7
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Two theatres and one museum are embedded around it. Many small affiliate spaces attached to the main space are formed under the roof. Small pieces are divided for diverse usage. Though the management and provider are different, most of the places and events are free and donated projects for public. Almost all of these events are the optional and social activities. And all of these activities have several artists involved. Some artists are spontaneous while the others are hired by public benefit organization. The Place des Arts is also a great platform for artists publish and test their art works as a lot of professional artists, amateurs or art lovers walk around here. In other words, the responsibility for the public resources in the complex is divided into a lot of parts. And all kinds of groups can find suitable parts to contribute to. The inclusive for arts is becoming a tradition, that is the most attraction point for art creators to come. And this also inspires a lot of normal public people. A lot of people take participate in a place is also a great attraction for more people come in. The divided and diverse kinds of responsible groups make every corner of the place can be found surprise experience by public. After these efforts, the bottom-to-up design for Place des Arts turned these empty lost corners and walking passageways to be an art gallery and the vitality social core of the city.
5
Conclusion
In Place des Arts, by developing in multi-layer the comprehensive ground and underground UOS is no only providing the convenient transportation but also contributing in several parts. For example, it offers nice locations for commercial shops with comfortable temperature in winter. And the improved facilities let pedestrian can wander and relax at any time. Moreover, sufficient entrances and connections help to reduce the probability of traffic congestion. Additionally, variety formal and informal spaces create a fulfilling social space for public people. And five strategies of developing multi-layer in Place des Arts can be summarized as below. (1) Multilateral communication Using the Internet technologies including social software and Website platform to collect diverse requirements and feedbacks about Place des Arts from people all around the city. The meaning of this place becomes a multi-dimensional interactive platform after close links were built between the soft part: information from people and the hard part: building constructions. The regular activities in various scales can keep the cultural tradition as a heritage of the city. By improving the information flowing changes between places and people the goal of making a space with continuous vitality and popularity has been achieved. (Figure 6)
Figure 6: Conception diagram of strategy 1 and 2 S.ARCH-2017 109.8
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(2) Integration of dispersive resource The Place Des Arts is one of the special points, in Montreal, that has the effects on controlling the tension of three districts. In the UOS network, it is the core connecting to the other important control points (CCA and Berri-UQAM) of the main activity spine: Catherine street. (Figure) At the same time the walking loop and two subway lines encompass the spine. The close connection relationship of the three routes with different speeds is contributing to integrate the dispersive all kinds of individual UOS pieces to work together easily. (3) Connection area replaces traditional connection lines In the cases, it is very prominent that transition space among comprehensive institutions occupies bigger land than the surrounding individual buildings. The fragile and thin traditional line-connection is replaced by the thick and big surface-connection. The surface-connection parts are comprehensive activity squares rather than simple transit passageway. After these efforts, the attraction and service radius of every individual district are improved greatly. (Figure 7)
Figure 7: Conception diagram of strategy 3 (4) Assemblage of indoor and outdoor UOS Half of the energy square is inert into indoor space because of the cold weather in winter. And the ground vacation part is built as a special activities square, which has the regional climate characteristics. The collaborative development of underground and ground floors improve the connection between neighbors and buildings. It also provided convenience walking-ways for people in winter. Moreover, the indoor square and special ground square are very regional and impressive for people. These factors contribute to keep the attraction of these places a long time. (5) Bottom-to-up development
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After optimizing the sanitation and basic facilities, more optional activities can happen. The number of improved places for optional activities and social activities are increased. And many people acting in these places drew more people join them. The relax requirements for holding events in these spaces also encourages a lot independent creation activities. The inclusiveness of UOS for all kind of art works already became a tradition in this city. The bottom-to-up behaviour of hosting public-welfare art activities in UOS is gradually taking the responsibility of leading these informal public spaces to be formal art places. In this process, the negative intervention from public is turned to be the positive parts of urban open space.
Figure 8: Conception diagram of strategy 4 and 5 To conclude, multi-level system is an effective method for improving the adaptability of urban open space, especially for transformation of existing built environment. The strategies for development in every layer is relative independent, therefore the renewal of context in every layer is relative facilitation.
References [1]
Banham, R., Megastructure: urban futures of the recent past, Thames and Hudson, City, London, 1976
[2]
Gehl, J., Life Between Buildings, Arkitektens Forlag, Copenhagen, 1996
[3]
Gehl, J., Cities for people, Island Press, Washington DC, 2010
[4]
Stephen H. Kendall, Jonathan Teicher, Residential open building, Taylor & Francis, London, 2000
[5]
Webster, C., Property rights and the public realm: Gates, green belts, and Gemeinschaft, Environment And Planning B: Planning And Design, 2002,v 29, n 3, p 397-412
S.ARCH-2017 109.10
ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING OF THE TROPICAL BUILDING ENVELOPE Florian Schätz, Dipl. Arch ETH
Assistant Professor National University of Singapore Studio Florian Schätz 4 Architecture Drive, Singapore 117566, akiflo@nus.edu.sg
Abstract The building envelope is one of the most complex elements in the construction and building industry. To develop a profitable prefabricated product, a manufactured modular element should be scalable, affordable, sustainable and serially reproducible. For the user, the envelope should allow permeability of daylight, environmental protection and thermal comfort. As requisite, the architectural response to the tropics is inextricably linked climatic mitigation, cross ventilation, environmental protection and light penetration. The construction industry shifts from analogue manufacturing towards digital fabrication. can additive manufacturing develop and conceptualise new façade systems in the tropics? This Design Research demonstrates methods using 3D printing and digital fabrication to respond on environmental requirements in the tropical envelope. In tangent with passive principles of hot and wet climatic conditions of the tropics, the design uses 3D printing technologies to test the manufacturing of new moulds. A carbon fibre concrete mix minimises material usage to cast complex forms. Stack, weaving or intersecting modular elements create loadbearing structural façade systems. As a result, the design defines different species of modular elements that respond to shading, ventilation, climate and vertical greening for high rise buildings and industrial estates. Undergoing an economic shift, the re-usage of industrial real estate in tropical Singapore is immediate. This preoccupation has the potential to be an extended dialogue into other climatic regions where its application can be harnessed – responding to different set of constraints. The research is funded by the NUS-JTC Infrastructure Innovation Centre (NUS_JTC I3C) in collaboration with Composite Cluster Singapore and LafargeHolcim.
Keywords Additive, Manufacturing, Tropical, Facade, Re-Use
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1
Introduction
How to customize and optimize the tropical building envelope through additive manufacturing? The design research explores the refurbishment of the changing industrial requirements in Singapore using 3D printing for the prefabrication of modular facade elements to improve building performance, natural comfort and climatic resilience of the tropical building. The research foregrounds the potential reuse of post-industrial real estate in the tropical industrial landscape of Singapore through designing and modelling new modular envelope systems of the tropical façade. This effort galvanizes on the latent potential of existing technologies and materials that are currently available. Using additive manufacturing as a tool in making modular elements for the tropical envelope, the project looks at how value can be added to a deteriorating industrial building, the design of the envelope system and the technique of producing these envelope systems. Through the development of different facade species, the design forms modular façade elements that respond to the constraints of tropical climate such as, rainfall, cross-ventilation, light permeation, thermal radiation, sun shading and vertical greening. Casting complex carbon reinforced concrete in complex 3D printed moulds, reduces the material usage, allows more efficient reusable formwork and optimizes the performance of the tropical natural ventilated facade.
2
Design Research
The Design Research materializes through a team of architects, engineers & planners, construction assignments and studio investigations whereby the team engages in participation with the academic community and the construction industry. It intensifies internal and external collaboration with start-ups in 3D printing and Carbon Composites, landdevelopers and the concrete industry that develops and tests the design through different scales and stages of the project. The cumulative framework of the research is categorized through the following:
2.1 Defining Tropicality and the Singaporean Context Back in 1956, pioneers in tropical modernism, Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew stated that, ‘The rapid increase in population over the area of the tropics presents itself to the world as a problem of utmost gravity.’ Fast forward to present day, the region is overcome by both the boom in population growth and reform in economic frameworks to support the former. Deep seeded in rapid industrialisation of the manufacturing sector of yesteryears, modern day Singapore increasingly gears toward the formation of a knowledge based economy. (“Knowledge”, 2017) Due to the shift of the economy towards automated manufacturing in Singapore, there is a need to refurbish and adapt the current industrial real estate. There is also a steady decline in the rental market for industrial buildings, leaving an open opportunity to reinterpret use of building stock previously dedicated for the manufacturing industry. (Istvan Loh, 2016) The case for this is self-evident in the interest garnered by Singaporean industrial giant, Jurong S.ARCH-2017 111.2
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Town Corporation (JTC) for the refurbishment of old industrial buildings that will support new programs such as co-working and co-living space. (Terence Lee, 2015). Due to the shift of the economy towards automated manufacturing in Singapore, there is a need for refurbishing and adapting existing buildings in the industrial real estate market as well as investments in developing innovative solution for the buildings of manufacturing industries. The project proposes that additive manufacturing might offer a sustainable solution for future manufacturing of faรงade elements following established rules and typologies, called faรงade species.
Figure 1: Principles of the Tropical Facade (Author, 2017) The context of the built environment in modern day Singapore is one that is significantly marked by the construction of hermetic steel and glass buildings that employ active proprietary systems that provide comfort and protection from the harsh hot and wet conditions of tropical climate. The project suggests to significantly reduce the cooling loads of buildings, which currently make up 50% of the total energy consumption within a typical building through natural ventilation and adequate passive climatic response. (National Climate Change Secretariat and National Research Foundation, 2011) By engaging the tropical faรงade as integrated structural systems though sun-shading overhangs, compartment for vertical greening, rain protective layers and opening for breeze and light, the modular elements follow geometrical and operation principles and traditional techniques of designing for the tropics that can supplement a larger set of rules to govern the formal and tectonic development of the building envelope. In this case, modular faรงade systems for the application into industrial building types. (Figure 1) These typologies result in S.ARCH-2017 111.3
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a family of more than fifty different facade species, selected and transform in a rigorous process of performance simulation to avoid rain penetration, allow cross ventilation and structural rigidity, reduce heat radiation, enhance water storage, passive cooling and green shading. Variations and iterations each units evolve in a response to the climatic elements of the tropics. (Figure 2)
Figure 2: Different Iterations of the Tropical Faรงade (Author, 2017)
2.2 Innovation, Method and Technique The innovations of the project are three-fold. The first, being the reuse of industrial buildings through repurposed facades. The second, the designing of a facade that is optimised to the tropical elements. The third, the reuse of building material incurred in creating formwork for the facades. The strength of the proposition, lie in the areas where conventional manufacturing reaches its limitations and allows to create models of highly complex tectonics, structures and forms. Printing single elements is not profitable. However, printing the mould allows the repetition of the building component and give opportunities to develop a product that allows to scale the quantity at a competitive price.
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Figure 3: Replacing shell of Industrial buildings with Tropical envelope to inject new functional possibilities (Author, 2017) As a country such as Singapore begins to make its next shift into the digital economy, a large part of the manufacturing industry, including industrial buildings, are approaching redundancy. (Jurong Town Corporation, 2016) The sustainable fabrication techniques support the creation of a facade system that harnesses passive strategies and allows the re-use of buildings in a changing economy. The introduction of the tropical envelope that can be designed as per projected future potential use of the building allows for the revitalisation of these buildings. Re-thinking the traditional ventilation blocks, by expanding into the use of additive manufacturing for casting and prefabrication modular building elements, will activate opportunities within a gradually redundant industrial landscape.
2.3 Making of Modular Forms In the context of additive manufacturing, possibilites in form and tectonic correlates directl to the capabilties of the technology. By default, the three dimensional printer creates mass through the extrusion of filament creating additive layers. These layers can be deposited through a series of layers at a maximum angle of 45 degrees before requiring a support structure that disrupts the cantilever. The most efficient and optimized design shapes a modular formwork. Allowing complex structures with undercuts, without any substructure.
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Figure 4: 3D Printed Recyclable Mould for Concrete Cast (Author, 2017) Due to the cyclic nature of the proposed manufacturing process, a large part of the capital cost in creating a customised mould using additive plastic filament can be melted down into its original state and re-extruded as filament to produce future moulds after the casting process. (Figure 4) The strength of such a method lies in the cost of production remaining low - even in the long run, as the longevity of the original capital cost can be stretched out the long run. (Savanna R Feeley, Bas Wijnen, and Joshua M. Pearce, 2014) As a result, the economic framework of this type of fabrication process has the potential to reap diminishing costs, and in turn, increasing returns.
2.4 Simulation and Fabrication of the Tropical Facade
Figure 5: Simulation of Thermal Radiation in Equatorial East-West Orientation (Author, 2017) As part of the design exercise, the chosen iteration of tropical faรงade is tested against variables such as thermal radiation, rain flow, lux and glare. Oriented towards the equatorial East-West orientation, the simulation depicts average thermal radiation levels inflicted on a typical floor level and the levels of radiance captured on the surface of the facades. (Figure 5) The faรงade system was also simulated against levels of rain, lux and glare to find in the process the ideal form for the creation of a 1:1 prototype. (Figure 6)
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Figure 6: Simulation of Thermal Radiation in Equatorial East-West Orientation (Studio Florian Schätz, Bek Tai Keng and Kelmen Tan Yih Ting, 2016)
Figure 7: 3d Printing the Mould for the Casting of Concrete (Author, 2016) To test the feasibility of the proposed fabrication technique, a mock up of the Polylactic Acid (PLA) compound mould for the cast was printed by an in-house 3D Printer at 1:1 scale. The mould was printed in parts to allow for ease of removal once the concrete had set. Concrete is poured into the cast and the malleable formwork is easily removed. Projecting future S.ARCH-2017 111.7
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alternatives, further feasible possibilities that can be explored include utilising flexible filaments, or creating formworks in carbon metal filament.
3
Conclusion and Outlook
Figure 8: Conceptual Impression of Application to Existing Building Structure The use of additive manufacturing technology rapidly supports the building industry, one of the fastest growing regions in the world in the Tropical and Subtropical Belt of South East Asia. Its fast constructability, performance and reusability will cut down energy cost in constructions and operation of buildings in the tropical belt. As such the project is developed as cohesive approach towards the agenda of sustainability in which different stages and scales of the project propagate the next. In this case, sustainable technique of casting supports the development of the passive tropical building envelope which in turn supports the re-cladding and potential re-use of deteriorating industrial buildings.
Acknowledgements The team at Studio Florian Schätz are grateful for the support received from NUS JTC I-3 Centre and industry partners, including Carbon Composite Cluster & LaFarge Holcim. The research has been a body of work internally within the research team and academic output from students at the National University of Singapore, School of Design and Environment.
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References 1.
Fry, Maxwell, and Jane Drew. Tropical architecture: in the dry and humid zones. London: B.T. Batsford Ltd., 1964
2.
National Climate Change Secretariat and National Research Foundation. Air-con System Efficiency Primer: A Summary., 2011
3.
Jurong Town Corporation, JTC Quarterly Market Reports, Industrial Properties, Fourth Quarter 2016. 2016
4.
"Knowledge." Singapore Economic Development Board - Investing Business in Singapore. Web. 30 Mar. 2017.
5. Loh, Istvan. "Singapore's industrial property woes." Singapore Business Review. 2016. Web. 30 Mar. 2017. 6. Lee, Terence. "Tech in Asia - Connecting Asia's startup ecosystem." Tech in Asia Connecting Asia's startup ecosystem. Tech In Asia, 2015. Web. 29 Mar. 2017. 7. Jacobs, J. OECD – Metropolitan Cities Review, 1992 8. Feeley, Savanna R., Bas Wijnen, and Joshua M. Pearce. "Evaluation of potential fair trade standards for an ethical 3-D printing filament." Journal of Sustainable Development 7.5 2014: 1. 9. Tai Keng, Bek, and Kelmen Tan Yih Ting. "Additive Manufacturing of Tropical Façade System." Dissertation under Supervision of Asst Prof Florian Schätz, National University of Singapore, 2016.
Studio Florian Schätz is made up of Assistant Professor Florian Schätz, Tushar Mittal, Astrid Mayadinta, Zuliandi Azli, Ng Sze Wee, Jiey Ang Wu
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A[PARK]MENT
FUTURE PROJECTION ADAPTIVE REUSE OF PARKING BUILDING Ade Amelia*1, Vania Dwi Amanda Surya2 Universitas Indonesia [1]Jalan Wika no 62 RT004/06 , 12640, Jakarta, Indonesia, ameadelia@gmail.com [2]Jalan Sawo No.1A Kec. Beji, Depok, Jawa Barat, Indonesia, vania.dwi16@gmail.com
Abstract Jakarta as the biggest city in Indonesia is suffering from urban sprawl. The population itself have not yet reach the effective density compared with the other developed cities in the world. Imbalance proportion of commercial and residential space created more complex problems. The distance of working place in the city centre and affordable living space in the satellite city have been stretch to certain length, making it more difficult to travel every day back and forth. All of this issues are start from a big picture of spatial justice. It is true that spatial justice issue should be review from several perspectives. However, the citizen of Jakarta always become a victim of spatial planning. They have to work in the city center, meanwhile the high cost of living space causing Jakarta residents forced to live in the satellite city. In addition, Jakarta still struggling with public transport since it does not reach all the places effectively. Using a private car is still the main choice for many people. That is why parking spaces is still very important in Jakarta. Jakarta already has had programs to maximize public transport by making various types of transportation. Hopefully, many people will be aware to make public transport becoming the main choice of commute. If these expectations to be realized within the near future, what about the parking building? Jakarta’s people will reduce their needs of using private car and the parking lot will be empty and become less profitable. Parking building is one of the intriguing spaces to be reuse in the future of Jakarta. Using mobility issues and imaginative scenario for the big city, there is a chance for the future empty space to become a potential public or residential space. As an architect, we can take advantage of the parking building to be Jakarta’s mobility alternative problem solving.
Keywords: mobility, transportation, parking, adaptive reuse, dwelling 1
Introduction
Jakarta is a capital city of Indonesia which have Citizens consider their needs of living space by the comfort and their financial condition. The financial threat is shown by a S.ARCH-2017 112.1
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difference of the accommodation affordability between the center of the city and suburban. Jakarta, which has the density of population 15.366 citizens/km only 1, shows that the population is spread too fast facing to the suburbs. Commuters willingly travel far from their office and home just to meet the two most important needs: working in the city center and at the same time living with their family in the city’s margin. The extraordinary paces of urban sprawl in Jakarta become a serious issue. Studying the spatial plan of the city is very important. Therefore, the potential angles of the city space can be utilized in order to unravel the problem. Reviewed from the perspective of Jakarta City Planning 2030 (UDGL and RTRW 2030)(2), one of the goals of Jakarta is reducing private transportation to make space for public mass transportation. This is important decision since Jakarta is one of the worst city in the world that suffering from the chronic congestion. If the matter will occur in the future, what will happen with the parking building that already existed? It is a possibility that the parking buildings along Sudirman Street threatened to be abandon. Two of these issues, the needs of living space and the future projection of parking building produce an idea: A [PARK] MENT. This idea is a combination of living space in a parking building with adaptive reuse method. Can this threatened parking building used as a residential space which affordable and livable for Jakarta’s citizen especially commuters? By studying the potential of supporting living facilities in Sudirman and surrounding areas, it is not impossible for utilizing the parking building for the private spatial function.
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Literature Review 2.1 City : The Phenomenon of Urban Sprawl
Nowadays, city is growing larger as an impact of globalization and the development of technology which is a part of urban process. People in village are fascinated to live in city that they think will give them better life, proper job to fulfill their daily needs. As a result, some of cities, which are capital city, increase at an extraordinary pace to the margin of the city. This phenomenon can be refereed as urban sprawl. “A number of definitions of sprawl can be found in the literature (Brueckner and Fansler 1983; Lowry 1988; Sierra Club 1998; Galster, Hanson et al. 2001; Burchell and Mukherji 2003; Nechyba and Walsh 2004). A common element in those definitions is that sprawl is always associated with the expansion of metropolitan areas as population grows or with unplanned growth in any form. In terms of the spatial pattern, it has been associated with a number of development patterns: scattered, leapfrog, strip or ribbon, low density, or any non compact development.” (Fitriani and Harris, 2011)3 These have happened as a result of local government policy in order to develop their city, which is more profitable for developer to reach their market target. Moreover, the correlation between spaces in city and people as citizen (both of settle citizen and nomadic people) do not include in the process of development. Thus, the development
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of city is in huge pace increase yet the quality of people life is forgotten. There is no spatial justice in the spatial distribution in city. (Sutanudjaja, Center for Urban Studies)4
2.2 Mobility and Accessibility in City Actually, urban sprawl is prolonged the main problem regarding to mobility and accessibility in city, congestion. Citizens tend to live in suburb or satellite’s cities even they work in city center. These multiply the distance and add the time to reach destination from their home. Efficiency and effectiveness to reach destination are necessary in order to develop a city. Since people decide to live in city with hope can easily reach their destination, such as jobs, school, market and etc. “Flows and mobility are not goals in themselves. The key element is accessibility, to easily reach one’s destination.”(Firth, 2012)5 It is important to have a proper transportation system in city, but it is more crucial to shorten the distance and time towards a place.
2.3 What is Dwell? Based on Wilhelm Lerner and team for Arthur D. Little Future Lab, in 2050 the mileage of travelled inside city will rise three times from now. Long mileage will affect the duration of travel time and congestion also adds up the length. Thus, urban people spend more time to commute rather than home or others. The owned house is no longer being the place to spend their time. It becomes just a place to rest for weary of congestion and the length of travel time. The concept of home can no longer run properly, so what is actually called home? “Home is located in space, but it is not necessarily a fixed space. It does not need bricks and mortar, it can be a wagon, a caravan, a boat, or a tent. It need not be a large space, but space there must be, for home starts by bringing some space under control. Having shelter is not having a home, nor is having a house, nor is home the same as household.” (Douglas, 1991)6. In the future, the current concept of home, which contains large spaces for living room, dining room, kitchen, and bedrooms, will be no longer applied. It supposed to improve the quality of life. People can dwell everywhere as long as they can easily reach their destination and other facilities to support their life i.e. school, market, entertainment area, and others.
2.4 Adaptive reuse to increase the value of the abandon building Adaptive reuse can use as a program to build up city in future. It can enhance the added value of building’s original intended use. The team of Adaptive Reuse Handbooks Program, City of Los Angeles stated that,
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“When buildings are brought back to life through adaptive reuse, they revitalize neighbourhoods by preserving our historic architecture, creating new housing and mixed-use opportunities, and increasing public safety. Adaptive reuse enhances economic growth in urban and commercial cores.” (Adaptive Reuse Team, 2006)7. An abandoned building such as parking lot can be transformed the function to be a dwelling space in order to revive the surroundings.
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METHODOLOGY
The method will be done in this paper used several ways. First of all is collecting data to mapping the distribution of spaces in Jakarta, such as business district area and residential area. Secondly, author is distributing questionnaires about the use of mass-transport and private cars. The last method is survey the area of building parking lot. This paper aims to contribute an idea about future projection of living spaces in urban area. So citizen can improve their quality of life.
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Result and Discussion 4.1 Extraordinary Pace of Urban Sprawl in Jakarta
Jakarta has widened the development to the suburbs. It can be seen when workers of Jakarta mostly have their accommodation in satellite city with inadequate access to be able to go home and back to the working place within one day. Meanwhile, the small cities located in the margin are growing rapidly, such as Bekasi, Depok, Tangerang, Serpong and Bintaro. The picture below shows the distribution of the population of Jakarta in the last 10 years. The area of Central Jakarta's Golden Triangle (Rasuna Said, Thamrin, Sudirman) as Central Business District has the least population than in the suburban area. Whereas, Jakarta still have not achieved effective density. Extraordinary pace of population spread causing Jakarta’s workers to travel a far distance and headed to the same direction every day.
Figure 1. Population Distribution in Jakarta between 2000 and 2010 Source: Kata Fakta Jakarta-RUJAK, 2011
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This extraordinary pace of urban sprawl certainly produces more complex problems. One of the worst and became a latent problem of Jakarta is mobility. The large number of travel, which circulating in certain areas that are not facilitated by the supporting necessities may cause more serious issues. The picture below shows the number of travel that circulating in between the center of Jakarta and its margin areas. Every day, people go back and forth commuting from their working place to their home. A total number of the journey which going in between city center and suburban reaching more than 1 million of trips. The busiest area where people headed the most is the central business district, located in golden triangle of Sudirman-Thamrin-Kuningan. There are many of national and international companies who operating their office in this area. As a result, workers of Jakarta and its surrounding areas are absorbed into this business district.
Figure 2. Total of trips per day in Jakarta Source: Kata Fakta Jakarta-RUJAK, 2011 One of the main streets of this busiest district, which has a total 16 million trips a day is Jl. Sudirman-Thamrin. Meanwhile, the total of trips circulating in Jakarta reached 20.7 million. This area holds the 3 scale of transportation mode circulating: intercities, inner-city, and inner-outer city. With the total of 6.6 million private vehicles and 91.082 public transportation, the proportion between private and public transportation mode is unbalanced. No wonder why congestion in Jakarta became an everyday situation. With this condition, all of Jakarta’s workers who are using both private and public transportation suffer loss due to traffic jams. S.ARCH-2017 112.5
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Figure 3. Sudirman street map Source: author Sudirman street suffers the most from the losses. Within 5 km distances, every day the street crammed by 174000 vehicles. By calculating the distance, the vehicle speed, as well as the fuel that wasted in this situation, It is estimated the losses reach Rp. 3.306,000,000.0(3 billion dollars) a day8 Not only financial aspect, but also the loss of time and energy spent on productivity time from workers. Every day, the average commuter spends time on the road to total approximately 3-4 hours just to trip back and forth. They are wasting 2 hours only to go to the working place, which is frustrating. They are sacrificing their time only to reach their destination. It is not including the time they wasted on meeting to the other place or doing survey location. It creates another issue such as the reducing of quality time with family or to be exact, changing their behaviour of dwelling and the opportunity of having a good quality of life. The consequences and the causes of urban sprawl are connected to each other. The chronic congestion that Jakarta suffering from is the result of mileage between living space and working place. Meanwhile, spatial justice plays the big role here. The imbalance proportion between living space and business district become one of the reasons of the extraordinary pace of urban sprawl in Jakarta. The only affordable cost of accommodation is located in satellite city which 30-40 km away. People who considering to live in Jakarta or working here usually choose to live in the suburban area.
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Residential Space Residential Space and Public Facility Green Space General/Private Building Government Building Public Facility Green Space and Facility Protected Green Space and Facility River
Figure 4. Zoning Distribution of Menteng Area (Sudirman street) Source: UDGL Jakarta
4.2 Commuter of Jakarta Based on interview with 142 respondents around the Sudirman-Thamrin street (Sudirman Station, TransJakarta Shelter Bendungan Hilir, TransJakarta Shelter Dukuh Atas, SCBD, and several bus stops along Sudirman), the author took some important points to be observed from commuters: a. Age and Gender of Commuter The proportion of gender and age of worker shows the level of productivity of workers in Thamrin-Sudirman. Our respondent 70 % are men and the rest are women. The average age of commuter considered as young worker in their productive age: 35 years old. It also shows several of their reasons to commute every day, back and forth in a far distance. Most of them have a small family who still in their beginning of building the wealth. The needs of affordable houses and the proportion between traveling cost and their wages have become their main consideration.
Figure 5. Age and gender proportion of commuter Source: author S.ARCH-2017 112.7
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b. Salary It is an important information about the range of commuter’s salary regarding their affordability to choose their accommodation. Nowadays, it is difficult to manage to live near from the working place. As a result, it becomes a complex mobility issue. Imbalance proportion between their salary and their living cost make the commuters have no other option. From the author’s interview, the average basic cost of living needed is minimum 3 million rupiahs/month, meanwhile, compared the average income earned by commuters, they usually get 3-5 million rupiahs/year. The proportion of salary and living cost are the main reason why they choose accommodation far from their working place.
Figure 6. Monthly income of commuter Source: author c. Address of residence and the origin of the city The capital city always indicated as a source to get a proper living. This situation also happened in Jakarta. There are many of workers in Jakarta come from the other province and country, making it as the busiest and have the highest GDP in this country. From the workers whom we interviewed, 30% of them are from the other province and live in Jakarta only for working. Meanwhile, the average distance between office and accommodation of commuters is 30 km. The farthest distance that they traveled back and forth every day is between 50-60 km.
Figure 7. Destination and mileage of commuter Source: author S.ARCH-2017 112.8
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Figure 8. The origin of the city of Jakarta’s worker and commuter Source: author d. Transportation System It is a public secret that Jakarta does not yet have a good transportation system. Public transportation cannot reach all of the places. Between one transportation and the other one did not well-integrated. It is understandable why people still clinging to the private vehicle. Many of citizen of Jakarta complaining about the public transportation and the congestion they gone through every day. It is quite confusing and tiring to reach one place and another without a private vehicle. We interviewed commuters about their chosen transportation that they found convenient. Most of them choosing Commuter Line (city train) as it reaches the destination fastest than the other transportation.
Figure 9. Data of transportation used by commuter Source: author S.ARCH-2017 112.9
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Seeing the data of respondent, our hypothesis about commuter and urban sprawl is heavily related to one another. From 140 respondents, many of them are willing to sacrifice their time and money to travel the distance between home and working place. In fact, long distances between home and workplace is not a sign of a good city for their citizen in terms of the density effectiveness. It is not only simply a matter of mobility. Viewed from a broader perspective, the source of this matter is about city planning and the spatial justice. The real question to be asked here, who occupied Jakarta if the population itself spreads to the perimeter of the city? As the capital city and source to earn living, the answer is money and profit. Who could give more profit can occupy the city center while the less profitable should move to the margin. No wonder why the commercial area in the city center is very rampant while the land price and rent for the residential area had to increase. The only one who could occupy Jakarta is people who are in a high and wealthy class. Then where is the place for the citizens of Jakarta itself? On the other hand, there are people who change their life style to overcome the problems with mobility. The dwelling place also changes due to a long time they spent on the road. Rather than travel in the same time with the other commuter, they are staying in office and have overnight there. It becomes common phenomena where people choose to stay until late night in their working place in order to avoid the traffic jam or working overnight. “Based on now Jakarta and its satellite cities condition which its mobilization rate of people is high, some people do not dwell anymore in the house, but instead in an apartment, rental house /room, or in a flat. This situation creates an understanding and assumption that dwell is not need to be large because it so rarely used by some citizens that spend more everyday time outside their dwelling area.� (Sri Wulandari, 2016)9 Using this phenomenon, there are possibilities of using alternative opportunities in another dwelling form. One of this example could shorten the distance between working place and dwelling space as well as reduce the congestion. Instead of staying in the office, how about using the wasted space in the city, especially in Sudirman-Thamrin street, which absorbed many of Jakarta’s workers to provide the more affordable residential space in the centre of the city?
4.3 SUDIRMAN-THAMRIN STREET: NOW and FUTURE
(a) (b) Figure 10. (a) commercial space in Sudirman Street (b) Residential Space Source: UDGL Jakarta S.ARCH-2017 112.10
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Sudirman-Thamrin street is one of the busiest roads in Jakarta. Mode of transportation that passes through the road is also quite a lot. There are a total of about 40s kind of public transportation includes bus, minibus, kopaja, metromini, Transjakarta, etc that come this way with diverse routes. However, the private vehicles still have more volume than a public vehicle. Everyday, there were about passing vehicles 179000 per day on this road. At the moment, there are no rules or restriction on private vehicles. However, with the addition of public transport like the MRT, in the future Jakarta should do a strict rule against personal transport. In fact, now less than half the Jabodetabek commuter workers are using public transport or vehicle together. User of public transportation only 15% while the rest of citizen using private vehicle (BPTJ) 10
Figure 11. Location of CommuterLine and TransJakarta bus stop Source: author What kind of city will Jakarta be in the future? What are the characteristics of Sudirman street? Probe of the source from RTRW 2030 and UDGL MRT 20122 here are the goals of Jakarta in the future: a. Mix-used purpose space Sudirman-Thamrin streets are included in the central business district. Therefore, most of the activity on these streets relating to commercial needs and mixed-type use space. Mixed use here includes offices, hotels, apartments, shopping centers, and so on. The vision of this region is to become a prestigious business center. Thus, the percentage of commercial areas for the use is up to 70%. b. Integration between Areas A liquid connection between areas become one of important point of this district. The integration makes areas relationships become more flexible by an easy and
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flexible connection between transportation hub, offices, as well as a commercial area. This integration expected to become a powerful magnet for investment. c. Transportation Mode The area will have the most comprehensive mode of transportation because it is located in the Centre of the city. The scale of the existing mode of services in this area includes Urban-Urban (intercity), Suburban-Urban (inner-outercity), as well as in the urban (innercity). Jakarta in the future is a city where people could be walking comfortably. All of the places in this area should be within the walking distance completed with affordable and integrated transport. As a result, private vehicles will be restrict in this street. Private vehicle restrictions also affect parking area. As the central business district, it has the most strict regulation with parking. With the setting of high incentives and strict rules, hopefully the user of private transportation will be rethinking their decision if they have to park their vehicles. In addition, there also will be integrated parking building that will be used between areas to make efficient use of space. For station and public transportation hub, there will be shared parking facility. From the results of the study above regarding Jakarta in the future, it is concluded that in the future Sudirman streets would be a prestigious business area connected between areas. This flexible integration should be able to use and affordable by pedestrians. Private vehicles that pass through this road will be restricted by this rule. Any parking buildings would be recommended to be shared between areas. This may be the opportunity for alternative spaces in the corners of the city. The user of parking buildings which now are full loaded, will be decrease along with the new rules. In one of city in America, their parking building now only filled by 40% of the vehicle, while the rest is just a wasted space and hardly utilized. Moreover, parking building have the massive form with column and concrete, which took expensive amount of money to rebuild. Parking space that threatened to be empty can be used to be one of the strategy to reduce the problem related to mobility. If the empty space is filled with the need of affordable accommodation, then the mobility of workers who commuting in the far distance will increasingly short. This inspires us to imagine an alternative solution in the future. What if a temporary place to live with a flexible and affordable systems, could occupy a parking space at night?
4.4 PARKING BUILDING Authors make observations of parking buildings in the area of Thamrin-Sudirman. Each parking building has some of differences. The variables we observe among others is the capacity of the vehicle and the comparison with a building area, parking fees, related management policies, as well as facilities in the building parking lot to meet the needs of commuter.
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Figure 12. Parking building facility in Sudirman street Source: author Parking buildings at Sudirman streets in average accommodates 350-800 car. Motorcycle parking is also provided in the building. Parking space is an obligation that must be fulfilled by the architect of the highrise building and is a user’s right. Each of building management have their own rule to manage their space. Usually, they rent area of building related to the number of parking privileges to be used. For parking facility, all buildings have basic needs that exist in the building parking. All of them have toilet in their parking lot, while several of them provide cafeteria, small mosque, as well as a rest area for drivers. There are also facilities that change depend on the time, for example when it comes to the Friday prayer. Some of the parking building transformed as temporary mosque. In addition, there is a parking building that have minimarket in their corner space and it become a resting place for its employees.
Figure 13. Extended Public Facility in Sudirman Street Source: author S.ARCH-2017 112.13
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There are different way to manage parking building. Even though its only parking lot, turned out its management are quite complex. As a result, operational of parking takes the incentive from the tenant. Parking lot is giving a great contribution to the income of building management. This open an opportunity for outsource parking operator company. Using the operator and computerized parking system, building management can maximize their service in the parking building system. The proposal design of A[park]ment is targeting workers who commute in a far distance to the city center. Those who must traverse long distances with high productivity considerations in the Office also can use this accommodation as the place of temporary residence. Parking building that has limited function only for parking the transportation also could be use in the evening as dwelling space, when the parking lot is empty. Seeing from the parking building facility that already completed with toilets, prayroom, canteen and minimarket, it certainly have become a great space of residential area with supporting living facility. With the idea of A [park]ment, hopefully the commuter traffic can be reduced. Users can save energy effectively in A[park]ment. In doing so, time and effort is not exhausted in long and tiring journey.
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CONCLUSION
This idea might has not yet to be seen in the near future by citizen of Jakarta. This is possible if only we could exercise this wasted space and opportunity. To change the paradigm of how we can dwell in the middle of the city needs a certain strategies. Viewed from the perspective of commuters, some of them prefer to stay close to the family eventhough they live far from the office. On the other hand, many people wanted to living close to their working place. Observed from the current situation, instead of devote themself for the accommodation near from the workplace, they prefer to struggle with their new lifestyle and their current job. As a result, commuter culture constantly happening. There are people who have certain strategy to adapt with commuting lifestyle. Some of the workers giving up to have the same trip schedule and cannot bear with time and money they have been wasted. As a result, they prefer to stay overnight at office and setting the schedule differently. This phenomena could open the opportunity for another dwelling form. Moreover, there will be wasted space in the future which located in the city centre that could be a new transition of commercial-residential space. The vision of Jakarta itself supporting the idea of mixed-use building as well as limiting the parking space and use of private cars. A[park]ment may only meet a limited aspect, but its interesting if the urban development could create new options and strategy in order to live comfortably in the city. This paper only stated about the chance and future projection of wasted space in between commercial space. Eventhough there are exercise of adaptive reuse of parking building in other developed countries, it needs to be supported by further research and exercise about the local context and citizen of Jakarta itself. The concept of A[park]ment as an example S.ARCH-2017 112.14
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adaptive reuse of the parking building is certainly an interesting strategy to be review from perspective of spatial justice.
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Acknowledgements
Special thanks to Adi Wibowo as a founder of LabTanya, a platform of research and experiment of urban and architecture as well as the initiator this idea: A[Park]ment. All of the exercise and discussion about urban and community cannot be more exciting and intriguing than this.
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References
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BPS surveyor , Distribusi dan Kepadatan Penduduk DKI Jakarta/ Pemerintah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta, https://jakarta.bps.go.id/linkTabelStatis/view/id/138
[2]
Pemerintah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta, PERDA No 1 TAHUN 2014 RDTR dan PZ
[3]
Fitriani, Rahma and M. Harris, The Extent of Sprawl in The Fringe of Jakarta Metropolitan Area from The Perspective of Externalities, 55th annual Australian Agricultural and Resource Economics Society conference, Melbourne, Australia, 2011, pp.2
[4]
Sutanudjaja, Elisa, Tumbal dan Ketidakadilan dalam Penataan Ruang Jakarta, RUJAK, Center for Urban Studies, https://rujak.org/
[5]
Firth, Daniel, Urban Mobility Strategy, City of Stockholm, the City of Stockholm Traffic Administration References, Stockholm, Sweden, 2012
[6]
Lerner, Wilhelm, and team, The Future of Urban Mobility, Arthur D. Little, 2011, www.adl.com/Urban_Mobility
[7]
Douglas, Mary, The Idea of Home: A Kind of Space, New School for Social Research: Social Research, 1991, Vol. 58, No.1 in Wulandari, Sri and A. Dienfitriah, Where is House? Urban Dwelling, Dwelling in Urban?, I-Dwell International Dwelling Conference, Bali, Indonesia, 2015, pp.3
[8]
Adaptive Reuse Team, City of Los Angeles Adaptive Reuse Program, Second Edition, 2006, http://www.lacity.org/mayor
[9]
Wulandari,Sri, Where Is House? Urban Dwelling, Dwelling In Urban?, Proceeding of IDwell 2015, I-Dwell Conference, Lombok, Indonesia, 2015.
[10] Rudi, Alsadad, BPTJ: Hanya 15 Persen Pengguna Transportasi Umum di Jabodetabek/Kompas, http://regional.kompas.com/read/2017/02/07/20104261/readbrandzview.html
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[11] Kusumaningrum, Syifa Putri, Pengaruh Kondisi Individu Dan Sosial – Ekonomi Terhadap Keputusan Menjadi Commuter Ke Kota Jakarta, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia, 2014 [12] BPS surveyor, Pemerintah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta, http://data.jakarta.go.id/dataset/data-perbandingan-jumlah-kendaraanpribadi-dan-angkutan-umum-dki-jakarta/ [13] Sutanudjaja, Elisa, Kata Fakta Jakarta, RUJAK Center for Urban Studies, Jakarta, Indonesia, 2011
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DESIGNING & LIVING IN A RESIDENTIAL CONDOMINIUM Dr. Hatice SADIKOĞLU* Bahçeşehir University, Faculty of Architecture and Design Ihlamur Yıldız Caddesi, No: 10, Gayrettepe, 34353, Istanbul, Turkey, hatice.sadikoglu@arc.bacu.edu.tr
Prof. Dr. Ahsen ÖZSOY Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Architecture Taşkışla, Taksim, 34437, Istanbul, Turkey, ozsoya@itu.edu.tr
Abstract In recent years, a variety of housing types has increased in Turkey. Since the 1990s, gated communities and residential condominiums have been the new typologies for high-income user groups. Today, in Istanbul, there are several residential towers (gated and five-star hotel-serviced buildings) that were designed by various architectural firms in different locations of the city. Architects have designed these buildings using their experiences and design ideas; but users may have different expectations than what the architects’ thought of these buildings. While designing, architects may not have sufficient knowledge of the requirements and the changing behaviour of the user groups. This study aims to understand similarities and differences of users’ and architects’ approaches related to the use of space. A residential condominium building for a high income group was chosen for field study and a questionnaire was conducted with 164 users in order to understand the characteristics of the user group. Then, in-depth interviews with 3 users including the observations of their use of space were realised. Along with collecting the information about living experienced in the building from users, an in-depth interview was also made with the architect of the building to be able to learn the design decisions. The study focused on change of use and flexibility in dwelling places. With the comparison on users’ experience and architect’s design idea, a conclusion was made to show how architects and users imagine and experience the dwelling space differently.
Keywords High-income user group, user’s experience, residential condominium, gated community, user’s needs and requirements, use of space.
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Introduction
Housing is very complex issue in terms of social, cultural actions and practices. Not only use of the house, but also meaning of it varies from group to another group in society [1]. S.ARCH-2017 113.1
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Social, cultural backgrounds, economic status and consumption habits of the users play important role on housing design [2]. Dwelling units are strongly related with users’ behaviours alongside architects’ offers/suggestions with design. So an architect needs to learn about users’ lifestyle and their ideas about dwellings. This study focuses on the differences of users’ and architects’ ideas/behaviours for residential condominiums, which have been (one of) the preferences of high income groups since the 1990s. High income group users have different characteristics from others with their consumer tendencies such as symbolic and conspicuous consumption. In recent years, the consumer culture has changed; signs and images have become important for user satisfaction [3]. According to Veblen, for high income group users, consumption is an act to show their belonging to another one [4]. These people live in a consumption-focused world, and it gives them great pleasure to represent their status through their belongings. According to Cross [5] and Lury [6], consumption cannot some out of necessity, it has become a cultural phenomenon in which the people express themselves with their meanings, and it is important to feel a belonging to a social group for consumers [7]. As residential preferences of high income groups, villas and apartments in gated communities and high-rise residential buildings/condominiums have become widespread. Design and construction processes of these luxury residential examples have peculiar characteristics, which are interesting to examine. The housing design process consists of a complex relationship between architects, users and dwellers. In this consumption world, dwellings can be considered products and users occupants (consumers). In the relationship between occupants and architects, architects have a responsibility to educate and direct the occupants for using and experiencing the space. Designing a dwelling for an architect is not only creating a place for dwelling but also offering and providing new possibilities to experience their places. They are creating another relationship between the occupant and the space. To understand this relationship, it is important to analyse the user’s profile. Since the 1990s, with the increasing gated community trends, dwellers can be grouped according to their income levels. This study focuses on the dwelling experiences of high income user group. The research is concerned with how the expectations and perceptions of the users overlap with the design idea/thinking of the architect. The common objective, both for users and architects, are the dwellings. While architects design a life (environment) for users with their knowledge, users tend to use the places according to their own needs. Sometimes, the places cannot be used as the architect designed them. As consumers, users are free to use their homes as they wish while the architects should make designs according to users’ general characteristics. The main aim of the study is to understand both pre- and post- occupation behaviour of high income users. In this study, dwelling units in a residential condominium were examined in terms of plan revisions/personalisation according to users’ needs. The research has three parts: in the first part, relations between architects and users are examined, secondly high income user profiles and their houses in Istanbul are discussed, and finally the findings of a field study conducted in a residential condominium in Istanbul are summarised.
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2
Architects & Users
Architects are responsible for creating a relationship between users and their environment. A dwelling is a vital space for people as they spend a big part of their lives in these private places. A dwelling design requires significant consideration of users’ characteristics and their needs in the design process [8]. Who decides what and for whom is a central issue in the housing process. In most societies, a house is more than a physical structure. It has a social and cultural value, whose shape is often determined by cultural tradition [9]. According to Turner [10], when people are in control of decisions about the design, construction, and management of their housing, the process and product will enhance their social well-being. When people have no control over the housing process, the housing produced may instead become a barrier to achieving personal fulfilment and a burden on the economy [10]. As dwellings are often designed to be standard, families who differ greatly in their sociocultural needs live in houses designed for average family needs. In recent years, studies have discussed the importance of socio-cultural factors in housing design and the failure of present housing policies to meet users’ socio-cultural needs. According to Habraken [11], a house is not a thing that can be designed or built. It is the result of a housing process. The important act in this process is that of the user who lives there. The act of living there is the only act that makes a house something special [11]. In recent years, with the increasing consumption phenomenon, housing units have started to be seen literally as ‘productions to sell’. Also they are the most important and private, individual spaces of people. Customer satisfaction has been related with the communication between architect and users. Today, some construction companies of high income group residential projects have started to involve the users into the design process to allow them to change their dwelling units according to their preferences. This approach can break the communication gap (disconnection) between architects and users. The gap between architects and users has developed historically [12]. In primitive societies, anyone could build his own house, “designing” according to a model which was developed and adjusted over generations to satisfy cultural, climatic, physical, and maintenance requirements [13]. Users were building their own dwellings, they knew their own needs and demands and they were touching the materials. It can be understood why the vernacular houses still survive. Since the Industrial Revolution, new ways to design and construct buildings have been developed. In the marketplace, users affect decisions through selective buying. The gap between designer and user has grown, but market research and the sensitivity of builders to market conditions can narrow it, resulting in open-market buildings that embody commonly held values even though users did not participate directly in the design [13]. To able to create a successful relationship between the dwelling and the user, the participation in the design process is important. The majority of the design can be determined by the expectations of the users. Participation is mostly defined as ‘taking part in’ and different participation types are possible: providing information, consultation and negotiation [14]. Concerning process and product (dwelling unit), as decision-makers users are powerful actors as much as architects.
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Even though users were the most effective actors as both architects and occupants in the past; this relationship has broken and the main actors of the built environment have become the construction companies and the architects in modern societies. With the increasing marketing phenomenon, construction companies have noticed that involving the users as consumers in the design process is essential for both creating useful places and obtaining companies’ revenue.
3
High Income Group Users and Their Residential Experiences
Increasing consumption habits and changing economy policies, social status has been linked mostly with income groups. Social status can be understood from social stratification as the communities that have common economic life opportunities and the communities have similar or common positions and economic interests [15], [16]. Social status can be changed with several factors. Especially after 1980 with neoliberal economy policies, capital has been mobile. With this mobility, new lifestyles and user profiles have been created. The high income residential group in Turkey has undergone great changes in terms of educational, social, cultural aspects from the past. Today, the users have special and exclusive lifestyles in their residences. While high-income groups are changing, the housing sector, its dynamics and design factors are changed along with all the factors affecting the relationship between architect and user. User preferences related with their economic situation have become important determiners for supply and demand of the housing market. By the 1990s, new user groups emerged that could not be identified by their social, cultural characteristics. It can be only estimated about their income level that provides them with the ability to buy such a luxury housing unit. With the changing social structure, new technological developments and conspicuous consumption habits, this new group has started to live in ‘gated community settlements’ and ‘high-rise condominiums’ that can be considered by the users to be prestigious, luxury, secure and technologic housing communities. In recent years, construction companies have been serving individual plan organisations for different users in one settlement. They have realised the importance of personalisation of the design for each user. Individual architectural design service has been an important marketing tool for construction companies because haute couture design for new highincome group residential users has become an indispensable factor.
4
Field Study: High Income Residential Users & Architects
In this consumption era, a ‘house’ has not been seen just as a dwelling unit. It has become a symbol for the characteristics of the dwellers. It gives informative clues about user profile, personality, social, cultural and economic status, it shows lifestyles of users. Especially, for high income residential buildings, users need strong collaboration with architects while creating spaces. In recent years, construction companies that are developing high income residential buildings have provided participation into the design process of the dwellings. Although their main aim focuses on successful marketing and profit, they provide an opportunity to create more qualified and sustainable dwelling units. On the other hand, sometimes users tend to give harm to the design with their unlimited demands on buildings. S.ARCH-2017 113.4
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This study aims to understand the relations between residential users and architects in terms of their ideas on design and use. The field study was conducted in a vertical gated settlement in the city centre of Istanbul. This high-income residential condominium has two vertical buildings with 35 floors and 240 flats. There are several facility areas such as tennis and basketball courts, open and closed swimming pools, spa and health centres. This study was realised so as to examine the similarities and differences of the ideas of users and architect. The research has 4 phases: questionnaires with 164 users, examining the plan organisations, in-depth interviews with 3 of the users, and an interview with the architect of the building. First, the main characteristics of the users and their ideas on housing units’ design were researched. Then, in-depth interviews with 3 users who agreed to talk about their preferences and experiences were conducted. All these findings and users’ comments on participation ideas were discussed with the architect of the building.
4.1 Questionnaires with Users & Plan Examinations The questionnaires were conducted with 164 users who have been living in the settlement, and the plan organisations of their dwellings were examined to understand high income user profile characteristics and their tendencies on housing design and participation idea. User Profile: According to results, in the settlement, while defining the user profile, there are many different professions such as traders, bureaucrats, journalists, lawyers, sportsmen, actors etc. Recent high-income users cannot be classified according to social, cultural, educational status. Therefore the only economic classification that is possible for this profile is for those who have the opportunity/capability for buying such a high priced flat. According to the results, 78.8% of the users are married and 21.3% are single. Aim for buying/reason for choosing the dwelling: When we looked for the main aim of buying/having a flat from the settlement, it was seen that 63.4% of users have bought their unit to live in, while 36.6% of them see it as an investment and plan to rent (out) their flats. It is seen that, for this user profile, having a housing unit points to two main aims: living and investment. The aim of buying is an important factor for the design process. If people buy the flat to live in, they have a strong tendency to personalise their dwelling spaces. Involvement in the design process: During design and construction, all users had the right to be included in the process. The construction company has two standard plan organisations; one for 1-bedroom units and the other one for three-bedroom units (Figure 1). If the users wanted to change their flats’ plan organisation, then they could do it with participation in the design process and they could change the standard plan into individual, personalised plans according to their own demands. So, many users demanded plan organisation and material revisions (Figures 2, 3). Personalised plans were 39% of all the plans while standard plan schemes were preferred by 61% of the users. It can be said that high income group residential users want to participate in the design, and they tend to change their environment according to their own needs.
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Figure 1: Standard plan organisations of 1+1 and 3+1 residential units.
Figure 2: Individual 3+1 plan organisations.
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Figure 3: Individual 1+1 plan organisations. Revisions on standard plan organisations/personalisation: Home is an individual concept for all users. Each profile needs different spaces, different dimensions or different plan organisations. While developing a mass housing project, developers and designers generally use focus group research that helps to determine the user profile. First the user profiles are determined and examined for their characteristics, common needs and demands, and then the project is developed. The same technique is used for high-income group residential buildings. Although these flats were designed for common characteristics of high-income user profile, users want to make some individual changes on plan organisation and materials. It is sometimes related with their basic needs according to their lifestyle, and sometimes it is caused by conspicuous consumption habits. Users in this settlement made certain changes in their flats; servant rooms on the standard plan were modified into dressing rooms or walk-in closets. Bedrooms were separated according to three main functions: sleeping, studying and dressing. In one bedroom flats, some users wanted to change their open kitchen into walled ones. They changed their wall colours and ceramic tiles in bathroom areas (Figures 2, 3). These revisions show us that the architects cannot present one typical plan organisation nor select materials in one building for all users. Especially high income users have more expectations than others because of having economic power.
4.2 In-depth Interviews with Users Along with the questionnaires and examination of plan organisations, in-depth interviews were conducted with 3 users of the flats in the settlements. The main topics of the interview were high-income group housing preferences and participation tendencies into the design process and spatial and social segregation. During the interviews, users answered the question of ‘why they wanted to live in a gated community settlement’. They listed the reasons as being prestigious, having security and having different facilities in the settlement. The first user said: ‘This gated settlement makes me happier, feels better and safer and the settlement provides me several activity areas. This luxury lifestyle reflects my social status.’ On the contrary, the second user said: This building cannot reflect my socio-cultural status. Everybody can have a flat in this gated settlement if they are rich. So it is all about economic
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opportunities’. The third user said: I think it reflects my economic status, because all the people living in this community have the opportunity to buy a flat’. In this settlement, users cannot be classified or grouped according to their social, cultural profile. Their common point is having a flat in the same settlement and they are in the same income group. It is very hard to design one typical dwelling unit (plan organisation) for all users. Users interviewed commented on the participation idea as a vital tool for qualified design. According to them, the residential users cannot be determined as one profile. Since all flats were designed as standard plan organisations, users wanted to change their places, they need to personalise the spaces. In fact, because having more economic opportunities, high income group users want to personalise their spaces more than other income groups. The first user said: ‘I am very happy to participate in the design process, because the standard plan organisation was not suitable for me and I made changes in my bathroom and kitchen according to my own taste’. The second user said: ‘We changed one of our bedrooms into a study room, I and my wife need to be alone for studying, that’s why we need a special study room’. The third user said: ‘I am living in a 3-bedroom flat. When I saw the standard plan organisation, I wanted to make changes on it and asked the construction company. They replied to me positively for making it with the architect of the building. We met the architect and changed one bedroom into a dressing room and enlarged the kitchen area. The architect warned me about some details on kitchen revisions but I did and now I am happy to make them’. Users were happy to be included into the design and construction process. Since they pay a lot of money for their flats, they wanted to have certain rights to change their areas. As consumers, users expect more from their flats as products. When we analyse the third topic, spatial and social segregations of gated community living, they are not interested in the negative effects on urbanism and society. According to the interviews, high income group residential users who preferred the gated community living do not cause a disconnection between users and other people and also between their site and urban areas. They mostly think it is a kind of housing typology that similar user profiles prefer to live in.
4.3 Interview with the Architect of the Residential Condominium An in-depth interview was made with the architect of the buildings. The main topics of the interview were the same with the users’ interview: high-income group housing preferences and participation tendencies into the design process, and spatial and social segregation. According to the architect, gated communities are new trends among high-income users. These people think that they are different from other people. That is why they want to live in a special site that is separate from other parts of the city and gated against to crime etc. The architect pointed out that in this kind of residential unit, the people cannot be grouped according their social-cultural status, and can be only possible for economic status. It is obvious that for high income people, involvement during design and construction is important to satisfy from their residential environment. S.ARCH-2017 113.8
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In recent years, gated communities are being criticised for causing segregation and disconnection, by many architects, sociologists, and urban planners. As Blakely and Snyder [17] have pointed out: ‘gated communities are microcosms in their towns, they are town in the town, and they will cause urban problems’. The architect of the settlement also agreed with this idea. He said: ‘In the city centre, some people who have economic opportunities and more money than others want to live with people of the same status. I don’t know the reasons but they are frightened by the others. Especially in city centres, they want to feel secure 7/24; they feel secure in gated areas. I think this lifestyle cannot provide living the complete life in the long term. It separates everything but it causes not only spatial segregation but also causes a kind of alienation and social segregation in the society’. The architect and the users do not have the same vision and do not have similar ideas about their dwellings’ meanings and use.
5
Findings and Conclusion
In this study, the ideas of high income group residential users’ and the architect of their dwellings’ were discussed. The main aim of the study was to point out the differences between the ideas (users’ and architects’) on dwelling and urban design. The high income group user profile has changed over time. While it can be classified according to economic opportunities, it cannot be determined with social, cultural and other characteristics. That is why the users need different types of plan organisations. Sometimes they need to use the spaces; sometimes they just need to show their prestige through their dwellings, decorations, furniture as conspicuous consumption. Before the design it is important to understand individual characteristics of users and focus on their needs and demands. Although the architect efforts to design a common plan organisation, because of the differences between users, it could not be successful. This type of project for high income users, a free plan organisation, can be a solution to revise and modify places easily and economically. For example, if service and circulation systems are organised well, they can provide flexible design possibilities. The best thing an architect can do is to design flexible spaces for high income group users. High income users are not very interested in urban problems that emerge by their dwellings as much as architects are. Architects as building and urban professionals feel more responsible for the environment. Users tend to focus on their own dwellings and their own life in gated settlements. Perhaps the relation between architects and users can be created again through responsibility ideas. While they participate in designing a built environment, they should be feeling responsible as much as the architect because users are one of the determiners. The last point of this study is the importance of architects’ knowledge and communication with the users. It is possible that high income users can demand revisions/personalisation that are architecturally failures. But one of the missions of the architect is making negotiations with the user. It is important to explain to the user the advantages and disadvantages of the modifications. The user should know the positive and negative effects of these kinds of revisions when they choose new/revised plan organisations. This study was made so as to understand the relationship between high-income group residential users and the architect. If this relation can be created correctly and more S.ARCH-2017 113.9
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transparently, it has the potential to provide a sustainable design and a built environment in the future.
References [1]
Duncan, J.S., The House as a Symbol of Social Structure, in Home Environments, (I., Altman & C.M. Werner), Plenum Press, New York, 1985, pp. 133-151.
[2]
Lawrence, R. J., Housing, Dwelling and Homes, Design Theory, Research and Practice, John & Wiley Sons, New York, 1987.
[3]
Featherstone, M., Consumer Culture and Postmodernism, Sage Publications, London, UK, 2007.
[4]
Veblen, T., The Theory of the Leisure Class, Dover Publications, New York, US, 1994.
[5]
Cross, G., Time and Money: The Making of Consumer Culture, Routledge, London,1993.
[6]
Lury, C., Consumer Culture, Policy Press, Oxford, 1996.
[7]
Maslow, A., Motivation and Personality, Harper, New York, 1954.
[8]
Mitchell, C. T., Redefining Designing: From Form to Experience, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1993.
[9]
Sanoff, H., Community Participation Methods in Design and Planning, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., USA, pp. 181-184, 2000.
[10] Turner, J. F. C., Housing by People: Towards Autonomy in Building Environments. Pantheon Books, New York, 1977. [11] Habraken, J., Towards a New Professional Role. Design Studies, Vol. 7, 1986, 3, pp139-143, 10.1016/0142-694X(86)90050-5. [12] Zeisel, J., Inquiry by Design: Tools for Environment-Behaviour Research, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2006. [13] Rapoport, A., House, Form and Culture, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, NJ, 1969. [14] Jenkins, P., Concepts of Participation in Architecture, in Architecture, Participation and Society, (P. Jenkins & L. Forsyth), Routledge, London, 2010, pp: 9-21. [15] Giddens, A., The Class Structure of the Advanced Societies, Hutchinson, London, 1973. [16] Kerbo, H. R., Social Stratification and Inequality, McGraw-Hill Humanities, US, 1999. [17] Blakely, E., J. & Snyder, M. G., Fortress America, Gated Communities in the United States, The Brookings Institution Press, Washington, 1997.
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HONG KONG RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS WITH REDUCTION OF THE UTILISATION OF AIR CONDITIONING Ferdinand OSWALD – Univ. Projectass. Dr. techn. Dipl.-Ing. Arch. Institute of Architecture Technology, Graz University of Technology 8010, Graz, Austria, Ferdinand.oswald@tugraz.at Rechbauerstr. 12/I
Abstract Over recent decades, residents of large tropical and subtropical cities living in modern buildings have been making increasing use of split-air conditioning systems. The utilisation and power consumption of these systems in humid and hot subtropical regions is colossal, the latter being a major disadvantage of air conditioners. It is assumed that air conditioning in the seven-million metropolis Hong Kong alone requires additional energy amounting to 6.8 GWh per year.
Fig. 1: Residential Building with split air-conditioners, HKHA © Ferdinand Oswald
The problem definition outlined above raises a number of questions that will be clarified in the course of this paper. The main question in this paper is concerned with the possibility of employing architectural means to provide sufficient comfort in HK without having to use air conditioners. How can architects promote the potential of technologies and traditional concepts, or even initiate them? Hong Kong Housing Authority Residential Building will show up answers to these questions.
Keywords: Reducing Air Conditioning, Hong Kong Residential Buildings, Urban Heat Island
Effect, Natural Ventilation, Building- Ground Floor- and Façade-Structures.
Introduction The South Eastern Chinese coastal region with its 150 million inhabitants requires an energy quantity of 145 GWh per year to cool their apartments with air conditioners [1]. At the same time, these split-system air conditioners continue to heat up the urban environment with S.ARCH-2017 114.1
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their warm exhaust air, discharging 40% of required cooling energy in the form of heat into the ambient air, thus also exacerbating negative effects of the urban heat island. According to statistical calculations, the worldwide urban population will almost double by 2050, increasing from 3.5 billion to 6.3 billion [2]. Subsequently, energy required for cooling will almost double by 2050 as well [3]. Given that the urban population cannot do without air conditioning, this forecasted growth is bound to pose a huge challenge to energy production and the carbon footprint. For future conurbations in sub-tropical regions, therefore, it will be of crucial importance to seek specific solutions for problems such as overburdened energy grids and local climate change. Reducing the use of split-system air conditioners is an urgent issue. It seems possible to increase comfort and reduce mechanical ventilation at the same time with the help of specifically natural ventilation systems for residential housing in tropical regions. Results from specific research projects [4] and scientific measurement furthermore produced evidence that specific natural cross ventilation can optimize human behaviour for periods of up to 85 % of the year (e.g. Hong Kong) [5] see Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Weather Tool 2001, © Autodesk, Inc. 2010; Weather data Download, U.S. Department of Energy, report on the data (STAT) and ASHRAE Design Conditions Design Day Data file (DDY), © Ferdinand Oswald, 2013.
1 Ngau Tau Kok Estate, Hong Kong
Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate is one of Hong Kong Housing Authority’s few estate projects that was tailored to the specific location, and this Site Specific Project was to enable enhanced natural ventilation as compared to HKHA’s other high-rise estate projects. This paper investigates the extent to which Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate’s position in the urban context, its building typology and façade apertures influence natural ventilation of habitable space, and will look into possibilities of using thermal mass and assess the effects of solar irradiation as well.
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Fig.3: Birds eye view of Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate, photo: Hong Kong Housing Authority, 2013.
2 Natural ventilation 2.1 Positioning in the urban context Upper Ngau Tau Kok’s position in the urban fabric is based firstly on the shape of the site; secondly, on the buildings’ orientation to the sea and configuration parallel to the mountain; and thirdly, on the wind’s main direction for optimisation of natural ventilation.
Fig.6: Site plan, Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate, Hong Kong with living unit no. 3202 (red dot). © CADbasis-data from Hong Kong Housing Authority, reworked by Ferdinand Oswald, 2013.
1. Due to the misshapen and irregular building site, the buildings were not able to be configured orthogonally, but were arranged slightly skewed toward each other instead. S.ARCH-2017114.2
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Both snake-shaped building arrangements are differently orientated, with the third residential tower twisted out of the building line. 2. Due to topographical circumstances, i.e. the length of the slope, the buildings are in a parallel position to the contour lines of the hill. This is advantageous for most of the dwellings facing the west, as they now have an open view to the sea and lagoon containing the Kai Tak peninsula. 3. In a wind analysis by Hong Kong Housing Authority, the old (left) and new (right) buildings of Upper Ngau Tau Kok are visible. This scenario shows the main wind coming from the east in summer as well as the wind corridor running from north to east between both snake-shaped high-rise complexes each consisting of three residential towers. This enables the main wind stream to pass freely through the building configuration. Both illustrations show how the buildings’ urban configuration optimises the wind flow. By contrast, the old MARK V buildings stood at right angles to the main wind stream so that not all parts of the buildings were naturally ventilated in an optimum way.
Fig. 7: Wind analysis showing main wind from the east in summer in Upper Ngau Tau Kok: old MARK V building (left) and new Site Specific Project (right), © Hong Kong Housing Authority, 2009; reworked by Ferdinand Oswald, 2014.
Hence, both structures are arranged with respect to prevailing easterly winds, forming a central corridor through which the wind flows, thus ventilating the free space on ground level and the other buildings very well. HKHA’s wind analysis continues with a detailed representation of natural cross ventilation of the buildings during prevailing easterly winds. In summer, the second most frequent wind comes from the southwest, with the ventilation principle working well from an almost opposite direction, too, as shown in a further wind graph compiled by HKHA. In winter, average temperatures reach approximately 15°C. These low temperatures mean that no natural ventilation for cooling is necessary. On the contrary, residents close their windows in order to retain indoor warmth and to prevent it from being carried away. Winter winds usually arrive from the north (see third illustration). The buildings now stand tangentially to the direction of the wind so that it flows parallel to the building complex, thus
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reducing the force of cross ventilation within the complex. Their configuration is thus tailored to the requirements of all seasonal wind and weather conditions.
Fig. 8: Wind analysis showing main wind from the east in summer (left), from southwest in summer (centre) and from north in winter (right), Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate; wind analysis Š Hong Kong Housing Authority, 2009; reworked by Ferdinand Oswald, 2014.
2.2 Building structure The typology of the five identical high-rise blocks was specifically developed for Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate. Five of the six residential towers have an identical design in order to keep costs low by cutting planning expenditure and using prefabricated building elements. Only the sixth tower differs from the others in shape. As regards its ideal position on the site, the building wings are placed slightly askew so that they do not stand fully in an orthogonal grid. All individual towers feature symmetrically mirrored and reproduced L-shaped wings in the centre, thus forming an S-shaped complex: each residential block therefore consists of two identical L-shaped wings. Each building wing houses an access and circulation area with three elevators and an emergency stairwell. In the centre of both wings – i.e. on the axis of reflection, there is a third stairwell. Each storey contains 20 dwelling units. Building heights of the six blocks range between 35 and 40 floors. The building in the focus of this study is block no. 4 with 40 floors. The ground floor, which is called first floor in Hong Kong, contains semi-public access areas. Therefore, this building has a total of 39 habitable floors with 780 dwellings that are all accessible via a central corridor.
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Fig. 9: Floor plan, residential block no. 4 of Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate showing dwelling unit no. 3202 (in red) with axis of reflection, wind speed measuring points, wind direction, negative and positive pressure (+ or -) during 24 hour period on 24 and 25 August 2013 made by Ferdinand Oswald. © CAD basis data courtesy of Hong Kong Housing Authority, reworked by Ferdinand Oswald, 2013.
2.3 Façade Typical for HKHA’s residential high-rise typologies are the recesses in the façade that act as vertical ventilation shafts to air the bathrooms and, partly, also the kitchens. One special feature of Upper Ngau Tau Kok’s typology is that these recesses are continued right through to the corridors (access areas). In both central wing areas, this characteristic recess cuts through the entire depth of the floor plan, making Upper Ngau Tau Kok estate so unique. Based on computer-assisted wind simulation, HKHA investigated the functionality of natural cross ventilation by ascertaining wind speeds around the building when corridors were open or closed. Both simulations show areas in various shades of blue to grey representing low to high wind speeds respectively. Dark blue areas in the wind simulation figure on the right indicate lower wind speeds, while in the simulation figure on the left, light blue to light grey areas signify higher wind speeds. A closer look at the figures reveals that airflow is intensive through both open sides of the corridors.
Fig. 10: Wind simulation: open corridors (left) and closed corridors (right) with main wind from the east in summer, Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate. © wind simulation: Hong Kong Housing Authority, 2009, reworked by Ferdinand Oswald, 2013.
In residential block no. 4, the Sheung Wing House, wind intensity was recorded as wind speed on the 32nd storey at 17 different façade openings as well as on the 41st storey, the roof storey, in hourly intervals in the course of a 24-hour period. The floor plan shows the measuring points, outward and inward wind flow as well as positive and negative pressure conditions (+ or -) during the period of measurement on 24th and 25th August 2013. At the time of measurement, prevailing winds blew solely from the east (see arrow “wind direction”). Interestingly, wind flow into the building on the western façade occurred from the opposite direction to oncoming winds from the east. A closer look at dwelling unit no. 2 (marked red in the floor plan), which is situated on the western side of the building, reveals that the wind flows into the openings from the opposite direction to the oncoming wind. S.ARCH-2017114.2
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This is caused by differences in air pressure, a fact that becomes evident when looking at the bigger picture – in this floor plan, positive pressure is represented by (+) and negative pressure by (-). Depending on the wind’s direction, this very high building creates various zones of pressure. As a rule, high pressure builds up on the windward side, and low pressure forms on the leeward side. However, on the western façade of the building under investigation, things were quite different. Although this façade is on the leeward side of the building, a zone of positive pressure builds up, forcing the air stream into the units. This has do to with the unit being a corner flat where the two outward sides of the building meet, thus promoting the formation of strong eddies. In this process, air is pressed around the edge of the building, which creates positive pressure. In addition, upward and downward air currents evolve, for instance, from air heating up and rising. Such factors can also lead to changing air pressure conditions at the façade of the building. During wind speed test measurements at the openings of the façade, peak wind speeds of up to 3.1 m/s were recorded, while outdoor air speeds reached 1.7 m/s. To avoid interference caused by built structures, the outdoor air speed (measuring point 1^) was recorded in the free space between both building complexes on the ground floor. A wind speed of 1.7 m/s corresponds to wind force 2; wind speed of 3.1 m/s corresponds to wind force 3. But lower wind speeds, too, (0.8 m/s) would suffice to create sufficient wind flow for a comfortable indoor environment. Wind speeds of between 1.5 and 2.2 m/s were recorded chiefly at the corridor openings (measuring points 7^ and 11^). Situated in the central area of the building structure, these openings are therefore very effective in providing natural cross ventilation. Notably, during the period of measurement, there was an interval of almost complete calm between 5 pm and 1 am with wind speeds of merely 0.0 to 0.5 m/s at many measuring points. High humidity (90%) and temperatures (29.2°C) can cause discomfort if there is no wind at all. 2.4 Floor plans HKHA allowed us to test unit no. 3202 for a few days. Designated as number 02 on the 32nd floor, this tiny unit of the Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate with a net dwelling area of 18.27m² is described as a “small flat” designed for one resident. It consists of one central room with an entrance door, and a kitchenette, both with windows facing west. There is a tiny bathroom containing a shower in the space between the kitchenette and a vertical ventilation shaft. A small vent in the bathroom’s eastward wall connects to this ventilation shaft, which faces south, as the floor plan of unit no. 3202 shows.
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Fig. 11: Floor plan, unit no. 3202 in Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate, Hong Kong, China, showing cross ventilation and thermal mass during the day and at night, with measuring points of air and surface temperature measurements and wind speed measurements made by Ferdinand Oswald, CAD basis data Š Hong Kong Housing Authority, reworked by Ferdinand Oswald, 2013.
These openings on both sides of the corridors not only promote cross ventilation at this particular point, but also produce a substantial wind stream throughout the entire building, which supports the cross ventilation of all dwelling units. At the same time, low pressure from the corridor virtually draws the air out of the flats. In that way, the units are crossventilated via the corridor. Residents of Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate are very happy with the possibility of cross-ventilating their flats via the corridor, and do so by opening their entrance doors. Here, peak air speeds of up to 2.6 m/s were recorded at measuring points 14^ and 15^. At the entrance door of the test unit no. 3202 (4^), high air speeds of up to 2.9 m/s were measured. All three measurements were carried out at a similar time of the day while outdoor air speeds only reached 1.5 m/s (measuring point 1^). To sum up: cross ventilation via unit entrances was found to be very effective, building up higher air speeds than outdoors. Cross ventilation works so well in this corridor via its relatively distant openings, because air pressure on the façade forces the air through these small openings. Air speeds are higher at the unit entrances than at the windows in the façade. At both window apertures of the main room and kitchenette facing the west, air speeds only S.ARCH-2017114.2
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reached a maximum of 2.4 m/s. This is because the total cross-section area of both openings is larger than that of the entrance door, and the same amount of air entering the flat through these larger façade openings has to exit the flat through the smaller entrance door. Air pressure is therefore equal at this point and airflow picks up speed when it passes through the smaller opening. Furthermore, there is additional airflow from the bathroom window. This air current flows from the vertical ventilation shaft in the southeast into the bathroom window in the east, passing through the bathroom into the living room, where it exits the flat through the entrance door together with the main air stream. Both bathroom openings can be seen in the photo (Fig. 12a) showing the vertical ventilation shafts.
Fig. 12a: Vertical ventilation shaft with bathroom openings and exterior pipe system for water supply and removal at Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate. Photo Š Ferdinand Oswald, 2013.
2.5 Openings Door openings: Effective cross ventilation occurs via the entrance doors of the flats. This, in turn, leads to problems concerning privacy or intrusion when the door is open. However, an excellent solution to this problem has been found. Each entrance has two doors: an ordinary windproof, opaque wooden door leaf that is closed when leaving the flat; the second door is a wooden lattice sliding door that can be slid shut. This door lets air into the room while keeping intruders out. It only allows people to peer through the wooden latticework from the outside. Some residents block out unwanted views by attaching a curtain to the door that does not hamper the effectivity of cross ventilation.
Fig. 16: (left) Closed sliding entrance door viewed from the access corridor at Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate. S.ARCH-2017114.2
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(right) Open entrance door and sliding door of unit no. 3202 viewed from inside the flat at Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate. Photos © Ferdinand Oswald, 2013.
3 Thermal mass
In order to ascertain whether exposed thermal mass is utilisable for cooling during the hottest season in Hong Kong, a test series in the residential high-rise complex Upper Ngau Tau Kok was carried out. For this purpose, the bathroom of unit no. 3202 seemed most suitable, since that room is located at the outer edge of the building where the wall faces south, thus providing hypothetically ideal conditions for cooling with thermal mass. Surface temperatures of this southern façade were measured to test and monitor effects of thermal mass as a possible cooling agent. During the measurement period for thermal mass evaluation, the bathroom door and window element remained open towards the vertical ventilation shaft to allow cooler night air to carry away the stored heat from the exterior wall.
Fig. 17: Comparison of different roof superstructures and temperatures inside during the day and night, chart simulation program PasCal (v.1.0), source: C. Tantasavasdi, T. Chenvidyakarn, M. Pichaisak, Integrative Passive Design for Climate Change: A New Approach for Tropical House Design in the 21st Century; Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Thammasat University, Thailand; Department of Architecture, University of Cambridge, UK, published in BUILT, 1 (1), 2011, p. 14.
Indoor and surface temperatures of the bathroom wall recorded in the chart “Surface temperatures south façade – bathroom inside” [6] yielded the following results: daytime temperatures inside the bathroom were lower than the temperatures outside. Cool night air stored in the outer wall was passed on to the inside with a time lag. The reason for this is that the massive wall facing south only receives a low level of direct solar incidence in summer – a fact that has already been elucidated in this chapter in the chart showing direct S.ARCH-2017114.2
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solar incidence in Hong Kong. Another reason why the thicker loadbearing exterior wall is suitable for cooling is that its thickness is ideal for temperature transfer: a 30 cm thick wall effects a phase shift of approx. 24 hours. Hence, the temperature curves of outdoor temperatures and surface temperatures of the interior wall run conversely and time-lagged. The indoor temperature of the bathroom benefit from this process: temperature peaks are buffered thus providing a comfortable temperature that lies somewhere between both extremes. Characteristics of this temperature curve are clearly shown in the chart.
Fig. 18: Surface temperatures of southern façade inside and air temperatures outside and inside the bathroom of unit no. 3202 of Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate, Hong Kong, China, measured from 24 August 2013, 4 p.m., to 25 August, 7 p.m.; 1: temperature outside; 3: air temperature bathroom interior, 7’: façade surface temperature inside. © Ferdinand Oswald, 2013.
4 Psychrometric chart
4.1 Solar heat gains in winter The area of passive solar heat gains is marked in red to the left of the comfort zone. Here, it is again shown separately outside the chart, together with the comfort zone. Measurements obtained at Upper Ngau Tau Kok housing estate were taken in the summer only, thus no winter data is available. However, the simulation in the psychrometric chart suggests that solar heat gains could also be utilised at this location in winter. A certain number of points (days) during the colder months plotted in the area of passive solar heat gains proves that. In particular, heat gains could be utilised in the west, east and south. However, it needs to be noted that this would not save any energy, since residential housing in Hong Kong is not equipped with appliances for indoor room heating. Having said that, it could nevertheless contribute to enhancing indoor comfort in the colder season. S.ARCH-2017114.2
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4.2 Thermal mass According to the simulation programme in the psychrometric chart, both heating and cooling by means of thermal mass seem possible in Hong Kong. The effectiveness of cooling with thermal mass during the hot season is shown by the number of days within the blue line’s left hand area. This simulation suggests that thermal mass could be utilised for cooling for a substantial period of time, as confirmed by measurement results obtained in summer at Upper Ngau Tau Kok. Opposingly, the dark red area indicates that there is no possibility of using exposed mass and night-purge ventilation for enhancing comfort because no points (days) are plotted in that area for Hong Kong. This does not correspond to the results obtained on the spot. As explained in detail earlier, night-purge ventilation further optimizes the principle of thermal mass combined with additional night-purge ventilation in the way that the massive wall dissipates stored daytime heat that is then carried away by night ventilation. This is probably not expressed in the chart because day and night temperature differences obtained from official weather data are too small, and therefore night temperatures are not low enough to remove the heat from the thermal mass. According to Hong Kong meteorological office, the highest temperature on the day of measurement (24th August) was 31.1°C and the lowest was 27.3°C. That is a day/night difference of only 3.8°C. In the same measurement period, however, a maximum temperature of 30.8°C and a minimum temperature of 26.2°C was recorded at the spot, i.e. a greater day/night temperature difference of 4.3°C. At any rate, this difference would be large enough to cool indoor temperatures down to 27°C. 4.3 Natural ventilation According to the simulation, natural ventilation is the most effective method of improving comfort levels in Hong Kong, as shown by the number of days (points) plotted within the pink-framed area representing natural ventilation. This area lies above and to the right of the comfort zone. In mid-summer, this cooling technique could improve comfort on almost all days. Measurements taken at Upper Ngau Tau Kok housing estate in August, i.e. the hottest season, suggest that this cooling technique would work very effectively. 4.4 Evaporative cooling No measures relating to evaporative cooling were found at Hong Kong’s Upper Ngau Tau Kok. According to the psychrometric chart, there is no possibility whatsoever to enhance comfort by means of evaporative cooling in Hong Kong, as clearly shown by the two areas of direct (purple) and indirect (turquoise) evaporative cooling, situated in the simulation beneath, to the right and particularly above the comfort zone. Evaporative cooling does not work in Hong Kong because humidity is high during most of the year and saturated air cannot absorb any further moisture.
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Fig. 19: Psychrometric chart showing the comfort zone and passive cooling and heating technique of Hong Kong, as well as the area of passive solar heating (above left), area of thermal mass effects (above centre), area of exposed mass and night-purge ventilation (above right), area of natural ventilation (below left), area of direct evaporative cooling (below centre) and area of indirect evaporative cooling (below left). Š Ferdinand Oswald, Weather Tool 2013, Š Autodesk, Inc. 2010.
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5 Potential for improvement / Conclusion Measurements taken at the location show that natural ventilation works well at Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate. Electrical power required for air conditioning systems could therefore be saved. Nevertheless, there is room for improvement at Hong Kong Housing Authority’s Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate. Structure of façade: This typology has potential for cooling with thermal mass, provided day/night temperature differences are large enough and a reduction of solar heat gains in massive façade elements is given. Danger of overheating façades from the north is relatively small, and it is therefore not necessary to shade façade areas. Low solar intensity is shown in the above figure representing direct solar incidence from the north in blue. The southern side of the façade is destined for the use of thermal mass, as direct solar radiation is weaker in summer and stronger in the cooler winter months (see above chart showing direct solar radiation from the south in green). Here, external factors of solar irradiation could be utilised ideally for enhancing indoor comfort: in the hot summer months, massive façade elements do not heat up as much due to weaker direct insolation, enabling the wall to store night cool that can be passed on to cool the interior space behind. Measurements to ascertain the effectivity of thermal mass + night purge cooling in Ngau Kau Kok were carried out in the hottest month of the year, in August, results of which are shown in the charts mentioned before. In the cooler winter months, the interior could benefit from the solar heat gains stored in the façade wall. Although in HKHA’s housing estates no energy is spent on heating appliances, indoor comfort could still be improved by utilising solar heat gains. Problematic in this respect is the direct and continual intensive insolation from east and west throughout the year, and western and eastern facades of Ngau Tau Kok as well as many other residential buildings in Hong Kong are in dire need of improvement. Direct insolation from east and west is coloured orange in the above chart. These particular facades should not be shaded in the cooler winter months to enable them to absorb the heat, while, on the other hand, requiring protection from solar overheating in the hot summer months. Hence, a smart façade system is needed that would respond to various different seasonal requirements, for instance, a flexible protective system that would automatically open or close depending on solar intensity. The University of Cambridge’s study “Comparison of different roof superstructures” [6] presented above could be applied in cases where solar heat gain reduction is desirable, e.g. for vertical façade areas. Superstructures that included an air space for rear ventilation behind the lightweight shading element performed much better than the other solutions in reducing solar heat gains. However, such superstructures or curtain façade systems need to be secured safely and are therefore quite elaborate and costly. Standards relating to façade elements and their ability to withstand forces such as wind pressure and suction are much higher in Hong Kong than in Europe, which is not surprising, since higher wind speeds and resulting hurricanes are a matter of course in Hong Kong. Naturally, costs will increase for appropriate façade systems such as for an ornamental Agrafe profile.
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Openings: Façade openings require protection against solar heat gains because there is no massive wall that could buffer heat transmission. Residents can operate sunshading mechanisms on the inside of the windows on an individual basis. However, interior shading is not as effective as exterior shading, since absorption of insolation takes place in the interior, thus also releasing heat inside the room. An investigation into the “effectivity of various solar protection systems” was presented in the chapter “Solar heat gains”, discussing different shading options for window openings. However, whether or not a certain system is realised will depend on the cost. HKHA’s building projects do not include expenditure for high-quality shading systems, but if they did, they would certainly be required to comply with the same safety standards as for curtain façade systems due to the threat of high wind speeds and hurricanes. Natural cross ventilation works well at Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate. Considering the Site Specific Project Upper Ngau Tau Kok presented here, it is evident that the integration of an architectural concept for a construction method specifically suited to this location is urgently necessary. Meanwhile, HKHA have realised how important and effective natural ventilation is for residential housing and are now integrating natural cross ventilation in their new projects. The closed sliding gateset with timber entrance door open can work for a better thermal comfort of the habitants in a very good effectiveness if the corridor outside is not a fire protected one and in the same time keep the intimacy (privacy)+safety for them. However, the question as to which strategies HKHA could employ to modify their existing residential high-rises still needs to be answered. [7]
References [1] Siwei Lang: “Progress in energy-efficiency standards for residential buildings in China”, in: Energy and Buildings 36/12 (2004), pp. 1191–1196. [2] Population development in cities 2050. Source: McKinsey 2013. [3] Office of Dissemination, China Statistics Press, National Bureau of Statistics of China, China Statistical Yearbook 2011, Beijing 2012, pp. 93. [4] Wang L.: „ Applying Natural Ventilation for Thermal Comfort in Residential Buildings in Singapore “, in: Architecture Science Review Volume 50.3 (2007), pp. 224-233. [5] Weather Tool 2001, © Autodesk, Inc. 2010; Weather data Download, U.S. Department of Energy, report on the data (STAT) and ASHRAE Design Conditions Design Day Data file (DDY). [6] C. Tantasavasdi, T. Chenvidyakarn, M. Pichaisak, Integrative Passive Design for Climate Change: A New Approach for Tropical House Design in the 21st Century; Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Thammasat University, Thailand; Department of Architecture, University of Cambridge, UK, published in BUILT, 1 (1), 2011, p. 14. [7] Parts of the text above is published at: Oswald, F., Reduce A/C - Reducing the utilisation of air conditioning in high-rise buildings in subtropical and tropical climate regions, 2015, Graz, Austria. S.ARCH-2017114.2
NEGOTIATING CHINESE SPACE IN VANCOUVER: CONTROL AND ESCAPE Foong P. Chan Urban Designer 7 – 1336 West 14th Avenue, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, V6H1R1
Abstract In Vancouver, two forms of control are being exercised over its vast single-family zone. First: Foreign wealth migration, often described in the media as Chinese, brought new homeowners wanting express their identity through expansive mansions. Second: Judging the newcomers’ house designs as incompatible with the older houses, populist movements been calling for a return of English-ness as Canada’s proper architectural identity. This paper argues that both sets of control misses the dynamic socio-economic, ecological and geological processes at hand. This paper suggests ways to escape these two forms of control by using Félix Guattari’s notion of the “Three Ecologies” (Social, Environmental and Mental) as well as Guattari and Gilles Deleuze’s notion of de- and re-territorialisation as enabling tools to re-relate to land, policies and even subjectivity in non-binary manners to thus harbour the conditions from which people and spaces yet to come can emerge.
Keywords Chinese Spaces, Ethics, Deleuze and Guattari
1
Introduction
In Vancouver, there is fight between “locals” and “foreigners” over who controls the vast single-family zone which is 70% of the city’s land mass (See Figure 1) , and this fight often manifests as a debate about what is the right architectural fit for the single-family zone. This paper argues that both claims of control are inadequate in attending to the dynamic socioeconomic, ecological and geological processes at hand. The paper then proposes an escape from this dichotomy by using Félix Guattari’s notion of the “Three Ecologies” (Social, Environmental and Mental) as well as Guattari and Gilles Deleuze’s notion of de- and reterritorialisation as enabling tools to re-relate to land, policies and even subjectivity in nonbinary manners to thus harbour the conditions from which people and spaces yet to come can emerge.
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Figure 1: The red-outlined areas show the single-family zones (approximately 70% of the city’s land mass).
2
A Context of Control
On 8th November 2016 Donald Trump won the Presidential Election. In mid-November 2016, in Richmond, a city next to Vancouver, Alt-Right flyers appeared warning Whites that the Chinese are taking over, causing housing unaffordability, and marginalising Whites in the community their forefathers built. [1] (See Figure 2) Richmond’s population is over 50% Chinese-descent.
Figure 2: An Alt-Right Poster found in Richmond, British Columbia, in November 2016.
Trump’s ascendance added fuel to the fire, but the uneasiness with Chinese presence has a long history: There were racial bans in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; fear of “Hongcouver” in the eighties and nineties, and today, anxieties over the Mainland Chinese buying property. In 2014, the average single-family house in Vancouver is over $1 million while the average gross household income is $76,000. [2] Blogger Eveline Xia started a #donthave1million hashtag to respond to this discrepancy that is seen to contribute to housing unaffordability. Attempting to objectively address the increasing stories about Mainland Chinese outbidding “locals” in real estate wars, urban planner Andy used a name analysis methodology to look at single-family houses sold between August 2015 to February 2015 (172 listings in total) in some S.ARCH-2017 115.2
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affluent neighbourhoods to find how many of these had buyers with non-Anglicised names. Names like Wong San Fung would be included while names like Andrew Shui-Him Yan would be excluded. The assumption was persons with non-anglicised names were likely new immigrants whereas those with Anglicised names were more likely to be second- or thirdgeneration Chinese-Canadians, hence “local” enough. His findings showed that non-Anglicised named buyers bought 66% of those 172 houses, averaging at $3 million each. [3] Vancouver mayor Gregor Robertson amongst others called Yan’s study racist and divisive. [4] Yan’s response was that it is often developers and politicians who cry racism to protect their own privilege. [5] While, former South China Morning Post journalist Ian Young stated it is crucial not to dismiss the impacts of wealth migration as racist and shun all investigations. [6] In August 2016, the provincial Government introduced a 15% foreigner tax on properties. [7] In November 2016, Vancouver’s Planning Department started its Character Home Zoning Review to address anxieties about Vancouver losing its characteristic pre-1940 houses through demolitions and new constructions. It proposes to further revise the design guidelines for single-family houses to ensure new projects match pre-1940 houses in form and character (i.e West Coast Craftsman Style). [8] To discourage demolition the plot-ratio will be increased from the existing 0.70 to 0.75 if substantial retention of a pre-1940 house is demonstrated, and a single-family house can be subdivided into a duplex or triplex, potentially increasing the overall dwelling units per hectare. To disincentivise demolition, the density for any complete new builds is limited to 0.50 and will have to abide by guidelines to produce a “traditional” form. [9] i While Yan’s study reveals some impacts of Chinese wealth migration it is unable to critically address the issue of race that has been miscast as the cause of housing unaffordability where global wealth migration is reduced to a Chinese problem. Even Yan’s objective article still elicits comments like “not knowing whether you’re in Vancouver or Shanghai”. [4] Likewise, the Planning Department’s proposed retention plan avoids discussion of racial biases and assumes it is a matter of architectural fit to be resolved via quantified preferences. The fears of losing control of ownership of the residential hinterland – the single-family zone – to those embodying less Canadian-ness is strategically sidestepped. These recent anxieties are similar to those in the late eighties and nineties about Hong Kong immigrants. Reflecting on this topic in the nineties, sociologist Peter S. Li in his seminal paper Unneighbourly Houses or Unwelcome Chinese explored racialised terms like “Monster Houses”. The term is used (and continues) to describe the Chinese immigrants’ bigger bulkier new houses, yet it is almost never used to refer to the big houses in predominantly White neighbourhoods. [10, p.23] The dislike for a certain architectural expression masks an uneasiness about the social behaviour and tastes of the new neighbours. Li noted that for some “locals”, new immigrants were sometimes seen as simply lacking the “sublime aesthetics of Canadians.” [10, pp.27-28] But, the Chinese may not see themselves as being inferior aesthetics-wise. On the contrary, Journalist Bianca Bosker noted for many nouveau riche, mixing Western architectural references is not pastiche, but “a potent symbol for their ascension to – and aspirations for – global supremacy and the middle-class comforts of the First World.” [11, p.4] In Vancouver’s context, it is an attempt to assert and control their image as part the city’s upper class. But, this is where the schism emerges. Architecture historian Duanfang Lu noted it is precisely because the Monster Houses were not entirely oriental and S.ARCH-2017 115.3
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had imitated aspects of Western architecture that they become “partial doubles of the ‘White’ houses” that threatens the proper White original. Englishness as the “natural essence of the place” emerged as a “cultural defence” against the potential loss of demarcation between “local” from “foreign”. [12, p.25] Li and Lu’s respective works, though nearly two decades old, are still useful in highlighting how some spatio-cultural turmoil cannot be resolved through rational planning’s appeal to consensus. Depressing allowable density and implementing stricter design guidelines do not sufficiently address the wider regional, federal and global systems that produced the fight between new Chinese immigrants and the “locals” over land control.
3
Controls controlling the Controls
Engrossed in this fight over spatio-cultural control, both “locals” and “foreigners” never gained insight into how their fight itself is produced and controlled by global systems that conveniently and strategically decoupled economic struggles from cultural struggles. Philosopher Gilles Deleuze in his essay Postscript on the Societies of Control suggested the mechanisms that control preferences can even be seen by those being controlled as helping them achieve their own aspirations, and the race to realise these controlled preferences are presented as healthy competitions. [13, p.310] Within this controlled system, both “locals” and “foreigners” see asserting their own preference on what the single-family zone must be as fulfilment of the land’s assumed destiny. Fuelled by China’s economic boom in its urban centres, “foreigners” may see wealth migration and the construction of mansions as the Chinese Empire’s logical advancement. The “locals” may see their defence of Vancouver’s Englishness through the preservation of cottage style architecture as the logical countenance to wealth migration. The global systems that enables both “locals” and “foreigners” actually encourage this competition. By reducing this fight for control as merely different cultural and architectural preferences, there is little query into how preserving the single-family zones – whether it is with gabled-roof cottages or with nouveau-riche mansions – is land control that continues to attract wealth, locally and internationally. The wealthy often usually aspires to exactly what the single-family zones offer: a large tract of sparsely developed land segregated from the rest of the working city. The zoning by-laws and guidelines protects this “sanctity”. Occupying over 70% of Vancouver’s land mass means the single-family zone borders on almost all other zones with higher density allowances. At these border regions, the basic urban design approach is to scale down to meet the single-family zone’s height and character. Contrast is discouraged. Often gabled roofs mimicking a traditional house form are required on larger buildings. (See Figure 3) While “good” for minimising shadows and overlook, and reinforcing an image of “old” Vancouver, this naturalised approach of transitioning down does not begin to question how the single-family zone ‘controls’ the other zones physical, environmental and social developments. Urban design loses its transformative/critical capacity here.
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Figure 3: The newer multiple-dwelling building on the left ‘steps down’ on one side and generally uses sloped roof and other “traditional” features (like garrett dormers shown here) to transition to and become comparable character-wise to single-family house on the right.
Some claim Englishness expresses true Canadian-ness, some claim Englishness violates cultural sensitivity and architectural innovation, some want old-new hybrids. Yet the politics of difference, as philosophers Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri noted, is often ineffective against the very system the rebellion is targeting, and can even unwittingly support the functions and practices of that system. [14, p.142] Hybrids and mobility that are created from the dominant culture’s desire for exoticised mixtures, and appeals to genus loci and stasis, can even be controls to help maintain the traditional economies. For Hardt and Negri, escape is through production. They wrote, Truth will not make us free, but taking control of the production of truth will. Mobility and hybridity are not liberatory, but taking control of the production of mobility and stasis, purities and mixtures is. [14, p.156] Take control of the controls.
4
Un-Control and New Ethics: A Chinese Space Yet to Come
Taking control of the controls involves letting go, an un-control, in order to forge ahead. Vancouver’s future “Chinese space” will escape control from both wealth migration and Vancouver’s mythic past. But this escape is not a retreat to some middle-ground. Escaping this dichotomy begins by critically recoupling cultural and economic issues in order to attend to and create new connections amidst the dynamic intersections of cultural, socio-economic, environmental and geological processes abound across the Pacific and the Vancouver greater region. This requires a will to un-control current land-use controls so that a “Chinese Space” ex situ may emerge. How to un-control these old controls that are increasingly unsustainable socio-economically and ecologically? One way is to reformulate the personal subject so as to differently connect S.ARCH-2017 115.5
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it to the environment. It is not just how we change space, but how we change in and with space. A space, even future Chinese space, has specificities but its location may be extensive and its form is intensive insofar it always harbours the potential to change. To speak of a space is to speak of the earth. A space is a particularity arising from the earth, and subjectivity is a particularity arising from space (and the earth). The subject is an extension of the earth rather than the earth being the subject’s object of meditation. Deleuze and his interlocutor Félix Guattari wrote that to engage critically with the earth, there needs to be a shift away from we-as-subjects versus earth-as-object. “Rather, thinking takes place in the relationship of territory and the earth.” The earth is constantly carrying out movements that destroys territories and re-create new ones. [15, p.85] One does not simply think about territories. Thinking and the thinking subject are constituted by acts of territorialisation which connects lands, ideas, mortar, flesh, vegetation, natural resources and so forth. Guattari in his book The Three Ecologies wrote that to think through the earth is to grasp the world through ecosophy: a knowledge of ecology and an ecology of knowledge. The latter points to how thinking and the thinking subject are tumultuous and inseparable from its surroundings. The oikos (where we dwell) produces the sophia (us and our thoughts). Guattari presents three interdependent ecologies, as a conceptual tool, to articulate this subjectworld’s complex movement: •
•
•
An Environmental Ecology, for Guattari, is a “machinic ecology,” not because the environment is robot-like or unchanging, but precisely because like a machine it can transform in time, parts added and taken off. The environmental ecology is a story of the intertwined fate of humans and non-humans. Guattari notes the necessity for not going back to what was. Instead there should be “the creation of new living animal and vegetable looks inevitable on the horizon.” [16, pp.66-67] A Social Ecology is comprised of forces with the capacity to reorganise anew rather than ready-formed groups and identities. Instead of looking for identificatory systems that reduce difference to established social types like traditional family or employment groupings, Guattari proposed we approach social milieus like a diagram rather than a fixed picture. Diagrams present abstract relations of parts, and our task is to find new relations between to those parts, sometimes drawing in new parts. In doing so, new social milieus may, however minutely, begin to show the capacity “to escape from itself.” [16, p.60] Ethics lie in productive re-organisation of parts. A Mental Ecology is no longer the domain of the unchanging individual. Guattari argues, rather than each individual having his or her own mind, there is instead an “ecology of ideas”, which boundaries need not coincide with individuals’ physical body or even sense of self. [16, p.54] It is to “reinvent the relation of the subject to the body, to phantasm, to the passage of time, to the ‘mysteries’ of life and death.” Reinvent the relationship to media and the social ecology at large. [16, p.35]
It is important to note Guattari’s three ecologies function as a diagram for re-thinking and remapping, exploring how differential relations between the three ecologies can transform each other, so as to create evolving territories, subjectivities and communities. Hence, it differs from the oft-cited three legs of sustainability (social, environmental and economic). S.ARCH-2017 115.6
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Specifically, each of the three ecologies do not espouse exact values it must necessarily have so as to bring the earth back in order. “Back in order” suggests a paradise lost pitted against a lesser-now. [16, p.67] The three ecologies express an eco-logic “concerned only with the movement and intensity of evolution processes.” Evolutionary processes themselves are constituted by assemblages of forces “engaging in irreversible durations.” [16, p.44] Ecosophy is an incomplete project. An individual’s thoughts (mental ecology) can move the social and environmental ecologies’ boundaries. Simultaneously, the peristaltic psycho-physical movements of other individuals (social ecology), and environmental processes natural or otherwise (environmental ecology), can transform an individual’s thoughts and even sense of being. The mind does not stand prior to its socio-physical environment. This is why some designers awed by the earth’s instability place pavilions on the cliff edges, thereby transforming the landscape to transform their already-transformed ourselves. The subject’s territory is de- and re-territorialised by the earth. What may be useful for built environment professionals and citizens engaging with the combined destructive forces of wealth migration and xenophobic nostalgia is to “move away from the old forms of political, religious and associative commitments,” those binaries such as nature-versus-culture, local-versus-global, us-versus-them that have dominated social milieus. [16, p.67] Guattari wrote, “Now more than ever, nature cannot be separated from culture; in order to comprehend the interactions between eco-systems... we must learn to think transversally.” [16, p.43] “It is no longer possible to claim to be opposed to capitalist power only from the outside through trade unions and traditional politics.” Instead of these alignments of family, community and nation as foundations, it will be a question “cultivating a dissensus.” [16, p.50] A dissensus, for Guattari, is not exactly a position diametrically opposed to Capitalism. Rather, to dissent is to work like artists, to transfigure events and spaces (social-environmental ecologies), in doing so transform the thinking subject (mental ecology), even the artist him/herself. An iterative territory begins to emerge through this act. Cartographies of dissensus proceeds “without their authors having prior recourse to assured theoretical principles.” The cartographer spreads out across the evolving relations between mental, social and environmental ecologies; s/he exists as a work in progress. [16, p.40] Evolution and innovation require strategic and critical infidelity occasionally. At moments one may “feel impelled to decide on common objectives... But there will simultaneously be periods in which individual and collective subjectivities will ‘pull out’ without a thought for collective aims, and in which creative expression as such will take precedence.” It is becoming an artist who on encountering an “intrusion of some accidental detail” to his/her process seizes that accident as serendipity. [16, p.52] The accident and the forms it may bring to accustomed existing territories of practice, of community, of subject, of policies, etc, may be unsettling. But, this is the catalyst for mental, social and environmental ecologies to begin relating to each other different to fuel “a constantly mutating socius.” [16, p.68] So, Guattari wrote, We need new social and aesthetic practices, new practices of the Self in relation to the other, to the foreign, the strange. [16, p.68]
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Like Guattari, Deleuze understood ethics as creation. For him, the ethical arises from a “long affair of experimentation, requiring a lasting prudence.” [17, p.115] The ethical, he wrote, is … a question of knowing whether relations (and which ones) can compound directly to form a new, more extensive relation, or whether capacities can compound directly to constitute a more intense capacity of power. It is no longer a matter of utilisations or captures, but of socialibilities and communities. How do individuals enter into composition with one another in order to form a higher individual, ad infinitum? [17, p.126] From this notion that the ethical lies not in absolute fidelity for either the local or the global, one may suggest Vancouver’s single-family zone is not one territory standing against the global space, and that the dissensus needed is to creatively de-territorialise the global-wide forces that gave rise to the existing particular (imagination of) single-family zone. Then, reterritorialise these forces to propel the single-family zone and its varied inhabitants into that constantly mutating socius. And in this process, what is spatial justice will be posed differently each time it is asked. As feminist and architectural theorist Elizabeth Grosz noted, how built spaces, amongst other forces, relate to (and transform) the practitioner, and to what is ethical, “is a question that thus cannot and should not be answered but must be continually posed, rigorously raised in such a way as to defy answers.” [18, p.59] The infidel dissenting architect, planner, “local” and “foreigner” will be have to think outside themselves. Their control of the controls is to dismantle the old controls and find reinvention each time, to surpass the mere recognition of “good” values or models. Guattari noted, the escape from dominant ideology and practices, to forge new environmental, social and mental connections, … is not a question of exchanging one model or way of life for another, but of responding to the event as the potential bearer of new constellations of universes of references. [19, p.18] The ethical moment does not begin by the application of known modelled values. It begins through questions that may lead to the de- and re-territorialisation, and emergence of new subjects, territories, values, and policies in the making.
5
Policies as Questions
If the ethical emerges through continual questioning, can then policies which are mostly to address ethical concerns take on a question-form, to inspire policies always in the process of making? Can it surpass its conventional function of designating new zones, uses and demographics, and determining future? Can policies affirm the continuing act of question? Can it inspire experimentation and dissensus? To end (and start) this paper, here are some broad questions that may lead to the formation of policy-questions: How will historical and present First Nations spatio-political forces be reinscribed into the territories formed by colonial subdivision patterns given that Vancouver sits on indigenous lands that are not formally ceded to the Crown? How will existing single-family zone by-laws when intersecting with environmental challenges/innovations inspire the S.ARCH-2017 115.8
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emergence of peoples and spaces yet to come? What kinds of space will need to be constantly invented in order to decolonise the also-ever-changing form of global wealth migration which roots are tied to previous centuries’ expansion of empires? And, since this fight for control concerns heritage, how can policies be designed to open up questions about how Vancouver’s Englishness have transformed aboriginal landscapes, and how this same Englishness continues to exclude even when anti-racist laws are in effect? In doing so, entail critical reflections of nostalgia that fold in new understandings of ecological systems and wider economies. [20] Lastly, how will a dissenting “artist-policy-writer/designer/planner” address these questions; thus, requiring a shift in the role of the “author”. Chinese spaces emerging alongside such policy-questions always have surpluses; its “Chineseness” is always in negotiation. Even Vancouver and its people are yet to come…
References [1]
Chin, Jessica, Richmond Racist Flyers Call On 'Whitey' To Save City From Chinese People, http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2016/11/21/richmond-racist-flyers_n_13130166.html (Accessed: 2017-01-21)
[2]
Statistics Canada, Median Household Income by Metropolitan Area, http://www.statcan.gc.ca/tables-tableaux/sum-som/l01/cst01/famil107a-eng.htm (Accessed: 2017-01-24)
[3]
Yan, Andy, Ownership Patterns of Single Family Home Sales on Selected West Side Neighborhoods in the City of Vancouver: A Case Study, http://bingthomarchitects.com/btaworks/ownership-patterns-of-single-family-homesales-on-selected-west-side-neighborhoods-in-the-city-of-vancouver-a-case-study/ (Accessed: 2017-01-21)
[4]
CBC News, Vancouver Foreign Ownership Research Prompts Cries of Racism in Hot Housing Market, http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouverforeign-ownership-study-1.3301061 (Accessed: 2017-01-24) Douglas Todd, Nothing Racist about Vancouver Housing Study: Expert, http://vancouversun.com/news/staff-blogs/nothing-racist-about-metro-housingstudy-experts-say (Accessed: 2017-01-24)
[5]
[6]
Max Fawcett, Interview: Ian Young on Racism and Real Estate, http://vanmag.com/city/the-van-mag-qa-ian-young/ (Accessed: 2017-01-21)
[7]
Ministry of Finance, Additional Property Transfer Tax on Residential Property Transfers to Foreign Entities in the Greater Vancouver Regional District, http://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/taxes/property-taxes/property-transfer-tax/formspublications/is-006-additional-property-transfer-tax-foreign-entities-vancouver.pdf (Accessed: 2016-11-20)
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[8]
City of Vancouver, Character Home Zoning Review Background, http://vancouver.ca/files/cov/character-home-zoning-review-background.pdf (Accessed: 2017-01-21)
[9]
City of Vancouver, Character Home Zoning Review Options, http://vancouver.ca/files/cov/character-home-zoning-review-zoning-options.pdf (Accessed: 2017-01-20)
[10] Li, Peter S., Unneighbourly Houses or Unwelcome Chinese: The Social Construction of Race in the Battle over ‘Monster Homes’ in Vancouver, Canada, IJCRES, Vol. 1, (1994), p.23. [11] Bosker, Bianca, Original Copies: Architectural Mimicry in Contemporary China, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 2013, p.4. [12] Lu, Duanfang, The Changing Landscape of Hybridity: A Reading of Ethnic Identity and Urban Form in Vancouver, TDSR, Vol. 11, No. 2, (2000), p.25. [13] Deleuze, Gilles, Postscript on the Societies of Control, in Rethinking Architecture, (Ed. Neil Leach), Routledge, London and New York City, 1997, p.310. [14] Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri. Empire, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England, 2000, p.142. [15] Deleuze, Gilles Deleuze and Guattari, Félix, What if Philosophy?, (Trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Graham Burchell), Columbia University Press, New York City, 1994, p. 85. [16] Guattari, Félix, The Three Ecologies, (Trans. Ian Pindar and Paul Patton), London and New Brunswick, New Jersey, Athlone Press, 2000, p.66-67. [17] Deleuze, Gilles, Spinoza: Practical Philosophy, (Trans. Robert Hurley), City Lights Books, San Francisco, 1988, p.115. [18] Grosz, Elizabeth Grosz, Architecture from the Outside, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2001, p.59. [19] Guattari, Félix, Chaosmosis: An Ethico-Aesthetic Paradigm, (Trans. Paul Bains and Julian Pefanis), Power Publications, Sydney, 1995, p.18. [20] Boym, Svetlana, The Future of Nostalgia, Basic Books, New York City, 2001. i
Various Signatories, Open Letter to the City of Vancouver, Abundant Vancouver, http://www.abundanthousingvancouver.com/characterreview (Accessed: 2017-01-20) The Character Home Zoning Review is not without criticism. An open letter to the Planning Department suggests downzoning new builds will exacerbate the housing crisis. Currently, many single-family houses have a rental secondary suite in the basement or attic as a mortgage helper. Downzoning to 0.50 and enforcing a steep pitched roof produces an envelope that cannot adequately accommodate a secondary suite. Furthermore, the letter also noted many cherished pre-1940 residential houses are well above a 0.50 plot ratio. As such, downzoning to 0.50 implies that even some historical densities are inappropriate today.
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BUILDING PRESERVATION AND THE STUDY OF HISTORY SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP? Karen JS McKINNEY, Architect, AIA Candidate (Master of Arts – Public History) University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, Louisiana P. O. Box 101, Washington, LA, 70589, United States of America karen.js.mckinney@gmail.com
Abstract As architects, the importance of preservation of historic buildings to the practice of architecture is readily apparent. But the preservation of structures extends beyond the realms of style, design, innovation, and materials. Buildings possess comprehensive documentation of sites, neighborhoods, districts, towns, cities, regions, and nations as the backdrop for history’s stage. Like the soil surrounding an object on an archaeological dig, buildings comprise the historical integrity of the lives lived within them. The Society of Architectural Historians identifies the significance of historic preservation as relevant to “understanding human growth” and values. Buildings are all constructed by and for people and therefore, the study of the history of people justifiably includes the architecture of that people as a defining characteristic of the climactic, topographical, and cultural influences which affected development; and, comprehension of the vernacular requires review of the conditions that affected its development. For each variation of vernacular culture must also be asked: What climatic and topographical conditions caused adaptive changes to style? Which cultural traditions remained despite other influences? How did each group, segment, and civilization of humankind develop shelter? How did the availability of materials and labor define style? What ‘folk structures’ migrated with their people to new lands? How did people adapt these structures to serve their changing needs? As people and architecture co-developed, so must the study of their development evolve together.
Keywords: architecture, historic preservation, history, style 1. Introduction As architects, the importance of preservation of historic buildings to the practice of architecture is readily apparent. But the preservation of structures extends beyond the realms of style, design, innovation, and materials. Buildings possess comprehensive documentation of sites, neighborhoods, districts, towns, cities, regions, and nations as the backdrop for history’s stage. Like the soil surrounding an object on an archaeological dig, buildings comprise the historical integrity of the lives lived within them. The Society of Architectural Historians identifies the significance of historic preservation as relevant to “understanding human growth” and values. Buildings are all constructed by and for people and therefore, the study S.ARCH-2017 117.1
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of the history of people justifiably includes the architecture of that people as a defining characteristic of the climatic, topographical, and cultural influences which affected development. In 1961, historian Edward Hallett Carr stated: “It is presupposition of history that man is capable of profiting … by the experience of his predecessors, and that progress in history, unlike evolution in nature, rests on the transmission of acquired assets. These assets include both material possessions and the capacity to master, transform, and utilize one’s environment … But the mere accumulation of resources will not avail unless it brings with it not only increased technical and social knowledge and experience, but increased mastery of man’s environment in the broader sense.” 1 This relationship between history, social progress, and transfer of assets forms a symbiotic relationship between preservation of structures and historical study. Symbiosis is a term most commonly used to describe biological organisms rather than architecture or history. Defined as a cooperative relationship or intimate association between dissimilar organisms, there is a symbiotic relationship between the study of history and building preservation.
2. Knowledge as Preservation The study of history involves the use of primary sources. Historians live for the new-found cache or the recovered manuscript. They pore over handwritten journals and previously forgotten stories. The study of history depends upon the existence of records, documents, and objects from antiquity with constantly changing interpretations of these primary sources. The best histories tell a story, create meaning, and form a sense of who we are, where we came from, and where we are going.
Bribri & Maleku Native American Tribes, Costa Rica. Images by author
Edward Hallett Carr, What is History? The George Trevelyn Lectures Delivered at the University of Cambridge January-March 1961. (New York: Vintage Books, 1961), 155-56. 1
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Historic preservation involves much more than bricks, mortar, wood, and glass. These are simple materials moulded into forms: lines, curves, sweeps, arches. The history in the materials, the design, the land on which it stands, all of the outside influences that affected the result retain value despite the failure of a project. How the materials were created, shipped, assembled, used, and discarded embody the history. The primary emphasis in western civilizations has historically placed value on physical objects, including structures, without necessarily considering the knowledge embodied in their creation. Historic preservation means preservation of the methods used to create the form as well as the result of those methods. Should not the whole story be told? Did not the laborers play as important a role as the architect and the owner? What role did the intended occupants play in construction and adaptation? Should not the study of each prominent structure of “high style” include some understanding of its creators?
3. Sense of Place Scientific method of historical inquiry requires a clear view of all factors involved in the study. Building preservation should do no less. To accurately tell the story requires all of the facts. Buildings hold a place within the collective consciousness as part of our sense of place. What role does this play to historians? How do buildings embody a people, their culture, values, and way of life? What parts of the past inform about what is to come? When forming the Historic American Buildings Survey in 1933, President Roosevelt specified one reason as the need to preserve the significant historic buildings of the past and present the people with a sense of their place for the future. Carr clarified this when he stated, “The emergence of a particular value or ideal at a given time or place is explained by historical conditions of place and time. The practical content of hypothetical absolutes like equality, liberty, justice, or natural law varies from period to period, or from continent to continent. Every group has its own values which are rooted in history.” 2
New Orleans Square No. 62. Image Historic American Buildings Survey Edward Hallett Carr, What is History? The George Trevelyn Lectures Delivered at the University of Cambridge January-March 1961. (New York: Vintage Books, 1961), 108. 2
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In a recent AIA web article, Catherine Gavin studied the impact and significance of architecture on the brain. Psychological effects due to space, light, and the dialogue between buildings of differing eras all affect human perception. 3 All of the senses are engaged by the built environment and form impressions on individuals. Gavin’s article reviewed the recent work of some architects collaborating with brain scientists and neurobiologists to understand exactly environmental perception could influence design thought. 4
4. Significance of Context Understanding of the powerful role played by surroundings emphasizes context and the interrelationships of spaces. The importance of context, in architecture and the study of history, relates directly to human understanding of environment. The study of architecture, in order to diversity, must first acknowledge the existence of architecture beyond that constructed for prominent businessmen, high society, and politicians. As with recent historical trends, architecture must accept and acknowledge the existence and roles played by all groups, of society. One example of the dichotomy between acknowledged architecture and marginalized vernacular occurred on Louisiana’s plantations. Despite the prominence and grandeur of the owner’s plantation homes, the most important structures on plantations were the slave quarters. Without labor provided by enslaved peoples, the plantation as a business would not have existed. The contrast between the plantation ‘big house’ and the slave quarters provide infinite material for study and contemplation within social context and interrelationship. Preserving only the owner’s grand house severely limits the possibilities for historical study. Likewise, research of the lives of slaves without acknowledging the symbiotic relationship their exertions formed with their owners’ ability to live in high society does great injustice to them. And, let us not forget the ‘factory’ – barns, stables, and sugar house or cotton gin. Similar analytical comparisons may be applied to factory towns, timber mills, religious communities, and medieval castles reflecting entire communities and the roles of each individual within them.
3
Catherine Gavin, “Perception (and Experience) is Reality.” March 6, 2017. The American Institute of Architects, 2017. https://www.aia.org/articles/65531-perception-and-experience-is-reality?utm. 4 Catherine Gavin, “Perception (and Experience) is Reality.” March 6, 2017. The American Institute of Architects, 2017. https://www.aia.org/articles/65531-perception-and-experience-is-reality?utm. S.ARCH-2017 117.4
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1790
1840
Destrehan Plantation Main House and Laurel Valley Plantation Slave Quarters. Images Historic American Buildings Survey
5. Historiography and ‘Architectography’ Historiography is the study of historians based on their placement within time, location, society, influences, and impacts. The study of architects should go beyond the professional and design portions of the architect’s life and look at the whole picture that created the personality behind the architect and his architecture. How did the individual become the person who created? Much of who we are and what we become is defined by society. Once again quoting Carr, “Society and the individual are inseparable … Every human being at every stage of history or pre-history is born into a society and from his earliest years is moulded by that society.” 5 He continues, “The individual is by definition a member of a society.” 6 We are inseparable from the environment which forms us, including the built environment. The best historians are able to place themselves within the minds of those about whom they are writing. 7 Do the best architects place themselves within the people for whom they are designing the building? Acknowledgement of the role of context also requires acknowledgement of all structures as part of the architectural community. Vernacular structures have been described as ‘not designed by architects’. Does this then make them not architecture? The same strictures on historical academia have also applied to historical architectural analysis – limited to prominent white men who wrote about what they knew. This method marginalized or ignored structures just as it did the people living and working within them. The time has come for re-evaluation of previous academic architecture to include all structures as part of the architectural community just as historic academia has embraced all facets of society in its recent studies. 5
Edward Hallett Carr, What is History? The George Trevelyn Lectures Delivered at the University of Cambridge January-March 1961. (New York: Vintage Books, 1961), 37. 6 Edward Hallett Carr, What is History? The George Trevelyn Lectures Delivered at the University of Cambridge January-March 1961. (New York: Vintage Books, 1961), 58. 7 Edward Hallett Carr, What is History? The George Trevelyn Lectures Delivered at the University of Cambridge January-March 1961. (New York: Vintage Books, 1961), 27. S.ARCH-2017 117.5
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Acknowledgement of the symbiotic relationship between people and the buildings they occupy necessitates the existence of those structures.
Images. New Orleans Cabildo (left) and Presbytere (right), Historic American Buildings Survey. Center, Austin Whittlesey, The Renaissance Architecture of Central and Northern Spain.
Comprehension of vernacular requires review of the conditions that affected its development. For each variation of vernacular culture must also be asked: What climatic and topographical conditions caused adaptive changes to style? Which cultural traditions remained despite other influences? How did each group, segment, and civilization of humankind develop shelter? How did the availability of materials and labor define style? What ‘folk structures’ migrated with their people to new lands? How did people adapt these structures to serve their changing needs? As people and architecture co-developed, so must the study of their development evolve together.
6. Defining Significance The objective of scientific, social, and historical research efforts has attempted to “increase man’s understanding of, and mastery over, his environment.” 8 Architecture, as the medium by which environment is created, forms a symbiosis with these research efforts.
Slave quarters
Owner house
8
Edward Hallett Carr, What is History? The George Trevelyn Lectures Delivered at the University of Cambridge January-March 1961. (New York: Vintage Books, 1961), 111. S.ARCH-2017 117.6
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Images. Evergreen Plantation, Historic American Buildings Survey
The experience of architecture exists beyond the surviving material components. Understanding how they came together, why and by whom requires analysis and historical research of the context in which it came to be. Symbiotic relationship between architectural preservation and the study of history provides the best context for a successful project. Historians tell the story from their own point of view. Retention of their primary sources is essential to the interpretations of future historians with different points of view. As with the practice of architecture, most historians of the past were male, white, and from prominent positions in society. The limited collective understanding inherent in the results of their scholarship requires reinterpretation by multiple racial, ethnic, religious, and gender groups. Existence of sources is required for study and re-evaluation, not only of the materials but also the interpreters themselves, their motivations, and influences.
7. Conclusion Historic preservation hovers as the predominant ‘new architecture’ of the twenty-first century. The intensity and extent of urban sprawl at mid-twentieth century demands new and innovative solutions if we are to avoid wholesale demolition, and the resultant erasure of history. Buildings house more than people; they provide repositories for human civilizations.
Farmland and Urban Sprawl, United States. Images by author
In a recent AIA presentation, Architect Dan Wood of the firm Workac stated his belief that historic preservation and adaptive reuse must define the architecture of the future.9 Continued survival of the planet requires sustenance of human populations with land 9
American Institute of Architects. Celebrate Architecture 2017. Baton Rouge, Louisiana. S.ARCH-2017 117.7
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dedicated to plant food production, animal habitation, and natural areas. As architects, it is our duty to lead society to the realization that the energy already expended in developed areas contains value. Do we retain the history as a successful venture or erase the mistake and start from a clean slate? Is the path worthy of documentation or best forgotten? The architecture of the future requires looking at the urban sprawl of the past with new and innovative plans. Plans that reflect on the successes and failures of the past require careful historical analysis. The symbiotic relationship between building preservation and historical studies provides the best perspective for successful environmental development and architecture in the future.
References [1] Edward Hallett Carr, What is History? The George Trevelyn Lectures Delivered at the University of Cambridge January-March 1961. (New York: Vintage Books, 1961), 155-56. [2] Edward Hallett Carr, What is History? The George Trevelyn Lectures Delivered at the University of Cambridge January-March 1961. (New York: Vintage Books, 1961), 108. [3] Catherine Gavin, “Perception (and Experience) is Reality.” March 6, 2017. The American Institute of Architects, 2017. https://www.aia.org/articles/65531-perception-and-experienceis-reality?utm. [4] Catherine Gavin, “Perception (and Experience) is Reality.” March 6, 2017. The American Institute of Architects, 2017. https://www.aia.org/articles/65531-perception-and-experienceis-reality?utm. [5] Edward Hallett Carr, What is History? The George Trevelyn Lectures Delivered at the University of Cambridge January-March 1961. (New York: Vintage Books, 1961), 37. [6] Edward Hallett Carr, What is History? The George Trevelyn Lectures Delivered at the University of Cambridge January-March 1961. (New York: Vintage Books, 1961), 58. [7] American Institute of Architects. Celebrate Architecture 2017. Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
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IMPACTS OF HOUSING AND COMMUNITY ENVIRONMENTS ON CHILDREN’S INDEPENDENT MOBILITY: A SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW Lingyi Qiu*, Xuemei Zhu Department of Architecture, Texas A&M University 3137 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-3137, the United States E-mail: lingyi1106@tamu.edu, xuemeizhu@tamu.edu
Abstract Rationale: Homes and communities are the most important spaces where people live, work, and recreate on a daily basis. They are especially impactful for children, who have limited mobility and rely more on their immediate surroundings. Limited studies have linked housing and community environments with children’s independent mobility (CIM), implying potential influences on child development. But recent decades have witnessed a steep decline in CIM, while it is unclear what the specific environmental barriers are and how design can help. Objectives: This systematic review examines the literature about environmental correlates of CIM and discusses its implication for future design. Methods: Based on an online search via multiple databases, this study identified and reviewed 42 articles about environmental correlates of CIM and relevant theories. Study characteristics and findings about the environment—CIM associations were reviewed and summarized to inform the development of a conceptual framework and design suggestions. Results: CIM is related to not only parents’ and child’s individual factors (e.g., age, gender, and socioeconomic status) but also environmental and social factors. Environmental correlates include community walkability, aesthetics, and safety; home type and location; and community-home relationships. Social factors include neighbourhood deprivation, social cohesion, and parenting social norms. Design suggestions include providing abundant destinations within walking/cycling distance, improving traffic safety, and creating childfriendly spaces for disadvantaged children. Conclusion and Discussion: This study identified environmental correlates of CIM and proposed design suggestions for promoting CIM. Further studies are needed in more countries and should build on a socio-ecological framework addressing multi-level factors.
Keywords Housing, Community, Environment, Children, Independent Mobility S.ARCH-2017 201.1
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1
Introduction
Children are our future. It is our responsibility to provide child-friendly environments for them to live, play, and grow in. Children’s independent mobility (CIM) refers to children’s moving around in neighbourhoods without adults’ accompany [1]. It associates with children’s physical, mental, and social development [2-6], and helps to create a stronger sense of community [7]. Independent mobility used to be normal experiences among children decades ago. However, it has shown a steep decline in recent years, which partially accounts for the decrease of children’s physical activity and the rising obesity epidemic [8, 9]. Some previous studies have identified the significant impacts of physical environmental factors such as nature, destination accessibility, walkability, and safety on CIM. Other research has discussed the influences of factors in other domains, including personal factors (e.g., parents’ socioeconomic status and children’s own characteristics) and social factors (e.g., neighbourhood deprivation and parenting social norms). But there are limited numbers of systematic reviews of relevant studies or summary about state of knowledge in this area. This study expects to provide a more comprehensive synthesis of relevant literature, and thereby, a more complete understanding of the impacts of physical environment on CIM. It also provides design suggestions to help guide child-friendly housing and community design to improve CIM.
2
Methods
2.1
Search Strategy
The systematic review was conducted between October 2016 and March 2017, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta Analyses guidelines from Canada [10]. Literature search was conducted through the Texas A&M University Library website and the Endnote software’s online search function. Seven most relevant databases in different domains were searched, including: Urban Studies and Planning, Social Sciences Full Text, Psychology and behavioral sciences collection, PsynINFO, Anuual Review, MEDLINE Complete, and MEDLINE (PubMed). Studies were selected if they are peer reviewed empirical studies on correlates of CIM or relevant literature review, and written in English. Reports, briefs, letters, and editorials were excluded. Studies focusing on larger geographic scale beyond the community level were also excluded. Publications before the year of 2000 were excluded because CIM has shown a steep decline in recent years. Keywords used for the search included children, independent mobility, physical activity, community, housing, and environment, and a total of 273 articles were identified. After deleting duplicates and a review of the titles and abstracts, 238 papers remained. A further review of the full text identified 42 articles for an in-depth systematic review.
2.2
Data Extraction
Main characteristics were extracted from each study. They include the first author, title, year of publication, journal of publication, study design, sample characteristics (e.g., sample size,
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gender, age, race), study location and settings, confounding variables, measurements of variables, statistical analysis, results, and conclusions.
3
Results
This section first summarizes the main study characteristics and the theories and conceptual frameworks applied or proposed in these studies. It then reviews and summarizes the correlates of CIM, which are grouped into domains of personal, social, and physical environmental factors.
3.1
Main Study Characteristics
Among 42 selected articles, there are 35 (83%) cross-sectional studies, 1 (2%) longitudinal study, 4 (10%) literature reviews, and 2 (5%) case studies (Table 1). The majority (79%) were published between 2010 and 2017. Most studies were conducted in Europe (43%) and Oceania (38%); and in urban or suburban settings (69%). The sample size ranged from 40 to 1830.
3.2
Table 1: Main characteristics of reviewed studies Study Characteristics Number (%) Publication Year 2010-2017 33 (79%) 2000-2010 9 (21%) Study Design Cross-sectional 35 (83%) Longitudinal 1 (2%) Literature Review 4 (10%) Others 2 (5%) Region of Study U.S./ Canada 7 (17%) Europe 18 (43%) Oceania 16 (38%) Asia 1 (2%) Study Setting No specific/ General 10 (24%) Urban/ Suburban 29 (69%) Rural 0 (0%) Both Urban and Rural/Mixed 3 (7%) Sample Size (For Reviewed Empirical Studies) <500 15 (43%) 500-1000 9 (26%) >1001 11 (31%) CIM Measures (For Reviewed Empirical Studies) Subjective Measures 30 (86%) Objective Measures 0 (0%) Mixed Measures 5 (14%)
Theoretical Basis and Conceptual Frameworks
This review also examined theories and conceptual frameworks in the reviewed articles to identify relevant ones that can inform a better understanding about the topic. Socialecological model is the most commonly used theory in identified studies. Researchers from diverse disciplines also proposed several conceptual frameworks for different CIM modes. Since the late 1980s, researchers have adopted the social-ecological model into health promotion research, shifting from an over-emphasis on individual responsibility to a comprehensive perspective addressing multi-level correlates of health behavior, as well as the interactions among different levels [11-13]. This model was later extended as a guiding theory for health promotion from the community level [13, 14]. In the 42 reviewed studies, 13 either directly applied the socio-ecological framework or showed the influence of this theory in their concept and study design. In addition, several conceptual frameworks for correlates of CIM were proposed in previous studies. One study examined British children’s use of community environments and proposed a conceptual model with nested “ranges” of activity spaces, which emphasizes the fact that children do not spend their time equally within all places around their neighbourhoods[15]. Three ranges—habitual range, frequented range, and occasional S.ARCH-2017 201.3
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range—are defined by spatial and temporal differences in children’s use of their immediate surroundings. This model (Figure 1) was later adopted in a study in Canada, which used global positions systems (GPS) to detect children’s activity spaces and examine their neighbourhood activity and mobility [16].
Figure1: Moore’s model of childhood domain. (AS=activity spaces) (Source of image: Loehach and Gillilan, 2016)
A recent study [17] proposed a systems model (Figure 2) that addresses comprehensive interrelationships among multiple factors, while providing flexibility in tailoring the model to diverse settings. Factors in the framework were categorized into five levels based on the socio-ecological theory, including policy and society norms, neighbourhood, household, individual, and behavior levels.
Figure 2: A Systems model about multi-level factors related to children’s independent mobility (IM= independent mobility; NADI-C= Neighbourhood Destination Index-Child). (Source of image: Badland et al., 2016)
Another recent review explored the impact of housing on children’s development and proposed a conceptual framework (Figure 3) that links several housing features to children’s health outcomes from a broad ecological scope [18].
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Figure 3: Conceptual model of the role of housing in childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s development (Source of image: Donkervoort et al., 2009)
In another Canadian study, based on a literature review on independent mobility and school transportation, a conceptual framework (Figure 4) was proposed to explain childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s school travel behaviour. Multiple levels of influences on CIM and mode choice for school transportation are considered, including external influences of natural and policy contexts, urban environment, household, and intrapersonal characteristics of the child [19].
Figure 4: A behavioural model of school transportation (Source of image: Mitra, 2013)
3.3
Variables Examined in the Reviewed Studies
This section summarizes definitions and measurements of CIM used in previous studies, as well as their findings about correlates of CIM. It refers to the social-ecological model and
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grouped the variables into three categories, including (1) physical environment factors, (2) individual factors, and (3) social factors. 3.3.1
Definitions and measurements of children’s independent mobility
Children’s independent mobility was originally defined as independent travel and unsupervised play by Hillman, Adams [1] in his book “One false move”. As summarized later by Kytta [6], there are three types of definitions used in studies on CIM. The first definition considers CIM as the geography range and distance that children can move around independently from their home. In the second definition, CIM was identified as the mobility licenses that are issued by parents to permit children to move around individually in the environment. The degree of a mobility license reflects parent’s concerns about and decisionmaking on CIM. The third definition reflects the level of children’s actual mobility by asking them to record their activities (e.g. mobility diaries) within a certain period of time. The measurements of CIM can be classified into quantitative and qualitative ones. Quantitative measurements are often based on Global Position Systems (GPS) or GPS-based apps on cell phones. They can capture geography-related variables like distance, ranges and active spaces. For example, as discussed earlier, one Canadian study measured children’s neighbourhood activity space by using portable GPS [16]. In most studies, qualitative methods are adopted due to the complexity of data identification and extraction when using quantitative measures from GPS devices or GPSbased apps. Such qualitative measurement methods included surveys, interviews, focus groups, and child or parent drawn maps. These measurements are seen more often in studies on parents’ reported mobility licence for children and children’s self-reported mobility. One study used interactive online-mapping software to measure CIM and travel modes to destinations [20]. A couple of studies combined quantitative and qualitative measures. One study published in 2011 discussed the potential of using mixed methods, combining ethnographic fieldwork with GPS technology and an interactive survey to study children’s mobility patterns, and identified that as a valid triangulation method that can enhance data quality [21]. 3.3.2
Physical Environment Factors Related to CIM
Physical environmental correlates of CIM can be grouped into three levels, including community level, housing level, and community-housing relationships. Table 2 summarizes key physical environmental variables identified from the review. Table 2: Summary of key physical environmental correlates of CIM* Category Community level
Variable
Measurement Typea O
Walkability Crime safety
PP
Perception of neighbourhood
CP
Association with CIMb (+) Girl (+) (-) (×)
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(-)
Source Villanueva et al. (2014) Villanueva et al. (2013) Noonan et al. (2016) De Meester, Van Dyck, De Bourdeaudhuij, and Cardon (2014) Loebach and Gilliland (2016)
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Housing level
CommunityHousing relationship
risk
PP
(-)
Residential density
O
(×)
Access to public transport
O
(+) (+)
Increase of urbanization
O
(-)
Loebach and Gilliland (2016); Christian et al. (2015); Mitra, Faulkner, Buliung, and Stone (2014) Broberg, Salminen, and Kytt (2013) Kytta, Broberg, and Kahila (2012) Goodman, Jones, Roberts, Steinbach, and Green (2014) Lopes, Cordovil, and Neto (2014)
Neighbourhood aesthetics
PP
(-)
Noonan et al. (2016)
Presence of specific local destinations (i.e., recreation venues and retail shops) Housing type (Public vs. private) Single family housing Located on a busy road General independent mobility range from home
O
Boy (+)
O
(+)
Whitzman and Mizrachi (2012)
O PP PP, O
(+) (-) (-)
Broberg et al. (2013) Villanueva et al. (2013) Schoeppe, Duncan, Badland, Rebar, and Vandelanotte (2016)
CP, O
(-)
Zhou, Li, and Larsen (2016)
O
(+)
Loebach and Gilliland (2016)
Distance of play places from home Home-school distance (<1,600km vs. >1,600km)
Villanueva et al. (2013)
a
CP, children’s perceptions; O, objective measures; PP, parents’ perceptions; b(+) positive association; (−), negative association; (×), non-significant association; CIM*: CIM’s definitions and modes are different in reviewed studies.
1) Community Level In the community level, significant correlates include community walkability, neighbourhood aesthetics, perceived safety, residential density, access to public transport, and level of urbanization. Also some of these variables interact with others. Community walkability is typically captured as the number of built environment features that support walking and especially children’s active travel (e.g., walking and cycling). Studies have reported that children living in high-walkability neighbourhoods reported more physically activity and independent mobility, including active travel, and were more likely to have a healthy body size [20, 22]. One cross-sectional study from western Australia reported that high neighbourhood walkability had a positive impact on CIM especially for girls [23]. Also, pedestrian friendly neighbourhoods with natural surveillance have been found to increase parents’ perceived safety and relieve worries about stranger danger [24]. In addition, the normalization of children’s daily walking has been suggested to help relief parental fears and increases CIM [25]. Nearby traffic influences walkability and also affects the perception of safety among both parents and children, and consequently has a positive impact on CIM. Villanueva, Giles-Corti [26]’s study found that girls living in neighbourhoods with well-connected low-traffic streets had more than twice independent mobility than others. They also found parents living on a busy road reported less independent mobility for their children, including both boys and girls. Parents’ concerns about neighbourhood safety affect their decision on CIM [27]. Such concerns mostly related to strangers, crimes [28], and traffic [29]. Compared to parents from S.ARCH-2017 201.7
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affluent suburban neighbourhoods, parents in poorer inner-city neighbourhoods with more diverse, vulnerable, or unfamiliar populations worried more about their children’s safety and therefore had stricter restrictions on CIM [30]. Parents who perceived stronger neighbourhood cohesion (characterized by friendliness, helpfulness, trust, shared norms and values) were more likely to allow their children to have longer distance for individual travel and outdoor play [31]. Also, CIM for school travel decreased if the community was perceived unsafe [32]. One study in Flanders, Belgium found that boys reported more active transport when parents perceived mixed land uses, shorter distances to school, good land use mix access, higher residential density, and less pleasing neighbourhood aesthetics etc. [27]. A few studies also reported that children’s perceptions of environment played an important part in their own choice-making of moving individually [16]. Researchers from Scotland studied children’s landscapes of risk and safety through individually interviewing 52 children. They discussed that children’s risk landscapes were associated with multiple factors like space, time, people, actions, and their judgment of risk based on their personal experience and knowledge. Also, fear appears to be gender specific [33]. A study on fear among young adolescents reported girls to be more likely to experience fear than boys [34]. Nevertheless, children’s perception of environment is related to multi-level factors and the underlying mechanic is still unclear. Further studies are needed in this area. Findings about the impact of residential density on CIM are inconsistent. Researchers from Finland found that dense urban environments encouraged CIM, but did not support active transport [35]. Other researchers conducted a study in Turku, Finland and found positive associates between residential density and children’s active travel to and from school, but that conflicted with findings in another study in Finland [36]. Other significant variables have also been reported in a few studies. Negative correlates include neighbourhood aesthetics, increased urbanization, and inner-city neighbourhood street features [29, 30, 37]. Access to public transport was identified as a positive correlate [38]. 2) Housing Level A limited number of studies focused on the relationship between housing and CIM specifically. Variables that have been examined included housing types, housing location, and housing density. Housing types have shown significant impacts on CIM. One study from Sweden reported boys living in a house had less fear and higher independent mobility than those living in an apartment, but no significant difference was reported in the case of girls [39]. Researchers from Auckland, New Zealand concluded that single-family housing helped to promote both CIM and active transportation, and higher-density housing seldom provided child-friendly environments [30]. Another study in Melbourne, Australia interviewed 40 children and reported that children in public housing had higher levels of independent mobility compared to children in private housing. Researchers from Italy also found out that children living in apartments with courtyards and near parks and newly-built communities reported higher independent mobility [40]. In addition, lower CIM was observed among children living in housing along a busy road [26]. One review article summarized housing characteristics that affect children’s physical, social, mental development; behavioural outcomes; as well as school achievement and economic S.ARCH-2017 201.8
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attainment. Six features were reported, including physical housing quality, crowding, residential mobility, homeownership, subsidized housing and unaffordability [41]. However, only hazardous physical housing environment and crowding have been reported to have a strong relationship with children’s health. CIM plays an important role in children’s physical, mental, and social development. But it is unclear whether those housing characteristics have specific correlations with CIM and what the underlying mechanisms may be. In sum, existing studies reported some inconsistent findings on the impact of housing characteristics on CIM. More empirical studies are also needed in this area. 3) Community—housing relationship Variables concerning community-housing relationship included general independent mobility range from home, distance of play spaces from home, distance of school from home, and types and numbers of destinations within the neighbourhood. One Australian study examined CIM to neighbourhood destinations like schools, friend’s houses, parks and local shops and reported that CIM associated with distances between destinations and children’s home, but were also affected by other factors such as destinations’ specific characteristics (e.g., green space’s types and sizes), perception of safety, and parenting social norms [32]. Another research showed that 8-16 youth live in urban and rural areas with lower socioeconomic status (SES) in Victoria, Australia had greater self-reported independent mobility as shown by more frequent independent visitation to parks through active transport of either cycling or walking [42]. Another Australian study in Melbourne showed that children living in lower SES outer-urban communities had to travel greater distance to access local parks than their counterparts who live in inner-city above-mid SES areas [43]. Villanueva, Giles-Corti [26] explored relationships between access to local destinations and CIM, and also reported general positive correlations. In addition, impacts of certain types of destinations were found to be gender specific in this study. However, their earlier study reported that more local destinations within a small range from neighbourhood (less than 800 m) restricted children’s active space possibly due to increased traffic and strangers [22]. School is a special place among all accessible destinations. Active travel to and from school is a typical mode of CIM, and is positively associated with total level of CIM and decreases possibility of children being overweight [36, 44]. Some studies reported that children are more likely to active travel to school if the distance from home is less than 1.6 kilometres [16]. One article summarized 480 variables that were associated with children’s active school transportation based on a review of 42 studies. It also identified four factors that have the strongest associations with active transportation to school, including distance, income, traffic and crime fears, and parental attitudes and schedules [45]. Some studies have focused on the specific means of active transportation, such as walking, cycling, and taking school bus or public bus. In one study on cycling to school, around 40% of the participants (10-12 year old Belgian children) never cycled to school. Meanwhile, children living in neighbourhoods with better perceived traffic safety or had company (e.g., friends) on the school trip, or had encouragement from parents were more likely to cycle to school [46].
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3.3.3
Individual Factors Related to CIM
Personal factors from both parents and children also play significant roles in influencing CIM. This section summarizes findings about individual factors correlated with CIM in reviewed studies. 1) Parent Level Parents’ socioeconomic status, age, gender, parenting style, education level, income, employment, occupation, and even language proficiency influence their decision-making on their children’s independent mobility [5, 31, 47]. Some researchers from Australia examined parents’ attitudes on CIM range and found out that parents with lower education level have stricter restrictions for their children’s individual travel distance or outdoor play range, but no relationship has been observed between parents’ age groups and their attitudes about CIM [31, 47]. Mother’s strong neighbourhood relations were identified as a positive correlate of CIM in one Italian study [40]. One study also identified parents’ self-reported physical activity as a positive correlate for CIM and suggested further research in this area [27]. 2) Child Level Children’s characteristics like age, gender, language spoken at home, and other sociodemographic factors have shown significant impacts on their independent mobility in many studies [4, 28]. In general, CIM increases with age [1, 40, 48]. A longitudinal study examined and compared independent mobility of children (aged between 7 and 15 years old) in 16 countries, and reported that children under 11 years old have the greatest restrictions on independent mobility from their parents or guardians [49]. Also, boys have been identified to have higher independent mobility because of their own physical characteristics and less concerns about safety issues from parents comparing to girls at the same age groups [5, 25, 29]. Meanwhile, girls and minority children have been reported to be more restricted in terms of neighbourhood activity [28, 50]. Another study claimed that CIM showed a stronger correlation with boys in urban neighbourhoods and girls who live in suburban neighbourhoods [4]. Nevertheless, both boys and girls with more self-confidence in traveling autonomously have been identified larger active space areas around their homes [22]. Furthermore, impact of child’s age interacts with physical environmental features. For example, researchers from Portugal reported that as the level of urbanization increased, the age limit for children to engage in active travel independently also increased [29]. Besides the factors discussed above, children’s siblings and dog ownership also have impacts on their independent mobility. Studies reported that children who have accompany of older sibling of the same gender or a family dog have higher independent mobility for travel to school, local shops, and other more destinations [51, 52]. Additionally, children with high independent mobility were found more often with peers [40]. 3.3.4
Social Factors Related to CIM
Social factors have also been identified as important correlates of CIM. Key variables are neighbourhood SES disadvantage, neighbourhood social cohesion, parenting social norms, and informal social control in neighbourhood. For neighbourhood SES disadvantage, the findings were inconsistent. One UK study examined the difference between high deprivation and medium-to-high deprivation S.ARCH-2017 201.10
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neighbourhoods and their impacts on children’s self-reported independent mobility. Children in high-deprivation areas reported higher independent mobility than children in medium-to-high deprivation neighbourhoods [37]. Similar results were found in another study in Canada [28]. However, Schoeppe, Duncan [31]’s study found no significant association between neighbourhood SES disadvantage and CIM. In addition, poor parenting social norms (e.g. parents are supposed not to allow children to play alone without adults’ accompany) was reported as a negative correlate of CIM [32], while neighbourhood social cohesion and informal social control in neighbourhood (e.g. parents’ confidence that other residents would look after children move around without adults’ supervision) were positive correlates [31] [25]. One study mentioned above also specifically examined many other social environment factors such as social incivilities, loitering teenagers in public places, dangerous or drunk driving, poor neighbourhood maintenance, graffiti and vandalism etc. but no significant associations with CIM were detected among them [32].
4
Discussion
The decline of CIM has been reported in many developed countries including the U.S. in recent decades. Based on this literature review, we found out that comparing to countries in Europe and Oceania, the number of studies in the U.S. on CIM is small. Even though many researchers have shown interests in this area, few studies on CIM and its relationship with housing and community environments have been found. Therefore, more studies on CIM and the impacts of housing and community environment in the U.S. should be encouraged in the future.
4.1
Potential conceptual framework
Based on the results of this review, the authors proposed a conceptual framework for addressing impacts of f housing and community environment as well as other factors on CIM (Figure 5). In this framework, the specific community/housing physical environment will be taken into account as the independent variables, and parents’ decision-making will be the dependent variables. As discussed, parents’ decision-making is a crucial factor that affects their children’s independent mobility. The social environment is a mediator while individual parental factors and children’s characteristics will be considered as confounding variables.
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Figure 5: Potential conceptual framework
4.2
Design Suggestions
Based on findings from this review, the authors also proposed some housing and community design suggestions that will help provide more child-friendly environments for the promotion of CIM. Provide affluent destinations within walking or cycling distance in community design. As concluded, the diversity and accessibility to destinations within the neighbourhood and the distance between those places and the childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s home are crucial to CIM. For the future community planning and design, more accessible destinations such as schools, playgrounds, grocery stores, and parks etc., should be provided within a walking/cycling distance to increase the neighbourhood walkability, and consequently, promote childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s independent active travel by walking or cycling. Enhance neighbourhood traffic safety. Neighbourhood safety influences CIM, and could be enhanced through appropriate design solutions. Physical street infrastructure like speed humps could be installed within the neighbourhood to calm traffic. Also, it will be helpful to install crosswalks or other devices to assist child pedestrians or bicyclists to cross busy roads and increase CIM. Create specific child-friendly space for disadvantage children. Referring to findings of the study, children living in high-density housing often lack child-friendly environments to play in freely, while housing with courtyard or near parks has a positive impact on CIM. It is recommended that special play spaces or courtyards be taken into account at the initial planning or design phase of high-density or public housing in SES disadvantaged areas.
5
Conclusion and Limitation of this review
This review has some limitations that need to be addressed. First, the literature search and selection were conducted by one reviewer that may introduce the bias. Also, due to the diversity in concepts and measurement of CIM, the keywords used for the search in this study may not be broad enough and increase the risk of omitting significant articles.
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Despite these limitations, this review helped develop a better understanding about the state of knowledge about environmental factors associated with CIM. Overall, CIM has shown a worldwide decline, and so far, relevant studies are mainly from European and Oceania countries like Finland, UK, Australia and New Zealand. However, children in Europe still remain higher independent mobility than their counterparts from many other countries and areas. In addition, the majority of the studies have been conducted in urban or suburban settings. CIM in rural area is understudied. CIM is related to immediate housing and community environment. Most of the previous studies examined the physical environments on the neighbourhood level, but only a few studies have considered environments on the housing level. Both children’s and parents’ individual factors and perceptions of their communities affect CIM. Parents’ attitudes and decision-making are crucial to their children’s independent mobility. Future research and practice should employ a comprehensive perspective while addressing the issues of CIM through design interventions.
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31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44.
45. 46. 47.
Schoeppe, S., et al., Socio-demographic factors and neighbourhood social cohesion influence adults’ willingness to grant children greater independent mobility: A crosssectional study. BMC public health, 2015. 15(1): p. 690. Christian, H.E., et al., The Effect of the Social and Physical Environment on Children's Independent Mobility to Neighborhood Destinations. J Phys Act Health, 2015. 12 Suppl 1: p. S84-93. Harden, J., et al., Scary faces, scary places: children's perceptions of risk and safety. Health Education Journal, 2000. 59(1): p. 12-22. Johansson, K., M. Hasselberg, and L. Laflamme, Exploring the neighborhood: a webbased survey on the prevalence and determinants of fear among young adolescent girls and boys. Int J Adolesc Med Health, 2009. 21(3): p. 347-59. Broberg, A., S. Salminen, and M. Kytta, Physical environmental characteristics promoting independent and active transport to children's meaningful places. Applied Geography, 2013. 38: p. 43-52. Kytta, A.M., A.K. Broberg, and M.H. Kahila, Urban environment and children's active lifestyle: softGIS revealing children's behavioral patterns and meaningful places. Am J Health Promot, 2012. 26(5): p. e137-48. Noonan, R.J., et al., Cross-sectional associations between high-deprivation home and neighbourhood environments, and health-related variables among Liverpool children. BMJ Open, 2016. 6(1): p. e008693. Goodman, A., et al., ‘We Can All Just Get on a Bus and Go’: Rethinking Independent Mobility in the Context of the Universal Provision of Free Bus Travel to Young Londoners. Mobilities, 2014. 9(2): p. 275-293. Johansson, K., M. Hasselberg, and L. Laflamme, Young adolescents' independent mobility, related factors and association with transport to school. A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 2010. 10: p. 635. Prezza, M., et al., The influence of psychosocial and environmental factors on children's independent mobility and relationship to peer frequentation. Journal of community & applied social psychology, 2001. 11(6): p. 435-450. Leventhal, T. and S. Newman, Housing and child development. Children and Youth Services Review, 2010. 32(9): p. 1165-1174. Veitch, J., et al., Are independent mobility and territorial range associated with park visitation among youth? Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act, 2014. 11: p. 73. Veitch, J., J. Salmon, and K. Ball, Children's active free play in local neighborhoods: a behavioral mapping study. Health Educ Res, 2008. 23(5): p. 870-9. Page, A.S., et al., Independent mobility, perceptions of the built environment and children's participation in play, active travel and structured exercise and sport: the PEACH Project. International journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity, 2010. 7(1): p. 17. Stewart, O., Findings from research on active transportation to school and implications for safe routes to school programs. CPL bibliography, 2011. 26(2): p. 127150. Ducheyne, F., et al., Individual, social and physical environmental correlates of 'never' and 'always' cycling to school among 10 to 12 year old children living within a 3.0 km distance from school. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act, 2012. 9: p. 142. Schoeppe, S., et al., Too far from home? Adult attitudes on children's independent mobility range. Children's Geographies, 2016. 14(4): p. 482-489. S.ARCH-2017 201.15
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48. 49. 50. 51. 52.
Matthews, M.H., Making sense of place: Children's understanding of large-scale environments. 1992: Barnes & Noble Books. Shaw, B., et al., Childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Independent Mobility: an international comparison and recommendations for action. 2015. O'brien, M., et al., Children's independent spatial mobility in the urban public realm. Childhood, 2000. 7(3): p. 257-277. Christian, H.E., et al., The effect of siblings and family dog ownership on children's independent mobility to neighbourhood destinations. Aust N Z J Public Health, 2016. 40(4): p. 316-8. Christian, H., et al., Dog walking is associated with more outdoor play and independent mobility for children. Prev Med, 2014. 67: p. 259-63.
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CREATIVE IMPROVEMENT IN ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION THROUGH INCLUSIVE DESIGN ASPECTS AND METHODICAL CONCEPTS Nina UGLJEN-ADEMOVIĆ*, PhD, associate professor; Senka IBRIŠIMBEGOVIĆ, PhD, senior teaching assistant University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, UNSA, AFS Department of Architectural Design 71 000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina nnug5@bih.net.ba, ninau@af.unsa.ba, senkaibrisimbegovic@gmail.com, senkai@af.unsa.ba
Abstract The actual role of architecture in the new social framework, conditioned by the transition processes in Bosnia and Herzegovina, largely deviates from the enrooted aspirations of architecture as the human paradigm of the society and culture. This is considered to be the turning point where the educational system needs to find adequate answers to the whole range of problems of formal education system. Therefore, introducing interdisciplinary thinking for the purpose of offering concrete solutions to the demands of places, users, local community, as well as needs of architecture as a cultural product, appears a necessity. The fundamental problem for education in architecture begins with the question – how to connect the current educational process and architectural practice in order to improve the profession itself? Forming a studio was one of first solutions we wanted to implement. But the formulations of studios shall focus on discussions of studio-based design learning systems and curriculum developments on integral design studios that aim significant and innovative frameworks. In this context, integrated design studios are the newest approaches to architectural education. In this education system, every studio has its own integral course. Integral courses give support to the design studios. This support can be either theoretical or practical. The support of the integral courses to studios must be evaluated deeply. This paper presents the positive and negative aspects of the new integral studio approach in this context. The specific studio, which tends to improve the former one, is based on an integrated approach to design process. It implies an active interaction between theory and practice through cooperation on multiple levels, such as – academic staff, students, experts from practice, experts from institutions responsible for the planning and city development and future inhabitants. The important segment of the newly-introduced methodological concept is insisting upon critical, objective evaluation on every stage of design. Case Study: Issues of the family house modernity in Bosnia and Herzegovina A family house is both the most represented typology of residential space and most referent area of dealing with (this) new social reality. Therefore, the Studio methodology is based on the basic tendency towards the integration of theory and practice through the work on specific locations in the city and in cooperation with relevant planning institutions. S.ARCH-2017 202.1
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Keywords Integral process, new methods, architectural education, interaction, critical evaluation.
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Introduction
Economic growth and social and cultural development are posed as imperatives today in overcoming problems caused by transitional processes in Bosnia and Herzegovina. That is why the thesis on education as an initiator of such development, simultaneously improving the discipline itself and vitalising itself, seems appropriate. With respect to specific characteristics of the entire context, and following the contemporary educational trends, it is clear that the aforementioned demands for recovery and development are not possible to realise without an adequately determined methodological approach to the change of today’s education. Of course, it should immediately be emphasised that the inherited educational process was fully adjusted to the needs of the time and, as such, it was successfully implemented within such framework. However, the environment we speak of in today’s architectural education has drastically changed, especially taking into consideration the internal turmoil dominated by the neo-liberal market demands. In accordance with the change of the social organisation in the past two decades, but also the striving to gradually become a part of global trends, completely new demands are set with regards to this issue, at several levels. That means that the classical educational system needs to move beyond the boundaries of academic institutions and become actively integrated into the social surrounding and “hear” the needs of the wider community. However, in order to prevent the entire process from becoming haphazard, it is necessary to define adequate methodology, based on a synchronous activity of theory and practice in every segment of the work. Since architectural education is in question, a very specific scientific field, both exact and abstract, artistic and applied, the entire issue is at the turning between the newly-created demands and real possibilities. In that, one should keep in mind that we speak primarily and above all about education of designers-project engineers, whose creative solutions shape the world and reflect the time in which they create, thus educating the wider public at the same time. In that way, education does not cease within the academic process, but goes beyond the institutional boundaries, entering the real framework and issues, adopting an interdisciplinary approach. “I suggest that architectural design pedagogy should be viewed as training toward the manifestation of the ability to conceptualize, coordinate, and execute the idea of building.” (Salama, 2008) Guided by the fact that family houses are still the most frequent typology within the defined, constructed space, the research will focus on the problems of modernity of single/family houses (Case Study), as a reference in conceptualisation of space as a whole, epistemological notion, consisting of concrete, material facts, social influences and personal thinking. That enables mutual activity between humans and their environment, as well as the creation of an existential space as the foundation for understanding architecture and the proposed educational process. S.ARCH-2017 202.2
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“The correspondence between man and his environment is a two-way process, a true mutual relationship. ‘Architectural space’ is a concrete, physical manifestation and the result of such a relationship. One could say that existential space, as one of the psychological structural elements of the man’s existence in the world has a real reflection in the architectural space.” (Norberg-Schulz, 1999, p. 68.)
Figure 1: Actual relationship affecting education process
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Interactive education methodology in the design process
In order to realistically comprehend the idea of existential space, in the context of the present social transformations, it is necessary to start from the fact that architectural design is, essentially, a dialectical quest for creative contradictions for the purpose of establishing new qualities of both an individual housing unit and space in a wider sense. In that context, space appears as the most important resource directly influenced by man who also operates within it. The spatial complexity we speak of demanded an integral approach to the study of theory and practice, as well as a working methodology that would not only understand the issue in question, but also continuously develop awareness of the importance of the processes within which it acts, in the sense of reshaping the social values and their influence to every individual. That is why the first step to the newly proposed methodology suggests education at two levels that constantly interact. At the first, analytical level, the issue of modernity is explored through a phenomenological approach, while the issue of housing is researched through the process of transformations of needs of the society and an individual. S.ARCH-2017 202.3
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By emphasising theoretical discourse as the essential part of this section of research, the development of critical autonomy of architecture is also encouraged, for in it, architecture is seen as a reflection of real needs of man and the context, opposite the non-selective and uncontrolled architectural production. In that way, the creation of forms per se is avoided, while educational process is directed towards the applied knowledge or reconfiguration of the role of architecture as science within a reality. In the spirit of such an approach, it is necessary to correctly comprehend and semantically differentiate the terms – modern, modernity and modernisation, within which every design process is unfolded and realised. That is why it is important for the case study to emphasise the term modern as comprehensive and polysemantic, modernity as a concept and a “mediator” between the processes of socioeconomic development (modernisation) and a subjective response to that development, and modernisation as a process, in order to be able to set grounds for valorisation of that which is current and parameters for designing that what is to come. The second level entails inclusion of findings and their application in the recent, realistic framework on the way to achieving a concrete design. Development of such way of work enables students to go beyond the borders of solving the issues strictly within the academic community, and also encourages teamwork with inclusion of experts from practice and the future users. Consequently, students become “active learners” in the design process, which is an open process, and participate individually in setting the task, examining possibilities and proposing solutions.
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Inclusive method in architectural education
Fully aware of the fact that schools of architecture change their curricula, adjusting them to the current issues of society and constructed surrounding at the global level, the matter is further complicated by arriving to the level of local specificities and needs. That finding initiated the “rethinking” of the role of architecture in a broader sense, and the conclusion followed that the real role of architecture in the past thirty years has been at the border between two demands – to create architecture by focusing exclusively to the issue of form, or to create architecture that would rationalise the creative process. Paying full respect to both approaches, as well as the contemporary tendencies of finding a balance between the rational and the creative (Jones, 1992), we, however, opt for a solution that excludes neither attitude; a solution that will not try to bring those attitudes together, but rather juxtapose them through connections with the specificities of the material and non-material context, and that will propose solutions and their evaluation through an analytical process. In that way, the relationship the rational vs. the creative will replace the relationship the creative from the rational, which means, in educational sense that the focus is on the process of finding a solution or the “design thinking process”. Such basic idea initiates the introduction of inclusive methodical concept that is unfolded in three segments. The first segment entails inclusion of social competences for the purpose of achieving social sustainability, and, in accordance to that, social relationships within the specific locality are analysed, its character is examined in the sense of determining the private, semi-private and public aspect. Local population is an important contributor – the future users of an object who S.ARCH-2017 202.4
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express their needs in the back communication, but also accept suggestions. In that way, the basic principles upon which rests the process of redefining social sustainability of a space are achieved. The second segment of the work entails inclusion of experts from practice, urban designers and planners into the design process. Students engage into a discussion with them and are thus enabled to analyse the existing regulatory and urban plans. They are also encouraged to equally and within realistic framework participate in the discussion, detect possible lacks, exchange attitudes and propose new solutions. Within these two proposed segments, a kind of “design dialogue” is realised at two levels. On the first level, between real conditions and needs of users on the one hand, and designers on the other. At the second level, between the objective circumstances from the practice and the educational process.
Figure 2,3,4: design dialogue through studio education process
Finally, the third segment is the result of the first two and is manifested through a more homogenous relationship between the analysis and the project process. The way of work and the communication professor – student simulates the work in a bureau, where the professor is also the critic. Supporting the opinion that the “set limitations” initiate creativity, work on a model is introduced into all stages of design, where “the main goal has not been to use the model exclusively as the final product of the design process, but rather as a means/tool that enables evaluation and the development of the very design process through an open discussion student-group, student-group-professor, and student-group-planner.” (Ugljen-Ademović, 2016, p. 41.) The proposed methodological concept was developed as an answer to the real needs of the material and non-material surrounding, and it implies introduction of a studio where formulations of studios will focus on discussions of studio-based design learning systems and curriculum developments on integral design studios that aims at significant and innovative frameworks. In this context, integrated design studios are the newest approach to architectural education. S.ARCH-2017 202.5
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Introducing studio-based design into learning process
Space, as Lefebvre reminds us, is a social product: What we call space is an always-already-full texture of trajectories and functions determined by natural conditions and subsequent historical development. The abstract spatial regime of modernity reifies space, detaching it from life. Space, Lefebvre explains, becomes a set of formal relationships among objects, erasing distinctions that derive from nature and historical time as well as this distinctions linked to our bodies, such as age, sex, and ethnicity. (Lefebvre, The Production of Space, p. 49) If we live in the postmodern age of multiple truths, might it be possible to develop strategies for teaching this epistemological discovery to students in studios? Do we have to agree with Friedrich Nietzsche that historical knowledge is bad and stifling, or on the contrary, could the students’ recognition be, that the system of instruction in the studios can be liberating? Just as space is not a blank sheet but is continually compromised by social interactions, the government agencies, and the levelling effects of late capitalism and transition, so too architectural education is a contested terrain. Might it be possible for instructions to foreground, rather than obscure, this contestation? 1 (Varnelis, 1998)
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Case study
As part of the cooperation with NTNU, we were able to propose at the Sarajevo Faculty of Architecture (AFS) this very work in the studio and thus introduce an innovation into the faculty’s curriculum. For three academic years (2013 – 2016), we were able to monitor students in their studio work through integration of the aforementioned three segments of designing a family house, as part of the subject “Issues of Family House Modernity” at concrete locations in Sarajevo.
Figure 5,6: results of students of working in the studio on topic of “Issues of Family House Modernity” in Sarajevo The first segment: social sustainability in design process Providing guidance to students within rather 'confusing and chaotic' interventions of inhabitants, in which students were accorded considerable freedom and were encouraged to take initiative in communication with the inhabitants sometimes crossed the boundaries of the customary 1
One possible strategy for such an approach is outlined in Val K. Warke “Prolegomena to a Rethinking of Context in Architecture», Cornell journal of Architecture 5 (1996) 8-15. S.ARCH-2017 202.6
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working methods. The social component of the settlement's sustainability was important to us in order to ensure their long-term functionality. The second segment: inclusion of experts from practice in the design process Research and analysis of proposed regulating and urban development plans, which were sometimes found to include shortcomings and inconsistencies, allowed the students to propose more optimal solutions and participate equally in discussions with authorized town planners and plan designers. Such discussions ranged from the analysis of the community level to the actual internal organisation of the structure in question. Students were permitted to challenge and test their visions of space and constructed spatial structures against realistic possibilities – economic, social and legal. But they also offered the planners a different way of thinking and treatment of the existing space, which could be incorporated into the existing town plans. (Ugljen-Ademović, 2016, p. 36-44.) The third segment: simulation of the work in a bureau; designing with architectural models
Figure 7,8,9: presenting, making model and designing space in studio The emphasis was placed on the exchange between the professor and the student, not ex cathedra, but through simulation of the work in a design studio, with the professor acted also as a critic and where the role of the architect is contemplated between the two poles: the creator vs. the critic. This manner of teaching was possible through application of structural models in all stages of work. It is well-known that a structural model clarifies architectural concepts for the general public, thereby serving as a presentation and representation of the entire project. Still, the main goal was not to use the structural models exclusively as the final result of the design process, but as the means/tools to allow evaluation and development of the designing process through an open discussion between the student and the group, between the student, the group and the professor, and the student, the group and the planner. Through construction of several model variants, each student and the group were confronted with the spatial, substantive and formal repercussions of their ideas/concepts. This permitted them, as future designers, to comprehend the design process as a source of inspiration and ideas that are necessarily challenged for the purpose of deepening and improving one’s own practice. Therefore we completely agree that ’making models and learning to master their possibilities, goes hand in hand with the development of a personal design signature’.
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Figure 10,11: results of students of working in the studio on topic of “Issues of Family House Modernity” in Sarajevo
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Conclusion
The nature and the character of the assignment during the Studio required an examination of the ambiguity of sustainable architecture, so the students were guided to understand this concept in its integrity. The prevailing views of sustainability through environmental parameters, and their technological options were studies and adopted equally with non-material social and cultural needs of local communities, as it was believed that all these elements only through synergy may provide a complete answer to the contemporary need for sustainable architecture. The academic structure of the Studio has improved learning methods of students on multiple levels: an internal network was established between the two departments at the Faculty of Architecture, while the external network was represented by an interaction between the Faculty and experts from the Sarajevo Canton Institute of urban planning. (herd) In this manner, the resulting academic curriculum became interactive through inclusion of experts from practice and the methodological approach of “learning through working on site” has changed the strict academic approach through a kind of “design dialogue”. This is the turning point where the educational system needs to find adequate answers to the range of problems at the local level through interaction and integration of theory and practice. Interaction in education is also applied with more active roles of academic staff, who became more active participants in the research and design process in order to reach more innovative methodological frameworks which can respond more to the real project demand on-site. By including the Department for sustainable design and material, we achieved a transformation in the process of working outside the strict academic scopes and added value to the student’s individual design. The Studio work has transformed the perception of designing individual housing by turning it into one of the important method forms in architectural education. Architecture is thus revived and is elevated beyond strictly academic boundaries. Everything becomes realistic – forms, materials, details; and they all have their phases of development, their genesis from scientific and technical support to lay attempts at making a living space better, more contemporary and adjusted to the demands of the new age. In that context, a dialogical character of sustainability in architecture holds an important place and has no alternative.
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7
References
[1] Nina Ugljen-Ademović, Senka Ibrišimbegović, Elša Turkušić Jurić Challenges of integrating achitectural theory in education through site-specific applied practice [Odjeljak knjige] // Metamorphosis of architectural education in (post)transitional context. - Sarajevo : Faculty of Architecture, University of Sarajevo (AFS) in cooperation with the Faculty of Architecture and Fine Art, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), 2016. [2] Norberg-Schulz Christian Egzistencija, prostor i arhitektura (Source text: Existence, Space & Architecture) Translation: M. Maksimović [Knjiga]. - Belgrade : Građevinska knjiga, 1999. [3] Norberg-Schulz Christian Genius Loci, Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture [Book]. - [s.l.] : Rizzoli, 1979. [4] Norberg-Schulz Christian Intencije u arhitekturi [Book]. - Zagreb : Naklada Jesenski i Turk, 2009. [5] Norberg-Schulz Christian The Phenomenon of Place [Odjeljak knjige] // Theorizing a new agenda for architecture: An anthology of architectural Theory 1965-1995 / aut. knjige Nesbitt Kate / ur. Nesbitt Kate. - New York : Princeton Architectural Press, 1996. [6] Salama M. A. A theory for integrating knowledge in architectural design education [Dnevnik] // Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research. - Volume 2 Issue 1 - March 2008. - str. https://pure.strath.ac.uk. [7] Tschumi Bernard Arhitektura i disjunkcija [Book]. - Zagreb : AGM, 2004. [8] Ugljen-Ademović Nina Dvojnost pirstupa problemu integriranja novog u postojeće u arhitektonskom oblikovanju [Book]. - [s.l.] : Doktorska disertacija, Arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu, 2007. [9] Ugljen-Ademović Nina Kritika - stimulans arhitektonskoj ideji [Book]. - Sarajevo : Dobra Knjiga d.o.o., 2012. [10] Ugljen-Ademović Nina Sistematično proučavanje starog da bi se moglo izraditi kreativno novo [Book]. - [s.l.] : Arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu, 2004. [11] Varnelis Kazys The Education of the Innocent Eye [Dnevnik]. - [s.l.] : Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture, Inc., 1998. - Tom. Journal of Architectural Education (1984-) Vol. 51, No. 4 (May, 1998), pp. 212-223.
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RESILIENT COMMUNITIES: NEIGHBOURHOOD COOPERATIVES AS AN ALTERNATIVE FOR URBAN AND SOCIAL REGENERATION. A CASE STUDY IN MALAGA (SPAIN) Carlos ROSA-JIMENEZ*, Maria J. MARQUEZ-BALLESTEROS, Alberto. E. GARCIAMORENO, Manuel E. GARCÍA-LÓPEZ2 Universidad de Malaga, Habitat-Tourism-Territory Institute Avenida Cervantes 2, 29071, Málaga, Spain, cjrosa@uma.es
Abstract The Neighbourhood Cooperative is a model for integrated slum rehabilitation based on selfmanagement and self-funding of its inhabitants. The project has developed a business model of neighbourhood cooperative, which main advantages and features are: (1) To promote a social profit model without speculation, focused to “right to use”, in sense that the use of a space is supported by its owner’s activity; (2) Rehabilitation projects for dwellings and their common spaces agreed on a participatory process: better and cheaper results are expected although the complexity of management will be increased; (3) This system allows obtaining higher profits in hiring management services, which will stimulate the numb sector of construction. The methodology established a new approach to rehabilitation and maintenance, based on the creation of companies or cooperatives that manage the provision of services rather than the purchase or acquisition of goods. A theoretical model of neighbourhood cooperative is articulated as a non-hierarchical relationship between administration, productive fabric of the neighbourhood and rehabilitation companies or services. The project finally develops a practical application in a neighbourhood of the city of Malaga (Spain), which serves as example to compare the benefits of this system compared to traditional rehabilitation.
Keywords Neighbourhood; cooperatives; urban rehabilitation; resiliency
1
Introduction
The Neighbourhood Cooperatives Model (NCM) is a collaborative management system for rehabilitation and conservation of neighbourhoods. Its priority is the participatory relations of citizens to solve the problems of cities. This neighbourhoods’ management model is based on the cooperative society that allows favouring the conservation, maintenance and modernization of the residential communities. NCM is established as a source of employment and training, as well as a boost for the economy of the district, to induce job creation within the cooperative, and enhance the business activity of the neighbourhood and local companies. This model facilitates the development of cooperative mobility services S.ARCH-2017 204.1
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without CO2 emissions, which would allow the almost total elimination of the private car fleet in the neighbourhoods, or the creation of cohousing communities for older people with almost free care benefits. NCM implements the concept of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;common-life servicesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; as a rehabilitation mechanism, but also as a way of managing maintenance and use. For this reason, it is a very suitable tool to foster housing solidarity, economic benefits and savings (both community and personal). NCM stimulates a better understanding of the needs of community (sharing, communicating, collaborating), establishing mechanisms for optimization and common management of daily expenses of cleaning, transportation or maintenance of buildings and communities, as well as the use and care of public space. In addition with the renovation and updating of residential buildings and public spaces, this platform promotes the activation of neighbourhoodsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; life, creating a business and social fabric, as well as collaborative working networks capable to solve the current housing problems. Many sustainable models of integral urban and architectural rehabilitation have concluded two types of strategies, both at a constructive level for buildings and at an urban level in open spaces. However, the need to incorporate in future phases the development of tools and systems to manage the proposed urban transformations and their effective adaptation to the socioeconomic reality of the neighbourhoods, encouraging the implications of its inhabitants in the process of improvement. This study is focused to this challenge, establishing as general objective the analysis of the associative model of cooperative applied to the rehabilitation and maintenance of the existing housing stock, in order to establish a system of solidarity, equitable and sustainable management for the conservation of the building. On the other hand, both the political-administrative discussion and the current legal framework are clearly oriented towards meeting the European objectives of the 2020 horizon. In them, the consolidation of the low-carbon economy as the central axis necessarily translates referred to an urban scale, into several measures to reduce emissions, improve energy efficiency and incorporate renewable energies. The implementation process of these measures is extremely complex, since it implies a radical change in the way of operating, for decades, regarding to the model of city, infrastructures, energy and mobility. Unfortunately, these strategic policies often collide head-on with the socio-economic reality, particularly in a country such as Spain, which has been badly hit by the financial crisis and an oversized housing sector. According to the National Statistics Institute data, the family income in 2013 fell by 2.3 per cent compared to 2012, 22.2 per cent of the Spanish population was at risk of poverty, 16.1 per cent of Spanish families make ends meet with great difficulty, 42.4 per cent of the households cannot handle unforeseen expenses and 10.2 per cent of households had delays in payments related to housing Faced with the harsh reality revealed by these data, it is obvious that the expense of housing renovation -whether for updating or to comply with the legal duties of maintenance and conservation- is an extraordinary expense that many families cannot cover. If we add the cost of universal accessibility measures, as well as the improvement of the envelopes or the incorporation of renewable energies proposed by numerous demonstration projects, we are faced with a situation that is difficult to assume from the family economy of a large proportion of citizens.
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The NCM responds to this difficult situation that confronts the undoubted need to revitalize obsolete neighbourhoods with their social reality. By understanding the cooperative as a tool for the self-financing of the neighbourhoods by obtaining parallel resources that would reduce the direct contribution of the members of the neighbourhood, it was necessary to analyse the economic viability of the model. In addition, the project shows the synergies that the neighbourhood cooperative model can generate from the initiative of its inhabitants in the construction of a more efficient and sustainable collaborative neighbourhood.
2
Definition of a neighbourhood cooperative model for urban regeneration
The aim of a NCM is to develop a supportive tool to encourage the creation of collaborative living spaces in neighbourhoods and housing blocks. Mutual support networks and a social fabric are established in order to create more sustainable communities, improving a better use of public-private areas, and sharing accessible houses. The research is structured in four time-sequenced steps. The first step consists of the study of international success cases in relationship with the development of the NCM. A considerable number of case studies were reviewing and systematized. Finally, seven experiences were selected in order to cover different scales, ranging from urban transformation to neighbourhood networks to share services or fund projects. Special interest was put in cohousing projects based on equality, democracy and horizontality in the decision-making process. Often experiences of cohousing -at least in Spain- are based on a cooperative model, surpassing the functional and management scheme imposed by the neighbour association (Spanish legal association of home owners). The second step analysed the theoretical-legal model for the NCM. The adaptability of the cooperative society law was studied to know the characteristics and qualities of the legislation, and it concludes that among the types of cooperatives regulated in the specific legislation, the consumer cooperative were taken as a reference (a consumer cooperative is constituted to obtain goods and/or services for its partners on advantageous terms) as well as the cooperative of associated work (whose purpose is the provision of third-party work and services).(Figure 1 and Figure 2) The third step defined the theoretical, administrative and legal model of the NCM as a consumer cooperative whose purpose is to obtain goods and/or services for its members in advantageous conditions, to achieve the renewal and modernization of the neighbourhood. There may be several "sub-cooperatives" for different services and sub-cooperatives of associated work if it is intended to offer services out of the community. (Figure 3) The NCM establishes an action framework or an ecosystem of relations, where it is necessary to locate all the inside and outside stakeholders (neighbours, administrations, associative and productive fabric of the neighbourhood, socially responsible business network...) that take part in the urban rehabilitation processes. The map of relationships determines the role of each of them.
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Fig. 1. Case studies selected for the project
Fig. 2. An example of funding scheme of the neighbourhood cooperative: Incomes for solar production are destined to accessibility and the improvement of facades.
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Fig.3. Action area of the project: Sixto and Cortijo Vallejo neighbourhoods, Malaga (Spain). The fourth step was a theoretical study to assess the economic viability of the NCM. The Sixto and Cortijo Vallejo neighbourhoods in MĂĄlaga (Spain) were selected as a case study. They are highly representative of current neighbourhoodsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; problems, both in relation to the needs of the buildings and the problems detected in the public space. As it was mentioned, the main objective of the implementation of the NCM is the improvement of the housing stock, but the proposal starts from its management from housing services provided by the cooperative itself or by different companies. The analysis of physical and social conditions determined a series of strategic interventions, establishing priorities according to the real needs of its citizens, as well as the legal requirements of its implementation. The implementation was also done according to the relationship between the NCâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s incomes and the expenses resulting from improvements in buildings and public spaces, forcing to establish criteria of priorities. The economic study was carried out on the formulation of a cooperative business model based on the sum of two basic principles: economy of scale, which allows reducing costs in contracts of large volumes, and the evolution of aspects related to habitability from the existing model of sale of goods to another based on the provision of services. Therefore, the NCM analyses the economic viability of savings, obtained by the economy of scale and managed through the model of the consumer cooperative. These savings, which come mainly from services that the communities of owners already have, can become into income for the cooperative through several mechanisms. Also other sources of savings related to the consumption of families are included, both in the possible internal commerce of the neighbourhood and in external services.
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Fig. 4. Summary of proposed actions In addition, the implementation of new complementary services self-managed by the neighbourhood through the cooperative are proposed, such as sustainable mobility and care for the elderly. Finally, there is a set of measures that seek to provide services to the neighbours while becoming new business niches for the cooperative, such as the S.ARCH-2017 204.6
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management of common spaces or property management of tertiary and residential heritage (for example, acting as intermediary to manage the rent of vacant housing in the neighbourhood). Through the latter, the neighbourhood cooperative also promotes the use of empty housing, fostering the rent at affordable prices and facilitating access to housing, while generating economic resources to cope with rehabilitation. The optimization of consumptions and the improvement of the services to be renewed through the activity of the cooperative not only is translated in the obtaining of resources for the financing, but also it will have repercussion in an improvement in the social and environmental aspects. For example, improving water and sanitation networks promotes the reduction of losses in water consumption, or the contracting of energy services for all the members of the cooperative with companies that guarantee their production of 100% renewable energy makes the bill cheaper while collaborates in the reduction of gases of greenhouse effect. The greater the resident population integrated in the cooperative, the more possibilities of financing will count the neighbourhood thanks to the increase of the returns obtained by the economic efficiency in the consumptions, and to the greater volume of business of the cooperative as service provider. In addition, it must be taken into account that the neighbourhood cooperative is a source of employment, and that logically will give priority, as far as possible, to the hiring of inhabitants of the neighbourhood who join it as working partners.
3
Conclusions. The NCM as a self-management model rather than a simple tool for rehabilitation Table 1: Economic viability of the cooperative project for the case study.
Concept Rehabilitation cost (without NCM) Rehabilitation cost (with NCM) Rehabilitation cost saving Regular payment amount (loan of 7 year term) Cooperative revenues Difference between income and expenditure Annual quota per household (914 dwellings) Monthly charge per household
Value 25,054,593.82 € 16,134,117.39 € 8.920.476,43 €
Percentage 100.00 % 64.40 % 35.60 %
939,743.54 €
100.00 %
668,291.90 € -271,451.64 €
71.11 % 28.89 %
296.99 € 24.75 €
The NCM responds to a comprehensive project of neighbourhood’s refurbishment and revitalization that is built on three fundamental pillars: optimization of time, space and economic resources. All of them create a more sustainable, supportive and adaptable society, which can deal with the constant changes. Starting from the original objective of rehabilitation and regeneration of neighbourhoods, the management platform proposed is not limited in time to the rehabilitation period. NC is a long-term incentive to improve the economic and social activation of the neighbourhoods. In this way, the project verified the positive effects of the NCM in the following points: S.ARCH-2017 204.7
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• The integral rehabilitation of neighbourhoods is addressed from a self-financing system, generating benefits derived mainly from the reductions of costs and of the capacity of the cooperative to generate income through its own activity. The case study results showed that NCM is able to reduce the cost of rehabilitation by 36 per cent, and to generate more than 70 of the annual quota that would have to be faced to finance the whole project. • The NCM encourages companies that want to participate in the rehabilitation process to comply with ISO 26000 standards of corporate social responsibility. For this purpose, this project proposes to create the brand of Corporate Responsibility with the Environment Urban Sustainable (CREUS). • The NCM is an agent that revitalizes the economy of a neighbourhood and induces the creation of employment on several levels. At a first level, the collaborative work within the own cooperative is developed, besides the creation of jobs associated to the services directly managed by the cooperative. At a second level, the activity of the business fabric, usually constituted by small companies, is strengthens since it foments the consumption of the partners. At a third level, for larger actions, the model prioritizes local companies that are able to adapt their business formulas to the proposed service delivery model and that meet the social responsibility criteria mentioned. The model works in accordance with European guidelines and targets for the coming years, and it is a viable alternative to the current legal framework for rehabilitation. Among other aspects, it raises the economic and labour reactivation of the neighbourhood and the companies that collaborate in the process; Seeks the energetic improvement of the neighbourhoods and the promotion of energy efficiency; Seeks to reduce the existing empty housing stock, builds a mechanism to promote a more sustainable use of the vehicle by articulating it with the objectives of reducing emissions and reducing energy consumption; Works to improve the quality of life of the inhabitants of the neighbourhoods, in space of groups of elderly, young, unemployed; Favours the approximation of services to the resident community; And allows to enhance and recover the collective memory of the place, enhancing their qualities and correcting their shortcomings and shortcomings regarding current demands. Finally, we can conclude that the project has demonstrated the breadth of benefits identified in the cooperative constitution and the approach to comprehensive urban rehabilitation from a collaborative understanding of it. Its implementation involves the involvement of multiple agents, but it is in the complexity of its formulation and its implementation where its greatest advantages reside. More than a project, it is a process capable of giving rise to a sustained transformation in time, and at the same time generates resources, activity and social relations, empowering citizens as the main architects of the transformation of the neighbourhoods.
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Funding Source
The R&D project "The Neighbourhood Cooperatives. Model of Collaborative Management in Rehabilitation and Conservation "(RecoBA) has been funded by the European Union's ERDF program in the framework of the Call for R & D & I Projects related to Mobility, Infrastructure, Housing, City and Others, within the area of competence of the Agency of Development and Housing of the Junta de Andalucía for the years 2014 and 2015. S.ARCH-2017 204.8
NATURE-CITY. MATERA AND TARANTO TWO “RESILIENT” CITIES Antonio IPPOLITO*
Nature-City Lab, DiCEM, University of Basilicata, Matera Italy – Are_lab, Massafra, Italy Località Forcellasa San Sergio zona nord - 2, 74016, Massafra (TA), Italy, antonio.ippolito@unibas.it
Abstract The city today, designed as urban containers of landscapes, technologies, green systems, architectures, etc., play a vital role in everyday life. Steadily are called to re-invent, then, their definition needs to be always re-interpreted and re-born through a composition of different departures (Macaione, 2016). This vision of "Nature-City", a long research conducted within the Nature-City Lab at the University of Basilicata, allows you to rethink sustainable ways to act in order to identify new images of the city. Where starting from the "shock" conditions, we will come to find solutions through the phenomenological research in which architecture becomes possible. This is the case where the studies conducted within the Nature-City Lab and Are_lab show how two ancient cities, Matera and Taranto, have re-invented in their resilience. The first one was able to become Capital of Culture in 2019, starting from a condition of Italian national ashamed of in the '50s. The second one has used the resilience for a resistant static condition. So, as a result of the settlement of the steel industry it has not been able to re-invent, and today fighting for its environmental status.
Keywords Nature-City, urban regeneration, identity, Matera, Taranto.
1
Introduction
It's now known that the urban or environmental landscape is a system where the processes and elements that compose it are in continuous interaction between them, and man's ability, in fact, is to make changes in order to make it liveable, to re-create it. Consequently, the man can be considered an important agent: modifier of the landscape. The city can't be compared to an "immutable institution" but to a set of interactions between citizens that create a constantly changing system. "Places, temporalities and processes of change are the product of social interactions; they are the result of different processes, and the contextual character of change found a plurality of paths and diverse narratives constitutively heterogeneous; and they are socially constructed, an achievement never definitively accomplished, in a tangle of stories simultaneously becoming" (Cremaschi, 2008).
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Cities should be understood as the process of modelling and development undertaken by communities, that determine the physical design of the territory, with the aim to valorised the existing environmental, geographic and logistic conditions. Regenerate a city is to satisfy urban, socio-economic and environmental needs expressed by the population. Citizens, through actions and reversible processes, are able to influence the development of the city. In this perspective, beside having an active role in shaping the surrounding environment (Bandura, 1999). In any case, think of the city as an engine of development, it is to think first of all still in development (or growth), even if it refers to a different model of development and a different growth than in the past: there are too many unmet needs, business, residential and mobile services, to think of a different perspective, influenced by changes in the economy and society that these long years of crisis seem to want to stabilize. Switch from a perspective of transformation and retraining to urban regeneration, means consider whether all elements of the city and the economic resources of the same. All to meet the demand for improvement of housing conditions that the residents do. These changes have characterized some Italian cities, its territories, companies and citizens. Changes that are increasingly evident and different from case to case, especially if born from the desire of citizens to change their identity. Many Italian cities are largely porous and discontinuous, consisting of built systems, semi built and open; formed in part by serious states of environmental unsustainability. Every city in its changes must be addressed for what it is, and any transformation will change depending on your story, give her a new identity. In this context is important the definition of resilience, because "is the ability of a social system to respond and recover from disasters and includes those inherent conditions that allow the system to absorb impacts and cope with an event, as well as post-event, adaptive processes that facilitate the ability of the social system to reorganize, change, and learn in response to a threatâ&#x20AC;? (Cutter et al., 2008). Concept that in ecology it's defined as the capacity of an ecosystem to respond to the anomalies without changing the processes of self-organization and the basic structures. It is also considered as the capacity of regaining a steady state after a disturbance. Widening as shown in recent years, the future of the cities depends on the ability to adapt to the major changes taking place, now deeply intertwined: environmental crisis, climate change, economic and social crisis, the crisis of urban space, etc. According to Patrizia Gabellini, in fact, the combination of urban and environmental policies, long sought over the years, is no longer sufficient but need resilient regeneration policies, "for processing, upgrading and urban regeneration in resilience." A resilient city is an urban system that is not limited to adapt to the changes taking place (in particular global warming), but it is a community that change planning social responses, economic and innovative environment which enable it to withstand long-term stress environment and history. A resilient design, through the holistic approach, is responsible for stimulating the organization needed to achieve sustainable and prosperous cities, no longer dependent on external or internal threats. S.ARCH-2017 205.2
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In this regard, a reference model can be that rural that for centuries has characterized the Italian economic system, maintaining a balance between culture and nature. It's clear that this is not about to take a leap into the past but to decline the vision of urban regeneration in a new harmonization of the relationship between city and nature in connection with innovative strategies such as those outlined by the evolutionary scenarios of the Nature-City1. «Where among the mindful traces of past stories appears the resilience. In its elastic fluidity one discovers the bio-diverse population, in the crisis, in the regeneration of the city. So in the various times of living and in spacious types, the great enters the small: humanity, landscape, nature and the world, penetrate as icons, well within the matter. In living the limit, the “mind” of architecture expands. In the heterotopia of the Nature-City the almost nothing nature is more where you expect it (Sichenze, 2014) ». In this process innovation is the fundamental value of subsidiarity, which tends to redesign the structure of local governance, recognizing the autonomy of sentient community thanks to goals can achieve extraordinary results of reciprocity and organizational efficiency, not conceivable before.
2
About the research/methodology
To measure the resilience of an urban reality is fairly complex and articulated and passes through really varied considerations and far between that research takes into account numerous liveability features of a city. Linking again to a definition of a biological nature, you might say that architecture, especially in a city, is systemic as an organization that tends to be “autopoietic”. This definition merges with that of resilience: it is once again the identification of a system that has an affinity with the biological nature and looking to the city as an organism that can grow and eventually collapse or answer, in a burst of life, to a traumatic moment. We define resiliency not only as the property of recovering from an unpredictable event but also an innate capability to find new resources to react against a negative situation. Identity and new technologies are both important to build resiliency. The approach can be reassumed into the place based one to the development of territories. In its independent report Francesco Barca 2 (former Ministry of Cohesion Policy of the Italian Republic) describes a model for the territorial development (economic and social) that contains the definition of a resilient community.
1 This research is part of a series of design experiences in which the relationship between architecture and city, which featured the most significant lines of research of the Italian School of the project, are currently evolving into a new School of the project, in which it is decisive the theme of the emptiness, that has a major importance also in Eastern cultures. According to this new approach of the disciplines of the project, nature takes on a new centrality. This means that the thought of the limit in architecture, as a result of the analysis that goes down from the city to the building, has an opposite correspondence (from the particular to the general) in the translimitation that occurs through a sensible void-making in the built. The Italian School of Nature-City, proposed and established twenty years ago by Armando Sichenze and Ina Macaione, has been developed along two parallel lines of research. The first concerns the comparative reading of about 150 cities in the Mediterranean Europe, especially in Basilicata, among whom Matera, where over the millennia has been taking place a close comparison between western and eastern cultures. This reading is useful to discover the conditions of existence of the urban qualities through which a settlement recognizes itself as a city. The second study concerns the reinterpretation of the thinking about the city of the Italian architects in the late twentieth century. 2 Francesco Barca, An agenda for a reformed cohesion policy, Report prepared for the European Commission, 2010.
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The elements, the possibility to produce innovation, starting by social equality we can see it in the alternation between two different factors, endogenous identified in local society, and exogenous identified in know how and technologies. This concept is important because enhances the human and social capital to bring a community to become more resilient, because is the quality of the people that determines the result and the role of the quality of life, because they are able to solve a situation of uncertainty producing innovation. In this context the conditions that define a city as Nature-City are linked in a long and complex research conducted by some twenty years by professors Armando Sichenze and Ina Macaione in the University of Basilicata. The conducted research between “Architecture and Nature-City”, starting from reading of built environment until the analysis of the community, want to find the degrees of resilience of a city through 10 indicators. These indicators define a tool to analyse the phenomenon of persistence of the quality for the built environment. •
Insularity: linked to the boundary define It defines the formation of the "Città compiuta" (computed city), namely, of the settlement pattern, geographical and historical complexity of urban land. According to this becomes an element of quality understood as limitation that leads to a level of urbanity of resources. In small town centres is identified in the relationship between Nature / city, where an urban part is related directly with uncontaminated nature.
•
Naturalness: In the city is the consciousness of the limit and belonging to their own border. It tends to vary with the events when events are linked to the changes of nature.
•
Initiality: is the "conscience of the beginning", the one you look in places where the start is born from time to time depending on the entering flows (migration, nature, technology, time, space, etc.). It is mainly measured through the urban regeneration of abandoned buildings, because their renewal is synonymous of a new start.
•
Representativeness: It depends on the necessity of city to present itself projecting its historical identity to the outside. The element that takes on the characteristic of a city becoming the attraction element of the place.
•
Domesticity: This indicator refers to the quality of constructed element, buildings, which form the civitas and are affected by life, relationships and sense of belonging to a community. A symbiotic reading between people, built environment and architecture.
•
Topicity: talks about quality of open spaces, better the places between buildings where is present the urban "minimum" in which identity of people characterise the place.
•
Centrality: This indicator refers to the public space and specifically the main ways called "Corso" and squares. In these areas the exchange and relationships are different, richer and represents the world in the small. One can measure it through intensity, frequency and size. Factors linked to the dynamism of the flows passing through them.
•
Co-Existentiality: because is possible to read reports, the relationship between public and private buildings, activity and their times, the powers of governance, ethnic groups, citizens and tourists. Factors that build the identity of the city, because are S.ARCH-2017 205.4
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elements that coexist with each other in the unpredictability of relationships and in the capacity for resistance. •
Landscapeness: It refers to the relationship with the natural landscape in which city are localized with their urban structure. A connective wealth that recognizes the level of urban and environmental quality.
•
Time Deepness: linked to Time
This plays a key role to the reasoned designing that entails: −
to think in advance about the consequences of our actions design with great attention to natural systems, industrial, cultural, etc.;
−
to consider the flows of matter and energy, carefully, in the different systems that we develop;
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to give priority to human activities and not only to consider living beings as “factors” within a process;
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to design by providing “real values” to users, absolutely not people with systems;
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to treat the “content” as something to be created, to be transformed, not as a thing to sell;
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to treat the environment, time, cultural differences, like positive values;
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to focus on services, not on things not to invade the planet of unnecessary items.
To all this we must add a strong desire to make a “cultural shift” characterized by the lightness and the ability to not only think of possession as to the proper use of the goods and/or services. Emerges, then, the relationship with the resilience: resilient is a city that respects its identity and complexity (almost oxymoronic combination), making sure that each process that involves both sustainable in the versions that we have given above. The utilized approach has been done through the involvement of all mentioned indicators interconnected with each other and with the involved stakeholders. This led to the creation of system maps analysed in time, space, context.
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In this regard it's very interesting to compare two different realities of southern and how they reacted to changes in the weather, Matera and Taranto. Matera in its resilience has changed his identity from "national shame" to Capital of Culture 2019. Taranto, however, in its apparent resilience is a static city, so resistant, because coexists with the steel factory without change, living with pollution, crisis and deaths.
3
Matera: Regeneration strategy
Matera is a city that through its history has experienced many changes. His capability to be resilient has enabled the city of "Sassi" to use the process of regeneration to change itself and made it a famous in the world. In it's identity is present a « “strange form” of existence is nothing other than the “time to live”. A time which is always different. Like life. Materialized in Matera in its being a hybrid, from the Gravina to the streets of the Sassi, to the Corso, to the “alternative” street of the Beccherie, to the pathways in the modern neighbourhoods of the Renaissance (Sichenze, 2014)», and in its history «[...] appears the resilience. In its elastic fluidity one discovers the bio-diverse population, in the crisis, in the regeneration of the city. So in the various times of living and in spacious types, the great enters the small: humanity, landscape, nature and the world, penetrate as icons, well within the matter. In living the limit, the “mind” of architecture expands. In the heterotopia of the Nature-City the almost nothing nature is more where you expect it (Sichenze, 2014) ». So, in our research conducted in Nature-City Lab at the DiCEM in the University of Basilicata, Matera meets requirements of a Nature-City, because, possesses within itself the germ of the “new beginning” that allows to resist the devastating impacts that are putting a strain on the world’s urban economy. The cultural regeneration has transformed the city through new form of housing, the creation of new cultural places as well as widespread hospitality. A regenerating strategy, in the environmental and architectural rescue of the Sassi of Matera combined with the environment, the archaeology and the city structure, which allowed to give origin to a tourism in the nature-city world. Matera can be considered to be one of the most representative examples of a city where tourism is very close to an idea of sustainable development depending on inner factors linked to both buildings and nature. In fact the city has been able to change going from being "ashamed of the national" to "Cultural Capital 2019". From the '50, Matera has demonstrated to have an ecosystem of its own. A self-reliant structure, with regenerative functions and the ability to make exchanges with the outside world. Its winning formula is linked to the relationship with nature because the houses, which are the basic entities of a city, have been regenerated through the contact with both the depth of the earth and the openness of the landscape, so that the value of the whole overcomes the sum of its parts. The accommodation facilities, in this process, turned into residential domesticity, as an expression of care and adjustment toward the stability of human institutions in traditions. The resulting city-inn is a complex system of diffused accommodation facilities (bed & breakfast, five stars hotels, beautiful mansions, etc.), and of places of knowledge and tastes belonging to a new taste economy.
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A cities landscape which discloses the time of a deep history, showing its archaeological sites, ruins, museums, parks, in wider visions of the historical dimension. In this narrative culture Matera therefore regenerates itself and becomes representativeness. This would explain, at least partially, why today even famous personalities from the world of culture remain superficial when they arrive in Matera and try to speak of it, just as when tourists look out from the Belvedere of Piazza dei Pascoli. With the exception of those equipped with a cultural understanding capable of thinking, from Carlo Levi to Pier Paolo Pasolini, which when visiting Matera caught the limits of their own belonging to a European culture in a “crisis of modernity”. Matera is designated European Capital of Culture 2019 not just for what it is or for what it has done, but also for what it is expected to do. A program characterized by a cultural dynamism which enhances the identity of the places developing, innovative cultural products. From the 80s, during and after the restoration of the Sassi, new vital energies were born. These helped and changed the planning of the city, transforming the old poverties into the richness of a unique biodiversity of living. Where its DNA 3 evolves into a hospitable “urban porosity” (comparable to that described in Naples by Walter Benjamin). The regenerative value of Matera, plunged in a con-fusion of elements with great speed, absorbs, deforms and mixes everything: ideas, concepts, desires and especially the efforts of others. An interesting phenomenon to study because the new identity of Matera in Capital of Cultural 2019 is a very urban laboratory of urban regeneration were the life is changing once again. The new change of Matera is related to its ability to be a unique heritage in the world. A natural movie set, that since the 50s, inspired some of the most famous national and international directors. Some important productions should certainly be remembered. In 1964 Pier Paolo Pasolini produced "Il Vangelo secondo Matteo" because identified similarities between the Sassi of Matera and the Middle East scenarios present in the life of Jesus. After this began a long series of movie productions: "The Passion" of Mel Gibson in 2002, "The Nativity Sotry" of Catherine Hardwicke in 2006, the remake of "Ben Hur" in 2014, “The story of Mary Magdalene” in 2016, and many others. Is this the new evolution of strategy of resilience in Matera? What are the new scenarios from 2019? We just have to wait.
3
Armando Sichenze, Into Matera, (Matera: Giannatelli, 2014).
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Figure 1: Matera the Nature-City. ŠFabio Caprarella
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Taranto. Absence of resilience in the city of Magna Grecia
Taranto is a city strongly conditioned by the presence of the industrial development. In its history, the Urban Planning was always used by the local government, as a tool to solve an "hardship" or emergency, neglecting real potential and the ability to generate long-term development scenarios. The actual urban structure of Taranto is the result of the succession of a series of processes and urban development plans started in 1865. In recent decades, many European cities have been marked by industrial processes of decline, demographic contraction, sub-urbanization, pollution and regeneration. Unlike these cities which over time have changed their identity, Taranto is a paradigmatic example of the city trapped by the presence of the largest European steel factory. Since the '70s has experienced great economic and environmental changes that have marked his territory and the lives of citizens. The decision to build the Italsider steel mill, in the '60, was seen as the only possibility to overcome the crisis of the Second World War, but no one had imagined a future so destructive. Taranto is now one of the most polluted cities in Italy and Europe. Effects of this presence are the economic recession, unemployment, uncontrolled and productive monoculture industrialization, environmental degradation, pollution, high mortality rates, urban decay, abandonment of the old town, sub-urbanization, depopulation.
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As defined by Walker in 2004, resilience is "The capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to still retain essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks". This concept is in fact a demonstrated logical in the various European countries that have converted themselves, but for Taranto the concept of resilience tends to cancel. It's shown that Taranto is a resistant city and not resilient, because it adapts to state of shock without a radical change of itself. This capacity is also present in the identity of the citizens because there are a large present of associations that aren't collaborative with each other. The lack of points of contact between the stakeholders depends by their characteristic to be non-adaptability also because the individual interest of the leaders prevails over the general one, that implies a lack of shared and long-term planning. The lack of common aims and means to cope with the emergency situation, is a barrier to find a solution. This is the case of Taranto. There, the absence of a common strategy of the organizations involved becomes lack of a long-term planning on how to overcome the shock, due to the presence of Ilva. Moreover, another obstacle is represented by the fact that the public institutions, at a local and national level, with the support of the trade unions, are united in protecting the national interest, i.e. the steel production, and so defending the status quo. Without worrying about the city, the environment and citizens. Is possible a new future to Taranto? this is the new question that arises the whole Europe because even today a change strategy is still absent.
Figure 2: Taranto. Šmassacritica-foto S.ARCH-2017 205.9
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Conclusions
It is now known the cities can become resilient only if they have the capacity to recover from adverse factors, therefore, if they have the will and the ability to regenerate itself. This brings them to become more efficient and sustainable especially if the key to their success is detected within a shared vision of community. In these two cases, Matera and Taranto, we can see that the response to endogenous and estrogen factors is entirely different. Matera, through its dynamic capacity, always aims to reinvent himself, becoming a model for the whole of Europe. Thanks to his will to want to redeem itself, it is now a worldwide symbol of regeneration, because from the state of national shame has become Unesco World Heritage and Cultural Capital 2019. Taranto, despite himself, even if tries to find new identities, still can not fully understand what the objectives of its development are. So, year after year is still in a permanent condition without goals and strategies. Then is still forced to a development plan that prefers the industry and not the quality of life. In other words, most important questions about these two cities should be: Is it possible that the citizens of the city are able to change their fate and the fate of their territories? Comparing these two cases, it is perceived as a shared vision can lead to new identities. This is the case of Matera that although overtime and reach sustainable goals, always aims to reinvent himself, becoming a model for the whole of Europe. Taranto, in spite of himself, even if tries to find new identities, still can not fully understand what are the objectives of its development. So, year after year, is still in a stationary condition, traveling aimlessly in his "limbo". Is necessary to involve city and the citizens to be attractive and active in the world, able to catalyse the local and national population involving the entire city, region and more distant places. Cities through the interactions between local governance and citizens, need to develop programs with lasting effects for a long-term growth and targeted actions. In this way important factors to put in a boundary system are flows which bring a complex network of interactions. So, collaboration with stakeholders, experts, and peer cities through local and international exchanges is advancing the identification and proliferation of good practice, which represent necessary solutions to secure in a lasting change. Enhancing resilience also requires a change of mind-set among citizens and all stakeholders and â&#x20AC;&#x153;Resilience-thinkingâ&#x20AC;? means investing for an unknown and unforeseeable future. A unique evaluation system still needs to be developed to measure the resilience capacity of a city, this because every case is different one from the other. In this regard, the application of best practice can represent a good way to respond to the needs of the community towards sustainable standards, and it is this type of "governance" that is essential to national success. In conclusion, if from one side urban resilience need tools for systems understanding and possible evolution, from the other side its theoretical framework still needs much more implementation. Many questions in fact arise from here to understand how will all the different fields contributing in the framework deal with one coherent urban resilience perspective analysis of Cities? How will urban resilience be related with planning practice and relationship between governance and citizens? The debate is open.
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Goldstein, B.E., Collaborative Resilience. Moving through crisis to opportunity. Mit Press, London.
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Lapesa, G., Taranto dall’Unità al 1940. Industria, demografia, politica. LED edizioni universitarie, Milano, Italy, 2011.
[9]
Lavecchia, M., Macaione, I., Sichenze, A., I prodotti-mercato: l’urbsturismo. In Rapporto sul turismo italiano. Turistica-Mercury, Firenze, Italy, 1997.
[10] Macaione, I., Sichenze, A., Urbsturismo, dimensioni culturali, progetto e prime esperienze in Basilicata. FrancoAngeli, Milano, Italy, 1997. [11] Macaione, I., Sichenze, A., Architetture ecologiche nel turismo, nel recupero, nelle città natura della Basilicata. FrancoAngeli, Milano, Italy, 1999. [12] Lavecchia, M., Macaione, I., Sichenze, A., Il turismo delle città-natura, Rapporto sul turismo italiano, (2003), Turistica-Mercury, Firenze, Italy. [13] Macaione, I., Dall’architettura al progetto. Costruzioni di conoscenza nel rapporto con la natura. FrancoAngeli, Milano, Italy, 2004. [14] Macaione, I., Architettura e Management della CittàNatura. FrancoAngeli, Milano, Italy, 2007. [15] Macaione, I., Nature City. Visions of Nature-City in Italian Architecture. ListLAB, European Union, 2016. [16] Macaione, I., Ippolito, A., La Gioia, R., Spataro, E., Efforts to implement a community resilience activity: The case of Taranto, History, Urbanism Resilience. Change and S.ARCH-2017 205.11
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Responsive Planning, (2016), The 17th International Planning History Society Conference, TU Delft Open, Delft, Holland. [17] McDonough, W., The Hannover principles: Desing for sustainability. Hannover, 2000. [18] Pirro, F., Guarini, A., Grande industria e mezzogiorno. Cacucci Editore, Bari, Italy, 2008. [19] Rinella, A., Oltre lâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;acciaio. Taranto: problemi e progetti. Progedit, Bari, Italy, 2002. [20] Sabel, C.F., Zeitlin, J., Experimentalist Governance in the European Union, Towards A New Architecture. Oxford University Press, New, York, 2010. [21] Skidelsky, R., Skidelsky, E., How much is enough? Money and the Good Life. Penguin Books, London, England, 2013. [22] Sichenze, A., CittĂ -Natura/nature-city in Basilicata. DeAgostini, Novara, Italy, 2000. [23] Sichenze A., Architettura vs Nichilismo. Mimesis, Milano-Udine, Italy, 2011. [24] Sichenze, A., Dentro Matera. Into Matera. Edizioni Giannatelli, Matera, Italy, 2014. [25] Thackara, J., In the bubble: Designing in a Complex World. MIT Press, London, England, 2005.
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ACTIVATING GRAPHICS AND COLLABORATION IN ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES EDUCATION Bronne C. Dytoc
Kennesaw State University - 1100 S. Marietta Parkway, Marietta, Georgia, 30060, USA bdytoc@kennesaw.edu
Abstract This paper discusses the design of an instructional model for foundational structures in an undergraduate architecture program. This particular approach to structures pedagogy integrates precise graphics and collaborative strategies to address learning issues that architecture students regularly struggle with. Furthermore, this design model continues to be developed with the goals of improving student performance, motivation, and engagement, taking into consideration the stepped, guided sequence in the new learning of complex tasks. In terms of learning the basic structures content, students apply scaled graphics skills to represent the forces. These precise graphics, in the form of multi-force loops, are vital in constructing accurate mathematical proofs that reinforce the concepts and computations of equilibrium. Mastery of the force loop and its equations moves the learning of structures into the analysis of trusses, including the use of the color-coded Maxwellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s diagram. In terms of conducting instruction, active and collaborative learning methods address the issues of content disengagement and ineffective unilateral communication linked with traditional lecture-drill class formats. The use of teams repositions learning authority with students by increasing crosstalk, thus, also encouraging effort and responsibility. The final project, a design and analysis task, applies the skills and knowledge in the creation of a structural design proposal. Most importantly, it serves as an explicit learning bridge between learning the structures content and its application as a project. This final project (a spanning structure, for example) is then collaboratively designed, analyzed, and produced by student groups, and finally presented for exhibit. The graphic skills and active-collaboration methods are instrumental in the pedagogy of the foundational structures, while the final-project contributes to motivating and engaging student learning towards a deeper appreciation for form and forces. Pedagogically, student responses to informal surveys point to a better learning experience and improved attitudes towards bridging knowledge between structures and the design studio.
Keywords Structures pedagogy, graphics, collaborative learning, instructional design
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1
A DISCONNECT BETWEEN TEACHING & -LEARNING
The author, like many architects, has experienced the recognizable struggles in the series of classes called structures. In collegial conversations with colleagues, as well as students, the topic of structures conjures up unpleasant feelings, and even bad memories. The negative emotional effects of these courses on architecture students are notable and notably common. In seeking a logical answer to “why”, the invariable and recurring factor in these conversations is the structures professor and his manner of instruction; rather, it is the observable disconnect between the teacher and his learners. Architecture students, in the author’s observation as a professor of architecture, are predominantly visual learners [1]. Evidence of their higher visual capacity as a preference of multiple intelligence modes [2] comes in the form of sketches, studies, detailed drawings and models. The architectural student would generate both text and sketches as their “notes”; it is common for sketches to have equal or higher footing over text as the preferred mode for note-taking; to chat with almost any student in architecture is to essentially assure that drawing will be part of the conversation. As with many other schools of architecture, Kennesaw State University’s design studio acts as the major spine of its undergraduate architecture program. The design studio, taken every semester, serves as the learning environment where design knowledge and skills are learned and applied to several projects of growing complexity. Ideas are proposed and tested through cycles of review and reflection. Design projects which seem simple or clear are, in fact, illdefined exercises which do not come with only one solution. Much time and effort is invested into the developing a design idea into its final form as a thoughtful and responsive project. As a venue where one learns by doing, trying, and failing, and trying again, the design studio is a platform that practices constructivist learning [3],[4]. Consequently, students create their design proposals as they construct their identities as designers. Despite its demanding and exacting nature, it becomes clear why the design studio as a learning culture holds students’ hearts captive. Compare to this, the conventionally taught physics or math based class cannot hope to compete in terms of appeal nor relevance. Common to many architecture programs are several core threads, including a course series in structures. The first course introduces architecture students to the fundamental topics of forces, equilibrium, stress, and the analysis of simply supported structures. The structures class has, for most part, been delivered with traditional prescriptive lectures, computational exercises, and tests; and, with little deviation, the instructor for the structures series has mostly been an engineer, not an architect. Following the Vitruvian triad, architectural projects are consistently designed with consideration for its use and its users (utilitas), its aesthetic and expressive qualities of form (venustas), its strength and stability of structure (firmitas). Yet, though students do not hesitate to acknowledge the significance of structures in their design education, they show disconnection with the structures class, or more specifically, its conventional lecture format. The author’s observations (as a member of KSU’s Department of Architecture faculty) reveal patterns of mediocre performance, poor motivation, and weak engagement. Pondering on the possible factors for the learning disconnect, the author also notes that struggling students often have feelings of powerlessness.
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This feeling of non-empowerment may be linked to the typical approaches to instruction where well-defined problems and exercises seldom allow variety in its solutions. And, despite having taken the prerequisite courses, many students in this first structures class display a degree of unpreparedness in basic numerical literacy, often struggling with the mathematical logic to generate the algebraic calculations. This relative level of poor prior math learning sets up a difficult learning experience; conventional instruction mainly focuses on the learning of technical procedures, while the drills and exercises are presented and executed as isolated, manageable fragments, lacking contextual associations to design issues. All in all, the structures class does not present itself “architecturally” due to 1) the unvarying nature of math analysis, 2) the relatively poor math preparedness of the student, 3) the typically one-sided communication mode in a lecture class, and 4) the lack of relevant links connecting structural topics to pragmatic and expressive issues in architecture. Factors such as these may contribute to disenchantment with learning, resulting in poor confidence and low satisfaction in the motivation to learn [5]. As a teacher who values both architectural design and structural thinking, one must ask : “What instructional alternatives can be explored and employed to address the learning disconnect?”
2
TOWARDS DESIGNING BETTER STRUCTURES INSTRUCTION
Becoming a more effective educator means repositioning oneself from the role of mere deliverer of content to the initiator of curiosity, an active guide to desired knowledge and desiring knowledge, and a colleague in the quest for lifelong learning. To this end, the author has been continuously (re)designing a model of instruction for the particular teaching and learning of structures in an architecture program. Taken into consideration are the issues of graphics in content presentation, active collaboration for learner engagement, hands-on training for novice-learners, and finally, learning motivation.
2.1
Graphics - Improving Content Presentation and Participation
Mathematics instruction often faces issues of low appeal and poor engagement; in response, concerned educators have regularly contributed to improving on established practices. To start with, consider the emergence of alternate teaching approaches based on multiple intelligence theory [6]. Using well-designed visuals with narrative delivery responds to cognitive load issues, enhancing engagement and learning, particularly for visual learners [7]. Additionally, current practices support the use of graphics and multimedia in the instruction of scientific concepts [8]. In fact, the right kind of graphics delivered well with instruction is more effective than instruction without them [9]. Building on these ideas of using graphics for more effective pedagogy, the author proposes that the active, skillful, and precise drawing of graphics can expand the students’ “knowing” of how structures behave, and thus, give clarity to the writing out of the algebraic equations from the drawing outputs themselves. Graphics, being an operational “dialect” of architecture students, may very well provide the cognitive linkages for the learning disconnects; simultaneously, the drawings and diagrams may do their part in transforming the engineering class into a more architectural course.
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2.2
Active Collaboration – Engaging the Learner
It was mentioned earlier that a level of math unpreparedness has been observed in a fair amount of students. With weak rooting and poor practice of the logical ability for math, they often will feel rushed, anxious, and isolated as they do their exercises, thus often resorting to memorization of steps at the expense of comprehending the reasoning behind calculations. The lack of confidence in this critical phase of learning can only contribute to the habitually timid levels of communication in class. Integrating graphics in structures pedagogy is one aspect to address in redesigning instruction for this specific content. The knowledge and skills of this first course, while basic, are not simple. The comprehension and mastery of this content are better achieved with stepped guidance and frequent feedback, also known as scaffolded instruction of complex learning tasks [10]. For scaffolding to be effective, active and bilateral communication must come into play. The teacher-dominant lecture setting must reform into an atmosphere of productive rapport characteristic of a coach and his team. Learning is an outcome of communication, after all, and learning structures can be recognized as having a social aspect, not only a mathematically cognitive one. And yet, for students that carry with them years of questionable math preparation, being more communicatively active may be challenging. Hence, the organization of peers into collaborative teams may encourage better communication. Setting up such a socially supportive class setting can encourage active collaborative learning [11],[12]. With the formation of teams two things are set into place. First, the group entity mediates communication between the individual student and the instructor; second, the team serves as a “secure” venue where crosstalk amongst peers is approved and practiced (thereby also encouraging direct talk with the instructor). Productive discussions and arguments redefine the student’s role from a passive listener to an active participant, fostering a clearer and deeper construction of their own knowledge [13],[14]. For timid students, this can spell a large difference in their learning experience.
Figure 1. Active Collaboration by student teams. Groups construct knowledge via peer talk and argumentation in their own “group-zone” and “board-space”.
Building on the collaborative team setup as a deliberate instructional strategy, the use of rolling whiteboards lets individual teams define their own work-zones and board-spaces (see Figure 1), further promoting the “learning by doing” or “learning by experience” modes of active learning [15]. In fact, interactive engagement has resulted in very significant learning gains in physics classes [16],[17]; and structures classes are essentially statics and mechanics courses rooted in physics.
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With the Zone of Proximal Development [18], students in a team form a close group of colleagues where ideas regarding topics are gathered by the team and filtered through discussion, tests, and proofs, effectively enforcing knowledge construction through a level of trusted peer-reviewed instruction. Teams are monitored, guided, and given feedback by the instructor-coach, rather than commanded by the traditional expert-authority figure.
2.3
Hands-On - Manual Training for Novice Learners
The basic structures content must be learned well by the students, just as they should appreciate their own effort and experience in mastering these topics. Towards these ends, “learning by doing” takes on the intentional tack of using manual, hands-on training, thus increasing the degree of brain operations while minimizing the use of digital devices. The novice learners in this first structures class know enough to process computations, given clearly defined equations. However, as mentioned earlier, the cognitive skill of translating structural concepts logically into corresponding math expressions is weak. Without this important ability, student efforts often distort into an odd combination of formulae memorization and calculator dependency. Developing comprehension involves applying given information to be properly processed in the precise generation of required results. In simpler terms, if mathematical reasoning is constructed solidly, a student can then rely on this logical skill to know what will happen; this “knowing” is then supported and articulated by computations to know how much it will happen. It is the author’s position that constructing this analytical ability cannot be done well at novice level when cognitive interruptions arise due to the regular dependence on digital devices. This position pertain particularly to the actual tasks of learning through exercises, and generating the notes from them. Of note is literature that discusses how the manual mode of learning to write aids in the construction of linkages between different parts of the brain [19]. Additionally, weaker student performance correlated to notes done digitally, whereas higher performance, signifying better content mastery, correlated with the manual construction of notes [20]. While these studies’ findings lend support to employing manual learning modes in the instruction of introductory structures, the author recognizes the very motions of producing skillful and accurate drawings as literal manifestations of “learning by doing”, also known as embodied learning through actual motions, best exemplified in sports and dance [21]. Promoting awareness of arm motions and positions in drawing can directly connect to established numerical sign conventions ( & as positive, & as negative). Such associations can help build knowledge better, as the paper hopes to show.
2.4
Encouraging the Motivation to Learn
Often, when courses are perceived as difficult and students are struggling with the learning, students can raise questions such as “Why do I need to learn this?”, or “What’s in it for me?” Despite acknowledging the significance of structures to architecture, the student may still harbor non-positive attitudes towards the course. Low motivation should be recognized and addressed. Without this drive to learn, the student who has already accumulated negative attitudes towards mediocre, test-based math education may have yet another poor class experience, further enforcing the idea that math will always be difficult. To address motivation is to address these questions above (this issue shall be discussed again, in a later section).
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The ARCS (Appeal, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction) model for learning motivation [5] becomes quite valuable in the structures courseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s instructional design. In terms of appeal, structures can draw more attraction when its topics are presented visually, linking its content to the generation and support of architectural forms. Appeal can also be instructionally promoted by presenting and demonstrating the courseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s learning goals as both understandable, as well as achievable; topics are advanced as learning journeys with stepped goals and outputs, preparing their skills for an end objective of designing and analyzing a structural proposal on campus. For architecture people, seeing is believing. Beyond the direct pragmatic benefit to sizing shapes, relevance can also be increased with thoughtful and deep discussion of structures in relation to larger issues in architecture and design. Such discussions involve shifting the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perspective across scales of different contexts [22], framing the knowledge against larger issues of architecture, and giving more meaning to the instructional framework [23]. Furthermore, associations developed from these multiple perspectives help to establish better retention and recall of the knowledge in longterm and working memory [24]. Finally, constructing the skills and knowledge through scaffolded instruction with instructor and peer feedback serve to build confidence, as well as the satisfaction of applying the knowledge masterfully in a real-world-ish final project. These different strategies all contribute to increase student motivation and learning engagement.
2.5
The Active Collaboration Model for Structures
The traditional model of instruction, the lecture-drill format, highlights the instructor as the sole expert-authority figure, delivering content many individual students. Communication is largely dominated by the teacher and discussions focus mainly on numerical computations and its steps, with little time for contextual discussions that link the topics to architectural design issues. Students listen passively and do individual work assignments as needed (Figure 2a). Enthusiasm development in the learner is, expectedly, elusive.
Figure 2a. The traditional lecture-drill model of instruction in structures courses.
In contrast, active collaboration highlights student learning. Communication is more dynamic, and occurs on different levels; there is more talk activity exchanging between peers, teams, and the instructor. Additionally, precise graphics skills that illustrate the logical workings of the topic also generate straightforward cues in the setup of corresponding calculations. In the collaborative model, time is made for novice-level errors in the first phases of group scholarship; the instructor gives a high level of guidance and feedback as a coach, making sure to avoid taking over their learning process. Instructor support is gradually lessened as groups become more adept at the drawing and computational procedures, shifting the learning to focus on accuracy and work-craft. In proper time, graded exercises are given, discussions are completed, and a new topic is segued in (Figure 2b). S.ARCH-2017 206.6
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Figure 2b. The active-collaboration model of scaffolded instruction for structures
3
DRAWING WELL TO LEARN WELL
The following section shall discuss the integrated use of graphics into the teaching and learning of forces, equilibrium, force loops, and ultimately, truss analysis. As mentioned above, architecture students are more visually stimulated; demonstrating concepts with credible graphics (seeing is believing) allows mindsets to be more open to these very skills of precise drawing (active & embodied learning), thus building stronger cognitive abilities in mastering and applying the consequently generated mathematical computations.
3.1
Drawing Forces and Loops
The students in the structures class are mostly sophomore students. At this stage, they will have practiced scaled and precise drawing in studio. Structures graphics begin by visually depicting force vectors with length (scaled magnitude), angular orientation (direction), and points or lines of action (see Figure 3). These drawing skills then establish fundamental ties to numerical orientation : forces are positive ( & ) or negative ( & ), as are their components. In addition to this initial association, these very same attributes of forces will, truss analysis, take on a further role of designating forces as compressive or tensile.
Figure 3. These sketches show the three distinct attribute of force : magnitude (left), orientation (middle), and line of action (right).
The first usual obstacle is one of trust. Prompting their mind-space into “math mode” for the structures class, students initially are skeptical that precise drawing ability can play a key role in constructing their math comprehension. Early resistance to this learning concept happens often, yet practicing this technique through the force addition exercises establishes proofs of consistency, and with them, enough credibility as a reliable learning strategy. The transformation occurs when students shift their approach from solving first and drawing poorly, drawing precisely and “reading” the graphics into equational form (see Figure 4). S.ARCH-2017 206.7
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Figure 4. Force addition exercises. Initial resistance (left) often show calculations first (often with mistakes) and a sketchy drawing afterwards. In contrast, drawing the forces precisely first (right) leads to a more accurate visual reading of forces and their components in the eventual computations
As graphic skills sharpen in these exercises into the topic of equilibrium of forces, two useful themes become observable : first, a set of concurrent forces can be drawn as a continuous one-way chain that begins from a defined reference point; secondly, with equilibrium defined as a total sum of zero, this multi-force system will translate as a force loop with the equilibrants returning “home” to the same reference point, making for a very clear and confirmative visual that strengthens the concept of equilibrium = net zero (see examples in Figure 5).
Figure 5. Force addition exercises showing how precise drawings can pave the way for direct enumeration and computation of force components accurately, closing the force loop into perfect net zero equilibrium. For visual learners, the use of colors also helps to organize the process, force by force.
In terms of constructing knowledge, accurate drawings serve as a learning engine that produces clearer comprehension of the math work. The process, like the understanding, becomes the learning focus; the numerical computations and its final answers become logical consequences. Becoming aware of this, students gradually build confidence and steadily dismantle anxiety. This “investment” in learning to draw forces and force loops accurately prepares students for the beneficial learning returns that will be much appreciated in the next topic of analyzing and trusses. S.ARCH-2017 206.8
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3.2
Understanding Trusses
Once the skill of drawing force loops is developed and mastered, the knowledge is applied as the effective learning tool for the topic of trusses, or more specifically, the analysis of forces within truss members. Prior to this internal investigation, reactions are determined, balancing all the loads and achieving external equilibrium. Only then can the analysis work commence. The conventional approach taught in the traditional structures class and texts is known as the method of joints. Architecture students struggle when applying this computation-dominant process, mainly due to the methodâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s disconnection from useful graphic cues, as well as the cognitive overload of generating X-Y force equations while keeping track of force orientations which translate to operational signs in math. Add to this the related aspect of compression or tension in forces, and it is not difficult to understand the learning struggles of the architecture student. Because this conventional method is essentially detached from graphic cues and associations, calculation errors that occur with one joint will embed itself in the analysis of succeeding joints. The mistakes in the math work are discreet and not easy for the student to detect. As force amounts are found in an initial truss joint and then used in the next joint to be analyzed, the orientation of the force is often simply carried over; and this is where the subtle mistake is rooted. To have a truss bar force be a positive upward value tracking away from a lower joint would color it as tensile. If this bar force is still positive at its other end, the upward aspect would remain, making it compress into the upper joint; this is contradictory. The correct step would be to reflect a reversal of direction at this other end; a tensile force that pulls at one joint end must also pull at its other joint end. Plus and minus signs alone are not always sufficient to keep the student mindful (see Figure 6). Aside from the possibility of errors that carry over into succeeding joints, there is also the matter of writing out so much equation work. For an engineering-based course, this makes for an ironically inefficient learning experience.
Figure 6. As displayed in a sample student work above, the method of joints analysis for trusses relies heavily on computations and its math signs to execute its task, largely independent of graphic cues. It can be difficult for the architecture student to simultaneously work equations, keep track of their signs, and monitor their compressive or tensile nature, from one joint to the next.
Thus, with a lack of graphic signals to help the analysis work, errors are bound to happen, and are bound to accumulate. Graphic clues that can help in minimizing mistakes would include force vectors drawn to scale and angle, arrowheads and their reversals to mirror force orientations at truss bar ends, and color codes to signify the compressive or tensile nature of each truss bar force. Guidelines to follow in operationalizing the graphic cues systematically mean time and effort for students to learn, practice, and comprehend these drawing actions. S.ARCH-2017 206.9
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However, this effort in learning the graphic techniques is an investment, and its returns come in the form of lesser errors in analysis, more clarity in the overall process, and higher selfconfidence in knowledge and skills learned. The Maxwell diagram is very much built on the graphical logic of equilibrium manifested in the equilibrium force loop (figure 7). Internal bar forces are accurately determined through precisely scaled and oriented drawing. Applying a clockwise practice in reading joints defines bar forces to be compressive or tensile. All these promote better learning for architecture students (see Figure 8 vs. Figure 6).
Figure 7. The Maxwell diagram method in eight panels, applied to a truss with symmetric form, loads, and reactions. With every succeeding joint, force loops layer onto each other and generate the Maxwell diagram. At midspan, the force loops are mirrored and colorcoded to distinguish compressive (blue) and tensile (red) forces.
Figure 8. The same truss in Figure 6, analyzed using the Maxwell diagram method. The truss form is on the left, and the force diagram is on the right. Generated one joint at a time, the corresponding force loops layer onto each other precisely through specific points. A clockwise reading procedure determines whether bars have compressive or tensile forces. S.ARCH-2017 206.10
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Contrary to the notion that these graphic procedures provide an escape from thinking mathematically, the Maxwell diagram does not dumb down the math discipline. Indeed, drawing an equilibrium force loop for each joint effectively breaks the complex truss down into a sequence of manageable force-addition exercises, with each joint becoming simpler to execute and compute with the visual cues offered by this indispensable technique of representing overall balance in a force loop.
Figure 9. Sample student works of truss analysis using the Maxwell diagram method. In practicing this technique with its standards of precision and scale, the resulting clarity of the outputs strengthens the learning as well as the craft of the works.
Employing the Maxwell diagram to construct math comprehension in architecture students more clearly and efficiently, exercise variations help to inform the students of relationships between truss designs and internal forces (Figure 9). These visually related diagrams of forms and forces allow for instructive discussions on optimizing overall shapes, internal layouts, and even expressive potential. As with most things that are learned well, there are no short cuts to mastery. The deliberate use of graphic instructional strategies discussed here require commitment and craft from the instructor and the teams of architecture students. With deeper comprehension of the content and mastery of the skills, these visual learners experience increased confidence and satisfaction through work done competently; learning motivation is also better sustained.
4
CONTEXTUAL CASE STUDIES TO SOLIDIFY RELEVANCE
Recall “Why am I learning this?”, and “How is this architectural?” as the questions that linger in students’ minds. The need to link structures course content to the larger learning goals of architecture students is an issue of relevance that affects motivation and deserves proper engagement. Learning activities that address this need are able to establish visual and cognitive linkages between their exercises and recognized works of architecture. This is a key task that improves mindful learning through shifts of perspectives and context [22]. Similar to the task of gathering precedents in their design studio, case studies of built projects serve to provide inspiration and proofs, in support of a student’s developing knowledge about architecture. Unlike design studio, however, case studies in this course are read and analyzed to understand how their assembly of elements perform as a structure (Figure 10). S.ARCH-2017 206.11
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Figure 10. Student analysis of selected noteworthy case study projects. The constructed assembly is investigated and elements are coded to identify their structural roles, establishing linkages between structural form, behavior, and expression.
By calling on student teams to comparatively analyze and critique selected built projects, the learners construct cognitive associations between their exercises and the case studiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; structural forms and behaviors. By visually recognizing patterns of load transfer and assembly, the architecture learners are able to grasp more clearly how particular projects physically support themselves and how such structural choices also express form and detail.
5
CLOSING THE GAP â&#x20AC;&#x201C; APPLYING THE SKILLS INTO DESIGN
The coinciding pedagogical strategies discussed so far continue in their development to improve learning performance, engagement, and motivation. The sequencing of the precise drawing exercises and case study analyses, in an active learning environment, ultimately lands at the final task : designing a structural solution to a loosely defined problem, often a spanning requirement (a bus stop, a parking shed module, a pedestrian bridge, a covered atrium, e.g.). This final task of knowledge transfer also quietly simulates an authentic environment foreseen in their future: collaborating skills and expertise to develop feasible design proposals. This definitive allows the group to harness their analytical skills and knowledge as a primary activity in the informed service of a secondary goal of design creativity. S.ARCH-2017 206.12
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Taking cues from the case study investigations and the scaffolded team learning of their complex-task exercises, the architecture students now are able to better understand how relationships between forces, stresses, and performance, can optimize form and realize expressive aesthetic potential. As a first objective, design proposals by the student teams must have structural clarity; loads are transmitted cleanly and the structure is graphically analyzed. As outputs of this final task, their design must be built in model form and documented from pedestrian points of view, capturing the experientially valid qualities of their design proposals.
Figure 11. A sample of a final design project. The bridge design employs a slender shaped prismatic truss below the deck with a prominent tension line, partly inspired by the Waterloo International Terminal by Grimshaw. Analyses graphics are shown at bottom left, each.
6
OBSERVATIONS AND REFLECTIONS
The author, in continuously developing the design of this instructional model for foundational structures, reflects on his teaching and learning goals, as well as his observations of student engagement. The integration of precise graphic methods in the pedagogy did not detract from the expected computation work; in fact, it can be argued that this teaching and learning strategy resulted in imparting more information than the traditional lecture-computation class. This main strategy was thoughtfully incorporated into the teaching as an active response to the recurring pattern of learning gaps experienced with the conventional teaching structure, as well as the weaker levels of motivation to engage the content. Much credit must also go to the activated atmosphere of the collaborative learning environment. The intentional approach of team structures and team dynamics allowed the author to observe improved attitudes and active communication amongst teams and peers. The class atmosphere was notably more energetic and positive; and the presence of rapport between students and instructor indicated a stronger level of motivation for the learning. Exercises also exhibited better math understanding while drawing discipline elevated the craft in their works. The students expressed more satisfaction, despite investing more effort. Performance on major tests also showed a noticeable improvement on performance speed and a fair improvement on performance grades, perhaps significant. S.ARCH-2017 206.13
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Informal student opinions in surveys agreed that graphic methods improved clarity of the content and comprehension of the math. Their remarks also reflected that interaction with peers through more in-class work made for enhanced learning and higher motivation. Additionally, they also felt that the redesigned approach to learning contributed to a learning experience that was more creative, interesting, and, architectural. The author is reminded that such observations of improved activity result from the learner-centered practices. It is possible that some specific practices in this class may offer similar results when adapted thoughtfully to similar courses. Subsequent research may verify the merits of these instructional strategies, particularly with visual learners.
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Keller, J. M., & Deimann, M., Motivation, volition, and performance, in Trends and issues in instructional design and technology, 3rd ed. (Reiser, R. A., and Dempsey, J. V., editors), 2012, pp. 84-95, Pearson, Boston, MA, USA.
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Strauss, J. F., Corrigan, H., and Hofacker, C., Optimizing Student Learning: Examining the Use of Presentation Slides, Marketing Education Review, (2011), 21(2), pp. 151-162, doi:10.2753/MER1052-8008210205
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DECONSTRUCTION OF CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE IN SEVEN TRENDS Juan Pablo ASCHNER Universidad de los Andes Cra 1 NÂş 18A- 12 Bogota, Colombia | Zip Code: 111711, jaschner@uniandes.edu.co
Abstract This paper proposes a methodology of analysis of contemporary architecture that deconstructs it in seven major trends based on variables that architects undertake when developing a project. This deconstruction of different practices derives in a mapping of contemporary architecture in which buildings can be classified within a specific trend. This methodology is intended to replace a classification of architecture according to scales, location or use with a mapping that emphasizes design processes and intentions. The development of this mapping of contemporary architecture is based on the identification of variables that determine our practice [figure 1]. The design process is understood as an exercise of equalization in which these variables are raised over each other depending on the particular interests of the designer or the character of the commission This equalization allows classification of buildings by affinity with others even if they are unrelated in terms of use, scale or location; but because they share deeper aspects associated with the design methodology behind. In light of the seven variables seen in figure 1, the following seven trends arise [figure 2]: Rationally Rigorous Architecture [1] that privileges technical premises and rational thought; Expressively Organic Architecture [2] that prioritizes an individual and phenomenological approach towards space, materiality and site; SocioEconomically Resourceful Architecture [3] that works with contingency and under social and economical restraints; Objectified Architecture [4] that strongly focuses on formal and esthetic explorations; Symbolic architecture [5] that prioritizes the spatialization of concepts; Regionally Characterized Architecture [6], that shows a special rapport with vernacular building traditions and eco-sustainability; and Nondescript Establishment Architecture [7] that privileges commercial premises. While there are complex cases that can be ascribed to more than one tendency or intention, this paper will present research conducted over three years in a course entitled: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Contemporary Architecture Criticismâ&#x20AC;? [figures 3,4], with architectures designed between 2000 and 2016, in order to demonstrate the relevance and effectiveness of the deconstructive method in teaching contexts, and in the analysis and dissemination of contemporary architecture. In the last five years I have put into practice in the classroom a successful analytical methodology for the understanding and classification of contemporary international architecture. With this paper I intend to summarize this methodology of analysis of contemporary architecture that deconstructs it in seven major trends based on variables that architects undertake when developing a project. This deconstruction of different practices derives in a mapping of contemporary architecture in which buildings can be S.ARCH-2017 207.1
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classified within a specific trend. This methodology is intended to replace conventional modes of organization and classification of architecture that have traditionaly been based on premises of scale, style or use. I propose a different way of interpreting and analyzing our contemporary practice in a manner that brings closer project development with built work. It organizes architecture BASED UPON VARIABLES AND INTENTIONS THAT PERMEATE AND DETERMINE THE PROJECT AND THUS DEFINE THE NATURE AND CHARACTER OF THE BUILT WORK. The development of this mapping of contemporary architecture begins with the identification of the following variables that architects take into account and that determine our practice: first those programmatic, constructive and technical variables; second the spatial, sensory and material variables; third are social variables; fourth: formal and esthetic variables; Fifth symbolic, conceptual and cultural variables; sixth: environmental variables and finally: the economical and regulatory .
Figure 1: Seven variables that determine contemporary architecture It is my belief that the design process is understood as an exercise of equalization in which the variables mentioned before are raised over each other depending on the particular interests of the designer or the character of the commission. This equalization allows classification of buildings by affinity with others even if they are unrelated in terms of use, scale or location; but because they share deeper aspects associated with the design methodology behind.
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Figure 2: The seven variables interpreted as trends in contemporary architecture
Exemplary architecture is usually that which takes into account all of these variables. It is often noticed that when a building denies one of them the result is problematic. But other interesting thing is that singular and outstanding architecture is often that in which one or two variables outshines the others. This gives singularity to the resulting building and demonstrates where the architectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interests lay. To what goals do they aim and therefore which which other architects do they relate. This is very important to our classification. Affinity between projects is not superficial but structural and essential. It has to do with architectsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; interests. In light of the seven variables seen before, the following seven trends arise: Rationally Rigorous Architecture that privileges technical, programmatic and constructive premises following rational procedures; Expressively Organic Architecture that prioritizes an individual and phenomenological approach towards space, its atmosphere, materiality and place; Socio-Economically Resourceful Architecture that works with contingency, closely with communities and indviduals and under social and economical restraints; Objectified Architecture that strongly focuses on formal and esthetic explorations; Symbolic, conceptual architecture that prioritizes the spatialization of concepts; Regionally Characterized Architecture, that shows a special rapport with vernacular building traditions and eco-sustainability; and Establishment Architecture that privileges commercial and legal premises. There are also complex cases that can be attributed to more than one trend or S.ARCH-2017 207.3
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intention and that will be taken into account in 15 subcategories called hybrids. The seven trends seen above respond to specific variables inherent to architecture. What characterizes each trend is that the architect or group of architects responsible opted to prioritize a certain variable over another thus bestowing a particular character to the resulting space. Despite the enormous diversity of ideas and trends, it is possible to find common denominators as we observe our practice. Therefore a good starting point is to first explore those trends that are most familiar to us because they maintain a certain continuity in the face of prevailing tendencies during the 20th century. We begin by referring to the Rationally Rigorous Architecture ,and that it is detached from a particular interest in technical and programmatic premises and for undertaking a rationalistic design method akin to those methods undertaken by the modern movement. Architecture ascribed to this trend meets basic human needs and efficiently interprets activities and functions to be performed in space. Interest in solving spatial requirements based upon functional needs gives priority to procedural program variables over contextual or aesthetic aspects. Within this trend the form that the building adopts is subject to functional and structural reasons. Consequently Rationally Rigorous Architecture is characterized by an austere formal nature in resulting buildings because it often ensures an efficient behavior both spatially and constructively. Despite the simplicity of its forms, Rationally Rigorous Architecture is commonly associated with the resolution of complex programs. It is therefore a competent architecture often capable of recognizing the complexity of actions and decisions involved in the project, and able to explore different technical resources. For an architecture to be considered rationally rigorous, all systemic components should be related through a coordinated process. Therefore, and in order to operate within the framework of this trend it is necessary to fully develop architectural details as well as the building as a whole. Through rational thought, problems are decomposed in order to understand each component in detail while relations that articulate the whole are efficiently confronted. It is possible to infer from the practice of those architects that prioritize reason in their projects a need to understand programmatic problems and to respond to them through adaptability and spatial components. This branch of contemporary architecture privileges premises associated with technique, sustainability, functional optimization of space, austere use of resources and constructive efficiency. The also modern counterpart to the conservative tendency mentioned above, may be entitled as Expressively Organic Architecture and is mainly characterised because of its reaction to universal standardized production premises, and by prioritizing a subjective, and phenomenical approach towards space. This trend manifests interest in a formal and material wealth that produces expressive interior spaces; and prefers to explore constructive technologies that favor artisan technologies and materials instead of serialized or prefabricated products. The attention of architects in today's expressive architecture does not focus on the functional and constructive aspects of the discipline, but focuses on the development of atmospheres and spatial environments.This leads to more elaborate shapes and spaces from a phenomenological and sensory point of view but with a disciplinary understanding and care for technical and material considerations. The conscious use of S.ARCH-2017 207.4
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materials thus emerges as a fundamental variable in space exploration since it defines the resulting spatial environment. By doing so it distances itself from one of the fundamental premises of rational rigorist architecture: the functional optimization design to meet the needs of human beings. From an expressive perspective materiality is key to shaping both the physical space and the atmosphere. It becomes, therefore, the basis for spatial, formal and technical exploration. In recent decades two more tendencies have been detached from the expressive organic architecture and that in itself evolved from the modern movement. One of them indicates a greater concern related to the social and economic problems facing the world today. It is now possible to find significant examples of Socio-Economically Resourceful Architecture in marginal and impoverished areas of cities and rural areas. Socio-Economically Resourceful Architecture intends to further humanize living space and to do so in a more sustainable way. Unlike other forms of design, the main focus of this trend is the needs of users and their potential as decisive and participatory agents in the processes of design and construction. In this way it is thought of inclusive spaces that can be inhabited and appropriated by different communities and that have the capacity to integrate without distinction or prejudice to those who need to use them. Resourcefulness is another important feature of this architecture. It refers to creative use of cheap materials and constructive systems and to the adaptability to the environment, recycling and reuse of structures. Resourcefulness becomes creativity when architects achieve much with little and when they positively transform the places and spaces of intervention. The social aspect is based on the fact that the user is understood as the motivating factor for the project, hence there is a close relationship between the constructed work and what it represents for those who use it. In general, this architecture is present in places with adverse or marginalized conditions, or places with specific needs, for which architecture acts as a transforming agent. The economic aspect is represented in the management of resources, which in addition to being economic, coexist with humans framed in a defined temporality. Architecture here acts as a social transforming agent and is thus Activist architecture. The other tendency that develops from Organically Expressive Architecture is a very contemporary trend that strongly focuses on formal explorations and the artistic expression of buildings as sculptural or plastic objects thus given the name of Objectified Architecture. Main sites of experimentation of this trend are located within emerging and/or wealthy economies. Ill show you some examples as I explain this trend. It is precisely because of the enthusiastic and innovative attitude of prosperous economies regarding un-conventional architecture and its subsequent success among different citizens that this trend has prospered. In a process where the prevailing variable of the project is form, the architectural object tends to develop autonomously as if it were an entity that is first abstract and that is later spatialized through the incorporation of the other variables. The very early shapes that come to the mind of an architect with object like interests can hardly be considered architectural. In many cases these initial concepts are closer to pictorial or sculptural thought. Under a sculptural perspective the architectural object is modeled and the final building closely resembles the modeling that preceded it. Both the previous virtual models and the photographs of the completed works allow the valuation of the work from a purely aesthetic point of view, and that is the type of appreciation that is most desired by the designers akin to this trend. A common characteristic to all architectural objects obtained S.ARCH-2017 207.5
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through formal processes of sculptural nature is their susceptibility to awaken analogies. On the other hand, when the focus is of a pictorial nature, all the exploration and modeling of the volume is of lesser importance to the quest for singularity in the appearance and complexity of facades. In many occasions the buildings that best adapt to stimuli of pictorial nature are those with simple geometries so that more elaborate facades can be implemented. Both operations with form are increasingly found in in the present panorama of universal architecture. Oscillating between the Socio-Economically Resourceful and the Objectified architecture another tendency arises. Symbolic architecture prioritizes the spatialization of a concept and the interpretation of an event by means of an atmosphere, a form or materiality. To bridge the gap between memory and constructed reality, symbolic architecture abstracts notions and ideas of a historical, social and cultural background and then seeks an emotional connection to the place, its inhabitants, visitors or users. This architecture explores the use of materials and tectonics to evoke memory and to induce emotions in those who inhabit and experience buildings. Examples of this nature are found in relation with the physical representation of meaningful historical events or the formalization either literal or abstract of ideas and concepts. This is the case of cultural centers, memorials, museums parks that evoke analogies, amongst many other spatial interpetations of ideas. Concern for climate and geographic diversity determines the approach of some architects and the character of their buildings and establishes links amongst them regardless of the distance between them. This is particularly relevant in our next trend. In fact, in some remote areas where the physical environment is particularly relevant, the buildings built there have more in common with buildings in other distant parts of the planet that are environmentally similar than with other architectures within a the same country. This is the case of architectures that in rural areas show a special relationship with the traditions of vernacular construction, environmental factors and eco-sustainability. Regionally Characterized Architecture, stands out for its "low-tech" approach and for site specific explorations in the use of bamboo, rammed earth and adobe, amongst other materials that contribute and draw attention globally to environmental awareness issues by deepening into local vernacular traditions. Regionally Characterized Architecture prioritizes place belonging wherever itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s located. Place, in a broad sense, concerns culture, society, the surrounding physical environment and the shapes, materials and building traditions that preceded it. As Vernacular Architecture does, contemporary Regionally Characterized Architecture establishes a sensitive dialogue and interaction with every singularity of the environment and place. It is an architecture that is linked to the landscape, adapts to it and thus characterizes the region. Its building systems are an adequate adaptation to the habitat, and the resulting architecture produces comfortable and sustainable interior spaces. While vernacular architecture is an autochthonous regional tradition since it was born as an empirical response to habitat, this new type of architecture reinterprets and updates these principles and adapts them to our present needs, without neglecting inclusive and conscious design. Regionally characterized architecture implements those constructive processes supported by tradition and that have endured from generation to generation testing its effectiveness in the environmental context. The development and construction of a regionally characterized architecture can not compromise the available resources for future generations and should promote the proper use of indigenous resources. S.ARCH-2017 207.6
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Finally there is the Establishment Architecture. This is an architecture that reflects an understanding of the economy and market logic. The buildings here are designed, represented, built and sold based upon marketing strategies that maximize the value of what is offered and minimize production costs. Thus, it is manifestly efficient in all aspects of the value chain and the optimization of resources and spaces, and often derives from an advantageous and sagacious approach to urban regulations. It is also characterized as rational, repetitive and standardized. Moreover, this type of architecture design strategy invests much of its efforts on the management, promotion and generation of striking images that may capture the potential buyer and can stand out in a competitive real estate market. The architecture of the establishment is the most produced and built worldwide; It is linked to market fluctuations and is projected mostly by large firms. The designers give great importance to number of square meters designed and built and leave in the background other variables. It is important to note the affinity of the previous seven trends with other fields and disciplines denoting the affinities and interests of those who practice them or the particularity of the customer and task or request. Thus, we noticed a closeness of the rationally rigorist architecture with the engineering; the expressive organic, object-based and symbolic architecture with the arts; the socio-economically resourceful architecture with the social sciences; the regionally characterized architecture with the environmental sciences; the establishment architecture with the economy. There are of course considerable number of architectures that can be considered hybrids. Up to now weâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve inventoried 500 exemplary projects thorughout the world in these seven principal categories and in 15 more hydrid subcategories and we are expecting to publish our findings in a bilingual atlas by 2018. In the meantime this experience has been useful in the classroom in order to expand our undersatnding of contemporary architecture takking into accunt designing processes and procuring a more inclusive understanding of diverse methodologies of the practice in a way that we can understand what drives each architect when they deign, what do they value and why. Unfortunately and due to the lack of time this is just a glimpse of this insmensity and diversity that is our practice. Needless to say Contemporary architecture is also a result of fertile exchanges, mergers and crossbreeding. As a living reflection of our society, which is complex and heterogeneous, our architectures offer today diversity, plural and divergent thinking.
REFERENCES Jencks, C. (2000). Theory of Evolution: an overview of twentieth-century architecture. Architectural Review , 76-79. Yaneva, A. (2013). Mapping controversies in architecture. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.. Zaera-Polo, A., & Fernandez-Abascal, G. (2016). Ya bien entrado el siglo XXI Âżlas arquitecturas del post-capitalismo? El Croquis (187).
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DIMENSIONS OF DIVERSITY IN HOUSING SETTLEMENTS IN PERIPHERY OF ISTANBUL Guliz OZORHON*, Ilker Fatih OZORHON
Ozyegin University, Faculty of Architecture and Design Nişantepe District, Orman Street, 34794 Çekmeköy – Istanbul, TURKEY guliz.ozorhon@ozyegin.edu.tr
Abstract The concept of “diversity” in housing settlements was firstly examined within the scope of the study, and the issue of “diversity” in city/housing was discussed. As a research area, one of the periphery neighbourhoods of Istanbul, comprising housing groups with different characteristics, extending from slums to low-rise detached housing sites thus providing a rich research environment on "diversity" in housing environments, was chosen. The area work was conductud through on-site monitoring, questionnaires and interviews at this neighbourhood. With all these data, the behaviors of people with different profiles, living side by side in settlements with different features within the neighbourhood; the relationships that settlements established/couldn’t establish within themselves, between each other, and with the rest of the city, were attempted to understand. In the study, the position of these relations continuing in the periphery of Istanbul, which is one of the world's most important metropolises, within the development routes of the city was discussed, this diversity in the neighbourhood scale was presented with resulting problems and potentials, and future suggestions were made.
Keywords Housing, Housing Settlement, Diversity
Introduction “A city consists of different kinds of people, similar people can not create a city” Aristotales The study focuses on the diversity of housing in the city and the different dimensions of this diversity. The city has many diversity by its nature. People with different characteristics such as rich-poor, married-single, young-old, muslim-christian etc (family structure, lifestyle, cultural structures, socio-economic status, ..) live together (?) in cities, However, today, new living environments in cities are being planned to be disconnected from the whole of the city , even from their immediate surroundings, as well as having various worries due to being in city. For instance, the new settlements in Istanbul are usually made up of housing estates that came side by side, but not having relation with each other. The people in these
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housing estate live in a different “world, together with those who have similar worldviews, but live separated from others. Istanbul is also the region of contrasts rather than uniformity, like all cosmopolitan cities with a heterogeneous population and those in which various cultures mixed to each other. Just like the hard-edged pieces of a mosaic, it is a plurality in which social groups and cultures which have been separated from each other coexist (1). Whether the diversity existing in the city, with various dimensions is reflected on the physical space, and accordingly, resulting problems and potentials were discussed in this study.
2.Diversity / Diversity in the Context of City Biodiversity is used to mean the differentiation between living organisms of all sources, including land, sea and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological structures that are part of these ecosystems. Moreover, “biological diversity” evokes the concept of biological wealth, and express the distinctness and variability of living creatures, their interactions with complex ecological structures they live in, with each other and their surroundings. Biodiversity balances ecosystems, makes planet livable, supports people's health, the environment and ecosystems. diversity ande q u a l i t y c u l t u r a l diversity u r b a n diversity diversity in thec o m m u n i t y e c o n o m i c diversity s o c i a l diversity diversity and i n c l u s i o n e n v i r o n m e n t a l diversity Figure 1: Concepts related to diversity Diversity is a concept that we encounter almost every day in social life. The big, especially the multinational companies, even in word, put their vision and mission on this concept ,they speak highly of an inclusive business environment and life with diversity. The fashion world attempts to appeal to everyone, be inclusive and accessible for everyone, including young-old, black-and-white, fat-poor, poor-rich; and diversity is used with equality, justice, tolerance and dynamism together in social and political discourses. The diversity in the city suggests pluralism, and moreover, diversity is pointed out as one of the essential factors of a city. (containing all advantages that a large city should have, such as culture, history, entertainment and transportation…) Diversity in a city means tolerance and dynamism. (Diversity is the spice of life). That is to say, it is to respect people who are not the same as you, and regard differences as one each wealth. Individuals with different languages, beliefs, identities, cultures and worldviews live together in cities, and these different elements can live together and in company in the framework of tolerance, empathy, and respect others. The existence of elements such as different beliefs, identities, cultures and languages within the society should be considered as “cultural diversity” and “cultural wealth”. Successful cities value diversity as an essential component of community identity, political culture and economic well-being. When managed successfully, local governments help shape a rich environment within the city that celebrates this diversity and S.ARCH-2017 209.2
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provides a sense of belonging for residents of all backgrounds (2). Overall the claims for diversity are important. Diversity underlies the appeal of the urban, it fosters creativity, it can encourage tolerance, and it leads city officials to see the value in previously underappreciated lifestyles (3). Diversity in city is also on city plannerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s agenda. For example, diversity in land use can be regarded as an indispensable element of sustainable urban development (Diversity is good.). Diversity in city is mentioned together with many concepts (Figure 1). On the other hand, diversities can result in danger, chaos, and confusion if not properly managed within the city life. For example, different instruments in an orchestra must be in compliance with each other. Without the right guide, even the diversity consisting of the world's great talents can turn into nothing. Differences may also cause to disintegrate, break the city/citizen off while it can make them rich. The people who live separately within the same city, for example in Istanbul, even in the same neighbourhood can easily be distinguished. Actually, this is a result of the disparities, socioeconomic imbalances, injustice, making people marginalised according to their ethnic or cultural roots in society, and yes, it contains diversities in itself. However, diversities get disconnected from each other, and this disconnectedness comes with spatial disintegration / fragmentation, and also creates borders. The regions that best exemplify this situation in the city are generally the new living environments formed in the surroundings/periphery of city. D I V E R S I T Y Social Diversity
Economic Diversity
Environmental
City and environment Inc l u s ihousing ve ex clusive DIVERSITY IN HOUSING SETTLEMENTS Figure 2: Dimensions of diversity In other words, diversity can lead to both positive (inclusive) and negative (exclusive) situations in the context of urban or housing settlements (Figure 2). New housing settlements created in the in the periphery of city due to the reasons such as migration (urban and interurban mobility) and population growth offers a rich research platforms that can allow for the creation of alternative strategies and experience of these strategies, both to enable observing these situations and to be integrated with each diversity, city and city life. One of the periphery neighbourhoods of Istanbul was chosen for the area work in this study, which focused on the dimensions of diversity in housing settlements by this point of view.
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3. Area Work: Housing Diversification in Periphery The living quarters where diversity in both social and spatial sense is mostly encountered are no doubt metropolises. Many lives and correspondingly many different kinds of housing, became diversified with different dynamics of life in Istanbul, coexist. Low-rise, multi storey, modest-luxury, legal-illegal housing coexist within the same city so as to create different street patterns, and in different textures. This differentiation reveals itself in different forms in the city center and periphery of the city. “The behaviours of different groups in housing within the urbanization process are tackled as both gaining social status and taking a share from urban income, as well as the struggle for getting over the difficulties in the city: What makes its mark on the processes of urbanization and appearing with differentiation or diversification in Turkey in the 1980s are tendencies for disintegration. At one end, the urban poor who are making an effort to maintain their existence with more different methods and relationships than before in the periphery of the city and ready to do so much things for this cause that they can not even imagine doing before; somewhere at intermediate, middle classes who participate in the struggle for sharing income in the city through cooperatives, and set their eyes on large lands in the periphery of the city; at the other end, upper classes who live behind the high walls protected by private security systems, in the lands of the city's most prestigious areas, of which “ they took possession”, and even not looking back to the community, not only to the city they have abandoned” (4). While Istanbul is growing up in uncontrollable / unpredictable and unplanned way, it experiences a constant change with urban transformation projects, the country new housing settlements, and the border slums. By its current state, Istanbul keeps its place in the agenda of urban and housing searchers, with its always varying issues, and new faces. In this study, focused on diversity in the housing environments, the research was conducted in a neighborhood sample (Nişantepe neighborhood) from the periphery of city, where different housing samples are available.
Figure 3: Maps İstanbul, Çekmeköy, Nişantepe Nişantepe neighborhood, (Fig.3), spatially fragmented and at which very different social groups groups live (5), is one of the neighborhoods of Çekmeköy district, having several characteristics in common. This place is a field at which, all kinds of housing presentations S.ARCH-2017 209.4
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can be observed since on which slums, apartment buildings that are converted from slums, cooperatives pleading to lower and middle income group, and the sites that symbolize privilege and comfort are being built. Therefore, it is a field including diversities, where the people with different social status live together (5) In other words, it can be said that Nişantepe neighborhood exemplifies a field where Istanbul’s most advantageous and disadvantaged families in terms of economy and social resources live side by side but without making contact with each other. In this section, different housing samples located in the neighborhood will be defined/ exemplified, findings and survey results will be included, and the issues, problems and potentials that arise based on the diversity of housing in the neighborhood will be discussed.
3.1 Different Housing Types in the Neighborhood Different housing settlements (Fig.4-5) coexist in Nişantepe neighborhood. In this place, slums, every time being excluded from the city some more; those who have migrated and therefore brought their old habits along with them, those who escaped from the chaos, noise and traffic of the city; those who attempt to possess property with future anxiety wherever they are; temporary settlers due to the university campus located nearby are all together. The housing located at Nişantepe neighborhood was studied within 4 categories in the scope of the study (Table 1)
Figure 4 :Layers of Housing in Nişantepe
Figure 5: Housing in Nişantepe
Table 1: Types of Dwellings in Nişantepe ❶Detached houses /Low-rise dwellings ❷ Apartment buildings ❸ Housing estate ❸.❶ Block in housing estate ❸.❷ Duplex in housing estate ❹ Duplex villa in housing estate
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The detached houses in Nişantepe❶ are low-rise houses that develop dispersedly without any plans or arrangements in the neighborhood. Apartment buildings ❷ have been located in a similar way with detached houses, dispersedly without being subject to any rule and one within the other with detached houses. These housing (apartment buildings and detached houses) are occasionally arranged so as to only satisfy the housing need, and sometimes commercial functions (market, barber, real estate etc.) will be located on the ground floors. There are two different types of housing (multi storey blocks and two storey villas) have been involved in the housing estate ❸ (Alemdağ Housing) project that will be applied within Nişantepe. Alemdağ Real Estate Housing project, including 1192 ‘safe’ housing, isolated from its surroundings by being surrounded by walls was built by PHA (public housing administration) and completed in 2013. The most dense housing texture in the neighborhood is here. In addition to the houses; the sports areas, indoor parking, indoor-outdoor swimming pool, sauna, cafeteria, children's club and fitness center which can only be used by those living in these houses, have been included in the housing estate project. The project is announced in the advertisement brochures as “A high quality life…which you always desire, in touch with nature but close to the city, safely equipped, with social facilities, you can make new friends, your child can play safely” (6). While there are 1173 houses with 2,3,4,5 rooms in sizes ranging from 58m² to 194m² in multistorey blocks (3.1), there are 19 two storey villas (3.2) in sizes ranging from 160 m² to 173 m² in the housing estate. There are housing states consisting of low-rise detached houses at the north of Nişantepe neighborhood. These housing estate located on the forest border of the neighborhood❹ are living environments, which is seperated from the rest of the neighborhood, and almost not having any connection with this neighborhood by the help of intervening vehicle road, even not having any connection with similar housing estate, just behing the wall in the areas surrounded by walls and barbed wire. Apart from 4 types of housing listed here, there are also hut-like housing place in the neighborhood. However, those which are used as temporary housing places are excluded from the study.
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❶
Table 2:Different dwelling types in Nişantepe detached houses / low-rise dwelling definition
street view
pattern
street view
pattern
street view
pattern
street view
pattern
street view
pattern
example
example
one or two storey #dwelling #dwelling +trade ❷
apartment building definition
example
example
three or four storey #dwelling #dwelling+trade ❸
block in housing state definition
example
example
blocks, 4 dwellings on one storey #dwelling duplex villa in housing state definition
example
example
ribbon building, two storey , with garden #dwelling ❹
duplex villa in housing estate definition
detached house , two storey, with garden #dwelling
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3.2. Research Results and Holistic Evaluation What makes its mark on the processes of urbanization and appearing with differentiation or diversification in Turkey in the 1980 are tendencies for desintegration. ( Işık ve Pınacıoğlu, 2003). Similarly, the Nişantepe neighbourhood consists of subgroups of different people coming side by side in different ways. People living in this neighbourhood which is located on the periphery of Istanbul settled this neighbourhood with different expectations. Some found the living what they were looking for; to be away from the city chaos, living low rise clean-green and of course sheltered dwellings, at here,low-rise, pooled, luxurious site living; some preferred this periphery neighbourhood , relatively remote from the city and out of sight, for their unlicensed slums.The housing estate located at Nişantepe has enabled middle income group to own a house with their limited opportunities, and become a good / safe investment tool for their retirement and children, with its certain characteristics. Different expectations and realities have led to the formation of different housing settlements within the Nişantepe neighbourhood. Table 3:Problems and Potansials in Nişantepe Neighborhood
problems | current and potential s p a t i a l
l i f e - r e l a t e d
potentials
s p a t i a l
l i f e - r e l a t e d
Relationship with main transportation arterial roads (tem, 3rd bridge) of the city Forest area which also constitutes the neighborhood borders s u b s t a n c e a d d i c t i o n
u r b a n e q u i p m e n t s s e c u r i t y C l o s e d
s i t e s
a n d
f r e s h
b o r d e r s
o w n e r s h i p t (partial)
a i r
o w n e r s h i p t (partial)
l o w d e n s i t y n e i g h b o u r h o o d r e l a t i o n s h i p s (partial)
Table 3 summarizes possible and current problems and potentials of the neighbourhood in the context of the questionnaire and interviews made. The physical environment of the Nişantepe neighbourhood, situated at the north of Istanbul, has important data pointing out both its problems and potentials at the same time. One of these is its connection with important transportation arterial roads (TEM, 3rd bridge) at the north of Istanbul, and the other is being surrounded by forest areas. While the location of the neighbourhood becomes more accessible and easier to relate to the rest of the city (through the surrounding roads become more important for the city), the income stress created by this situation can lead to a problem for low income people living here. While the structure of the neighbourhood surrounded by the forest area is defined by the neighbourhood resident as one of the greatest strengths of the neighbourhood, with its clean air, and beautiful environment; this feature makes the area more attractive for the rest of the city, which may lead to an increase in population density and correspondingly lead to new problems.
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The residents living in the houses exemplified by codes 1 and 2 in the neighbourhood (Table.1) are town-dwellers who can establish social relations in the neighbourhood, established a bond of belonging with the neighbourhood they live in, and spend almost all of their time in this neighbourhood. Those living in these dwellings look happy for being in this environment despite the problems such as security, substance addiction, robbery, experienced in the neighbourhood. Since especially the young population that was born and raised here has a social environment in the neighbourhood have a stronger sense of belonging. Nevertheless, they think that the local government has not invested enough in improving the quality of their living quarters; this view is also generally strengthened by their belief in being marginalized due to their poor status. Even despite thick walls don’t exist between them and their surroundings, and they reside in a more free / open physical environment than 3-4 examples, they don’t prefer to join the city outside the neighbourhood. These people also constitute the section living in the neighbourhood and have a lower income level among households. They mostly have a similar economic structure, and they state that they could establish neighbourhood relations despite their different ethnic identities. It can be said that these people who emigrated from across Istanbul and other parts of Turkey created a very rural environment near the city. The housing estate in the neighbourhood has completely different dynamics. This is a dense housing settlement that rises in vertical blocks and separated from city with thick walls. Although there are opportunities such as pools and sports areas that allow to become socialized in the site, and which can be used only by site residents; it can not be said that the people living here could become socialized within the site and develop neighbourhood relations. The differences coexist here as far from toleration and often in a state of intolerance. A major part of those living in this site have settled here either since they could afford to become a homeowner only at this site, not since they preferred it, or, since they study in the university within the neighborhood and need a temporary shelter during their education. Therefore, it is almost impossible to develop a relationship / sense of belonging even for Nişantepe Neighbourhood and even for its own sheltered - closed sites.
3.3. In Nişantepe / At intermediate The surveys and interviews conducted indicate that the main obstacle for housing groups (1, 2, 3, 4) that have become diversified in the neighbourhood, in terms of i n t e g r a t i o n of the potentials of developing relationships with each other is closed sites, which are indicated in 3 and 4 no.examples, and which put up impassable walls between their surroundings and themselves with the worry of creating their own sheltered housing environment. Therefore, the issue of closed sites will be mentioned in this section of the article. The upper middle class and upper class who do not want to face with these problems created by the urbanization in Istanbul are aiming to establish new living quarters, and thus, housing systems have appeared which differ from the natural structure of modern cities. This new housing system’s residents, who do not want to deal with the problems that modernization reveal, not only spatially isolated themselves from the problems that urbanization creates, but also, they didn’t want to encounter with these problems, in terms of sociocultural (7). Thus, the number of safe / sheltered / indoor housing sites has increased rapidly, and this type of housing settlements have become one of the most important urban elements of Istanbul. Each of the safe sites has its own name and own roads leading to the S.ARCH-2017 209.9
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city. It also contain within itself the spaces where all kinds of needs that can be met from the city can be satisfied without having to go out of the site. The roads, parking lots, sports facilities, parks and gardens, swimming pools, small shopping centers, available in the safe sites are exemplifying for these spaces. The most important consequence of self-enclosed housing is to make social and spatial disintegration sharpen. The streets surrounded by walls, privatized common areas behind closed doors cause publicity and urbanism to be questioned. In addition to these, since urban organization in the form of closed sites has reduced the permeability of urban space, it also leads to the problems in terms of accessibility and public use. (8). Sheltered settlements have primary risks like showing urban pathologies such as social polarization and exclusion (9). Landman (10) states that as well as sheltered settlements restrict the interactions of people of different race, culture and class; they also cause to have a difficulty in the social network organization created on the basis of social and economic activities. Studies â&#x20AC;&#x153;reveal that children are kept in a protective balloon with excessive safety concerns at modern sites, and that it has a potential to create problems in children's socialpsychological development. It is thought that this may also lead to a wide range of physical and social influences such as creating a society, consisting of frightened, insecure and asocial people, constantly afraid of unidentified others in the future (11). Besides, it has been documented that "after living in modern sites for a certain period of time, especially women are afraid of going to the city at the paranoia level, develop anxiety for their children; obscurity, marginalization regarding immigrants and the poor are at the border on phenomenon in their mind; They mostly lock themselves in their sites and do not use the urban area so much; they become estranged to the city, getting used to living in an artificial world, in completely isolated manner(11, 7) Now, the situation seems very different in the neighbourhood which was compared with closed sites in terms of scale and the units it contained, and which constituted the most important part of Istanbul city life in the past. An advanced neighbourhood culture and dialogue dominate this unit. Moreover, this dialogue is not limited to the inside of the neighbourhood; dialogue also spreads to other / adjacent neighbourhoodsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, and thus, the neighbourhood can be regarded as a dynamic / living piece of a large network circulating in the city. Its state of integrity undoubtedly allows residents to develop a strong belonging relationship with the neighbourhood and city as well. The fragmented housing sites substitute for the neighbourhood fact that establishes the city through integrating with each other in Istanbul (5,8). Today, the issues, such as human relations decline; the school is not neighbourhood school anymore, in other words, the regulation of urban services becomes invalid, lead neighbourhood concept to come under question (5,8). The primary relationships, solidarity, sponsion for each other, close social relationships of neighbourhood residents take an important place in traditional neighbourhoods (7). Neighbourhood is a social and physical unit. A neighbourhood is a living space of a community consisting of the people who know each other, responsible from each other's behavior, being in social solidarity (12) It can be observed that despite all kinds of physical environment are attemted to provide in the closed sites which are the spatial expression of a fragmented society (5), they canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t satisfy these features of the traditional community. Safe sites, encoding everybody outside the site as a disturber in theirminds through their physical structure; from this aspect, is far
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from the understanding of security, evolving based on the fact that people in the neighbourhood should recognize and know each other(11). The matter is more complicated for Nişantepe neighbourhood which was chosen as sample research area in this study. Here, a part of living is spent in the closed sites (exemplified by 3.1, 3.2.4), separated from each other and from other people living in Nişantepe; a part of living is also spent in the detached houses and apartment buildings in relation to each other but again separated from others. So, Nişantepe takes part at intermediate in many ways. The place / life existing here neither seem as a neighbourhood in the past, nor could become a part of the modern city. The people living in the neighbourhood neither manage to become a town-dweller as they couldn’t establish a dialogue with city and each other, nor completely became disconnected.
4. Conclusion While a modern metropolitan city is required to establish its mechanisms more stronger than comer and goer, and ensure the integration of comer urgently; it has to fill the deficiency of goer at the same speed. In order to achieve such a goal, it is required that the city’s opportunities should fairly be distributed to different groups living in the city; the opportunities for the meeting of different groups, and common public use should be enhanced; the data offered by basic identity elements of the place should be ensured to be adopted by everyone, the diversities should be considered as elements that will enrich the main structure, and urban house living should be ensured to develop on a line aiming integration instead of disintegration (13). The research results show that Nişantepe neighbourhood is a settlement where diversity (cultural, economic, social, spatial ...) coexists in many ways, and diversities have a great potential to offer wealth in terms of urban and urban life. However, the way of revealing this potential is the spatially preparation of communication / interaction opportunities between the diversities. In other words, the diversities that do not interact with each other in housing environments can not coexist. Undoubtedly, diversity in housing environments includes more than the physical formations of the buildings and the composition they form together. Coexisting, and feeding from the awaresness of coexisting, being a part of a whole without losing individuality… The fact called city is a space where many different cultures and social classes meet. If so, living in the city means to meet with people with different characteristics, not only with people like you, being able to communicate, being able to live together, respect mutual individuality. How should the urban / housing environment be planned with this view?. If the coexistence of diversities is expressed as a wealth in terms of city and city life, and furthermore if it is expected so, then diversity should be owned as a planning approach / design strategy. Diversity has to be spatialized in the city and especially in the housing environments with a holistic understanding allowing for different colors. The elements that exist in the “neighbourhood” of the past and are far from us now should be reassessed. Instead of insisting on memories of the past, a new sense of coexistence must be developed with today's realities, needs, and opportunities.
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References [1]
Öncü, A. “İdealinizdeki Ev” Mitolojisi Kültürel Sınırları Aşarak İstanbul’a Ulaştı, Mekan, Kültür ve İktidar- Küreselleşen Kentlerde Yeni Kimlikler(der. A.Öncü ve P.Weyland), İletişim Yayıncılık, pp. 85-103, İstanbul, (2005)
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web 1, K. Turner (project leader) , Good Ideas from Successful Cities Municipal Leadership on Immigrant Integration, Maytree Foundation, http://www.maytree.com/
[3]
Fainsteın, S. Cities And Diversity; Should We Want It? Can We Plan For It?, 40TH Annıversary Featured Essay, Urban Affairs Review, 41(2005), No. 1, September, pp. 319
[4]
Işık, O., Pınarcıoğlu, M. Nöbetleşe Yoksulluk:Gecekondulaşma Yoksulları:Sultanbeyli Örneği, İletişim Yayınları, İstanbul, (2003)
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Firidin Özgür, E. Sosyal ve Mekansal Ayrışma Çerçevesinde Yeni Konutlaşma Eğilimleri: Kapalı Siteler, İstanbul, Çekmeköy Örneği, Planlama, 4(2006), pp. 79-95.
[6]
http://www.emlakkonut.com.tr/tr-TR/alemdag-emlak-konutlari
[7]
Baday, Ömür Nihal, Modern Kent Mekanlarında Mahallenin Konumu, Sekçuk University, Master Thesis, Konya, (2011)
[8]
Firidin Özgür, E. Tüketime Bağlı Bir Kimlik Öğesi Olarak Konut ve Planlama Açısından Bir Değerlendirme, Tasarım+Kuram,14(2012), pp.29-45.
[9]
Berköz, L., İstanbul’da Korunaklı Tek-Aile Konutları: Konut Kalitesi ve Kullanıcı Memnuniyetinin Belirlenmesi, İTU Dergisi/a, 7(2008), pp.110-124.
ve
Kent
[10] Landman, C. Gated communities in Brazil and South Africa: Comparative perspectives. CSIR Building and Construction Technology, Programme for Sustainable Human Settlements,http://www.csir.co.za/Built_environment/Planning_support_systems/gat edcomsa/docs/brazil_v3.pdf [11] Altun F. Modernleşme Kuramı, Küre Yayınları, İstanbul, (2005) [12] Düzbakar, Ö. Osmanlı Döneminde Mahalle ve İşlevleri, U.Ü. Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi, Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 4(2003),pp.97-108, Bursa. [13] Kayın, E. Mekânsal ve Sosyo-Ekonomik “Tümleşiklikler-Parçalanmışlıklar” Geriliminde “İzmirlilik”, İzmir’li Olmak Symposium, İzmir(2009)
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PRAAUD© - PROJECTIVE RESILIENCE ASSESSMENT FOR ADAPTIVE URBAN DESIGN PhD Sonja Radovic Jelovac Faculty of Architecture University of Montenegro Studio synthesis architecture&design 81000, Podgorica, Montenegro Bulevar Dzordza Vasingtona ¾ email: sonja@studiosynthesis.me
Abstract PRAAUD© [1] is a dynamic holistic instrumental tool that is designed in transdisciplinary manner to re-examine and improve resilient and environmental impact assessment for the purpose of resilient urban design and into this research specifically, it refers to water sensitive and adaptive urban design. However, the presented tool may have a broad application on bigger and smaller areas with articulated social-ecological complexity and articulated degree of uncertainness where projective resilience assessment is of great importance for generating and understanding transformation and adaptation of the system. Theoretical basis for new model rests on comparative theoretical research between complex adaptive system theory, resilient theory and collaborative theory in urban design with transdisciplinary approach aimed at creating new theoretical model for future scientific and practical platform for resilience urban design of water sensitive areas. Dynamic instrument PRAAUD© integrates ecological knowledge and the practice of urban design towards knowledge from system theory, complex adaptive systems and resilient theory which is a new approach to understanding contemporary urbanism. The specific contribution of dynamic instrument PRAAUD© are: 1) generates assessment, adaptive and resilient urban design strategies and models for managing given space through construction of trust, social learning and collaborative adaptive management. 2) aids better understanding of interactions within social ecological system resilience – SES Resilience, 3) optionalises and integrates different knowledge – consilience , 4) observes disturbances as opportunity for generating betterment – novelty, 5) allows for cross-scale application of acquired insights in the new Resilient Urban Design in time- space relations - panarchy.
Keywords Adaptive learning, transdisciplinarity, resilient assessment, water sensitive urban design
1
Introduction - research polygon
Research polygon of this paper is a complex set of dynamic but „marginal “ water sensitive areas in unique watershed ecosystem which will be for the first time subject of systematic analysis from S.ARCH-2017 210.1
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urban aspect, aimed at better understanding of its cross-scale dynamics and interactions between system elements. Research experiment refers to water sensitive locations, areas of exceptional importance from the aspect of inherited natural and anthropogenic diversities and values, where duality of culture and nature is key factor in the integration process. Given that Montenegro has been proclaimed an ecological country and bases its future development on sustainable tourism, there is urgency in developing integrative operative approach which will act as support to: local government, planners, urban designers to experiment and implement new collaborative ecosystem method that integrates assessment elements and strategising for future adaptive resilient urban design and urban design management aimed at realisation of common sustainable visions. Research focus was to create primarily theoretical basis model for resilient urban design and planning through understanding and specific â&#x20AC;&#x153;modellingâ&#x20AC;? of complex systems to ensure that required future strategies for urban design learn from and inform each other to achieve collaborative resilience in the process of realisation of vision for the future development.
2
Defining scientific problem
Through this research, as KEY scientific problems, I identified lack of integral scientific analysis between: complex adaptive systems in ecology, collaborative theory in urban design as well as understanding social ecological system (SES) resilience. In the face of this scientific problem, I am considering ways for holistic integration transdisciplinary dialog between the theories I mentioned. Prevailing positions in: system theory, resilience theory, collaborative theory, CAS (complex adaptive systems) theory and transdisciplinarity are aimed at creating new theoretical framework for modelling processes for future dynamic instrument as support to resilient urban planning and design. There are three key ideas which innovative instrumental model PRAAUD supports and as such they are conditions for model functioning. Those are: (1) Systems that we manage are mutually connected social-ecological systems, (2) These systems are complex and adaptive, and (3) They interact on a general level in space and time [2] I find this also applicable to urban context, however, urbanism in general is lacking in instruments for analysis of these issues. Proposed instrumental model PRAAUD seeks to include complex system dynamics through adaptive urban design and planning as well as through different types of urban regeneration and requalification, and in remediation approaches [3]
2.1
Theoretical postulation of generative metaphor "Integrative resilience"
As starting point of this research, I hypothesised generative metaphor "Integrative resilience" to generate and promote new collaborations and interactions in the science of ecology and the practice of urban design. Interaction of disciplines can be enhanced by using either theory or practice. The process begins with the theoretical linkage based on resilience and supports practical designs incorporating the concept of resilience and the ecological insights needed to achieve resilience. Figure 1
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Figure 1: S.Radovic-.Jelovac, 2015, Theoretical postulation of generative metaphor "Integrative Resilience"
Presented research in part relies on insights of S.T.A. Pickett [4] who suggests that metaphor is the first bridge to help synthesize the disciplines of ecology, social science, and urban design. Metaphor is evocative and suggestive, but it is often silent about details of structure and mechanisms of function. Therefore, an initial step of adopting a central metaphor as a synthetic tool is to realize the technical refinements needed to use the image. First meaning, or core definition, must be articulated; second, modelling strategies to translate the abstract definition into specific cases, third: it is desirable to return from the model into core definition with goal to define metaphors for a new ecological situation. Once the research is applied to this model, new understanding can generate new metaphors. Return from the model into the metaphor is needed to achieve public dialogue and to achieve interaction with the specialists responsible for basic meaning. Figure 2
Figure 2 S.Radovic-Jelovac, adapted from Pickett, Generating the Model and new generative metaphor Generative metaphor, i.e. â&#x20AC;&#x153;images that stimulates creation of technical conceptâ&#x20AC;? Pickett [4]
Hence, "Integrative resilience" is a new generative metaphor towards a process oriented and instrumental model that will integrate ecology, different collaboratives and urban design. The objective is to achieve higher degree of interaction between different disciplines in order to create framework of the dynamic process - operating model. The model is expected to further determine the criteria for evaluation of level of integrating resilience on certain territories.
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The proposed hypothesized model needs to provide strengthening of socio-ecological system resilience. Social-ecological resilience refers to the capacity of a social-ecological system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing a change to still retain essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks [5]
Figure 3
S.Radovic- Jelovac, Theoretical postulate of the model and research strategy
The ability to reorganize and renew a desired social-ecological system state following disturbance and change will strongly depend on the influences from states and dynamics at scales above and below. Such cross-scale aspects of resilience are captured in the notion of panarchy, which is a set of dynamic systems nested across scales. [6] Hence, resilience reflects the degree to which a social-ecological system is capable of selforganization (vs. lack of organization, or organization forced by external factors) and the degree to which the system can build and increase the capacity for learning and adaptation. [7] As introduced at the beginning, research polygon is a complex set of dynamic water ecosystems and subsystems nested in time and space i.e. Urban Watershed Delta Bojana: Bojana River, Salt Pans, Delta of the River, Marshlands, Artificial water channel, lake. Figure 4.
Figure 4 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Urban Watershed Map from Spatial Urban Plan of Ulcinj Municipality, Montenegro S.ARCH-2017 210.4
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Figure 5 - Nested ecosystem and management practices (Berkers and Folke, 2002) [8]
To better understand the needs for strengthening linkage between ecosystem and management, I interpret the practices through Berkers and Folkes diagram: on the left-hand side is the ecological system, which may consist of nested ecosystems (e.g., a regional ecosystem containing the drainage basin of a river, which in turn consists of a number of watershed ecosystems, and so on). On the right-hand side is a set of management practices in use. These practices are embedded in institutions, and the institutions themselves may be a nested set. The linkage between the ecosystem and management practice is provided by ecological knowledge and understanding. This linkage is critical because opportunities for sustainable usage are reducing drastically without knowledge of ecology and understanding of resources and ecosystems dynamics where it reacts. Management practice and institutions have to recognize, interpret, and relate to ecosystem dynamics in a manner that secures the flow of natural resources and ecosystem services. [8]
3
Model introduction
PRAAUD is a dynamic holistic instrumental tool that is designed in transdisciplinary manner to reexamine and improve resilient and environmental assessment for the purpose of resilient urban design and planning. This research specifically refers to Water Sensitive Adaptive Urban Design. However, the presented tool may have a broad application on bigger and smaller areas with articulated social-ecological complexity and articulated degree of uncertainness where resilience assessment is of great importance for generating and understanding transformation and adaptation of the system.
Figure 6 Conceptual model for instrumental model PRAAUD - Projective Resilient Assessment for Adaptive Urban, Design -S.Radovic - Jelovac, 2015 S.ARCH-2017 210.5
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As elaborated before, generative metaphor “Integrative Resilience” was used as basis for establishing hypothetic model, and in a hypothesised model it represents congruence between resilience and collaboratives whose attributes I synthesised on a higher level through theoretical matrix. Integrative Resilience synthesises and promotes different operative and analytical approaches into a unique dynamic tool for specific socio-ecological dynamics and situation. Projective resilience, why? -
provides new language and metaphors for the dynamics of change in complex systems; provides new tools and methods for analysis and synthesis; confronts modes of governance based on assumptions of predictability and controllability. Integrates these elements into transdisciplinary* adaptive urban design Improves “Diamond” model which was created by J.Key, and it refers to adaptive urban planning which in my research was improved with higher degree of collaboration through understanding of SES resilience
Assessment and adaptive, why? Even though in its name there is a section that refers to "assessment", model actually has programmatic and strategic nature and enables interdisciplinary and collaborative tool that unites system approach and collaborative processes aimed at creating joint vision through strategies and pilot projections. PRAAUD is primarily an umbrella anticipative instrument which will prove that the higher collaborative approach can achieve SES resilience through process-oriented Resilient Urban Design.
3.1 General postulate of the model This part of the chapter will include detailed elaboration of setting and structure of the given apparatus at five joint components that structures the tool, Figure 6: 1. PRAAUD vs. Resilient Assessment (RA) - Understand alternative states, thresholds and cycles of change, adaptation or transformation? 2. PRAAUD vs Adaptive Environmental Assessment Management (AEAM) - Assessing the change transformation. 3. PRAAUD vs. Collaborative Management - Building resilience in social ecological system (SES) 4. PRAAUD vs. Transdisciplinary adaptive urban design - Implement transformation Through theorethical setting, and through setting of process models and instrument models (PRAAUD) I demonstrate how integration of Resilient Assessment, AEAM, Collaborative management in operative way can generate into a set of Pilot adaptive planning applications for strategies Resilient Urban Design for water sensitive areas. Finally, in respect to my research polygon, i.e. Urban Watershed, Delta Bojana River in Montenegro dynamic instrument PRAAUD will allow for a set of system and sub-system analysis and synthesis for different strategy typologies as preparation for Resilient Urban Design, e.g. water dynamics, water quality, biodiversity conservation, cultural heritage, waterscape resilinece, cultural - landscape urbanism, experimental-educational tourism, agro tourism, ect.
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3.2 PRAAUD vs resilient assessment (RA): Understand the system, adaptation, or transformation As shown in the matrix, relying on conceptual model in Figure 7 the assessment leads to identification of possible thresholds which are a breaking point between two alternative systems, which aides revealing what contributes or erodes resilience system. The resilience assessment in such way allows for insight in buffering development strategies or facing known and unexpected change. This segment of instrumental model PRAAUD brings understanding of changes of integrated social-ecological system dynamics and can provide insight in the opportunities for managing under uncertainty and change. [2]
Figure 7 Resilience Assessment Framework, (Adapted from Resilience Assessment Workbook, 2010)
The Figure 7 shows five main stages of the assessment framework, beginning with describing the system, then understanding system dynamics, probing system interactions, evaluating governance, and finally acting on the assessment. The actual process is iterative and reflexive at each stage and requires referring back to earlier steps and revising as necessary. [2] Each assessment will be made simple and not all questions and activities will be equally applied to all the cases. In that regard, it is open and dynamic but primarily generates transformative learning. It is also possible to do multiple resilience assessment for a single transformative action (future Resilient Urban Design) which depends on vision and needs, system context and subject sub-systems. [2] Resilience assessment is time-sensitive and needs to be used regularly because system dynamics changes as understanding grows. Activities proposed through this phase have goal of deepening process that includes re-investigation of settings and which is open and flexible in respect to changing of how things are perceived. This instrument during the entire process allows facing complexity, identifying key variables and simplifying system model to clarify assessment and actions that go with it.
Figure 8 General conceptual model of a social-ecological system, from Resilience Assessment Workbook, 2010
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This resilience assessment framework navigates the process of knowledge development and understanding dynamics, interactions and potential thresholds relevant for a particular socialecological system in which we need to act. Information gathered and recorded during assessment are used as basis for development of conceptual diagram that aids synthesising such made discoveries. The diagram shows social-ecological system model which could be subject of our assessment. (Figure 8) General SES model in figure helps directing different self-defining of the system. Also, alternative formats or SES framework variations can be suitable for different types of system. Development of conceptual SES model is a repetitive process and is likely to take several rounds for editing and fine-tuning. As system develops or new issues arise, it would be useful to make again assessments in regular intervals. In such way developed conceptual SES model is an instrument that achieves long-term, sustainable environmental services. Flexibility, variability and diversity that transfer resilience to focal system are also reasons which will be sensitive to changes in the system dynamics over the course of time. Reassessment of a large number of issues on a regular basis which concern resilience will allow functioning of the adaptive conceptual model to achieve goals of adaptive management and underpin strategies that support resilience and integrity system. There are three key ideas which innovative instrumental model PRAAUD supported and as such they are conditions for model functioning. Those are: (1) Systems that we manage are mutually connected social-ecological systems, (2) These systems are complex and adaptive, and (3) They interact on a general level in space and time. [2] I find this applicable to urban context, however, urbanism in general is lacking in instruments for analysis of these issues. Proposed instrumental model PRAAUD seeks to include complex system dynamics through adaptive urban design and planning as well as through different types of urban regeneration and requalification, and in catastrophe remediation approaches. [9] This lack of approach to social-ecological complexity and urban design in general shows that the new operative instrument PRAUUD is basis for improvement through experiences from resilience assessment and other similar assessment models and with the existing it builds upon existing planning approaches. I would like to emphasise here that Resilience Assessment Workbook found has been primarily applied in natural resource management contexts; there is a lacking of examples and guidance for application in urban areas. In that regard, PRAAUD is an upgrade of Resilient assessment, taking into account lack of research on how the resilience assessment complements and conflicts with existing planning approaches. Given the upgrading of existing framework of Resilient Assessment, apparatus PRAAUD is envisaged to devise resilience process for different purposes: 1. Suggest how apparatus PRAAUD is used for different goals, suggest how to analyse local resilience fast and suggest how to implement detailed assessment or develop transformation strategies. 2. Propose measures of how to mutually upgrade these steps into a bigger process, propose guidelines for management transdisciplinary learning processes, and propose steps and actions for future transdisciplinary adaptive design and planning model
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3.3 PRAAUD vs. Adaptive environmental assessment management (AEAM): assessing transformation In this section I shall provide insight in AEAM Adaptive Environmental Assessment Management as one of four innovative components integrated in the new instrumental model PRAAUD. As anticipated before, in the chain of adaptive approach to planning and urban design assessment and management are an important component which contemporary urban design needs to face. Application of resilience theory in contemporary urbanism, as well as acceptance of scientific approach that social-ecological system as CAS complex adaptive system and that adaptivity are some of key properties of CAS, and then we will take a step forward in the resilience which could not be seen so far. [10] According to M.Bunch at.al. 2008, Adaptive environmental assessment and management (AEAM, also known as adaptive management) is an approach to resource and environmental management that deals explicitly with uncertainty. AEAM mobilizes best available knowledge about a situation by bringing together scientific experts, planners, and policy makers in a series of workshops to design management interventions so as to generate knowledge and facilitate learning. The approach is anticipatory (solutions are developed based on predictable future events) and flexible (accommodating changes in goals, revised predictions, and new evidence. [10] They emphasize that practitioners of AEAM know that they intervene in systems that are both complex and continually evolving and that they will never have complete knowledge of the system. According to M.Bunch at.al. AEAM approaches the management of these systems as an ongoing learning process. By designing interventions as experiments, knowledge about systems is maximized and learning can occur from unexpected events. This makes the approach adaptive. New information is generated from the experience of intervening in and monitoring the response of the system. This knowledge informs further management of the system, which generates new information. Ongoing adaptive management of the system progressively reduces uncertainty about it.[10] In that regard, I find that analytical approach used in adaptive management can inform urban design and planning through collaborative and transformative learning which results of feedback loop are and monitoring prior, during and after the plan implementation. As I elaborated in the introductory part, research experiment refers to water sensitive locations, areas of exceptional importance from the aspect of inherited natural and anthropogenic diversities and values, where duality of culture and nature is key factor in the integration process. Regarding understanding of SES resilience it sets firm grounds to future valorisation and transformation of future given context. I am of the opinion that assessing a system for urban design and planning before adaptive management allows synergic approach aimed at generating set of mutually competitive alternative explanations (scenarios) for certain set of resources problems and social goals. Adaptive environmental assessment and management (AEAM) process also develops social networks that connect scientists, managers, policy makers with general relevant community. These networks are important factors of social learning on ecosystem management [11] and for managing different functions within social-ecological systems. Adaptive environmental assessment and management is a term for a set of processes created to integrate learning and activities management. These processes are oriented on developing hypotheses (or clarification) concerning
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concrete issues which include: how specific ecological dynamics operate and interventions will affect the ecosystem. Figure 9
how human
Figure 9 Taken from L.Gunderson at.al. 2006 . Conceptual model of adaptive environmental assessment and management, shows integration of processes that assess, propose, test and evaluate hypothesis and ecosystem dynamics and implementation of policies (modified to initial model by Holllng 1981). Dashed lines are adaptive assessment phases, while full lines are adaptive management. (L.Gunderson, G.Peterson, C. S.Holling, 2008, 226)
Examples of adaptive management and assessment were successful in "large-scale systems where sufficient ecological resilience, learning networks, and a willingness to experiment exist. Ecological resilience, or the capacity for renewal in a dynamic environment (sensu Holling 1973), provides an ecological buffer that protects the system from the failure of management actions that are taken based upon incomplete understanding." [12] Adaptive environmental assessment and management (AEAM) process also develops social networks that connect scientists, managers, policy makers with general relevant community. These networks are important factors of social learning on ecosystem management [11] and for managing different functions within social-ecological systems. Recommendations and explanations for fostering Social learning through AEAM are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
embrace complexity and change focus on sources of uncertainty design processes to resolve uncertainty create a â&#x20AC;&#x153;safe to fail" system create arenas for discourse develop learning networks seek peerless leaders scale is important invent creative solutions
Gunderson at.al. 2008 stresses that it is quite likely that the development of epistemic social networks which links understanding, management and governance in open and flexible manner will contribute to facing complexities of governing resources systems in future. [12] Adaptive management continues to develop new conceptual and practical tools through significant areas of research areas include improving understanding of cross-scale connections in social-ecological systems, building resilience, and effectively engaging an extended peer community. In respect to the new dynamic instrument PRAAUD and research polygon (urban watersheds) I believe that adaptive management approach possesses very important bridging elements necessary for understanding, experimenting, deciding for future spatial planning. Its qualities are reflected in the
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fact that it can bridge gap in communication of technical staff, scientists, resource practitioners and stakeholders.
3.4 PRAAUD vs. Collaborative management (adaptive co-management): building resilience in social-ecological system According to Olsson adaptive co-management has the potential to build resilience in socialecological systems (Olsson et al. 2004). In the context of this research, presented Resilient Assessment is aid and matrix for analysis while adaptive co-management contains monitoring and collaborative management component aimed at building resilience in SES. According to Wilkinson, Resilience Assessment Workbook does not provide guidance on how to design, manage, and facilitate a participatory assessment process. A participatory assessment process is necessary to successfully address complex issues where no single actor has the knowledge to do the assessment, nor the influence to carry through the strategies resulting from it. A participatory process also holds the potential of enabling dialogue and social learning. [13] Prior to elaborating the role of social network and adaptive co-management I reflect on insights from T. Hahn who explains that If management is about strategies for handling natural resources, governance addresses the broader social contexts of creating the conditions for social coordination that enable ecosystem-based management (Stoker 1998; Lee 2003). Monitoring provides feedback and synthesizes the observations to a narrative of how the situation has emerged and might unfold in the future. [14] An SES consists of an ecosystem, the management of this ecosystem by actors and organizations, and the formal and informal Institutions (rules, social norms, and conventions) underlying this management. The resilience of an SES depends on ecological dynamics as well as the organizational and institutional capacity to adapt to ecosystem dynamics. This requires a learning environment and links between key persons across organizational levels. To be resilient, the social-ecological system also needs capacity for dealing with external change. [14] Here I list what " feeding ecological knowledgeâ&#x20AC;? into adaptive management practices includes: 1. Supporting flexible institutions and multilevel governance systems: the adaptive governance framework is operationalized through adaptive co-management 2. The sharing of management power and responsibility may involve multiple, often polycentric, cross-level institutional and organizational linkages among user groups or communities, government agencies, and nongovernmental organizations, i.e., neither centralization nor decentralization. [15] 3. dealing with external drivers, change and surprise: it is not sufficient for a well-functioning multilevel governance system to be in tune with the dynamics of the ecosystems under management (referred to as the â&#x20AC;&#x153;internal resilienceâ&#x20AC;?; 4. The challenge for the social-ecological system is to accept uncertainty, be prepared for change and surprise, and enhance the adaptive capacity to deal with disturbance. 5. Non resilient social-ecological systems are vulnerable to external change, while a resilient system may even make use of disturbances as opportunities to transform into more desired states. Adaptive co-management systems have been defined as flexible community-based systems of resource management tailored to specific places and situations, supported by, and working with, various organizations at different levels. [11] I find this to be quite applicable to my research polygon - Urban watershed. Sharing management power and responsibility may involve multiple S.ARCH-2017 210.11
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institutional links among user groups or communities, government agencies, and nongovernmental organizations. Hence, adaptive co-management systems build on open institutions and learning [16], drawing on a variety of sources of information and knowledge and avoiding set prescriptions of management superimposed on a particular place, situation, or context. Adaptive co-management includes sustainable trajectories. [17]
3.5 PRAAUD vs. Transdisciplinary adaptive urban design: implement transformation Previously presented collaborative management ensures institutional implementation of adaptive resilient management and strategies for resilient urban design. In that regard, justifiability of adaptive urban design and planning has its base in collaborative management that provides institutional implementation of adaptive resilient solution and management policies. Research paper that made a breakthrough in transdisciplinary collaboration in urban design is “Learning by doing” by Kato and Ahern [18], which stresses adaptive planning as a strategy to address uncertainty in planning and identify various uncertainties in landscape planning as large obstacles for adoption of adaptive approach. I am of the opinion that their proposed adaptive planning method where monitoring plays key role for reduction of uncertainty can be used for addressing uncertainty in planning and urban design. Proposed method is often applied as conceptual test for planning water resources for dealing with abiotic-biotic-cultural resources. I support this opinion that, to operationalize adaptive planning, experts, stakeholders and researchers indeed must act transdisciplinary mode where all contribute to and benefit from decision making and constant generation of new knowledge. [19] Additionally, I fully agree with Ahren that even though landscape ecology has given substantial contribution to science of function and dynamics of urban ecosystem, it is yet to realise potential in working in possible transdisciplinary mode with urban planners, interested parties and decision maker. Table 1 Table 1 Glossary of sustainable landscape terms and concepts (J. F. Ahren, 2012) Term ADAPTIVE DESIGN
DESIGN
DESIGNED EXPERIMENTS
Definition A process/approach where selected urban plans and projects explore innovative practices and methods, informed by landscape ecology knowledge and research design, open to design innovations and creativity, and monitored and analysed to learn from the experiment – with the goal of gaining knowledge to apply to future projects …any intentional change of landscape pattern for purpose of sustainably providing ecosystem services while recognizably meeting societal needs and respecting societal values Interdisciplinary partnerships of scientists, planners and designers collaborating to insert experiments into the urban mosaic, balancing ecological goals with context, aesthetics, amenity and safety S.ARCH-2017 210.12
References Rottle and Yocom (2010) Lister (2007) Ahern (2010)
Nassauer and Opdam (2008)
Felson (2005)
and
Pickett
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LEARNING-BY-DOING
RESILIENCE
TRANSDISCIPLINARY
…facilitated by conceiving uncertainties not as obstacles to overcome but opportunities to learn from, and by including feedback loops to ensure that decision makers receive the monitoring results in time to develop appropriate policies, or to alter plans or management practices accordingly ‘’…the ability of a system to absorb disturbance and still retain its basic function and structure’’ In contrast with interdisciplinarity involves stakeholders and decision makers with scientists and professionals, throughout a project, with all parties contributing to, and benefiting from, a mutual knowledge and experience base
Kato and (2008, pp. 548-549)
Abern
Walker and Salt (2006, p.1) Walker (1995) Tress at al. (2005) Naveh (2001)
Here, concept of adaptive design is explored as a means of engaging ecologists, planners, designers stakeholders and decision makers in transdisciplinary process where urban plans and designs are conceived and understood as “safe-to-fail” experiments [20] J.F. Ahren stresses importance of an "important future focus for transdisciplinary research collaborations between landscape ecologists and urban planners and designers is to advance an accepted working method for adaptive design or ‘‘learn-by-doing’’. He particularly stresses that designers are attempting to ‘‘apply’’ landscape ecology to their urban projects, but lack the culture, the research skills, and the resources to ‘‘close the learning loop’’ on these projects to learn in specific terms how they worked, how alternative solutions compare, and how transferable are the results." [21] Based on previous discussion, I would conclude that adaptive design with its experimental approach can help planning experts to use their “learning-by-doing”, at the same time bearing in mind that planning is not a science, but social activity based on science, technology and legislation [22]
4
Contribution of dynamic instrument PRAAUD
Presented instrumental model offers a systematic and holistic approach which is not focused solely on detailed understanding of parts, but on how key components contribute to dynamic of the entire system. Parts of SES react to the changes of other components; at times causing feedbacks that can strengthen the change in the entire system or can have stabilising effect. Through these interactions, social-ecological systems can self-organise (i.e. adjust to themselves through interaction between components), new configurations can emerge and made adaptation possible. This property of integrated social-ecological systems can make their management and strategies generated for resilient urban design more challenging, but also creates opportunities for recovery or reorganisation after the disturbances.
4.1
Specific contribution of dynamic instrument PRAAUD
1. PRAAUD integrates ecological knowledge and the practice of urban design towards knowledge from system theory, complex adaptive systems and resilient theory which is a new approach to understanding contemporary urbanism.
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2. PRAAUD generates Assessment for Adaptive Resilient Urban Design strategies and models for managing given space through resilient assessment, social learning and collaborative adaptive management 3. PRAAUD tool allows setting all preconditions for process-oriented and water sensitive adaptive resilient urban design that is generated from different theoretical grounds which provides strategies for future plans and programmes in line with the criteria given in the matrix aimed at realization of long-term vision. Basic outputs of explored instrument are pilot adaptive urban design application for plans, strategic planning, pilot projects with adaptive components and informing from system that allows providing information during plan realisation and act adaptively during implementation and realisation. Additionally: 1. PRAAUD aids better understanding of interactions within SES - SES Resilience 2. PRAAUD optionalises and integrates different knowledge - Consilience 3. PRAAUD observes disturbances as opportunity for generating betterment - Novelty 4. PRAAUD allows for cross-scale application of acquired insights in the new Resilient Urban Design in time- space relations - Panarchy
References [1] Radovic â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Jelovac S., PRAAUD - "Projective" resilience assessment for water sensitive adaptive urban design. Transforming urban watershed in resilient landscape , PhD Thesis, University La Sapienza of Rome, Rome, Italy, 2015 [2] Resilience Alliance, (2010), Assessing resilience in social-ecological systems: Workbook for practitioners, Version 2.0.Online: http://www.resalliance.org/3871.php [3] B.Walker and F. Westley, (2011), Perspectives on resilience to disasters across sectors and cultures, Ecology and Society 16(2):4. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol16/iss2/art4/ [4] S.T.A.Pickett , M.L.Cadenasso, J.M.Grove, et al. (2004) Resilient cities: meaning, models, and metaphor for integrating the ecological, socio-economic, and planning realms, Landscape and Urban Planning 69(4): 369â&#x20AC;&#x201C;84 [5] B.Walker and D. Salt, (2006), Resilience thinking: sustaining ecosystems and people in a changing world. Island, Washington, D.C., USA [6] C.S.Holling, L.H.Gunderson and Garry D.Peterson,(2002).SUSTAINABILITY AND PANARCHIES IN Panarchy : understanding transformations in human and natural systems / edited by L. H. Gunderson, C. Holling, Island Press [7] S.R. Carpenter, B. Walker, J. M. Anderies, and N. Abel, (2001), From Metaphor to Measurement: Resilience of What to What? Ecosystems 4:765-781.
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[8] F. Berkes and C.Folke,(2002), BACK TO THE FUTURE: ECOSYSTEM DYNAMICS AND LOCAL KNOWLEDGE IN Panarchy understanding transformations in human and natural systems / edited by L. H. Gunderson, C. Holling, Island Press [9] B.Walker and F. Westley, (2011), Perspectives on resilience to disasters across sectors and cultures, Ecology and Society 16(2):4. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol16/iss2/art4/ [10] M.Bunch, D.McCarthy, and D.Waltner-Toews, (2008), A Family of Origin for an Ecosystem Approach to Managing for Sustainability in The Ecosystem Approach,Complexity,Uncertainty and Managing for Sustainability ed. by D. WaltnerToews, J.J. Kay, and N.M.E. Lister, Columbia University Press [11] F.Berkes, J. Colding, and C. Folke, eds. (2003), Navigating social-ecological systems: building resilience for complexity and change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK [12] L.Gunderson, G.Peterson, C. S.Molling,(2008), Practicing adaptive management in complex social-ecological systems in Complexity theory for a sustainable future / ed. by J.Norberg and G. S. Cumming,Columbia University Press - Page 234 [13] M.M.Sellberg, C. Wilkinson, and G. D. Peterson, (2015), Resilience assessment: a useful approach to navigate urban sustainability challenges, Ecology and Society 20(1): 43. Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-07258-200143 [14] T.Hahn., L.Schultz, C. Folke, P.Olsson, (2008), Social networks as source of resilinece in socila ecological systems, at Complexity Theory for a Sustainable Future, eds.: J.Norberg and G.Cumming, Columbia University Press [15] E.Ostrom, (1998), Scales, Polycentricity, and Incentives: Designing Complexity to Govern Complexity, In L. D. Guruswamy and J.A. McNeely, eds., Protection of Global Biodiversity: Converging Strategies, pp. 149-167. Durham: Duke University Press [16] M.A.Shannon and A. R. Antypas, (1997), Open institutions: uncertainty and ambiguity in 21st-century forestry, Pages 437â&#x20AC;&#x201C;445 in K. A. Kohm and J. F. Franklin, eds.. Creating a forestry for the 21st century: the science of ecosystem management, Island Press, Washington, D.C., USA [17] T.Hahn., L.Schultz, C. Folke, P.Olsson, (2008), Social networks as source of resilinece in socila ecological systems, at Complexity Theory for a Sustainable Future, eds.: J.Norberg and G.Cumming, Columbia University Press [18] Kato, Sadahisa and Ahern, Jack f., "'Learning by doing': adaptive planning as a strategy to address uncertainty in planning" (2008). Landscape Architecture & Regional Planning Studio and Student Research and Creative Activity. 15. http://scholarworks.umass.edu/larp_grad_research/15
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[19] K.l.L.Cunningham, (2013), Resilience Theory: A Framework for Engaging Urban Design, Department of Landscape Architecture, Regional and Community Planning College of Architecture, Planning and Design [20] J. F. Ahern, From fail-safe to safe-to-fail: sustainability and resilience in the new urban world, University of Massachusetts – Amherst, 2011 http://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=larp _grad_research [21] J.F. Ahren, Urban landscape sustainability and resilience: the promise and challenges of integrating ecology with urban planning and design, Springer Science+Business Media B.V. , 2012 [22] K. L. Nilsson & C. Florgård, (2009), Ecological scientific knowledge in urban and land-use planning. in M. J. McDonnell, A. K. Hahs, & J. H. Breuste eds., Ecology ofcities and towns: A comparative approach (pp. 549–556), Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press
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METAPHORICAL LANGUAGE IN AN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN TEAM Hernan CASAKIN Ariel University P.O.Box 3, 44837, Ariel, Israel, casakin@ariel.ac.il
Abstract Metaphors play a key role in architectural practice. These tools are seen as critical heuristics supporting cognitive and communicative necessities in design problem solving. By structuring the way architects think about problems, reasoning by metaphor enables to approach design situations from unorthodox perspectives, and to produce innovative ideas. This paper investigates empirically the use of metaphors during the early stages of the architectural design process. In particular, it explores the effect that external stimuli in the form of text have on metaphor generation, and classify into main categories the metaphors that are produced by architects during their discourse interactions. It is concluded that in design problem solving, the availability of stimuli enhances metaphor generation. Architects, on the other hand, were seen to make fluent use of metaphors as a rhetorical mechanism that helped them develop and communicate their ideas in a coherent and efficient way.
Keywords Metaphor classification, architectural discourse interaction, design problem solving, text stimuli
1
Introduction
Design problem-solving is a complex activity that frequently requires teams working in collaboration. A major claim is that the shared understanding between team members can be supported by the use of metaphors. They are frequently used as linguistic devices in daily communication, e.g., [1], which can be also found in a diversity of domains such as science, art, and design. Reasoning by metaphors is viewed by cognitive psychologists [2] and linguistics [3] as effective heuristics aiding problem solving. It also shown to play a critical role in both the development of creative ideas, and in the process of communicating them among designers. Moreover, the theory proposed by Lakoff and Johnson [1] and by Lakoff [3; 4] considers metaphor as a mechanism that allows categorizing experiences according to a conceptual system. This is determinant in the way people think, perceive, understand, and classify experiences in their minds. Metaphorical reasoning enables the identification of overlooked similarities despite of the existence of vast difference. A byproduct of this is the potential creation of new categories of knowledge [5].
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One of the disciplines where the study of metaphor has come to the foreground is in design [6]. Metaphor is especially suitable in the solving of architectural problems that by definition are ill-structured and involve unconventional thinking. Scholars have drawn attention to the contribution of metaphors as a cognitive resource that is particularly useful in the early and most creative stage concerned with the generation of design ideas. One reason is because metaphors enable to approach architectural problems from unorthodox perspectives, which lead to the transformation and displacement of known concepts. Another reason is because metaphors aid in integrating individual knowledge, and enhances the communicative interaction between designers, all of which promote the potential emergence of successful design outcomes. In spite of the frequent use of metaphor in architectural design practice, except for a few exceptions, e.g. [7], no empirical works about its role during the design process were carried out. Metaphors generated during design interactions can be stimulated by the availability of external inspiration sources, such as texts. Depending on the type of contexts that the sources and the design problem are embedded, a metaphor can be related to within-domain or between-domain sources. Whereas the former fits into a situation in which both source and problem belong to a same or very close knowledge domain, the latter refers to two conceptually distant domains that share a common explanatory structure. Scales of different level of detail have been considered to categorize the distance between source and problem. Examples are the bipartite scales of highly-related and distantly-related to the problem [8], and near and far distance [9], the tripartite scales of near, medium, and distant [10], and the quadripartite scale of near, near distant, medium distant, and distant [11]. While most of these studies explored the use of different types of sources for the generation of design ideas based on analogical reasoning, none of them was carried out to investigate how these sources can be used to generate ideas based on metaphors. Whereas studies of metaphors in the cognitive and linguistic domains are vast, only few works attempted to integrate cognitive theory with discourse analytic procedures in order to investigate their function in communication in general, and in the domain of architecture specifically [12]. This is regrettable given the importance of metaphors in discourse interaction in design. This situation was criticized by several researchers, who stressed the importance of the real communicative contexts in which metaphors are generated to gain a deeper insight about this phenomenon [13]. In this regard, Gibbs [14] argued that an accurate understanding of the connection between linguistic expressions and conceptual schemas cannot take place disregarding â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;the cultural contexts in which conceptual metaphors arise and support particular uses of languageâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Consequently, studying the types of metaphors that are produced when solving design tasks entails the consideration of cognitive and linguistic schemas developed in this singular framework. Such an approach may allow the identification of the use of the specific language that articulates discourse interactions, also known as the genre, in disciplines such as architecture. Genre can be defined as the semiotic patterns and relationships that respond to recurring situations, which is viewed as a maker of meaning [15]. Our aim of this study is to explore empirically the generation of metaphors during the most creative stage of the design process concerned with the production of idea-solutions. A major goal is to investigate the type of metaphors produced by architects as they come out in architectural design, considered as the genre that expresses their discourse interactions. This entails analyzing the phenomena in its real context, whereas considering essential issues of metaphor description in cognitive linguistics that are concerned with the S.ARCH-2017 211.2
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identification and categorization of dominant metaphors. While dealing with design problems architects use to make resource of a variety of external displays. Thus another goal is to investigate the effect that different type of external stimuli may have on the generation of metaphorical ideas. The research questions that guide our study are: â&#x20AC;˘ What types of metaphors are generated during the discourse interactions maintained by the architects during the design process, and what can be learned when approaching metaphors from a genre perspective? â&#x20AC;˘ How the availability of external stimuli such as texts contribute to the generation of metaphors?
2
Methodology of Research 2.1 Participants and Set Up
A team composed by three architects, which are PhD students belonging to the Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, Department of Urbanism at TU Delft participated in the design session. They were informally approached in their offices, and invited to take part in the study. The request was to use the external text stimuli, and to generate as much ideas as possible to solve the design problem. In compensation for their participation they received 45 Euros.
2.2 Design Task, Procedure and Instruments The task called for the design of a square in order to revitalize an awkward area of the Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, TUDelft University. To this aim, architects were requested to propose design ideas that could make the area a more enjoyable place. The plaza was situated at the least used entrance of the faculty. Architects were well acquainted with the physical, cultural, and social aspects of the problem. However, due to the nature of the study, the produced solutions were expected to be schematic and therefore not completed in every detail (See Figure 1). Participants were given a task sheet containing general instructions, a design problem, and a map and photographs of the site. In addition, they were provided with a set of four texts about poems, two of which were within-domain sources (i.e., an amusement park, and a harbour), and another two were between-domain sources (i.e., a volcano, and a mother board of a computer). Participants were told that they have to use the text information in order to deal with the problem at hand. They were also supplied with a set of A3 numbered sheets of paper, and were requested to produce and discuss as many idea solutions as possible. The session lasted 30 minutes, from which 7 minutes were assigned to produce a final solution to the design problem, including a brief description of how the final solution works. Architects were told to think aloud as the team session was videotaped. Following the standard procedure of analyzing verbal data, the recordings were transcribed, and analyzed independently by the author and another researcher who is an expert in linguistics and metaphors.
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Figure 1: Design of the square located in the Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, TUDelft University by the architects
3
Identification and Categorization of Metaphors
The study was informed by the cognitive linguistic theory of metaphor originally developed by Lakoff and Johnson [1]. The analytical procedure included identifying metaphorical expressions in the transcript, and classifying them into diverse experiential domains. Expressions were tagged as metaphorical in cases that they represented a domain incongruity; i.e., a reference to a domain different from architecture [12]. The researchers analysed independently the raw data produced by the participants. Provided that the identification of some cross-domain incongruities is subjective and often a matter of disagreement, the cases were discussed by both researchers until full agreement was achieved. Thereafter, a categorization system intended for organizing the identified metaphorical expressions into four experiential domains was proposed, which are illustrated below. These are part of a larger categorization system developed in the research, in which another nineteen design sessions were analyzed. The first experiential domain is labelled Artificial, and includes metaphors drawing upon human-made aspects. This is the richest set of metaphors of the study, and is decomposed into three groupings highlighting morphological or functional aspects of the design. These include: Built spaces are shapes or 3-D entities, Built spaces are machines, and Built spaces are built spaces. The expressions that represent spaces as shapes or 3-D entities specifically focus on formal and structural aspects. This is explicitly illustrated in example 1 below: S.ARCH-2017 211.4
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1
“...it (the built space) is a sail which is happening underneath, it’s like a tent.”
In the metaphor Built spaces are machines, spaces are equated to artifacts or devices working in a mechanical way. For example: 2
“… (The built space) is a computer chip.'”
Built spaces are built spaces reflects the view that certain designs can be described in terms of other designs. This metaphorical schema refers to establishing a mapping between the design problem, in this case a square, and an architectural typology that is remote to the problem. This is illustrated in example 3: 3
“This space is a theatre… a theatre with circles.”
Human activity is an additional experiential domain referring to the manipulation of space in any form. It considers spaces as malleable and flexible artefacts that can be modelled or transformed. The expressions belonging to this category are best represented by the expression Architectural practice is a (manual) craft, which is mainly concerned with the action rather than the outcome. This is depicted in example 4: 4
“Because of this connection thing I also thought about that ...”
Another experiential domain corresponds to Motion, which reflects a kind of movement evoked by the metaphorical expressions. This category is organized into two ontological metaphors highlighting dynamic aspects of the design: Built spaces are journeys or motion experiences, and Built spaces are kinetic entities. The expressions that correspond to Built spaces are journeys or motion experiences equate space as a voyage or as an experiential passage. An example is: 5
“…these level changes take you out of the borders.”
Metaphors in the form Built spaces are kinetic entities bring to mind the idea that spaces are animated entities with a life of their own. This is illustrated by: 6
“This (space) starts very small and then curves around …”
The last experiential domain refers to Nature, and draws upon physical non man-made phenomena. These include Built spaces are geological entities or forces, and Built spaces are water entities or forces. The former refers to expressions that equate spaces to geological things or geological processes. For example: 7
“It (the space) is not volcano-shaped… but there’s still an eruption here”
Metaphorical expression incorporating natural sources concerned with water can be exemplified by: 8
“This (space) has something to do with waves… maybe we can do something with green waves”
In the next section we present a quantitative analysis about the generation of metaphors and the use of external stimuli by the architects during the design task.
4
Empirical Results
A total of 89 metaphors was generated by the team of architects, 65 (73%) of which were based on the available stimuli, and 24 (27%) were produced by other means. When focusing S.ARCH-2017 211.5
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on the stimuli available to the participants, we found that the poem about the volcano was the source that led to the generation of the largest number of metaphors, followed by the harbour, the amusement park, and the computer ones (See table 1). Table 1: Frequencies and percentages for main metaphors of the categorization system according to the stimuli available to the architects Names of the stimuli Volcano
Amusement Park
Harbor
Computer
Other
Total
29 (32.6%)
9 (10.1%)
23 (25.8%)
4 (4.5%)
24 (27.0%)
89 (100.0%)
The metaphors generated by the architects were organized into the four major categories presented in section 3. From Table 2 it can be seen that almost half of the metaphors belong to the category labelled Artificial, followed by Nature, Motion, and Human activity. Table 2: Frequencies and percentages of metaphors according to the categorization system Main metaphors Artificial
Human activity
Motion
Nature
Total
42 (47.2%)
7 (7.9%)
10 (11.2%)
30 (33.7%)
89 (100.0%)
In order to understand the influence of the available stimuli to the metaphorical ideas, the above categories were analyzed according to the different stimuli used during the design process. Table 3 shows that in the artificial category, the stimuli that contributed most was the harbour. Remarkably, the volcano was the stimulus with a higher contribution in the other three categories. Generally speaking, this source was the most frequently used along the design session, followed by the harbour, the amusement park and the computer. Table 3: Frequencies and percentages of groups of metaphors according to the stimuli available to the architects Name of the stimuli
Categories of metaphors
Volcano
Amusement Park
Harbor
Computer
Other
Artificial
1 (2.4%)
6 (14.3%)
15 (35.7%)
4 (9.5%)
16 (38.1%)
42 (100.0%)
Human activ.
4 (57.1%)
2 (28.6%)
1 (14.3%)
-----
-----
7 (100.0%)
Motion
3 (30.0%)
1 (10.0%)
1 (10.0%)
-----
5 (50.0%)
10 (100.0%)
Nature
21 (70.0%)
-----
6 (20.0%)
-----
3 (10.0%)
30 (100.0%)
Total
29 (32.6%)
9 (10.1%)
23 (25.8%)
4 (4.5%)
24 (27.0%)
89 (100.0%)
Total
It should be noted that most of the metaphors created by the architects were based on the available stimuli, whereas less than a third was produced without regard to these sources. In a more refined analysis, the input of the stimuli was examined in relation to the subcategories of metaphors. Table 4 indicates that within the human activity category, and regarding the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;architectural practice is a (manual) craftâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; specifically, the volcano was the S.ARCH-2017 211.6
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most recurrently employed stimulus, followed by the amusement park, and the harbour. In the nature category, specifically in ‘built spaces are natural entities or forces’, the harbour was largely used, whereas in ‘built spaces are geological entities or forces’, the volcano was predominant. Within the motion category, in ‘built spaces are kinetic entities’ again the volcano prevailed. Notably, metaphors labelled ‘built spaces are journey or motion experiences’ were not related by any existing stimuli. Moreover, in the artificial category, specifically in ‘built spaces are machines’, the computer was most frequent, whereas in ‘built spaces are shapes or 3D entities’, the use of the harbour and the amusement park was more recurrent. Remarkably, metaphors labelled ‘built spaces are built spaces’ were not based on any available stimuli. Independently of the existing stimuli, two types of metaphor were the most recurrent ones. More than a forty percent of these correspond to ‘built spaces are shapes or 3D entities’, whereas a quarter belongs to ‘built spaces are geological entities or forces’ (See Table 5). Table 4: Frequencies and percentages of sub-categories of metaphors according to the available stimuli Category
Sub-category
Human Architectural practice activity is a (manual) craft Built spaces are water entities/forces Nature
Motion
Built spaces are geological entities/forces Built spaces are journeys/motion experiences Built spaces are kinetic entities Built spaces are machines
Artificial Built spaces are shapes/3-D entities Built spaces are built spaces
Name of the stimuli
Volcano
Amusement Park
Harbor
4 (57.1%)
2 (28.6%)
1 (14.3%)
-----
-----
6 (75.0%)
Computer
Other
Total
-----
-----
7 (100.0%)
2 (25.0%)
8 (100.0%)
1 (4.5%)
22 (100.0%)
1 (100.0%)
1 (100.0%)
4 (44.4%)
9 (100.0%)
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
-----
3 (33.3%)
1 (11.1%)
1 (11.1%)
-----
-----
-----
21 (95.5%)
1 (2.7%)
-----
6 (16.2%) 15 (40.5%)
-----
-----
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-----
3(100.0%)
1 (2.7%)
-----
-----
3 (100.0%)
14 (37.8%) 37 (100.0%)
2 (100.0%)
2 (100.0%)
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Table 5: Frequencies and percentages of sub-categories of metaphors according to the categorization system Metaphorical system
5
9 (10.1%)
1 (1.1%)
22 (24.7%)
Total
Built spaces are water entities/forces
37 (41.6%)
Nature Built spaces are geological entities/forces
3 (3.4%)
Built spaces are journeys /motion experiences
2 (2.2%)
Built spaces are kinetic entities
Built spaces are shapes/3-D entities
Motion
Built spaces are machines
7 (7.9%)
Artificial Built spaces are built spaces
Architectural practice is a (manual) craft
Human
8 (9.0%)
89 (100.0%)
Discussion
Bearing in mind the exploratory nature of the study and the small sample, we do not intend to generalize findings observed along the design process. Together with this, the selected case study provided a suitable framework to explore what types of metaphors were generated during the problem solving task, to propose a categorization system, and to analyze what type of stimuli was related to what kind of metaphors. The analyzed utterances indicated that the vast majority of metaphors generated by the architects were based on the external stimuli. This important finding suggests that the availability of different type of stimuli can enhance the generation of metaphorical ideas in communicative contexts such as architecture [12]. Regarding the use of external stimuli during the design task, the two sources that contributed most to the generation of metaphors were the volcano and the harbour. Whereas the first one is considered a between-domain-close source, the second one corresponds to a within-domain-far source. [8; 9; 11] From the two available betweendomain sources, architects preferred to use the closer one. In spite that between-domain-far sources are critical in the production of creative solutions [11], it is probable that architects found difficulties to identify and establish metaphorical relations between the computer (between-domain-far source) and the problem at hand. On the other hand, from the two available within-domain sources, architects favoured to use the farther one. Possibly, the amusement park (within-domain-close source) was too near to the problem at hand in order to stimulate the generation of metaphors, and therefore they were prone to use the harbour stimuli, which was at a relatively mid-distance to the problem [10]. Additional analyzes centre on the categorization system upon which metaphors were organized. It is interesting that the majority of metaphors created during the design process belong to two contrasting groupings: ‘Artificial’ and ‘Natural’. This may not come as a surprise considering that the assigned task had to do with the design of a square which, by definition, is concerned with both man-made and nature aspects. The existence of metaphors belonging to the 'Motion' category reconfirms that an experience of implied movement is always present in architecture [16]. In this sense, the motion metaphors were useful to signify that architecture –in this case the square- can express and imply movement without actually moving.
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Other findings centred on the relation between the external stimuli and the different categories of metaphors. That most metaphors from the ‘Artificial’ category were based on the ‘harbour’ and the ‘amusement park’ can be explained by the fact that these stimuli are within-domain sources, which are considered to belong to the same domain of the problem at hand; in this case the architectural domain. In contrast, the vast majority of metaphors in the ‘Nature’ category were generated from the ‘volcano’, a between-domain source considered to be remote to the design task. These suggest that the type of stimuli available to the architects plays an important role on the kinds of metaphors produced during the task, and possibly on the final outcome as well. Finally, the study focused on the relation between the sub-categories of metaphors and stimuli. The most frequent sub-category was ‘built spaces are shapes/3D entities’, which was largely based on the 'harbour', a within-domain-far stimulus. This important finding suggests that, besides that different types of metaphors aid in dealing with a variety of aspects of the design activity, issues related to morphology are probably at the core of the metaphorical language in architecture. Another remarkable finding is that the 'harbour' and the 'volcano' were the most frequently used displays in all sub-categories of metaphors, suggesting that mid-distance sources are the preferred inspiration sources for the creation of metaphors.
6
Conclusions
Studying metaphor from a genre perspective contributed to transcend disciplinary jargon, and enhance our understanding into how these rhetorical devices are approached in the architectural design community. The work allowed identifying main conventions, and it informed about some of the most usual categories of metaphors that architects employ during discourse interaction. Moreover, the study pioneered the analysis of the role of text stimuli in the generation of metaphors in design problem solving. Thinking in terms of metaphors not only helped designers to define and understand many aspects of the problem at hand, but also to develop, communicate, and discuss a variety of ideas. An indication of this is the large number of metaphorical expressions of various kinds that were suggested in reference to the different aspects of the design problem. By combining discursive and cognitive views, this paper offered a comprehensive approach that allowed gaining insight into how metaphor, as a domain specific scheme, works in architectural design. Based on the present findings, implications for the design studio as well for architectural practice should be taken into consideration.
Acknowledgements Thanks are due to Rosario Caballero for helping with the identification and categorization of metaphors in the transcript.
References [1] Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. Metaphors we live by, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA, 1980.
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[2]
Gentner, D., Bowdle, B., Wolff, P., & Boronat, C. Metaphor is like analogy, in The analogical mind: Perspectives from cognitive science, (Gentner, D. Holyoak, K. J. & Kokinov, B. N.), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA:, USA, 2001, pp. 199–253.
[3]
Lakoff, G. Women, fire and dangerous things: What categories reveal about the mind. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA, 1987.
[4]
Lakoff, G., The contemporary theory of metaphor, in Metaphor and thought, (Ortony, A), Cambridge University Press, New York, USA, 1993, pp. 202–251.
[5]
Coyne, R., Designing information technology in the postmodern age: From method to metaphor, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, USA, 1995.
[6]
Casakin, H. An empirical assessment of metaphor use in the design studio: Analysis, reflection and restructuring of architectural design, International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 2012, 22, 329-344.
[7]
Casakin, H., & Kreitler, S., Meaning profiles of metaphors and design products in architecture, European Journal of Engineering Education, 2016, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03043797.2016.1236073
[8]
Tseng, I., Moss, J., Cagan, J., & Kotovsky, K., The role of timing and analogical similarity in the stimulation of idea generation in design, Design Studies, 2008, 29, 203-221.
[9]
Chan, J., & Schunn, C., The impact of analogies on creative concept generation: Lessons from an in vivo study in engineering design, Cognitive science, 2015, 39, 126-155.
[10] Chai, C., Cen, F., Ruan, W., Yang, C., & Li, H., Behavioral analysis of analogical reasoning in design: Differences among designers with different expertise levels, Design Studies, 2015, 36, 3-33. [11] Ozkan, O., & Dogan, F., Cognitive strategies of analogical reasoning in design: Differences between expert and novice designers, Design Studies, 2013, 34, 161-192. [12] Caballero, R.M., Metaphor and genre: The presence and role of metaphor in the building review, Applied Linguistics, 2009, 24, 145-167. [13] Cameron, L., Operationalising ‘metaphor’ for applied linguistic research, in Researching and Appling Metaphor, (Cameron, L. & Low, G.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, USA, 1999. pp. 3-28. [14] Gibbs, R., Taking metaphor out of our heads and putting it into the cultural world, in Metaphor in Cognitive Linguistics, (Gibbs, R.W. & Steen, G.), John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, 1999, pp. 145-166. [15] Devitt, A.J., Generalizing about genre: New conceptions of an old concept. College Composition and Communication, 1993, 44, 573-586. [16] Hardy, H., The expression of movement in architecture, The Journal of Architecture, 2011, 16, 471-497. S.ARCH-2017 211.10
LEARNING FROM DISPLACEMENT Smilja Milovanovic-Bertram, Associate Professor School of Architecture, University of Texas at Austin 1 University Station B7500, Austin, Texas 78712, USA, smilja@mail.utexas.edu
Abstract This project explores the importance of study abroad studios, travel experiences, and travel pedagogy as they affect the spatial imagination and design thinking of architecture students. Multicultural experiences are an essential component of a student’s ability to adapt to new situations. Through immersion in a different culture, students enhance cognitive adaptability and the ability to creatively solve problems. The study abroad design studio can be further enhanced through the use of cognitive mechanism exercises emphasizing displacement of concepts and de-familiarization assignments.
Keywords Displacement, Travel Pedagogy, Creativity
Study Abroad and the Italian City The phrase “The Grand Tour” was originally used to describe a rite of passage for young English gentry who traveled through Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries ostensibly to discover and study classical art of antiquity. Our program is one semester in length and is located at the Santa Chiara Study Center in the Tuscan hill town of Castiglion Fiorentino. From our center’s base we take field trips to hill towns of Tuscany and Umbria, as well as the cities of Rome, Vicenza, and Venice. The Italian city becomes both the subject and physical laboratory for our design investigations. The subject matter of this studio is the space of the Italian city, and how it carries meaning. This is an exceedingly complex issue, one that sets a rich and engaging formal structure and refined material condition against historic circumstance, evolving patterns of behavior and inhabitation, and the cultural status of the poetic. While the design of a project is the ultimate goal, the studio investigates the Italian design sensibility and its fascination with depth, autonomy, and continuity across a series of blurring scales, from personal object to personal space to social space to urban condition.
Cultural Displacement and Conceptual Displacement In this paper, I address two different types of displacement: cultural displacement, the physical dislocation from one's native culture, and conceptual displacement (and defamiliarization) as it relates to the invention of design concepts. Creative inquiry is of central importance during the conceptual design stage. Typically the mind is full of associations that are familiar or automatic. A primary hurdle for creativity in the design studio is stepping S.ARCH-2017 212.1
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outside habituated conceptual associations, moving outside the normative. Creativity in architectural design can be viewed as an emergence of new forms and shapes or relationships between forms and shapes from which new concepts can be discovered. The process of architectural design is interwoven with discoveries and insights within and between design actions, often as unintended consequences. New concepts are discovered as novel organizations of the known and develop out of the interaction of old or familiar concepts and new situations and conditions. Cultural displacement—the physical dislocation from one’s native culture—frees the mind of constraints of the familiar. This can also be seen as making the familiar strange. Expatriate authors and artists have long expressed cultural and physical estrangement in producing work that is experimental, creative, and insightful. Cultural displacement creates disruption or discontinuity that can bring about a juxtaposition of the dissimilar. As a brain storming exercise, juxtaposition of the dissimilar can be used in creative problem solving. The premise in the travel abroad studio is that the principles of discovery learning involve breaking out of one’s comfort zone. “Defamiliarization” is critical and central in finding renewed perspective. Displacement acts as a consciousness-raising device, preventing the acceptance of a narrow, doctrinaire, dogmatic views of any particular idea or concept.
Displacement of Concepts The learning theorist Donald Shön (1930-97) published his theories in Displacement of Concepts (1963). The notion of displacement of concepts aims to juxtapose dissimilar concepts so as to create new perspectives through their synthesis. The underlying idea is that if one recalls similar objects or concepts together, because they are already similar, their juxtaposition may not create new meanings or perspectives. However, putting dissimilar objects together forces one to reconsider the objects in order to find some meaningful connection. The emphasis behind this mechanism is in moving away from similarity. [1]
De-familiarization Related to conceptual displacement is the idea of de-familiarization in art. Victor Shklovsky (1893-1984) the Russian literary theorist, coined the phrase “de-familiarization”, or making the familiar strange in his essay, “Art as Technique”, He stated, “The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar…”[2] New and unique concepts emerge as dissimilar situations are synthesized.
Robert Venturi & The American Academy in Rome The architect Robert Venturi (b. 1925) has written of his own expatriate experience at the American Academy in Rome. Venturi spent 1954-56 as a Fellow in Rome, absorbing the city and its architecture and also traveling throughout Europe. As a temporary expatriate at the American Academy, Venturi read the newly published book by Vincent Scully, The Shingle Style: Architectural Theory and Design from Richardson to the Origins of Wright (1955). Vincent Scully’s depiction of the Shingle Style was, for me, a thrilling and significant revelation, both focusing and freeing my vision…As a temporary expatriate, reveling in the S.ARCH-2017 212.2
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Baroque splendors of the city beyond my studio windows and steeping myself in the ambience of all Italy beyond the horizon, I was at the same time peculiarly sensible to visions of my own land—visualizing old things in new ways and from different angles. [3]
Those experiences allowed Venturi to visualize America’s 19th century development of shingle style houses in a different, more vivid way, namely, as a mannerist development he could compare to the Renaissance and Baroque periods of Rome’s architecture. Those observations, a clash of the dissimilar, made their way into his seminal publication, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture (1966). Later, in his analysis of the Las Vegas strip (with Denise Scott Brown), Venturi was able to observe the American commercial strip through Rome’s urban qualities in the publication, Learning from Las Vegas (1972). This type of paradigm shift is an example of the juxtaposition of the dissimilar and became the foundation for his book.
Design Studio: Mapping Hill Towns via Sketchbooks The following presents how our program uses cognitive exercises to further enhance studio design and visual communications projects. To map is, in one way or another, to take a measure of a world, and more than merely take it, to figure the measure so taken in such a way that it may be communicated between people, places or times… By the same token, the mapping’s record is not confined to the archival; it includes the remembered, the imagined, the contemplated. [4]
In understanding new places and new cultures, students experience a discomfort in unfamiliar territories and spaces. To familiarize students with context, the studio begins with readings from Denis Cosgrove’s Mappings (1999). The text enables students to understand the locale and its spatial relationships. The process of mapping goes beyond the routine collection and sorting of empirical data. It enables the creative act to be actualized by operations that reformulate relational reasoning to develop inventive possibilities, mental constructs. This is achieved through a process of accumulation, disassembling, reassembling and “inaugurating new worlds out of old”[5]. Corner continues, “Maps make visible what is otherwise invisible.”[6] This, in particular, is the essence of the studio. In a parallel example, Peter Eisenman traveling with Colin Rowe, recalled how Rowe insisted that he stop using his camera and observe. ‘Sit in front of that façade until you can tell me something that you can’t see. In other words, I don’t want to know about the rustication, I don’t want to know about the ABA symmetries, or any of those things that Wittkower talks about. I want you to tell me something that is implied in the façade.…’ This is how Colin began to teach me to see as an architect. [7]
Mapping allows for a multitude of layered conditions that encompass ecological, social, cultural, economic and political factors. Denis Cosgrove suggests that it is impossible for mapping to represent all spatial-temporal conditions, “mapping as a tool allows this illusion.”[8]
Assignment: Florence Remembered, Imagined, Contemplated (Following is an example of the Florence field trip assignment.) Firenze, a city laden with meaning, a cultural amalgamation will be a framework for analysis and invention. Complex relationships between architecture and culture both historical and contemporary will be addressed through mapping. Public spaces are mapped – interpreted drawn and re-drawn documenting diverse users groups and their narratives: locals, tourists, S.ARCH-2017 212.3
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and illegal immigrants. Propose your intervention as a travel story for various social groups that inhabit and appropriate public space, from Italians to extra-communicators and tourists. You will examine yourself as tourist and as foreigner against present Italian society.
Florence Mapping (N. Stankus)
Castiglion Fiorentino Mapping (E. Juarez & J. King)
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Visual Communications: Abstraction and Fantasy Cities, like dreams are made of desires and fears, even if the thread of their discourse is secret, their rules are absurd, their perspectives deceitful, and everything conceals something else. [9]
Prior to visiting Venice, students read and select several fantasy cities from Italo Calvino’s book, Invisible Cities (1972). The book is a series of conversations between Marco Polo and Kublai Kahn in which Polo describes fifty-five cities at the farthest reaches of Kahn’s empire. The prose is very descriptive. Each of the fantastical cities is based on Venice. Students draw the city of Venice through the construct of Calvino’s imaginary cities. Each of Calvino’s stories is a journey of imagination, both physical and metaphysical, fabricated by words, situated in a foreign locale. Calvino’s Invisible Cities stories are great text for travelers, travel logs of places that do not exist. These travel stories order and re-order our emotions, dream-like surreal, fantastical spaces. The paradigm shift of moving from text to students’ own interpretation of the cities heightens creativity through the tension of what exists and what is imagined. The act of drawing allows for reflection, speculation, and unforeseen possibilities.
Invisible Cities Imagined (Following are examples of students’ interpretations of Calvino stories.) Zenobia is ”set on dry terrain it stands on its high pilings and the houses are of bamboo and zinc, with many platforms and balconies placed on stilts at various heights, crossing one another, linked by ladders and hanging sidewalks surmounted by coned roof belvederes, barrel storing water…jutting pulleys, and fish poles, and cranes.” [10])
Zenobia (S.McDavid)
Isuara is a “city of thousand wells, is said to rise over deep, subterranean lake…. Its green border repeats the dark outline of the buried lake; an invisible landscape conditions the visible one; everything that moves is in the sunlight is driven by the lapping wave enclosed beneath the rock’s calcareous sky.” [11]
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Isaura (S.McDavid)
The visual communication course is linked with design studio work. This course uses the act of drawing as exploration, invention and component in the process of seeing. One draws what is and what is not in uncovering the invisible. Observations and speculations are recorded in sketchbooks maintained throughout the semester via a variety of drawings, diagrams, graphic notations, analytical and gestural drawings.
Conclusion By using a series of cognitive strategies for assignments, students proceed through the semester using a guided framework, abstracting analytical and intuitive observations, freeing them from preconceived ideas and conventional representation. The courses use the act of drawing as both exploration and invention in the act of seeing. Students draw what is and what is not there in a process of uncovering the invisible. This includes observation, perception, discrimination and communication. Travel as an experience alone does not foster insights, create new ideas, or reveal hidden potential, rather, it is through active internalization and reflection, the mental mapping of a travel experience. By immersion in a different culture, students acquire a level of insight that significantly accelerates experimentation in their design thinking and subsequent work.
References [1] Shön, Donald, Displacement of Concepts, Routledge, NYC, USA, 1963. [2] Shklovsky, Viktor, “Art as Device (Art as Technique)”, Theory of Prose, Kalkey Archive Press, 1991, p 6. [3] Venturi, Robert, Iconography and Electronics upon a Generic Architecture, MIT Press, Cambridge, USA, 1996, pp 41-42. [4] Cosgrove, Denis, Mappings, (Cosgrove, Ed.), Reaktion Books, Ltd., London, UK, p 2. S.ARCH-2017 212.6
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[5] Corner, James, “The Agency of Mapping”, Mappings, (Cosgrove, Ed.) Reaktion Books, Ltd., London, UK, p 252. [6] Corner, James, Aerial Representation and the Making of Landscape, Yale University Press, New Haven, USA, 1996, p 18. [7] Eisenman, Peter, The Last Grand Tour: Travels with Colin Rowe, in Grand Tour, Perspecta 41, Yale Architectural Journal, (G. Brainard, R. Mehta, & T. Moran, Eds.), MIT Press, Cambridge, USA, 2008, p 133. [8] Brown, Robert, Mapping the Unmappable, Knowing the Unknown, ARPJA open access research journal. [9] Calvino, Italo, Invisible Cities, Harcourt, Orlando, USA, p 35. [10] Ibid, p 20. [11] Ibid, p 49.
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BEHAVIORAL ARCHITECTURE: THEORIES AND DESIGN METHODOLOGY Sri Astuti Indriyati Universitas Persada Indonesia Y.A.I Jl. Diponegoro No.74, Jakarta 10340 - Indonesia sriastutiindriyati@yahoo.com/Indriyati@yai.ac.id
Abstract Space in Architecture is made to meet the need of people to cope with its functional, social, cultural, technical and climate anticipations. Several researches have proven that there is relationship between Space and Behavior. Post Occupancy Evaluations was applied for the research assessments of Physical & Psychological Space Performance, Coping Strategies and Room Satisfactions. Most research resultsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; confirmed the theory of Human behavior impact the space and The Space design impact behavior. For that reason, It is important to say that Architects by its roles must create the space which leads to the positive impact to the Usersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and Architects are able to further leads the Users to well-behaved through the effective of space they are using, ensuring that Users will only need a little coping strategies to the space. Behavioral Architecture approach is then required and conceptual framework has produced, innitiated by defining how perceptions of users related to coping behavior. Design Methodology with concerns to the Behavioral Concepts is also proposed. It proceeds with Data collection, programming and specification, conception, design, construction and recommendations.
Keywords: Space, Behavior, Design Methodology, Behavioral Concepts 1. Introduction World architecture has growth and developed with the times rapidly and very encouraging. Silmutanuosly, the development of technology, aesthetics of forms, cultural preservation have created the colour and culture of the Architecture Works development throughout the world. But something very fundamental that should be underlined is how HUMAN DIMENSION IN ARCHITECTURE or Human Dimension or People as the End Users must be taking an important role in every work of architecture and should not be left in the creation of works of architecture to avoid the Failure of Architecture. Human Dimensions in architecture is such a crucial one. It is concluded by Izumi diagram explaining Phenomenon Psychology in relation to the design of the building. Izumi expressed understanding the meshing between the architecture of human and non-human. "The buildings containing both people and objects need to be more humanized" (Holahan 1978, S.ARCH-2017 213.1
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p.3). Izumi showed that the buildings which contain a human with a dominant type of activities that take place in it would require a greater degree of human design (Holahan, 1978, p.3), such as residential buildings, hospitals and prisons. This suggests that human behavior as a factor that plays an important role and architectural features and patterns of human behavior is a strong mutual relation to the types of the building.
2. Space and Behavior Theories Architecture is a work of art and is made to fit the needs of functional, social, cultural, technical and climate. Its existence is closely related to the daily rhythm of human life (Sidharta, 1983, p.13). Philip R. Harris, a psychologist argues that the "humanization of space means creating not just the novelty of space technology, transportation, and habitat, but a lifestyle that is totally new and developing appropriate ways of thinking. The structure of economy, the legal system and politics, art, leading it suitable/appropriate "(Philip R. Harris, 1992, p.58). Human behavior is defined as a person's internal stimulation results followed by an attempt to meet their needs. Cultural, social, physical and geographic environment contribute to the process of formation of behavior (molding behavior). On the other hand, the builtenvironment in particular, has a strong relationship with behavior. Behavioral approach emphasizes the dialectical relationship between humans and space, particularly with those people using or occupying the space. This approach emphasizes the need to understand Human Behavior or society those are diversed and specific in each location. In other words, the aspect of norms, culture and psychology of different people will produce the concept and form a different room (Nuraini C., 1978). Several research conducted can be concluded that the relationships between Space and Behavior. "Human Behavior impact the Space Design & The Space Design Impact Behavior" (Human behavior affects Space Design and vice versa). With the influence between Space and Behavior, therefore Architects demanded its role in order to create space that is "good and proper". It is done to ensure that Space Design will provide a positive influence for the users of the Space or the users buildings. On the other hands, Architects are also able to "steer" the user to behave better through the effective use of space with its creation and creativity. Open Behavior Open so called Overt Behavior in the form of human action is a continuation of the Closed behaviors called Covert Behavior, including these are attitudes and perceptions. Architect needs to understanding Overt Behavior which then become a benchmark of design. However, Architects should also be sensitive to Closed Behavior or Covert Behavior of each individuals or groups in order to obtain Basic Behavioral Covert Data (e.q. Perception) that will be used in the design concept. In various previous studies have also been obtained the findings in regards to relationships between the perception of an object (in this case the architectural space) with the attitude of individual or group and subsequent association with Human Behavior (Overt Behavior). With an excess of rationality, people tend to understand the environment and adapt to certain situations. Again, it has proven how the importance of theory on "Space Design Impact Impact Behavior Behavior and the Space". As mentioned earlier, Perception - as one of the examples of the "Covert Behavior Basic Data" (Data Base which was obtained of Conduct Closed only be assessed by an instrument (eq. S.ARCH-2017 213.2
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Perception) - occurs when humans and the environment into contact with each other (Bell, Fisher Ross & Loomis, 1978, p.89). People look at their surroundings through the medium of the senses (the sense). Contact with the environment through our senses (the sense) followed by cognitive and then back again to the human senses which produces the perception or mental response (Purwanto 1999, p.37; Widayatun, 1999, p.111). The individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perception is influenced by past experience, where the experience is also determined by cultural norms and values, including the daily behavior. The humanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s habits are also influenced by factors Age, religion and ethnicity (Sarwono 1995, p.50). Therefore, it is important to understand that measuring and collecting the behavioral data and user perception as well as receiving feedback from architectural works by Post-Occupancy Evaluation is essential before any decision making process for the future design. This data is essential to meet user needs, user behavior patterns, standard Physical and Psychological, Perception and social welfare. Effective use of space will ultimately depend on how much of human behavior as an important factor taken into account in a process of building design. Environment all of which contribute to the process of the emerging of Space Impact Behavior. Thus, the spatial conditions affecting the behavior of individuals in their daily lives. The effective use of space will depend on how the behavior has been considered and accommodated in the design of the Built Environment (built-environment). An understanding of the concept of behavioral molding is greatly contributing to the creation of the builtenvironment that is close to ideal to live happily ever now and in the future.
2.1.
Post Occupancy Evaluation: Residential in Indonesia
Research/Past research has shown that the presence of the Built Environment (Built Environment) has a strong impact on human behavior. Various studies have been conducted to clarify the relationship between a various typical residential units with the behavior of its inhabitants. Findings indicate that along with other factors, the design of typical inadequate housing will contribute to human perception patterns of behavior and thus damaging the positive development of individuals and society of the future (Bartlett, 1998, p.403). In addition, factors that affect how well the design environment to meet user needs is the user's perception of psychological conditions, and social perception. Physical and technical problems in the building has also delivered a psychological influence on the user, such a floor area issues like limited floorspace have created poor circulation, space blocking and the difficulty in making the spatial arrangement (Komarudin 1997). Psychological aspects also became an important and evaluation was required. Previous research (Sundstrom, 1982a) states that privacy is a key requirement of the workplace. Peach and Slade (2006) in their study found that disruption will have an impact on workers due Privacy minimum to be considered in the design. As disclosed by Goodrich (1982) that many design solutions that reduce Privacy views. The privacy has defined by visual privacy or conversational privacy. In the case of at least conversational privacy, the case like the door which open and close oftenly and the close distance between units makes other people feel disturbed. High partition are considered to provide visual privacy, but for the case of conversational privacy those are unlikely to block out noise from the outside.
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One example can be used as a reference POE (Post Occupancy Evaluation) is the assessment indicators space or spatial used by Indriyati (2013). The indicators used in the study is to assess the Physical Performance of Spatial such as: (1)The availability of floor space; (2)Flexibility of the space functions; (3)Form of space or rooms for use. Similarly, a number of indicators that can be used to assess the Performance of Psychological Spatial such as: (1)The Glare; (2)Heating conditions; (3)Room’s air freshness/stuffiness); (4) Air and water circulation system at the Children's Room; (5)Room ‘s level of humidity; (6) Visual privacy; (7)Conversational privacy; (8)Availability of locked room.
2.2.
Post Occupancy Evaluation: Performance Workspace Campus
Research that has been done is to see how different variables such as Spatial Physical and psychological aspects will impact on satisfaction and individual decisions to cope with the space; and do so called Space Adjustment. The case study taken was to see the Campus Office Space in which the worker is lecturer and Researcher with self-working space (the majority in the 3:00 to 6:00 m2 and a floor area of 1-3). The study findings have shown that there is a significant impact on the performance of Physical Activities Human behavior whicn can be seen from their work productivity. Physical Performance has a significant impact (the extent of the use of space and the wall materials and Psychological Space toward the Work Productivity. Besides, there is the impact of the significant performance of Physical space (such as area of the room) to the Coping Behavior and there is also the impact of the significant performance of Psychological Space such as the glare, privacy visual, air circulation and humidity of the room, the room temperature and room’s stuffiness against Coping behavior (Indriyati 2015, p.123). This finding is significant and useful to the Architect/Interior Designer and owner of Corporate Management of the Company to provide suitable work space design in the future. A welldesigned of workspacel will lead an increased productivity and employee performance. Psychological aspects of perceived space workers found significant to influence Coping Behavior on space adjustment, specifically related to room’s freshness or stufiness, air circulation system and visual privacy. As for the physical performance space is found only the aspect of floorspace area are significantly affect Coping Behavior on space adjustment.
2.3.
Post Occupancy Evaluation: Classroom Design Evaluation
The role of architecture behavior in School Planning and Design is also important to see how the performance of physical and psychological space, in particular its impact on student satisfaction and academic achievement. The model of the research is to assess the relationship between Spatial Performance Performance Physical and Psychological. Both variables are assessed the impact on the users’ satisfaction toward the classroom space available and further the impact on students' academic achievement. The findings present that there is a significant impact of Performance Physical & Psychological Spatial against student satisfaction. More over no significant impact on Physical & Psychological Performance Physical Layout towards the Student Academic Achievement (Indriyati, S.A., 2015 p.645). Research indicates that students’ satisfaction towards their classroom is strongly influenced by psychological S.ARCH-2017 213.4
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aspects compared to the physical aspect. It is to conclude that the students wanted the class have quality performance more than the space Psychological Physical Performance Space. Psychological space requirements appointed is a room with a glare control system, thermal conditions of space, freshness, air circulation and humidity of the room. Student Academic Achievement is significantly influenced by the satisfaction of students to their classrooms. Therefore, it is clear that Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Academic Achievement performed is influenced by Spatial conditions.
3. Behavior Approach as a Basic Concepts of Architectural Design Considering the issues come up with various problems arised due to the lack of sufficient approach to the broader human aspect, it is necessary to develop methods of planning and design concerning aspects of human beings, especially human behavior. Understanding the importance of the concept of behavior in planning and architectural design has been started long ago. In his book Wahid and Alam (2013, p.34-35) noted that the Theory of Architecture: A Study of Understanding Differences Eastern and Western theories have stated that the behavior architecture has been taken place within the concept, design and aesthetics at every Langgam Architecture since a period of architecture style so called MODERN and POST MODERN. Humanist architecture with architectural approach behavior is required as Concept Planning and Architectural Design of the Future. It should be underlined that the Planning and Design Architecture defined as humanisticly in how the architect should be made aware of the needs of users to develop design alternatives. No single idea occurred without linking environmental design and behavioral sciences with the concept of user needs. The active role of users in the design process should be emphasized. Planning and Design of the building must absolutely consider aspects of Human Behavior in the design process, so the humane architectural design will be well-perceived and the failure of architecture can be avoided. Architecture perceived humanisticly does not mean "poor of things" and will ignore the used of latest technology and cultural or aesthetic expression, it is in contrast this Humanist architecture will enrich and enhance the success of architectural work. As an important note that the priority should be noted in particular for the planning and design of a typical mass building where End Users do not have a chance to say what their needs and wants. For the case of Typical Mass Public housings for instance, the behavioral aspects of the user are mostly neglected and the project will focus and run even binded in parallel to the efficiency of fund development and social and technical regulations. In many cases, Building Design is typical financed with priority the efficiency of development. Hence, due to that reason, the work of architecture were "less successful" (failure). Feedback on Evaluation of Post-Occupancy which based on their perception towards the space will determine the future success of the architectural work and minimizing the impact of excessive Coping Behavior. The Relationships between the Perception and Coping Behavior Concepts Here is how the concept of relationships between Perception and Coping Behavior as developed from earlier major theories (Indriyati 2015).
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Figure 1. Concept of Relationships between Perception and Coping Behavior (Indriyati, 2015)
4. Concept of Behavioral Architecture Design Method Physical Design produced not only to meet the major needs of users, but also targeted to meet and expand freedom of choice activities of occupants to other needs (Prohansky, Ittelson & & Rivlin, 1976, p.172). Complex environment has a lot of problems. There are 3 (Three) 'Important Concepts of Environmental Design' is defined by Bell et al. (1978, p.315) as follows: Feasible-occupancy, Alternative Design and Process Design. This is described more fully as follows: • Design comprehension involves both identification of needs and the creation of a specific design alternatives; • Selection criteria for the behavior of the fundamental design decisions; • Study conducted on how the design environment can be used in a variety of design alternatives (such as those related to employment, learning, recreation, transportation, housing and institutions pedestrian activity); • Implementation Design: see models of future environmental design; • Final design product must create more livable environments and meeting the needs and behaviors of people who live in it. Techniques for measuring available behavior data can be utilized by Heimsath (1977, p.148) as follows: • Collection of behavioral data before making a decision. S.ARCH-2017 213.6
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• • •
•
Communicating behavioral data in a visual format that is compatible with the graphic language of architecture. Designers and evaluators responsible for their decisions. This technique is part of the overall design process that concentrates attention in the early stages of design or programming phase. One of the factors that affect the design environment is the need to understand the criteria that must be met to build the built environment. These criteria include: o To meet the needs of the user's behavior as expressed through the function and floor space requirements in a given building; o To meet welfare standards and specific physiological conditions; o Perception data obtained is expected to meet certain standards; including this and setting up standards for what community needs (Sarwono, 1995, p.116). In addition to the criteria to meet the needs of users, Zeisel claimed that, when combining the needs of users in the design process, it is required to distinguish the "User Needs" and "User Wants". "User Needs" is the basic functions involved in any environment. For example, a family who lives in the physical environment should be provided with a minimum of space and facilities to meet the primary needs. However, "the user desires or wants" are more likely centered around the physical attributes, the "outside" the basic environmental requirements (Zeisel, 1975, p.321).
As New Guidelines for Planning and Architectural Design Method for Planning and Design Architecture with Behavior concerns can be proposed like Planning & Design Process below (Indriyati 2016).
5. Behavioral Design Methodology Behavioral Design Methodology can be conducted with 7 (seven) stages from Data Collection, Programming and Spesifications, Conceptions of Architecture Program, Design, Constructions, Evaluation, Recommendation (Indriyati, 2016). Stage 1. Data Collection Planning and Design Building begins with research done in a few phases (Patersen, R.W., 1978 p.172-178): • Data Collection (demography) • Behavioral mapping • Creation/deployment questionnaires • Consulting (Interview) by the user (called Participation process) • Conclusion Research Stage 2. Programming & Specifications Alternative 1. In Planning and Design Building (especially Housing), a few important things to note (Holahan, C.J., 1978 p.29-45): • Identify the characteristics of each community of Built Environment • Behavior Mapping S.ARCH-2017 213.7
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• Outdoor Identification Social Activity (by ages across various study research) • Identification of Behavioral Conduct for each category in each age group • Reclaiming Social Space • Using Outdoor Space • Functional Reclaiming Space • Social identification Coping • Identification of Community Satisfaction Alternative 2. Buildings are required to meet the 6 (six) functions (Wahid J., Alamsyah B., 2013 p.47-48): • Environment filter (Modifier of the physical climate) • Container of Activities • Capital Investment (land value changing) • Symbolic Function (Cultural Implication) • Behavior Modifier (Space molds behavior, habits as well as the atmosphere of the space given) • Aesthetic (beautiful to look at, fashionable for a time and a visual display that meets the aesthetic value). Alternative 3. 5 (five) functions of the building to address the concept in the development of 20th century architecture (Wahid J., Alamsyah B., 2013 p.51): • Structural Articulation • Physical Function • Psychological Function • Social Function • Cultural Existential Function. Alternative 4. Behavior in the design considerations are not always related to the culture or customs. User behavior patterns should be identified in relation to the behavior of formal standards and for an organization/agency with leadership organizational structure that affect the organization of space and even the building as a whole (Laksito B., 2014 p.142). Stage 3. Conception Architectural Program Architectural concept must accommodate type of space activities and space requirements (Friedmann, A., Zimring C., Zube, E., 1978 p.64-70). Stage 4. Design Stage 5. Construction Stage 6. Evaluation of the Architectural Program • Design should do a comparison between the old and the New Design, such as room type; type and number of space; space relations; the size of the room; privacy; social interaction; image; Design details such as furniture, ventilation, illumination/lighting, color, room temperature (Friedmann A., Zimring C., Zube E., 1978 p.64-70). • Judgment of Environmental Quality Scale based on perceptions, such as closed/open; colored/colorless; exciting/boring; small/large; interesting/unattractive; pressing/ S.ARCH-2017 213.8
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• • •
•
relaxing; comfortable/uncomfortable; depressing/cheerful; on/off; bright/slums; motivate/unmotivated; pleasant/unpleasant (Fisher J.D., Bell P.A., Baum A., 1978). Using a scale of 7 for assessment (Fisher J.D., Bell P.A., Baum A., 1978). Classification of Coping Behaviors: Adaptive and maladaptive (Garland R.M., Bush C.T, 1982 p.115). Actual & Abstract Environment: Physical, Administrative & Behavioral (Zeisel J., 1984) o People's responses (Seeing, Feeling, Doing in, Doing to, knowing) o Linking and Using the categories o The question matrix o Physical Environment (Objects, Places, Relations between Places, Qualities) o Administrative (formal rules, informal rules) o Behavioral (Characteristic of People, Activities, Relationships between People) People's Responses to the Environment (Zeisel J., 1984): • What they see in the environments (Perception, Meaning) • What they feel in about environments (Opinion, Value) • What they do in environments (Place, Path, Relation) • What they do to environments (adaptations, Displays, Messages) • What they know about the environment (Knowledge, Data)
Stage 7. Recommendation The design can be made with the tabulation which has done for Evaluation Post-Occupancy Evaluations first and further on do staging, as follows: • Recommendations, Advantage User (User Benefited) & Target Performance Space (Performance Objective) for Physical Design Recommendations, the building (walls, floors, ceilings, furnishings, such as clock. Equipments, etc (Environment Behavior Research, 1978). • Three Dimensional Design Process (Proposed by Altman): Phase 5 Design Process (Privacy, Personal Space, Territory, Other Processes); Units of Study (Places) started from Rooms, Homes, Hospital/Schools/Prisons, Neighborhood, Communities, Cities, Regions Geograpical (Patersen R.W., 1978 p.152-162). • Behavior in the design considerations are not always related to the culture or customs. User behavior patterns that should be identified in relation to the behavior of formal standards and for an organization/agency with leadership organizational structure that affect the organization of space and even the overall building (Laksito B., 2014 p.142). • Architectural design of environmentally friendly housing settlements should receive behavioral support residents who have a concept of simple living, frugal, not consumptive, disciplined, orderly follow the rules of living together that will create the built environment life decent housing, safe, comfortable and healthy (Karyono T.H., 2013 p.229). • The urbanization process should be driven to the synergistic process of socioeconomic diversity, culture and behaviors in the physical space and the morphology of the plural city. Is not a process of expansion and succession (eviction), but a process of solidarity towards community development manusiasi city, full of solidarity, tolerance, cooperation between social strata (Example: Formal and Informal Sectors) and compromise of individual and common will (Soetomo S., 2009 p.202). S.ARCH-2017 213.9
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6. Conclusion With a good understanding of the "concept of relationships between Perception and Behavioral Coping" and conducted Post Occupancy Evaluation (POE) as a first step of any process of Planning and Architectural Design that uses the formulated "Criteria Perception Space and Environment" and also further understanding the "Behavioral Design Methodology" presented in this paper, then the architectural work based on humanities architecture concept with underlining behavioral approach will be a successful in the future.
Refernces 1. Bartlett, S., 'Does Inadequate Housing Perpetuate Children's Poverty?' Childhood, vol. 5, 1998, pp. 403-20. 2. Bell, PA, Fisher, J.D., & Loomis Ross, J., Psikologi lingkungan, Philadelphia: W.B.Saunders Perusahaan, 1978. 3. Fisher, J.D., Environmental Psychology, 2nd edn, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York. 1984. 4. Friedmann, Arnold; Craig Zimring; Ervin Zube, Environmental Design Evaluation, Plenum Press, New York and London, 1978, p.64-70. 5. Jeffrey D. Fisher; Paul A. Bell; Andrew Baum), Environmental Psychology, W.B. Saunders Company, New York, 1978. 6. Garland, LaRetta M. Garland, R.N., Ed.D & Carol T. Bush, R.N, Ph.D, Coping Behaviour and Nursings, Reston Publishing Company, Inc, Virginia, 1982, p.115. 7. Goodrich, R., Kantor Lingkungan Hidup sebagai Dialami Penggunanya, 1982. 8. Harris, P.R., 'Humans in Space - Living and Working in Space: Human Behaviour, Culture and Organization', The Futurist, vol. 26, no. 5, 1992, p.58. 9. Heimsath, C., Behavioural Architecture: Toward An Accountable Design Process, MCGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1977. 10. Holahan, C.J., Environment and Behavior: A Dynamic Perspective, Plenum Press, New York and London, 1978, p.29-45. 11. Indriyati, S.A., Ruang dan Perilaku: Studi Penggunaan Tata Ruang Perumahan LowCost dan Warganya, 2013. 12. Indriyati, S.A., Space and Behavior: Study on Spatial Use of the Low-Cost Housing and its Residents. International Journal of Development and Sustainability, 2, 3, 2013, pp.1982-1996. 13. Indriyati, S.A., Ruang Performance Impact on the Employees: Productivity and Satisfaction: Implication on Coping Strategies to the Working Space, International Journal Research on Humanities and Social Sciences, 5, 4, 2015, pp. 119-125. 14. Indriyati, S.A., A Study on Classroom Spatial Performance: Its Impacts on Students Satisfaction and Study Achievement, Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences (MJSS) – Open Access Journal, 6, 4 S3, 2015, pp.642-646.
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15. Indriyati, S.A., Materi Perkuliahan Mata Kuliah Arsitektur Perilaku, Program Studi Arsitektur, Fakultas Teknik, Universitas Persada Indonesia Y.A.I., 2015. 16. Indriyati, S.A., Arsitektur Humanis: Pendekatan Arsitektur Perilaku sebagai Konsep Dasar Perancangan Arsitektur Masa Depan. Pidato Pengukuhan Guru Besar Fakultas Teknik Universitas Persada Indonesia Y.A.I., 2016. 17. Jeffrey D. Fisher; Paul A. Bell; Andrew Baum, Environmental Psychology, W.B. Saunders Company, New York, 1978, p.286. 18. Karyono, Tri Harso, Arsitektur dan Kota Tropis Dunia Ketiga: Suatu Bahasan tentang Indonesia, Rajagrafindo Persada, Jakarta, 2013, p.229 19. Komarudin, Menelusuri Pembangunan Perumahan Dan Permukiman (Pembangunan Perumahan dan Penyelesaian: Sebuah Investigasi, Jakarta: P.T. Rakasindo, Yayasan Realestat Indonesia, 1997. 20. Laksito, Boedi, Metode Perencanaan dan Perancangan Arsitektur, Griya Kreasi, Jakarta, 2014, p.142. 21. Nuraini, C., Sudrajat, W., Metoda Perancangan Arsitektur, Karya Putra Darwati, Bandung. Behavioral Design Criteria for a Hospital (Ronald W. Patersen), Disertation of Writer from University of Utah, March 1978. 22. Patersen, Ronald W., Behavioral Design Criteria for a Hospital, Disertation of Writer from University of Utah, March 1978, p.152-178. 23. Patersen, Ronald W., Behavioral Design Criteria for a Hospital (Ronald W. Patersen), Disertation of Writer from University of Utah, March 1978, p.152-162 24. Pech, R., Slade, B., Pelepasan Karyawan: Apakah ada Bukti Masalah Tumbuh? Handbook, 2006. 25. Prohansky, Ittelson, WH & & Rivlin, L.G., 'Freedom of Choice and Behaviour in a Physical Setting. In H.M. Prohansky, W.H. Ittelson, & L.G. Rivlin', in Environmental Psychology: People and Their Physical Settings, 2nd edn, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, USA, 1976, pp. 170-3. 26. Purwanto, H., Pengantar Perilaku Manusia untuk review Keperawatan, EDN, Jakarta: Penerbit Buku Kedokteran EGC, 1999. 27. Sarwono, S. Psikologi Lingkungan, 2nd edn, P.T. Gramedia, Jakarta, 1995. 28. Sidharta, “Arsitektur yang Kita dambakan”, In Eko Budihardjo (ed), in Menuju Arsitektur Indonesia, Alumni, Bandung, 1983. 29. Soetomo, Sugiono, Urbanisasi & Morfologi: Proses Perkembangan Peradaban dan Wadah Ruangnya – Menuju Ruang yang Manusiawi, Graha Ilmu, Yogyakarta, 2009, p.202. 30. Sundstrom, E., Herbert, R., Brown, D., Privasi dan Komunikasi dalam Sebuah Kantor Open-Plan, 1982. 31. Wahid, Julaihi & Almasyah, Bhakti, Teori Arsitektur: Suatu Kajian Perbedaan Pemahaman Teori Barat dan Timur, Graha Ilmu, Yogyakarta, 2013, p.47-51. 32. Zeisel, J., “The Importance of Sensitivity to User Needs and Inputs”. In P.A. Bell, J.D. Fisher & R.J. Loomis, in Environmental Psychology, W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, 1975, p. 321. 33. Zeisel, John., Inquiry by Design: Tools for Environment – Behavior Research, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1984.
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DESIGNING BETTER WORKSPACES FOR ACADEMIC LIBRARY STAFF CASE STUDY OF UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND LIBRARY Neda Abbasi*, Kenn Fisher, Robert Gerrity Central Queensland University, University of Melbourne, University of Queensland Central Queensland University Sydney Campus 400 Kent Street, Sydney, NSW 2000, Australia n.abbasi@cqu.edu.au fisherk@unimelb.edu.au universitylibrarian@library.uq.edu.au
Abstract The paper examines library staff experiences of workspaces in academic libraries. It draws upon the data from a survey of â&#x20AC;&#x153;Staff Experience of Library Physical Spacesâ&#x20AC;? made available to the staff at different branches of the University of Queensland Library in 2013. The survey focused on library staff overall satisfaction with the quality of their workspaces and their opinions on positive and negative features of these spaces. The staff rated their level of satisfaction with aspects of physical workspaces in the library including lighting, acoustics, thermal comfort, indoor air quality, and storage. In addition, four design issues of security, flexibility, welcoming nature of library entry, and wayfinding were examined in detail. 79 library staff completed the survey and more than 50 responses were recorded to the survey open-ended questions. The analysis of the qualitative data identified design-related factors that are most important for the library staff and provided insights into possible design improvements to library staff workspaces. Drawing upon the major themes emerged from the staff comments, the paper concludes with a number of considerations for planning and design of workspaces for library staff including: (1) strategies to maximise environmental comfort i.e. thermal, acoustics, and visual comfort; (2) functional requirements of staff spaces in relation to the work-related activities i.e. personal and work-related storages; (3) human factors and ergonomics; (4) psychological impacts of interior design elements on staff productivity and satisfaction; (5) strategies to encourage collegial interactions and foster a sense of community, pride, and ownership over workspaces.
Keywords Academic Library Spaces, Internal Staff Areas, Staff Experiences, Workspace Design, Post Occupancy Evaluation
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1
Introduction
Internal staff areas in libraries are defined as “all library premises or areas not accessible to the public” and “set aside for the activities of staff engaged in the management and operation of the establishment” [1]. These areas may include storage rooms for materials and supplies, meeting rooms, and amenities such as toilets and kitchenette. Importance of spaces for library staff cannot be denied, given the large numbers of staff working in academic libraries, “the proportion of the total library space which they occupy, and the potential impact which the design of this space has on effective delivery of services and on staff morale and motivation” [2]. The importance of staff spaces in libraries are often overlooked and the library staff is not usually included in decision-making about library space design and planning. This may be reflected in a way in the knowledge gap that exists about staff spaces in library planning and design literature. According to Purcell [2], “project briefs often prefer to concentrate on the educational and research benefits accruing from a new build or renovation” and fail to closely examine planning and design requirements of spaces for library staff. This, however, is beginning to change in recent years and the works done by the Society of College, National and University Libraries (SCONUL) (e.g. Seminar on Staff Space in 2009) and International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) [e.g. 3, 4] present examples of the effort to address staff accommodation considerations and requirements in library buildings. In a chapter on internal staff areas, Bisbrouck [1] addresses functional requirements and specific needs of spaces for library staff and examines a number of alternative organizational approaches. He distinguishes among different tasks performed in internal staff areas: “tasks related to the library collections (i.e. document selection and acquisitions and recording of collections);” and “tasks associated with public-oriented activities (i.e. preparation of events and organization of activities aimed at specific user groups); and (3) administrative tasks i.e. financial and library-personnel management” [1]. The organisation and relationships of internal staff areas are then largely determined by the organisation of the work and structure of the system i.e. numbers and grades of library staff employed for various tasks. The structure of internal staff areas is also influenced by the size of the library. In a small library where a small team of staff complete all the different tasks, the staff work areas may be best located in close proximity to the library's public areas whereas in a larger library where a larger and more specialised team of staff is engaged, most of the library staff areas may have no immediate interface with the public areas [1]. In terms of space allocation standards or minimum space required, the average work area per full-time library staff should be greater than for a standard administrative office (10- 12 square metres per employee) to accommodate the space required for storage of collections awaiting processing. An average area of 15 square metres per workstation not including circulation is then recommended for every full-time library staff [1]. In addition, while providing minimum space area is important, different internal staff areas must also be “habitable.” For example, an office of 12 square meter area is effectively habitable and functional if its dimensions are around 3 meters by 4 meters as opposed to a long and narrow space of 5.5 meters by 2.2 meters. Simplicity of form, shape, and volume may also be preferred to allow room for flexibility and adaptation to changing needs [1]. Among design considerations for internal staff areas are: ensuring continuity between the various document processing tasks; and segregating of document-processing circuit from the S.ARCH-2017 301.2
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public. Document processing includes various tasks i.e. locating documents within a commercial distribution system, ordering from publishers, and receiving orders. While document processing chain may comprise of various types of operations, the key is to ensure continuity between the operations. Another design consideration has to do with segregating document processing chain from the public. An implication of this may be having two library entrances, one for the public and one for staff and deliveries. Other design considerations for spaces for library staff also include: maximising environmental comfort of workspaces; and finding the right balance between openness versus enclosure or an openplan layout versus individual offices. Faulkner-Brownâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s [5] ten commandments for generic university library buildings, which was later revisited by McDonald [6], can also be related to the design of effective and responsive spaces for library staff. Ten quality indicators for library staff accommodation then can be identified as: flexible; compact; accessible; extendable; varied; organized; comfortable; constant in environment; secure; and economic.
2
Method
Identifying the knowledge gap in design requirements and considerations for staff areas in academic libraries and drawing upon the limited existing knowledge about library staff physical workspaces, we prepared a plan to examine the state of workspaces in various branches of University of Queensland (UQ) library in 2013. Following a walkthrough observation of staff workspaces in three branches at St Lucia Campus in Brisbane, and as part of a major evaluation of UQ library spaces, a survey instrument was developed to collect information about physical spaces of UQ libraries from the library staff. The aim of the major evaluation study was to better understand library space utilization and identify the weaknesses and strengths in relation to physical spaces of UQ libraries in order to make informed decisions about future improvements.
2.1 Staff Library Space Experience Survey The online survey instrument, Staff Experience of Library Physical Environments, focused on aspects of library workspace and library staff experiences with and perceptions of these spaces. The first section of the survey included questions about staff demographics and the nature of work activities in the library. This section was followed by a set of questions about the quality of physical spaces in the library i.e. staff experiences and levels of satisfaction with these spaces. The survey respondents were asked to rate their overall satisfaction with the quality of the workspaces and describe some of the positive and negative features of these spaces. The next question required the library staff to rate their levels of satisfaction with aspects of the physical spaces including: (1) daylight/natural light; (2) artificial light; (3) acoustics/noise control; (4) thermal comfort during summer and winter; (5) indoor air quality/ventilation; (6) storage provided in the work areas; (7) security of the workspace; and (8) wayfinding in library spaces. Each of these likert scale question was followed by an open-ended question asking the survey respondents to provide further details and comments. Finally, the issues of flexibility of workspaces and welcoming nature of the library entry were examined through a number of likert scale and open-ended questions.
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2.2 Participants 96 library staff started the survey and 79 completed it to the last question. Of this number, 35 responses were from the library staff who mainly worked at Social Sciences and Humanities Library (SSHL). 11 library staff also specified that they work in more than one location. Table 1: Library staff responses to â&#x20AC;&#x153;In which branch of UQ library do you usually work?â&#x20AC;? In which branch of UQ library do you usually work?
Architecture & Music Library Biological Sciences Library Dorothy Hill Engineering & Sciences Library Fryer Library Gatton Library Herston Health Sciences Library Ipswich Library Mater McAuley Library PACE Health Sciences Library Princess Alexandra Hospital Library Rural Clinical School Social Sciences & Humanities Library Walter Harrison Law Library Other
4 3 12 6 2 4 4 3 4 1 2 35 5 11
Total
96
4.17% 3.13% 12.50% 6.25% 2.08% 4.17% 4.17% 3.13% 4.17% 1.04% 2.08% 36.46% 5.21% 11.46%
Almost half of the survey respondents indicated that they are above 50 years old, with the majority of the survey responses coming from the female library staff (73%, n=69). 19 Male staff also completed the survey and seven staff chose not to reveal their gender or answer the question of gender. Table 2: Age ranges of survey respondents What age range do you fall into?
Below 30
11
11.3%
30-39
18
18.6%
40-49
15
15.5%
Above 50
46
47.4%
I'd rather not answer this question.
7
7.2%
Total
97
In terms of work pattern and number of years working in one of the UQ libraries, 64% (n=62) of the survey respondents were employed full time, with about 71% (n=63) working in UQ libraries for the last three years.
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Figure 1: Pie charts indicating Work Pattern of Survey Respondents (left) and Number of Years Working in UQ Libraries (right)
3
Results
The following sections present the findings on the satisfaction of the UQ library staff, who completed the survey, with aspects of their library spaces and specifically their workspaces in the library. In addition, key themes from the staff comments about positive and negative features of the library workspaces are presented.
3.1 Library Staff Satisfaction with the Quality of Workspace In terms of library staff satisfaction with the overall quality of their workspaces, the data suggests that around 57% of the respondents (n=48) are either Very Satisfied or Somewhat Satisfied, which is a positive finding. However, the finding suggesting 33% of the survey respondents (n=27) are either Somewhat Satisfied or Very Unsatisfied with the quality of their workspace highlights the need for a close examination of the factors leading to the negative experiences and perceptions. Table 3: Library staff satisfaction with the overall quality of their workspaces How satisfied you are with the quality of your workspace? Very Unsatisfied
8
9.64%
Somewhat Unsatisfied
19
22.89%
Neither Satisfied nor Unsatisfied
8
9.64%
Somewhat Satisfied
30
36.14%
Very Satisfied
18
21.69%
Total
83
In terms of library staff satisfaction with different aspects of their workspaces, mixed findings were achieved and no definitive pattern could be suggested for any of these aspects.
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Figure 2: UQ library staff satisfaction with different aspects of their workspaces However, UQ library branches appear to be doing well in terms of the provision of artificial light in their spaces. Acoustics or noise control and indoor air quality were also found two areas which may need to be closely examined with the least satisfaction of the survey respondents with these two design related aspects.
3.2 Positive Features of UQ Library Staff Workspaces 76 comments were recorded to the question related to positive features of UQ library staff workspaces. The library staff comments about the positive features of their workspaces can be divided in two categories: (1) comments addressing issues related to people, processes, and policies (10 references); and (2) comments highlighting positive features of physical environments (62 references). 3.2.1 Positive Features related to People, Processes and Policies Among the staff comments with the theme related to people, processes, and policies in the work environment there were references to “Caring colleagues” with “a positive attitude to work and a desire to produce good results,” “friendly staff and atmosphere,” good collegial interactions and “energy of the students.” Shared space with Student Centre and Student Services is conducive to collaborative effort (a UQ library staff).
3.2.2 Positive Features of Physical Workspaces Figure 3 presents the themes emerged from library staff comments about positive feature of spaces at UQ library branches. Good furniture i.e. ample sized, adjustable, and ergonomic desks and chairs was mentioned 18 times in the library staff comments as a positive feature of their workspace. Other themes that emerged from the staff comments were library spaces being spacious and adequately sized (13 references) and having access to IT support S.ARCH-2017 301.6
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and equipment (11 references). In addition, 11 staff comments referred to features related to the look and feel of workspaces i.e. being user friendly, comfortable, clean, new, and having friendly atmosphere and attractive ambience. Inclusion of appropriate amenities and restorative spaces and access to windows/natural light/views to outside were also among the themes identified from the library staff comments. Tearooms, kitchenette and staff lounge or common rooms as well as the special features such as the indoor garden in Ipswich library were considered as forms of restorative spaces. [There are] excellent facilities at Ipswich for both staff and students. The garden crates an ambiance that is conducive to work and to study (A UQ library staff).
Other positive features of physical workspaces from the library staff point of views included: Provisions for staff privacy needs i.e. offering personal/individual workspaces and creating open plan office spaces with partitions around desks/pods which allows for collegial interactions while maintaining some levels of privacy needs; secure work space; 24hr accessibility; good positioning of service desk; centralized office for staff; and break out spaces i.e. meeting rooms and alternative spaces to accommodate consultations and discussions without impacting on the work group. In addition to these themes, four library staff referred to four features of their workspace which they viewed as positive features: “historical significance of the library as a heritage listed building;” “simple arrangement of shelves and sorting system;” “air-conditioned spaces;” and “availability of a variety of spaces.”
Figure 3: Themes from library staff comments on POSITIVE features of library physical spaces
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3.3 Issues with UQ Library Staff Workspaces Similar to comments in relation to positive features of workspaces, the library staff made some references to issues related to people, processes and policies (7 references). In relation to the negative features of physical workspaces (Figure 4), the highest number of references in relation to the negative aspects of physical workspaces made by the library staff was issues with the provision of environmental comfort i.e. thermal comfort, ventilation and indoor air quality (63 references). Air-conditioning system clearly presents a challenge with 45 staff comments directly stating it as a negative aspect of their physical workspace: The temperature in all parts of the Library (staff and student areas) is quite erratic. Group rooms can become unbearably hot whilst the staff area can be quite cold. The air conditioning sensors in some parts of the Library were installed before internal walls were erected (A UQ library staff).
Given the range of individualsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; preferences for thermal comfort, this finding may be expected. However, it is important to provide a degree of staff control over the room temperature and ensure thermal comfort through incorporating sensors in appropriate locations and regularly checking them. The library staff comments suggest the issue of noise or acoustics provision as the second most significant challenge in relation to workspaces especially in open plan office layout (29 references). This was followed by references to the lack of windows i.e. the limited access to the natural light and view and the resulting need for constant artificial light and issues with artificial lighting.
Figure 4: Themes emerged from UQ library staff comments on NEGATIVE features of library physical spaces S.ARCH-2017 301.8
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Problems in relation to the functionality of workspaces was also addressed by 13 library staff, highlighting issues with the size of spaces and the area provided to perform certain work activities including sorting materials: There is nowhere near enough sorting space, either at my desk or elsewhere in the workroom. This leads to serious health and safety issues due to over-stacking of boxes and awkward sorting positions on whatever spare table top or trolley we can find (A UQ library staff). There is limited space for working on accessions. It is difficult to clear enough space for a traditional desk and space to sort material. There is limited space for trollies and small tables; sometimes these are at an uncomfortable height to work with (A UQ library staff).
Lack of appropriate amenities and restorative spaces, inadequate furniture, issues with lifts and stairs, and inadequate personal and work-related storage were other themes emerged from staff comments. The four last themes which were identified from staff comments about negative aspects of library workspaces included unappealing look and feel of workspaces, challenges associated with open plan layouts, difficulty in relation to shared offices and desks, and problems related to the security of workspaces.
4
Concluding Remarks
Our study looked into aspects of library spaces related to internal staff areas and workspaces provided for the staff in academic libraries. A survey instrument was used to collect both qualitative and quantitative data from the library staff working in different branches of University of Queensland library. The quantitative data on the library staff satisfaction with different aspects of the library spaces did not suggest a definitive pattern for any aspect of natural light, artificial light, acoustics, thermal comfort during the winter and the summer, indoor air quality, and storage provided. While some staff were very unsatisfied with an aspect of library physical spaces, more or less similar number of staff were very satisfied with the same aspect. Individual differences in preference for certain design qualities, optimum light or temperature, and the different spaces of the UQ library branches where a certain survey respondent was working in, all account for this mixed finding. The qualitative data on negative and positive features of library workspaces from the viewpoints of staff cast light into areas of improvement for any future planning, design, and refurbishment to library spaces. Drawing upon the major themes emerged from the staff comments, we conclude with five major considerations for planning and design of workspaces for library staff including: (1) examine strategies to maximise environmental comfort i.e. thermal, acoustics, and visual comfort; (2) address functional requirements of staff spaces in relation to the work-related activities i.e. personal and work-related storages; (3) take into account human factors and ergonomics; (4) address psychological impacts of interior design elements on staff productivity and satisfaction; and (5) examine strategies to encourage collegial interactions and foster a sense of community, pride, and ownership over workspaces. Acoustic, visual, and thermal comfort, and ergonomic considerations need to be closely addressed in staff spaces. Staff survey comments specifically highlighted the importance of these design related factors, e.g. adjustable, ergonomic, and flexible furniture was stated as a positive feature of library workspaces: S.ARCH-2017 301.9
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My personal desk space can be raised or lowed to accommodate a back injury. Doors can be closed to cut down the noise (A UQ library staff).
Functional requirements of internal staff areas are of paramount importance and any decision in this regard needs to be made with consultation of the library staff who have the first hand knowledge and experience in this regard. Provision of proper work-related storage in necessary locations is one example of these requirements. In multi-level library buildings, Bisbrouck [1] recommends provision of storage rooms for storing materials, furniture, equipment, and building maintenance supplies (i.e. cleaning and housekeeping) on each floor. Another important design consideration has to do with psychological impacts of interior design of workspaces on staff. Factors such as access to windows and views, as well as provision for staff privacy needs and personalisation of workspaces need to be considered in this regard. If open plan layout is to be selected for staff area, considerations need to be taken into account for finding the right balance between privacy and visibility. For example, quiet and private spaces for consultations and project work may be included. In terms of the interface with the library users, “one part of the staffs offices may have a direct view onto the public areas (which does not necessarily mean direct access), thereby reinforcing the feeling of belonging to the community formed by users and staff” [1]. Finally, library staff should be engaged when space-related and other strategic decisions are made. Purcell [2] argues that “Library staff are often the ‘forgotten army’ when crucial and strategic decisions are being taken.” Adopting the 12 key variables identified by AMA and haa design [7] as critical to creating successful learning spaces, the following steps in creating good library staff accommodation can be determined, which further supports our study findings in the case study of spaces in UQ library branches: 1. Articulate a vision for staff accommodation e.g. Integrate the staff accommodation plan with other library plans 2. Select an informed and knowledgeable design and implementation team and get the involvement of all stakeholders (i.e. library staff) 3. Learn from other exemplars and experiment with new ideas and innovative solutions 4. Integrate Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and promot flexibility for different modes of work 5. Re-skill the library staff in how best to use new workspaces 6. Managing the space well in terms of maintenance, layout, and utilization 7. Schedule ongoing feedback, act upon it, and publicize the lessons learned [2].
Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the contributions Ms Mary Lyons and University of Queensland library staff who completed the survey.
References [1]
Bisbrouck, M.F., Configuring internal staff areas, in IFLA library building guidelines: developments & reflections, (K. Latimer and H. Niegaard), Walter de Gruyter, 2007, pp. 83-95.
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[2]
Purcell, J., University Library Staff Accommodation: Why Space Matters for the Forgotten Army, in University Libraries and Space in the Digital World, (G. Matthews and G. Walton), Routledge, 2013, pp. 131-139.
[3]
Latimer, K., Niegaard, H., IFLA library building guidelines: developments & reflections, Walter de Gruyter, 2007.
[4]
Irvall, B., Nielsen, G. S, Access to Libraries for Persons with Disabilities: Checklist. IFLA Professional Reports No. 89, IFLA, 2005.
[5]
Faulkner-Brown, H., Some thoughts on the design of major library buildings, Intelligent Library Buildings: Proceedings of the 10th Seminar of the IFLA Section on Library Buildings and Equipment, Munich, 1997.
[6]
McDonald, A., The ten commandments revisited: the qualities of good library space, LIBER quarterly, 16, (2006), 2.
[7]
AMA Alexi Marmot Associates and haa design, Spaces for Learning: A Review of Learning Spaces in Further and Higher Education, 2006.
S.ARCH-2017 301.11
INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENT: A CASE STUDY OF SPECIAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF DAVAO CITY, PHILIPPINES Myrafe Sebastian, Jovianne Angela Valdez*, Dan Jezreel Orendain* University of the Philippines - Mindanao Mintal, Tugbok District, 6000 Davao City, Philippines, mlsebastian1@up.edu.
Abstract The aim of the study is to explain the role of the built environment of special children to promote inclusive learning through the establishment of architectural design issues. The study looks into the curriculum domains of public schools in Davao City under the characterization program on special education (SpEd) and kindergarten of the Department of Education in the Philippines. Study found four common domains such as cognition & communication, cognitive development, creative & aesthetic development and, language development, which were observed with common social skills behaviour on advanced play, emotions, self-regulation, and compliments which also observed to increase motor activities. The characteristics of motor activities were correlated to the results on environment survey from the principles of inclusive design for schools, and established architectural design issues on access, mobility, sensory awareness, enhancing learning, versatility and, comfort of learners that must be addressed when planning an inclusive learning school.
Keywords Design, Inclusive environment, Special Children, Social skills, Schools.
1
Introduction
Special education is designed to ensure that all children with disabilities within the communities are also provided with access to general educational environment that promotes equity to be effectively educated. The fact that education is a basic human right, equal access to public schools means to have more inclusive environment particularly to children with special needs. In the Philippines, the level of awareness on special education considerably increased (Ebol, 2010), with the implementation of Republic Act 7277, otherwise known as the Magna Carta for disabled persons providing equal opportunities to children with special needs through the enhanced kindergarten curriculum and practice of inclusive education in public elementary schools set by the Department of Education (DepEd) Order No. 72, s.2009. The DepEd inclusive education policy extends opportunities for children with disabilities which describes the components of inclusion, the role of d required perspectives and directions in special education in the advent of the 21st century to meet the needs of the disadvantaged children against the persistent challenges and demands of the new millennium but the continuing challenge is to provide the best to all S.ARCH-2017 303.1
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children within the mainstream through highly effective and innovative strategies in an enriched and conducive learning environment. Despite issues and complexity brought about by the practice of inclusive education in the country, new educational approaches in accordance with the principle of education for all were implemented and such approaches started to evolve in the wake of the institutionalization of inclusion policies (Muega, 2016). Moreover, Muega (2016) expressed that rich and sustained argumentative discussions surrounding inclusive and special education must be encouraged to discern what is best for all Filipino schoolchildren. The practice of inclusion is far beyond the physical access to general education. There are learning factors important to demonstrate acceptance and skills of special learners. Many researchers as cited by Khan (2011) and Muega (2016) discussed about inclusive teaching knowledge and inclusion policies, yet to fully appreciate the integration of special education into the norms of inclusive education, views on the unique environment of schools as factor in learning particularly of culture-rich areas must be taken seriously. Ebol (2010) recommends to stimulate challenges, some of which are; to have additional support to classroom teachers, use of technology, improve access and logistical support to reference materials etc. The requirement of meticulous planning is required for comprehensive inclusive education as pointed out by Dizon (2011). Whether the adoption of inclusive special education in the Philippines may experience difficulty on the requirements, planning what is best for an inclusive environment asserts the quality of general education setting. Inclusive environment design of schools remains one significant requirement for special education.
1.1 Inclusive Environment for Special education (SPED) in Davao Government organizations like the Department of Education (DepEd) and the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) including private organizations such as Parents Mobilization Action Group (PMAG) and Down's Syndrome Association of the Philippines Incorporated (DSAPI) and other Non Government Organizations collaborate in promoting the well being of children with special needs and strategically positioned SPED schools in major cities and provinces in the Philippines. Davao, as the largest city with land area of 2,444 square meters covering three districts located on the second largest island in the southern part of the country, is the home of diverse cultures and the centre of education in Mindanao. The inclusion system of education may change view towards difference in cultures by promoting non-discriminatory society for all public school children. Davao City has 284 elementary public schools with additional 19 SPED schools strategically located to serve utmost community in the area. The schools with SPED curriculum includes children with autism, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder or ADHD, giftedness and learning disabled children. The DepED Davao Region data shows the number of children with special needs within the three periods of academic year from 2011-2012, 2012-2013, 20132014 are 1216, 1115 and 1346 respectively enrolled in SPED schools. Children enrolled in SPED curriculum pass through a comprehensive screening and diagnosis by a multidisciplinary team. Parents consent is a requirement for a child to join even during the enrolment and on initial screening. Parents must be invited during the whole process until the development of an annual Individualized Education Plan (IEP) for each child in special education curriculum, outlining academic and behavioral goals, services to be provided, and methods of evaluation as part of DepEd guidelines.
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1.2 Adapting inclusive environment for children with special needs In the Philippine Context, DepEd Order No.72 s. 2009 or the inclusive education as strategy for increasing participation rate of Children indicates the rights to education of other children with disabilities in the country who live without any access or educational opportunities. DepEd (2009) guaranteed the right for these children to receive appropriate education within the regular or inclusive classroom setting. However, while the increasing special needs of children, regular classrooms are still widely used as special centres due to limited funding and increasing enrolees. SPED teachers assigned to regular classrooms need to go beyond preparing teaching materials to arranging the classroom to accommodate all learners. In Davao, creativity of classrooms and the school's environment as a whole is set through cooperative general cleaning scheduled by school administrators with the parents, staff and teachers often called "brigada eskwela". Though the DepEd manual (2007) has the provision on educational facilities containing the guidelines for every public elementary school material equipment, furniture & material requirements for SPED and SPED funds were the only specification none for the improvement of the school learning environment. Nevertheless, the provisions includes only the inclusion phase described as the period when special needs are admitted in the regular class and are considered as jumpstart to inclusive education in the country. There are many definition, types and symptoms of learning disabilities of children with special needs (Dapudong, 2013). Henninger (2014) emphasized that children in early childhood settings are in the midst of immense growth, acquiring knowledge, skills, and abilities in several interconnected realms. Sufficient evidence show that the environment of a person is a social determinant of health that creates huge impact on a person's experience and extent of disability based on the studies presented to the 2008 health equity study of World Health Organization (WHO). The environment is a factor to improve health conditions, prevent impairments, and improve outcomes for persons with disabilities expressed by Miller P, Parker S, Gillinson S. (2004). Researchers have determined the positive attitude development of special need children when placed in an inclusive classroom and showed sufficient evidence that children sustainably grow with their diverse counterparts, nonetheless, building a welcoming environment despite of disability is the big challenge on architecture perspective. By designing and managing the built environment inclusively, the frustration and hardship experienced by many â&#x20AC;&#x201C; including disabled people, older people and families with small children â&#x20AC;&#x201C; can be overcome by creating spaces and buildings that people can use to form strong, vibrant and sustainable communities (Commission for Architecture and Built Environment (CABE) of UK, 2006). The inclusive design challenge suggest development of design paradigm considering all barriers of children with special needs. Through development of new architectural principles, the diversity, flexibility and common dimensions of children in the context of Davao to a complete learning environment experience will be possible to guide administrators in providing inclusive schools. In other countries, like the government in Canada published steps in creating inclusive schools using the design for all concept through finding the common learning environment for all students, typically for specific age and grade, neighbourhood peers diversity and learning supports are engage in with child's respective unique goals, styles and needs. The S.ARCH-2017 303.3
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understanding of the basic concepts of inclusion, accessibility and universal design will benefit the children with specials needs and the entire community. The design and improvement of physical accessibility of schools is part of the social change required to implement inclusive education (Topping, 2014).
1.3 Objectives of this study This research views the notion of inclusive environment at the early childhood setting of public elementary schools in Davao, the commonalities on the learning factors of children serve as common ground for an inclusive learning environment to help develop learning skills of special children and to further help establish a nurturing community through architectural principles. This paper aims to find out the significant inclusive design principles that primarily reflect the similarities on the three inclusive learning factors such as; learning domains routines, social skills and environment, social skills of special and kindergarten curriculum learners. The main goal of the study is to establish inclusive design principles from the common social behavior and environment based on the inclusive design principles in schools such as; access, flexibility and adaptability, health and well-being, learning process, space, sensory awareness, safety & security, and sustainability to further provide design issues needed when planning an inclusive learning school.
2
Methodology
This research used 3-level method of descriptive-qualitative research (Figure 1). The first level was the key-informant interview with teachers trained in handling SPED and regular kindergarten curriculum tasked to group class activities based on content standards of each subject domains in terms developmental milestones of learners such as; physical health, well-being and motor development, social-emotional development, character and values development, cognitive or intellectual development, language development, and creative and aesthetic development. The second level method used two survey tools for social interaction; Functional Behaviour Assessment and Social Skills Checklist. Third level method used the School Environment Assessment tool to find out common factors that affects learning environment of both learners to determine key learning characteristics. 1st Level: Common Activities
Learning Domains
(Key-informant,
Curriculum Guides)
2nd Level: Social Interaction
Social Skills
(SSC & FBA tools) 3rd Level: Environment (SEA tool)
Play, Emotional & Communication
Functional Behavior & Antecedents To escape task
Figure 1: Levels of Research Method S.ARCH-2017 303.4
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2.1 Research Participants and Sampling Purposive sampling was used in this study where participants were randomly selected from schools in three districts of Davao City. Ten elementary schools with established SPED and Kindergarten curriculum were chosen namely; District 1 - Kapt. T. Monterde Sr. Elementary School, Davao City Special School, Daniel M. Perez Central School, & Catalunan Grande Elementary School; District 2 - Buhangin Central Elementary School, F. Bangoy Elementary School; & School Maa Central Elementary School; District 3 - Tugbok Central Elementary School, Mintal Elementary School, & Calinan Central Elementary School. The respondents were the teachers, parents and guardians observing the classes of SPED & kindergarten curriculum. The SPED curriculum children with autism & ADHD, learning disabilities, intellectual disability and developmental delay were scheduled based on availability of respondents. Surveys were conducted in the classroom with the permission to DepEd Region 11 during the months of June â&#x20AC;&#x201C; December Academic Year 2015-16.
2.2 Research Tools and Analysis Multiple survey tools were used in this research based on the three factors of effective environment inclusion in schools; activities, social interaction, and environment. The first level research method used correlation matrix using the data from the key-informant interview to determine commonalities on the different developmental milestones of learners grouped into the types of learning domains; physical health, well-being and motor development, social-emotional development, character and values development, cognitive/ intellectual development, language development, and creative and aesthetic development. The second level method includes the assessment of common social interaction performed by learners using the Social Skills Checklist (SSC) survey and Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA) data to identify the common social skills and disruptive behaviors. The last level includes the Environment Assessment Survey (EAS) used to determine common significant inclusive environment design principles. The three survey tools (SSC, FBA & EAS) used the 5point Likert scale measurement from "always" to "never" and "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree" and analyzed based on the strength of correlation result of the Spearmanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Rho Correlation test in nonparametric form where ordinal data is in coefficient range from 1 which is a perfect positive relationship up to -1 which is a perfect negative relationship using the coefficient score (Table 2). The level of significance or p-value obtained in a two-tailed level of significance; the positive significance p-value should be less than 0.05. The significant environment design factors were analyzed from the results of the correlation of social interaction and the environment of both SPED and kindergarten learners. Moreover, the environmental design factors adapted the inclusive design principles such as; access, enhancing learning, flexibility and adaptability, health and well-being, sensory awareness, space, safety and security and sustainability to identify the priority design issues for an inclusive school.
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3
Results and Discussion
The first level of research found common learning domains between SPED and regular kindergarten curriculum shown in Table 3. In this research, the first factor of inclusion revealed twenty common activities mostly under the domains of socio-emotional and interpersonal skills development. The common learning domains were the basic domain concepts of curriculum content standards. Kindergarten curriculum has more other activities with higher level of appreciation that includes the attention level; the higher-ordered mental abilities or concept formation and; physical or personal care and hygiene. The results were supported based from Daleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s learning cone and higher order thinking skills, activities that develop creativity and participation allows the most retention to the learner. Yet, children with disability such as; intellectual and mental disability; ADHD; giftedness and; autism may have different areas of developmental delay that needs special attention and observation of the childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s development overtime. Table 1 Common Learning Domain Activities of SPED and Regular Kindergarten Curriculum Learning Domains (Subject)
SPED
1. Cognition and Communication
1. Mathematics and Science 2. Music and Arts 3. Language and Development
2. Socio-emotional Development (Psycho-social Development) 4. Values education and social studies 3. Interpersonal Skills
4. Psychomotor Skills Development
Common Activities
Kindergarten
5. Physical Education and Health
1. Pre-reading Skills 2. Reasoning 3. Pre-Math 4. Listening 5. Speaking 6. reading 7. Writing 1. Personal Values 2. Interpersonal Values 3. Society 4. Nationalism (Country) 5. Spiritual 1. Emotional Expression 2. Emotional (Receptivity to Other's Emotions) 3. Social (Emerging Sense of Self) 4. Social (Forming Attachments) 5. Social (Interactions with Other Children and Adults) 6.Social(Appreciating Diversity 1. Gross Motor Skills Development 2. Fine Motor Skills Development
Four specific social interaction behaviours were commonly observed between SPED and kindergarten learners (Table 4). The common social skills are the advanced play behaviour, understanding emotions, self-regulation and, compliments skills which were frequently S.ARCH-2017 303.6
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displayed by children ages from 5 to 6 years old. The social skills of each child may vary during the process of socialization especially for children with learning disabilities. Usually, the children with learning disabilities have social skills issues: as supported from the study of the Advocates of Justice and Education, Incorporated in 2012 expressed that a child with learning disabilities cannot try harder, pay closer attention or improve motivation on their own; children with learning disability need help to learn how to do those things. As a result, social interaction of children may result to a disruptive behavior. To identify commonly displayed disruptive behaviors, the functional behaviour should be identified. Between SPED and kindergarten learners, most common disruptive behavior are task refusal, fighting, arguing with peers and tardiness (Table 5). The antecedents of behaviour often when request directive is given, working in unstructured activity or increase in motor activity resulting to either obtain most commonly a peer attention or sensory awareness or escape from work worst is to escape classes. Table 2 Social Interaction Relationship Between SPED and Kindergarten Learners Social Interaction Skills 1. Social Play and Emotional Development
2.Emotional Regulation
Specific Behavior Beginning Play Behavior Intermediate Play Behavior Advanced Play Behavior Understanding Emotions Self-regulation
rs=0.74, n=325, p>0.181 rs=0.068, n=325, p>.224
Relationship Between Learners Very strong positive No or Negligible
rs=0.064, n=325, p>.250 rs=0.061, n=325, p>.269
Very weak positive Very weak positive Very weak positive No or Negligible No or Negligible
rs=0.082, n=325, p>0.140*
No or Negligible
rs=0.109, n=325, p>0.059
No or Negligible
rs=0.214, n=325, p<0.040*
Very weak positive
rs=0.20, n=325, p<.001* rs=0.218, n=325, p<0.033* rs=0.258, n=325, p<0.004*
Flexibility Problem Solving Conversational Skills Nonverbal 3.Communication Conversational Skills skills Compliments
Correlation
rs = very strong negative -1.0 ≥ 0.0 ≤ +1.0 Very strong positive n = sample population p ≤0.05 significant level *significant
Moreover, the research found only six common significant environment issues for inclusion of children with special needs to general learning environment such as such as; access, space, sensory awareness, enhancing learning, flexibility & adaptability and health & wellbeing. Results show that enhancing learning common environment issues were the S.ARCH-2017 303.7
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considerations in suggesting inclusive designed schools needed to help promote sense of community for all learners. Effective inclusion involves sensitivity to and acceptance of respective needs, strengths, diversity and behaviours of every learner. Educators cannot teach students without taking into account the diverse factors that shape their students and make them unique (Tomlinson, 2003).
Table 3 List of Functional Behaviours observed on both SPED and Kindergarten Learners Functional Behavior Type
TOTAL
%
Rank
n= 121
Specific Self-Injury
16
13.22
5
Fighting Disruptive Tardiness Self-simulatory Behavior Arguing w/ Peers Type Arguing w/ Teachers Destruction of Property Task Refusal Request directive is given Consequences is assigned Antecedents Working in unstructured Increase in motor activity Given Assignment Sensory Awareness To Obtain Peer Attention Tangible Object Work To Escape Classes Peers
37 20 17 37 8
30.58 16.53 14.05 30.58 6.61
2 3
14
11.57
6
46 38 18 33 28 24 46 71 28 46 36 9
38.01 31.40 14.87 27.27 23.14 19.83 38.01 58.68 23.14 38.01 29.75 7.43
1 1 5 2 3 4 2 1 3 2 4 5
2 4
Table 4: Common Environmental Design Factors of Learners Environment Design Factor Access Sensory Awareness Space
Relationship Between Learners rs=0.282, n=57, p<0.033* Weak positive rs=0.232, n=57, p<0.044* Weak positive rs=0.378, n=57, p<0.039* Moderate positive Correlation
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Enhancing Learning Flexibility and Adaptability Health and Well-being Safety and Security Sustainability
4
rs=0.338, n=57, p<0.010* rs=0.236, n=57, p<0.044* rs=0.109, n=57, p<0.042* rs=0.096 n=57, p<0.476 rs=0.011 n=57, p<0.933
Moderate positive Weak positive Weak positive Weak positive Very weak positive
Conclusion and Recommendations
Based on the findings of this research, the commonalities on the four effective inclusion factors of SPED and kindergarten curriculum serves as determinant of inclusive design principles. Six common environmental inclusive design principles on access, space, sensory awareness, enhancing learning, flexibility & adaptability and, health & well-being were significant considerations to fully adapt inclusive environment to public elementary schools in Davao. The twenty common activities found on the learning domains of both learners are design issues that suggest important spaces to be provided in a built-environment. The learning domain activities are the basic requirement for cognition and communication subject such as; pre-reading skills, reasoning, pre-math, listening, speaking, reading and writing suggest the basic features to be provided in schools for inclusion. The psycho-social development of learners suggest common architectural issues on personal and interpersonal values, society, nationalism and spiritual development. The common interpersonal skills suggest activities that improve emotional expression, emotional receptivity, sense of self and attachments, social appreciation and diversity. Lastly, the learning domain on psychomotor skills advise spaces that should cater gross and fine motor skills for learners to fully access education. In addition, the common social interaction revealed four social skills behaviours of learners that suggest design issues on advanced play, understanding emotions, self-regulation and compliments. However, children may display disruptive behaviors during classes especially when there are directive request, unstructured work and increased motor activities. These behavior suggest the observed specific considerations to prevent commonly the task refusal, fighting and arguing with peers, and tardiness to further understand why children often seek peer attention or escape worst absent in classes. This is why researcher suggest to further study on applicability of interactive learning environment as group behaviour management strategy in elementary schools. Furthermore, this research suggest design considerations based on the observation of activities of learners and therefore believed that the suggested architectural principles were learner-centered. On the other hand, the specific commonalities of learners found in this research does not attempt to meet all the needs of children but used the similarities to make every child benefit on the design of built environment. The researcher therefore recommended also to study the differences between the two learners to achieve more design solutions that consider activities of other users like personnel, parents, visitors, faculty and staff of the school.
4.1 References [1]
Ebol, Simeona, Philippines, National Institute of Special Needs Education, (2010)
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[2]
Muega, Michael Arthus, Inclusive Education in the Philippines: Through the Eyes of Teachers, Administrators, and Parents of Children with Special Needs, 2016, Vol. 12:1 2016, pp. 5-28.
[3]
Commission for Architecture and Built Environment (CABE), The Principles of Inclusive Design., CABE, London, UK, 2006
[4]
Topping, Bob, Access to School and the Learning Environment I – Physical, Information and Communication, UNICEF, Webinar 10 - Companion Technical Booklet. New York : Division of Communication, UNICEF, 2014, pp. 1-48.
[5]
Knowledge and Attitude Towards Inclusive Education of Children with Learning Disabilities:The case of Thai Primary School Teachers. Dapudong, Richel C. 2013, Academic Research International.
[6]
Quijano, Teresita and Inciong, Yolanda, Inclusion of Children with Disabilities: The Philippines Experience Pages 173-191 | Published online: 02 Jan 2013. 2, s.l. : Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 2013, Vol. Vol. 24.
[7]
Luistro, Br. Armin A., FSC Secretary, Department of Education, The Philippine Education For All 2015 Plan of Action: An Assessment of Progress Made in Achieving the EFA Goals. s.l., Philippine Copyright 2014 National Education for All Committee, 2014. efa2015.ph.
[8]
Kame'enui, Edward, and Simmons, Deborah, Toward Successful Inclusion of Students with Disabilities:The Architecture of Instruction, Volume 1: An Overview ofMaterials Adaptations. Reston, VA, U.S., ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education, 1999
[9]
Henninger, William and Gupta, Sarika, How Do Children Benefit from Inclusion?, First Steps to Preschool Inclusion: How to Jumpstart Your Programwide Plan, (Gupta, Sarika), Brookes Publishing, www.brookespublishing.com., 2014, pp. 34-57
[10] Elizabeth Traub, Lois Hutter-Pishgahi, Tamyra Freeman. Welcoming ALL Children. [book auth.] Crystal Haskett, et. al. Anita E. Allison. Revised by the Community Integration Committee of the First Steps Interagency Coordinating Council. U.S. : Copyright © 2014, 2004, 2000, Indiana University, Indiana Institute, 2nd Edition, 2014
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SOCIAL - ECOLOGICAL RESILIENCE AS FOUNDATION FOR RESILIENT URBAN DESIGN AND SUSTAINABILITY. TOWARD A NEW INTEGRATIVE SYNTHESIS PhD Sonja RADOVIC JELOVAC
Faculty of Architecture University of Montenegro Studio Synthesis architecture&design
81000, Podgorica, Montenegro Bulevar Dzordza Vasingtona ¾
email: sonja@studiosynthesis.me
Abstract Purpose of this paper is to provide clear insight and overview - state of the art of application of resilient theory and complex adaptive system theory from the aspect of urban design and planning. This topic was also ground point for my PhD thesis whose results I intent to check through experimental application and future research work. One segment of this research will focus on actuality and prurience of proposed topic through critical display of scientific achievements in the work of renowned international academies and practices (Resilience Alliance and Harvard Graduate School of Design). In that light, I support opinions that applying the theory of ecological resilience in urban design can result in design principles that are quite different from the traditional ones that emphasize stability, optimality, and efficiency. In regards to this, I intend to open a set of research questions for the future: How to integrate principles and strategies of resilience into urban design? How resilience thinking is interpreted today, understood and reflected on urban practice and what new perspectives open? I am of the opinion that urban design is not a matter of scale but approach, so in this work, I will discuss how different understanding of social ecological system (SES) resilience affect modelling of planning, urban design, contemporary urbanism in general. Also, I believe that it is necessary to develop integrative models that unite different theories and develop advanced collaborative approaches aimed at creating “mental model” for a specific ecological situation. In that regard, ecology as metaphor for new model opens opportunity to think through the process and design forever different ecological situations. Resilience theory is an important addition to existing theory of landscape architecture and urban design practice. It is not an approach that resolves everything but is starting to change some gaps in understanding and adequate engagement of urban design. This is not a completely different or beginning of new approach but continuance of existing research and design strategy for a more successful usage of urban design practices.
Keywords Resilient theory, complex adaptive system theory, social ecological system (SES) resilience, urban design, urban planning S.ARCH-2017 305.1
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1
Introduction - "Integrative" resilience
Research framework for this paper was created through several years of research work on doctoral thesis from different theoretical positions: system theory, CAS (complex adaptive systems), resilient theory and transdisciplinarity aimed at narrowing down focus and creating new theoretical framework for modelling processes for future hypothetical model which will be basis for resilient urban planning and design. Through different theoretical insights, I generated during my work "Integrative resilience" metaphor for new, process-oriented approach which provides different insights in how novelty can be generated in an operative level trough Projective Assessment tool for the urban design practice. Narrowing down focus research is reflected in contribution how new open dynamic instrument PRAAUD [1] integrates and applies in processing and operative fashion different knowledge through transdisciplinary learning. My research contribution, aims at creating process and instrumental model which will be crossscale and space- time oriented which should integrated ecological and other findings into urban design and planning. Therefore, this paper is focused on integration of scientific ecological knowledge into urban design and planning with collaborative and transdisciplinary approach. Contribution should be higher than that currently provided by traditional ecological knowledge even though I am aware of the fact that traditional knowledge provides different and new insights on institutional memory and in that way develops learning system. On the other hand these advantages need to be acknowledged. Also, aimed at clearer confirmation of hypothesis I present insights and explanations of connection between socio-ecological system (SES) and culture vs nature dialog for better informing as ecosystem approach and ecological knowledge enable emergent paradigm and learning approach in different understanding of contemporary urbanism. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Integrativeâ&#x20AC;? resilience is presented as comprehensive model for urban design and planning and modelling complex systems to ensure that required studies (regional, local) inform each other and that collaboration in this process is maximal. This integrative component include development of integrative model that combines real non-linear ecosystems with a set of humans that make individual decisions on the world that they create themselves and try to understanding with technological management agencies. In that respect I propose models and experiment that would investigate processes of adaptive learning using strategic models that include transdisciplinarity and learning approach and knowledge integration.
2
System thinking in relation to urban design and planning practice
System thinking provides us with a heuristic tool and common language for framing situations and exploring self-organizing phenomena and that that provides guidelines and recommendations on how to decide what is important to look at, and not look at, and how to describe a situation. It helps us to understand the self-organizing possibilities in a situation and thus to map out potential future scenarios. According to J.J.Kay it provides a basis for synthesizing our understanding of a situation into narratives about how the future might unfold and the trade-offs that exist between choosing different paths. It also helps us understand what it is we don't understand. [2] It is important to understand how necessary it is to have a unique objective systems description of a situation immediately moves systems thinking and systems approaches out of the domain of traditional scientific approaches and into the realm of post-normal science. S.ARCH-2017 305.2
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Addressing sustainability means finding a way to deal with this complexity. It became clear that systems explanations of social-ecological complexity require different types of perspectives and at different scales of examination. There is no single correct perspective because diversity of perspectives is required for understanding. Kay corroborated in many of his researches that systems are self-organizing; their dynamics are largely a function of positive and negative feedback loops. Linear causal mechanical explanations of dynamics are insufficient to understand them. Emergence and surprise are normal phenomena in systems dominated by feedback loops. [3] Complex systems approaches go beyond interdisciplinary to transdisciplinary, which invokes emergence between the disciplines over merely working between them. The new approaches remain participatory but go on to be adaptive and multiscale in their focus. Shortly, the new approach is in the mode of post-normal science [4] At its heart is the portrayal of ecological systems as self-organizing.
2.1 Theoretical bases for new ecosystem approaches I agree with opinion that the ability of systems to buffer themselves from external influences and to incorporate external disturbance as an integral part of their patterns of organization is part of what gives us our sense of them as a whole, a whole that is adapted to the situation that it is in. In that regard, understanding of system adaptivity, primarily social-ecological adaptivity from the position of resilient theory and social-ecological resilience are framework of my research. In contemporary understanding of urban design, urban planning and landscape design, it is important to understand what systematic thinking offers, so my research will elaborate many insights of important systematicians, ecologists, and landscape ecologists. Systems thinking are most applicable in situations where simple prediction fails. One must change the context to get an answer to the original question to one that is still useful. J.J.Kay stresses as key the idea of partitioning problem situations based on complexity, organization, and degree of constraint to understanding the domain of applicability of systems thinking. "In middle number systems the constraints are ambiguous. As systems thinking changes the context by bounding the system in some new way, some reliable constraints come to the fore. There is a certain freedom in finding those helpful constraints, and it is the nature of the interactions between objects in a situation that determines which tools are appropriate." [2] Term complexity is used as a concept that covers problematic situations that have eluded traditional scientific solutions. Complex situations involve uncertainty and surprise and any solution in complex system is a unique response for the given context. Complexity defies linear logic as it brings with it self-organization and feedback loops, wherein the effect is its own cause. Circular relationships between cause and effect require nonlinear logic, explanations in terms of morphogenetic causal loops where form is determined by and determines its own plans. Author highlights that complexity is characterized by situations where several different coherent future scenarios are possible, each of which may be desirable, all of which have an inherent irreducible uncertainty as to the likelihood for their actually coming about. It appears that system thinking offers certain insights and approaches as to how to deal with complexity towards sustainability. Translating systems thinking into action is what systems approaches are about. [3] In 1930â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, Von Bertalanffy (1968) [5] observed that open self-organising systems are characterised by mutual attributes regardless of disciplinary range of the study. He referred to this capacity of
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systems as “isomorphism” 1. This existence of isomorphism allows generalisation in terms of selforganising systems, to develop general theory on their behaviour and characteristics. This is one of the premises and stimuli which underpin von Bertalanffy’s theory of general systems as well as recent developments in system thinking. By giving us typology and descriptions of scheme of relationship which can arise within the system and between type of behaviour that may occur, system thinking privies a language, questions and technique for thinking through self-organising aspect of the system. Underlying system thinking is the premise that systems behave as a whole and that such behaviour cannot be explained solely in terms that simply aggregate the individual elements. Many researches discuss reductionist opinion in respect to traditional science and advantages of post-normal science as antithesis of prevalent reductionist thinking. I agree with Kay’s opinions that here is a certain myopia in the dominant reductionist approaches, and it hinders our ability to deal with situations where emergence (i.e., the whole is more than the sum of the parts) is an important feature. System thinking is well suited to understanding such situations that require considerations of the whole as an emergent with its own properties. [3] In the process of exploration of reasoning underpinning system thinking and its application to the sustainability issue, I singled out some of the basic concepts, instruments, techniques, principles of system thinking. Considering problematic situations through prism of system thinking comprises three phases: 1) Framing situation by generating system description or mapping what is included and is relevant for relationships used for defining the system. 2) Give description of situation dynamics. 3) Synthesise understanding obtained in the first two phases into a narration related to the situation which could or might develop in future. [3] I am of the opinion that the need to incorporate multiple perspectives, when dealing with sustainability, has important methodological implications. The plurality of different legitimate perspectives and the inability of one particular view to capture the whole necessitates a variety of forms of inquiry, inclusion of, and dialogue with, persons representing different interests and different worldviews. I support opinion that multiple modes of investigation and analysis and multiple sources of evidence are necessary to understand the system. According to Wall, system thinking helps us to generate mental models of the situation with particular emphasis on relationships and interconnections, appropriate scales of observation and analysis, and types of analysis and descriptions. [6]
2.2 Complex adaptive systems (CAS) and resilience I consider as exceptional efforts of a set of authors who have provided state-of-art treatments of the translation and application of concepts from the theory of complex adaptive systems to coupled social-ecological systems, from the diversity and flows in ecological communities to the emergence of norms in human societies. [7] I find challenging how to transform all these findings into a resilient (adaptive) urbanism which will systematically consider all the properties of Complex Adaptive Systems i.e, adaptivity, transformability and resilience. This framework was also a significant phase during my research for the doctoral thesis, i.e. how to explain and understand the SES (Social Ecological System) in the light of CAS theory for the purpose of advanced resilient adaptive urban design. Briefly, I develop a thesis that integrates resilience
1
Isomorphism - self-organisational property of system
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theory, sustainability concepts, and in addition applications to different case studies, with stress on sensitive areas with accentuated ecosystem dynamics. S.A.Levin highlights three theoretical and a practical perspective of complex system theory: 1. Complex systems are viewed as asymmetrical systems that dissipate energy and are composed of a variety of components. 2. Complex systems are viewed as networks of interacting nodes and links; 3. Complex systems as systems that process information in the sense of receiving external inputs and responding to them with outputs are viewed from a management and policy perspective. [7] Norberg and Cumming also provide their view of CAS in terms of adaptive behaviour and explicitly focusing on capacity of the system to change in response to prevailing and anticipated, conditions by means of self-organization, learning, and reasoning. This group of scientists also stresses systems that are fundamentally altered by a regime shift do not bounce back, and learning by trial and error becomes harder. The concept of resilience is used to describe the degree of disturbance a system can handle before a regime shift takes place. (Regime shifts: When a social-ecological system crosses a threshold into an alternate regime of that system). [8] It is necessary to stress the importance of adaptive processes that relate to the systemâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s capacity to tolerate change (i.e., response capacity), and hence the ways in which systems switch between different regimes. Understanding of system dynamics that occur after regime shift are crucially dependable on capacities of self-organised systems. [9] Bearing this in mind, I support Carpenter that resilience concept incorporates the ideas of adaptation, learning, and self-organization as a fundamental source of resilience in addition to the general ability to tolerate disturbance. In regards to these opinions, I should like to single out three resilience description: 1. 2. 3.
the amount of disturbance a system can absorb while still remaining within the same state or domain of attraction the degree to which the system is capable of self-organization (versus lack of organization or organization forced by external factors) the degree to which the system can build and increase its capacity for learning and adaptation. [10]
2.3 Complex adaptive system CAS and transdisciplinarity As a researcher and an active practitioner of urban design, I take my position here broadly and observe things from a transdisciplinary prism. By investigating the work of B. Nicolescu Manifesto of Transdisciplinarity, I learned that if cities are observed as complex socio-ecological systems, in that case sustainability and resilient include more than urban form. They include a broad spectre of social and economic issues and strategies. For urban planners and designers to address this challenge requires a transdisciplinary approach in which a highly interdisciplinary scientific expertise is integrated with stakeholders and decision makers in a continuous and interactive mode. [11] Parallel with emergence of sustainability, and in the latter half of 20th century, an alternative nonequilibristic paradigm of science, systems and understanding of natural and built up environment emerged. [12] This view, known as chaos or non-equilibristic theory supported the opinion that S.ARCH-2017 305.5
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natural and cultural systems, in its nature, are variable, inconsistent and prone to sudden changes. [13] Within the adaptive approach, experiments from the area of design are being monitored after development to understand peculiarities of expected strategies which were realised (ecosystem systems, etc.). Such approach and such journey realises new, spatially explicit, knowledge and best practices. I share opinion that by means of such interdisciplinary discourse research needs are defined and give cause for optimism with those who are ready to transdisciplinary research on cities of future â&#x20AC;&#x201C; in this urban world perhaps there is no need for greater research. [14] According to Pickett transdisciplinarity is evolving as the modus operandi for sustainable and resilient urban planning and design. Strategic, systems-level thinking is needed for planning and design for urban sustainability and resilience in a non-equilibrium context, with which I completely agree. I also stress opinion where strategic urban planning and design builds on an understanding of the causes and drivers of urban dynamics, then acts in an anticipatory, proactive mode. It is guided by spatial concepts, metaphors or precedents. [15] I represent opinion that insight in transdisciplinary approach (planners and urban designers) allows us to integrate experimental and experiential knowledge, to apply and understand process knowledge, strategic anticipations, cross-scale dynamics, reciprocity between diversity and distribution. This opinion I shall further elaborate through link between transdisciplinary learning, complexity of connections in socio-ecological system and their implications in resilience theory and as this integration provides new basis for emergent resilient (adaptive) urban design. Resilience theory was created as logistic sequence of things that fulfil the need for a different holistic and transdisciplinary approach to understanding complex, socio-ecological systems and manner in which it informs urban planning and design. I discuss the said in the context of knowledge which needs to be integrated to approach urban sustainability and resilience which, in my view, should evolve into resilient adaptive approach to urban planning and design.
2.4 Social - Ecological System as CAS Socio-ecologic systems - SES 2 are complex adaptive systems, consisting of patterns and processes that occur and interact across multiple scales. Each kind of system varies through space, with regional and local differences in the structure and function of ecosystems and the composition, institutions, and governance of social systems. [9] I believe that these findings bring another "novelty" to urban design where I focused my research. In that context I support presented statement that further research is needed to understand the relevance of location and connectivity between SES, the ways in which the local and regional environment constrains or drives SES dynamics, and the ways in which spatial variation within and between different systems influences system resilience. [9] I agree with their opinion that the theme of spatial variation is also relevant to understanding the relationships between processes at different scales of socialecological systems and the possibilities for resolving scale mismatches. Addressing the challenges of sustainability and resilience arguably will require a transdisciplinary,
2 SES -Social Ecological System â&#x20AC;&#x153;1. A social-ecological system is one integrated system that spans matter, life, and human social and cultural phenomena (or mind). 2. A social-ecological system consists of relationships between elements at a number of scales and within nested systems. 3. SESs are systems that are complex and adaptive, with properties of self-organization and emergence 4. What differentiates SESs from other systems is the introduction of abstract though and symbolic constructionâ&#x20AC;? (Du Plessis 2008, 3).
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integrative sustainability science that differs from science as we know it in terms of the structure, methods and content of the questions we ask. In addition to adaptive design focused on physical urban systems, and urban biodiversity, research is needed on how to achieve greater social learning and meaningful social engagement and participation in decision making and policy setting. Research is needed to learn what makes knowledge about nature society interactions useful within both science and society to build resilience capacity and to guide society on a sustainable trajectory. Therefore, solutions for sustainability and resilience are more likely to evolve from such inter- and transdisciplinary research and project-based collaborations involving an increasing number of overlapping and complimentary disciplines. [11]
3
Resilience thinking - state of the art
Latest research and contributions in terms of application of resilience theory doubtlessly recognised social-ecological systems (SES) as Complex Adaptive Systems (CAS). Insights from the study of CAS have been increasingly incorporated into the theory of resilience. [8], [16] Also, there are various definitions of resilience while various definitions of CAS exist, the one by Levin [7] has been widely used in the resilience literature: "a complex adaptive system is “a system composed of a heterogeneous assemblage of types, in which structure and functioning emerge from the balance between the constant production of diversity, due to various forces, and the winnowing of that diversity through a selection process mediated by local interactions.” [17] There are several researches related to the development of resilience theory over the last decade. The two of importance are the Resilience Alliance (http://www.resalliance.org) and the Stockholm Resilience Centre (http://www.stockholmresilience.org). Resilience Alliance was founded in 1999 and it is made of scientists and experts from various disciplines that jointly approach research in socio-ecological systems. They primarily address topics of resource management, terrestrial and aquatic regional research, exploring interdisciplinary collaboration and the application of resilience theory to develop guidelines and frameworks for sustainable development. These efforts are led by C.S. Holling and Brian Walker, among others who originally developed resilience theory. The Stockholm Resilience Centre was founded in 2006 by a grant from the Foundation for Strategic Environmental Research. Their mission is to become a leading collaborative research center in the world that advances the knowledge and understanding of socio-ecological systems, global and overall dynamics, regime of changes, urban socio-ecological systems. In early 1970’s the ecologist, C.S. Holling, sought to “develop an integrative theory to help us understand the changes occurring globally.” These changes are described as “economic, ecological, social, and evolutionary. They concern rapidly unfolding processes and slowly changing ones—gradual change and episodic change, local and global changes”. [16] This quest for holistic understanding became resilience theory. Resilience as defined by Holling is “the amount of change a system can undergo (its capacity to absorb disturbance) and remain within the same regime—essentially retaining the same function, structure, and feedbacks” The systems that resilience describes are referred to as socio-ecological. These are integrated systems that “consist of relationships between elements at a number of scales and within nested systems” [8]
Resilience framework Walker and Salt 2006 and Ahern 2011 suggested a framework that included five categories for promoting resilience. These were preliminary efforts in applying resilience theory to urban design S.ARCH-2017 305.7
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practice, and were compared with a similar series of categories proposed by Walker and Salt. The resulting framework has five categories: 1) Identify and respond to critical thresholds 3, 2) promote diversity, 3) develop redundancies, 4) create multi-scale networks and connectivity, and 5) implement adaptive planning/management strategies. It also identifies three spatial scales for each category: regional, metro, and site as well as whether it is for social, ecological, economic, or spatial systems. Therefore it is important to note that this research relies on resilience framework which serves in two capacities: an analysis matrix and as a design/planning framework. As an analysis matrix the resilience framework functions as a post-design tool for determining the extent to which resilience theory was applied in a project as used in the case study analysis. As an active design/planning framework it works as a way to guide decision-making and to prioritize various systems, scales, and methods in terms of the overall goals per project. The framework is flexible in its ability to be applied to very specific projects that may have a more limited scope as well as holistic projects such as large masterplans that operate at larger scales. [18]
Figure 1 C.S. Holling. Four Ecosystem Functions, taken from TomĂĄs Folch, Nina- Marie Lister, and Chris Reed in "Projective Ecologies" [19]
Resilience theory is explained through three primary concepts: adaptive cycles, panarchy and attraction basins. According to Holing, adaptive cycles is explained in following way: "From the theory of resilience, complex adaptive systems often exhibit recurring dynamics, moving through four phases: (1) an r phase of growth or exploitation, (2) a K phase of conservation or consolidation, (3) an W phase of release or collapse, and (4) an a phase of reorganization or renewal. These four phases are collectively known as the adaptive cycle, which is represented
3 Threshold - The point at which a system crosses over into another attraction basin. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Once a threshold has been crossed it is usually difficult (in some cases impossible) to cross backâ&#x20AC;? (Walker and Salt 2006, 63).
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commonly by a «-shaped diagram 4 While the r and K phases are two aspects of ecosystem dynamics that have long been studied in the context of ecological succession, the two additional phases were introduced into the adaptive cycle to highlight the importance of the interplay between growth and maintenance, between innovation and conservation, and between change and stability. [20] In ecological literature resilience is defined in two rather different ways: One definition focuses on efficiency, control, constancy, and predictability: all attributes at the core of desires for fail-safe design and optimal performance. Those desires are appropriate for systems where uncertainty is low, but they can be counterproductive for dynamic, evolving systems where variability and novelty result in high uncertainty. The other definition focuses on persistence, adaptiveness, variability, and unpredictability: all attributes embraced and celebrated by those with an evolutionary or developmental perspective. The latter attributes are at the heart of understanding and designing for sustainability. [20] In relation to previous statements, my view of socioecosystem resilience coincides with the second definition because it emphasizes conditions far from any equilibrium steady state, where instabilities can flip a system into another regime of behaviour, i.e., to another stability domain. According to Holling, in this case resilience is measured by the magnitude of disturbance that can be absorbed before the system changes its structure by changing the variables and processes that control behaviour. Sustainable relationships between people and nature require an emphasis on the second definition of resilience, i.e., as the amount of disturbance that can be sustained before a change in system control and structure occurs—ecosystem resilience. [21] Really, the purpose for investigating a theory of resilience is simple as “to develop an integrative theory to help us understand the changes occurring globally; such changes are economic, ecological, social, and evolutionary” [22] The theory is a method of understanding that informs better decision making that moves away from static, rigid solutions. The authors also point out the inextricable connection between human and ecological systems. The idea of the role of space in the influence of resilience is an area of literature that refers to spatial resilience as developed by Graeme Cumming. Most of his research focuses on ecologically dominated systems, but also looks at the management strategies of human-dominated systems. Cumming provides a comprehensive but practical approach to resilience as he states that the theory is not a “solve-all” solution but rather provides a method of understanding. “Broadly speaking, spatial resilience refers to the ways in which spatial variation-including such things as spatial location, context, connectivity, and dispersal- influences (and is influenced by) the resilience of an „SES or other complex system”. [23] This definition of spatial resilience implies a complex and rigorous approach to planning and design that is in all likelihood unachievable by solely landscape architects and urban designers. This is because such planning and design efforts require the expert knowledge of the disciplines allied with design such as ecology, economics, real estate, sociology, and geography.
4
Ecology as generative metaphor for resilient adaptive urban design and planning
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During my research for my doctoral thesis, I supported opinions of integration of different disciplines achieved through generative metaphors and models al possible integrative instruments for adaptive resilient urban design. From generative metaphor of “Integrative” resilience, I developed two multidisciplinary models - one for process with different acting through space and time (cross scale, open ended) and other normative model – operative instrument, i.e. materialised tool in form of results: projective assessment, strategy for urban design in form of anticipatory instrument Projective Resilient Assessment for Adaptive Urban Design (PRAAUD). [1] According to Pickett metaphor is usually a starting point for science which concerns public and other discipline and that metaphors are the images that capture some essential vision of what cities are and how they operate. Metaphors are almost always the starting point of conversation among disciplines. I agree with them that models, or conceptual and empirical constructions that explain the details and mechanisms of structure and process. Metaphors according to them are the bread and butter of substantive exchange between scholarly disciplines, and of the conversion of city visions to city realities. However, new norms must frequently be charted during periods of extreme change. I agree with their opinions that resilience is often achieved through the ability to readjust to a new normal. [24] (STA .TA Picket ML Cadenasso, and Brian McGrath, 2013
4.1 Resilience and planning theory Recent and very important contributions that stress the relevance of social - ecological resilience in domain of planning theory are of the opinion that at a time when planning theorists are calling for more attention to matters of substance alongside matters of process, social-ecological resilience provides a timely contribution, particularly given the minimal attention in planning theory scholarship to environmental and ecological considerations as a driving concern. I find important new contribution to this emerging inter-disciplinary exploration which engages the questions on what new conceptual ground does social-ecological resilience offers to planning theory. [25] In the previous elaboration, it was stated that SES are conceptualised as complex adaptive systems – and respond to recent needs to attach more attention within planning to implications of nonlinear dynamics of ecosystems. I fully support this opinion, given minimal attention in the planning theory to scholars for considering environment and ecology as key concert, which is particularly important. Wilkinson states that socio-ecological resilience is the most important for the theory of normative planning instead of for theory of critical planning, given that it is yet to develop into strong theoretical basis for addressing issues of power, conflict, contractions and culture. [25] I believe that the most important contribution of socio-ecological resilience to urban design and planning of its role as a different user framework for defining and solving problems. It is important to stress here that social-ecological resilience is the ‘capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to still retain essentially the same function, structure and feedbacks, and therefore identity, that is, the capacity to change in order to maintain the same identity’. [17] Wilkinson distinguishes between socio-ecological resilience, social resilience, engineering resilience, social resilience or even ecological/ecosystem resilience. The choice to focus on social-ecological resilience, according to Wilkinson, is deliberate as it is considered the most fruitful way to explore key gaps raised by planning theory scholars, in particular the need to pay more attention to matters of substance, and the specific call to address the implications of dynamic ecology in urban systems. [25] S.ARCH-2017 305.10
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In terms of issues for planning theory, I believe social-ecological resilience scholarship applies a complex adaptive, non-linear conceptualization of the dynamics of change to the materiality of linked social-ecological processes. It also demonstrates that regime shifts to less desirable ecological states can be difficult if not impossible to reverse. This raises the urgency of precautionary governance in matters that affect the decline of ecosystem services, across scales, including in urban systems. [25]
4.2 Resilience on ecology and urban design I believe that however urban design affects urban sustainability, it depends heavily on design principles that are increasingly influenced by ecological theory. According to J. Wu and T. Wu, traditional equilibrium paradigm in ecology presumes homogeneity, predictability, and inherent stability of ecosystems, suggesting that the focus of sustaining a system should be on keeping it at stasis. In sharp contrast, the hierarchical patch dynamics paradigm explicitly recognizes heterogeneity, nonlinearity, and multiple stable states, suggesting “flux of nature” and “order out of disorder”. They further explore the ideas of heterogeneity, non-linearity, hierarchy, and multiple stable states that are also essential in the theory of ecological resilience, which has emerged as a major approach to understanding and managing social-ecological systems, including urban design. This theory suggests that, to design sustainable cities, our emphasis should be on creating and maintaining urban resilience, the ability of a city to persist without qualitative change in structure and function in spite of disturbances. [26] “Cities of resilience” can be a powerful metaphor for drawing together insights from both ecology and planning. [20] (J. Wu and T. Wu, 2013) Below I present the glossary of resilience according to Walker and Salt with the terms I integrate in my generative metaphor Integrative resilience for postulating apparatus PRAAUD (Projective resilient assessment for adaptive urban design). 1. "Diversity: Promoting diversity in all its dimensions, from biological to economic, and encourage multiple components and resource used to balance and complement homogenizing trends. 2. Ecological variability: Seeking to understand and work with the boundaries of the inherent variability of ecological and socio-ecological systems; attempting to tame such variability is often a recipe for disaster. 3. Modularity: Maintaining modularity can help hedge against dangers of low resilience caused by over-connectedness in system structure and function. 4. Acknowledging slow variables: Managing for resilience means understanding the “slow” or controlling variables that underpin the condition of a system, especially in relation to thresholds. By recognizing the importance of these critical variables, we can better avoid shifts to undesirable stable states and possibly enhance the capacity of a desirable regime to deal with disturbances. 5. Tight feedbacks: Tightening or maintaining the strength of feedback loops allows us to better detect thresholds. The weakening of feedback loops can result in an asymmetry between our actions and the consequences stemming from them. Salient examples of such dynamics include pollution and overconsumption. 6. Social capital: Promoting trust, social networks, and leadership to enhance the adaptive capacity for better dealing with the effects of disturbance. 7. Innovation: Embracing change through learning, experimentation, and promoting locally developed rules. Instead of narrowing our range of activities and opportunities, we should be S.ARCH-2017 305.11
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seeking to explore and cultivate new ones. 8. Overlap in governance: Developing institutional arrangements that manage for cross-scale influences. Developing “redundancy” and overlap in governance frameworks enhances response diversity and flexibility. 9. Ecosystem services: Recognizing and accounting for ecosystem services when managing and designing for resilience. The benefits society derives from nature are regularly under-priced and ignored. Such services are often lost as socio-ecological systems shift into different, less desirable regimes." [20] I support the statements of J. Wu and T. that change is at the hearth of progress and resilience perspective on urban design is its focus on change instead of stasis - “to withstand change with adaptive change,” not to deal with change by resisting or diminishing change. I also share opinion that resilience theory suggests that what underlies a truly resilient city is not how stable it has appeared or how many little disturbances it has absorbed, but whether it can withstand an unforeseen shock that would fundamentally alter or erase the city’s identity. [20] In respect to my polygon of research, I am of the opinion that it is necessary for urban designs to be observed as complex socio-ecological systems with feedback loops, cross-scale interactions and inherent uncertainties that can design resilient cities. Wu and Wu stress that applying the key ideas and principles of resilience, it is important to think of the seemingly opposing processes such as "change vs. stability, creativity vs. conservation, and flexibility vs. efficiency not as paradoxes but dialectical duals that must coexist to achieve a synthesis of urban resilience." [20]
References [1] Radovic – Jelovac S., PRAAUD - "Projective" resilience assessment for water sensitive adaptive urban design. Transforming urban watershed in resilient landscape , PhD Thesis, University La Sapienza of Rome, Rome, Italy, 2015 [2] J.J.Kay , Framing the Situation Developing a System Description, in The Ecosystem approach: complexity uncertainty and managing for sustainability, D,W. Toewes, J.J. Kay and N.M. Lister, Columbia University Press, Columbia University Press, New York, New York, USA. (2008) [3] D,W. Toewes, J.J. Kay and N.M. Lister, The Ecosystem approach: complexity uncertainty and managing for sustainability, Columbia University Press, Columbia University Press, New York, New York, USA. (2008) [4] Funtowicz, S. and Ravetz, J. "Science for the post-normal age", 1993, Futures, http://www.uu.nl/wetfilos/wetfil10/sprekers/Funtowicz_Ravetz_Futures_1993.pdf 755. [5] V. Bertalanffy General System theory: Foundations, Development, Applications, New York: George Braziller, New York, USA, 1968 [6] D.W. Toews, and E. Wall, Emergent perplexity: in search of post-normal questions for community and agroecosystem health, Social Science and Medicine, 1997
[7] S.A.Levin, Fragile Dominion:Complexity and the Commons. Cambridge, MA: Perseus, USA, 1999
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[8] Wu, J. and T. Wu. ,Ecological resilience as a foundation for urban design and sustainability, in Resilience in Urban Ecology and Design: Linking Theory and Practice for Sustainable Cities Steward, T. A. Pickett, M. L. Cadenasso, B. P. McGrath, and K. Hill, 2013, pp 211-230 [9] G.S. Cumming, G. Barnes, J. Southworth, (2008) Environmental Symmetries in Complexity theory for a sustainable future, ed. by J.Norberg and G. S Cumming, Columbia University Press [10] S.R. Carpenter, B. Walker, J. M. Anderies, and N. Abel, From Metaphor to Measurement: Resilience of What to What? Ecosystems 4:765-781. 2001 https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/2735096/from-metaphor-to-measurementresilience-of-what-to-what [11] B. Nicolescu, Manifesto of Transdisciplinarity, State University of New York Press,Albany, New York, USA, 2002 [12] D. Botkin, Discordant Harmonies: A New Ecology for the Twenty-First Century, Oxford University Press, New York, USA 1990 [13] J. F. Ahern, From fail-safe to safe-to-fail: sustainability and resilience in the new urban world, University of Massachusetts â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Amherst, 2011 http://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=larp_grad_res earch [14] J.F. Ahren, Urban landscape sustainability and resilience: the promise and challenges of integrating ecology with urban planning and design, Springer Science+Business Media B.V. , 2012 [15] S.T.A.Pickett , M.L.Cadenasso, J.M.Grove, Resilient cities: meaning, models, and metaphor for integrating the ecological, socio-economic, and planning realms, Landscape and Urban Planning 69: 369â&#x20AC;&#x201C;384., 2004 http://www.fs.fed.us/nrs/pubs/jrnl/2004/ne_2004_pickett_001.pdf [16] L.H.Gunderson and C.S.Holling, Panarchy: Understanding Transformations in Human and Natural Systems, Washington, D. C.: Island Press., Washington, USA, 2002 [17] C. Folke, S.R.Carpenter , B. Walker, Resilience thinking: integrating resilience, adaptability and transformability, Ecology and Society 15, 2010, http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/journals/pnw_2010_folke.pdf [18]K.l.L.Cunningham, Resilience Theory: A Framework for Engaging Urban Design, 2013, Master of landscape architecture Department of Landscape Architecture, Regional and Community Planning College of Architecture, Planning + Design Kansas state university Manhattan, KS, USA, url: http://hdl.handle.net/2097/15776 [19] C.Reed, N.M.Lister, Projective Ecologies, ACTAR, Harvard Graduate School of Design, New York, USA, 2014 [20]Wu, J. and T. Wu. ,Ecological resilience as a foundation for urban design and sustainability, in Resilience in Urban Ecology and Design: Linking Theory and Practice for Sustainable Cities Steward, T. A. Pickett, M. L. Cadenasso, B. P. McGrath, and K. Hill, 2013, pp 211-230
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[21] Resilience and Stability of Ecological Systems C. S. Holling Annual Review of Ecology and SystematicsVol. 4 (1973), pp. 123, http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/bdg/pdfs_bdg/2013/Holling%201973.pdf [22] L.H.Gunderson and C.S.Holling, Panarchy: Understanding Transformations in Human and Natural Systems, Washington, D. C.: Island Press., Washington, USA, 2002. [23] G.S. Cumming, Spatial Resilience in Social-Ecological Systems, 1st Edition. Springer Science +Business Media B.V., Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York, 2011 [24] S.T.A. Pickett , M. L. Cadenasso, B. P. McGrath, Resilience in Ecology and Urban Design: Linking Theory and Practice for Sustainable Cities, Springer Science +Business Media B.V., Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York, 2013 [25] C. Wilkinson, Social-ecological resilience Insights and issues for planning theory, Stockholm University, Sweden Planning Theory 11(2) 148â&#x20AC;&#x201C;169, 2011 http://plt.sagepub.com/content/11/2/148.short [26]S.T.A.Pickett , M.L.Cadenasso, J.M.Grove, Resilient cities: meaning, models, and metaphor for integrating the ecological, socio-economic, and planning realms, Landscape and Urban Planning 69(4): 369â&#x20AC;&#x201C;84, 2004 http://www.fs.fed.us/nrs/pubs/jrnl/2004/ne_2004_pickett_001.pdf
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COST-BENEFIT COMPARISON OF VEGETATED AND PLANTSHADED BUILDING FAÇADES IN HOT CLIMATE Mahmoud Haggag*, Ahmed Hassan UAE University PO Box 15551, Al-Ain, UAE, mhaggag@uaeu.ac.ae
Abstract The hot climate of the United Arab Emirates generates unique challenges to architects and building engineers seeking energy efficient building designs. Building façade design features can influence the indoor environment and reduce energy consumption, including thermal insulation, window size, and glazing types. Additionally, shading effects caused by external plantation can affect the thermal performance of the external walls. The use of vegetated and plant-shaded walls has gained popularity due to its contribution towards reducing the heat gain. These green techniques have been examined by the authors during a hot summer period and the experimental results concluded that vegetated and plant-shaded walls can reduce the indoor air temperature by 5-7 °C and the peak air conditioning load by 18-20%. Moreover plant-shaded surfaces reduce wind effect and help control the humidity within the building zone. To get a clear picture of the financial incentives of using plantation on and around the building façades, this paper investigates a cost-benefit analysis of the vegetated and plant-shaded walls, taking into consideration the energy saving and environmental impact of the building skins. The actual installation and running costs are compared mainly with the reduction of cooling loads and increased value of the property, while the related environmental benefits are ignored at this stage. The result of cost-benefit analysis concluded that the modular living wall system might not be the best economic sustainable option of the vegetated wall, as the installation costs are extremely high (the payback period is between 8.5 and 10 years). In case of using plant-shaded walls, the payback period is more reasonable (nearly 6.5 years). It is expected to achieve more reduction in the payback period once the environmental impacts are included to make the use of greening systems financially viable.
Keywords Al-Ain; Cost-benefit analysis; energy efficiency; living wall; plant-shaded wall
1
Introduction
Vegetated walls can reduce the peak time indoor air temperature and the peak air conditioning energy demand through decreasing heat gain, increasing evaporative cooling and heat resistance [1]. The level of thermal influence of the plantation depends on several parameters including the covering percentage, density and the width of plant foliage that covers building surfaces and the type and size of trees surrounding the buildings. The thermal S.ARCH-2017 306.1
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impact of the plant foliage depends usually on the orientation of the plant-covered or plantshaded walls [2]. The inclusion of thermal insulation within the building skin has also a significant impact on the thermal performance of the wall even when a plant-covered layer is considered [3-5]. In this study, building skin is emphasized and the external wall performance is evaluated as an energy efficient design parameter. This paper examines the thermal performance of external building skin of two green techniques (vegetated living wall and plant-shaded façade) to determine its energy benefits compared to the system cost.
2
Vegetated and Plant-Shaded Walls
A vegetated wall is used as a term for both living wall and green façade. Living walls are composed of pre-vegetated panels or integrated fabric systems that are fixed vertically to a structural wall or frame [6]. The popular living wall systems are: Modular Living Walls; Vegetated Mat walls; and Landscape walls [3, 7, 8]. Modular living wall system, which was adopted to the first case study, consists of standard units that hold growing media and plants. Vegetated mat wall system has two layers of synthetic fabric which supports plants and growing media. Landscape walls are constructed from stacking material with room for growing media and plants [3, 7]. Green façades are made up of climbing plants that growing directly on a wall or supporting structure, while being rooted to the ground, in intermediate planters or on the rooftops. Plant shaded walls which are formed by locating plants around building facades, can reduce the effect of high solar radiation that can reduce the cooling need. Plantshaded walls act as vegetated green walls in terms of heat gain reduction and lowering the external and internal wall surface and inner-space temperatures [3]. Vegetated and plant-shaded strategies provide a wide range of advantages for buildings, inhabitants, and the environment. They help buildings become more energy efficient, absorb storm-water, and lead to reduced carbon emissions. These techniques act as protective barriers which provide better solar protections that can reduce the effect of the external load and the cooling need. A number of studies have explored the thermal effect of vegetated surfaces on building skin [4]. Wong et al argued that vertical greenery systems can reduce air conditioning load by shading walls and windows from incoming solar energy resulting in a 5.5 °C reduction in the outdoor ambient temperature and shading effect was found to reduce cooling load by about 23% resulting in an 8% reduction in annual energy consumption [9]. Based on the analysis carried out by Green over Grey firm [10], studies have shown that the external surface of a vegetated wall is up to 10°C cooler than an exposed wall; therefore the U-value for the green wall is usually lower and helps to reduce cooling loads. Plantation has been used as barriers against urban noise pollution. Plants and the trapped layer of air can absorb, reflect or deflect sound waves. Therefore, vegetated and plant-shaded walls have an acoustical insulation that is far better than that of bare wall (up to 30 db reduction) [3]. Moreover, the use of vegetated walls as visual attractants increases the value of the building. It can also help to address the lack of green space in urban environments. Plants improve human health, capture airborne pollutions, and filter harmful gases. Additionally, vegetated wall techniques can protect building surfaces and extend the lifespan of the building skin. This protection comes mainly from keeping rain off the building while allow moisture to escape, reducing the expansion and contraction of building materials and protecting walls against wind and solar radiation. S.ARCH-2017 306.2
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3
Experimental Set up
The influence of vegetated and plant-shaded techniques on the thermal performance of building façades was examined through two case studies located in Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates. The city is characterized by a very hot and dry climate with summer daytime temperatures range from 35◦C to 50◦C and winter daytime temperatures ranging from 25◦C to 35◦C. The first case study is Liwa International School (LIS) with a vegetated living walls. As shown in Figure 1, the system is composed of plastic boxes installed connectively on the building facades; drip irrigation pipes; and plant foliage [11]. The second case study is a residential building with plant-shaded walls [4]. The main façades are surrounded by non-deciduous shade trees which provide shade in summer and winter seasons that help to conserve energy consumption (Figure 3). The south-eastern building façade of each case study was examined to investigate the impact of using plantation for solar control on building façades. External and internal wall surfaces and ambient temperatures were measured for the vegetated and plant shaded walls in comparison to the bare walls during a hot summer period of July and August to guarantees the highest ambient temperature and solar radiation intensity.
3.1
Vegetated Living Walls Application
Liwa International School building was converted from conventional to sustainable green building by adopting Modular Living Wall application to reduce cooling load. As part of an experimental work, the green façade was examined to investigate the thermal performance of the vegetated living wall in the hot climate of Al Ain city (Figure 1). Two identical class rooms were examined, one with bare wall and the other with green wall both facing the southeastern direction. Two Omega (DaqPRO) data loggers were used to measure temperature at four locations: external ambient air temperature; external surface temperature; internal surface temperature; and internal ambient air temperature [11]. The experimental result shows that the peak external surface temperature on bare wall stayed around 54°C while the peak temperature on the living wall remained at an average of 48°C [11]. A similar trend was observed for the rest of the duration of experiment with slight variation in the magnitude of the temperature regulation. The reduced external surface temperature on living wall yields a reduced internal surface temperature compared to bare wall. The internal surface temperature on the bare wall stays at an average of 52°C while the internal surface temperature on the green wall stays at 46°C which shows a similar trend and magnitude of temperature regulation as of external wall. This drop in internal surface temperature yields a drop in indoor ambient temperature with living wall compared to bare wall with an average of 6°C. The result also shows that the internal surface of the green wall remains cooler than the internal surface of the bare wall during both the peak day time (with a difference of 4-6 ºC) and the peak night time (with a difference of 1-2.5 ºC). The reduction in the internal surface temperature and the ambient air temperature of the vertical living wall is occurred mainly due to: the decreased heat gain caused by living wall; the evaporative cooling caused by the irrigation water; and heat insulation caused by low thermal conductivity of the plant foliage and the soil. In conclusion, the shading effect of the vegetated green wall can reduce peak time indoor air temperature by 5-7°C for the month of July, and reduce the peak air conditioning energy consumption by about 20%, which is in agreement with S.ARCH-2017 306.3
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previously reported work elsewhere [12-14]. The diurnal external, internal and indoor temperature differences between bare and vegetated living walls are presented in Figure 2 (a, b and c).
Figure 1. Green wall installation, LIS, Al-Ain
a.
External surface temperature difference
b. Internal surface temperature difference
c. Indoor ambient air temperature difference
Figure 2. Diurnal temperature difference between bare and vegetated living wall
3.2
Vegetated Living Walls Application
Two identical residential building faรงades (a&b) have been tested, one with external bare wall and the other with plant-shaded wall (Figure 3), both are facing the south east direction. The external walls of both units are constructed from hollow concrete blocks with thickness of 20 cm and covered from both sides with white stucco. To determine the temperature regulation effect of plant-shaded wall on indoor spaces, temperatures at four locations were recorded S.ARCH-2017 306.4
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for both cases, using two sets of “DaqPRO” data loggers: external ambient air temperature; external surface temperature; internal surface temperature; and internal ambient air temperature in hot summer period (July and August).
a.
Unshaded façade
b. Plant-shaded façade
Figure 3. Plant-shaded façade in comparison with unshaded façade The experimental result shows that the peak external surface temperature reached around 55 ± 0.5 °C, while the temperature on the external plant-shaded wall peaked around 49 ± 0.5 °C for most of the experimental duration [4]. A reduction of around 6 °C was achieved on the external plant-shaded wall surface. The reduced external surface temperature on the shaded wall eventually resulted in a reduction of the internal wall surface temperature compared to the internal bare wall surface temperature. The internal surface temperature of the bare wall peaked at 51 ± 0.5 °C, however the plant-shaded wall peaked at 45 ± 0.5 °C which shows a drop of 6 °C. The indoor ambient air temperatures through bare wall peaked at around 45 °C on the average, while the shaded wall peaked on average at 40 °C. The plantshaded wall still could not reduce temperature to reach comfort temperature of 26–28 °C, which shows that in such a hot climate, the plant-shaded wall only cannot be enough and would need a mechanical cooling systems for comfortable indoors climate. The diurnal external, internal and indoor temperature differences between bare and plant-shaded walls are presented in Figure 4 (a, b and c).
a.
External surface temperature difference
b.
Internal surface temperature difference
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c.
Indoor ambient air temperature difference
Figure 4. Diurnal temperature difference between bare and plant-shaded wall
4
Cooling load reduction
The test rooms were simulated in eQuest energy modelling software, using Al Ain weather data entering construction details of the test room. The selected walls which are constructed from hollow concrete blocks with thickness of 20 cm are covered by white Cement Stucco from both sides with a heat absorbance value of 0.6. The indoor control conditions were kept at 25 °C temperature with no humidity control and 0.5 Air Changes per Hour. This Air Changes per Hour generally prevails in conditioned space due to air infiltration in this type of construction. In order to compare the results, the heat removal rate to keep the indoor air at control temperature was calculated from the measured outdoor temperature and the fixed indoor comfort temperature of 25 °C with following equation: Q. = ρV.Cp∆T, where Q. and V. are heat removal and the volume flowrate of air respectively, ρ, Cp and ΔT are the air density, specific heat capacity and temperature difference between outdoor ambient and indoor control temperature. The results show that the simulated and experimental temperatures are in close agreement. The heat gain from the plant-shaded and bare walls was processed to compare the respective cooling loads. The heat gain from the vegetated living wall test room was processed to calculate the cooling load and is compared with the cooling load of the bare wall. As presented in Figure 5, the results show that the cooling load reduced from 1.35 MWh to 1.07 MWh resulting in 20.5% energy saving for cooling system due to the use of vegetated green wall [4].
Cooling load (MWh)
Cooling load 1,5 1 0,5 0 Cooling load bare wall
Cooling load Living wall
Cooling load saving
Figure 5. Comparison of experimental cooling load in MWh for the test room with and without plantation As shown in figure 6, the use of plant-shaded wall can reduce cooling load from 1.35 MWh/year to 1.10 MWh/year in the tested space (predicted based on average daily savings) resulting in 18.5% energy saving for cooling system due to the use of plant-shaded technique. S.ARCH-2017 306.6
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Cooling load (MWh)
Cooling load 1,5 1 0,5 0 Cooling load Cooling load bare wall plant-shaded wall
Cooling load saving
Figure 6. Comparison of experimental cooling load for bare and plan-shaded walls
5
Cost-benefit Analysis
From the results presented above, it is clear that the use of vegetated and plant-shaded walls improves the environmental condition due to its energy saving, extension of building life, CO 2 capture, and noise reduction. However, the main question should be asked here is that â&#x20AC;&#x153;are the green strategies used in the case studies (living wall and plant-shaded greenery systems) economically sustainable? To answer this question, the study presents a Cost-benefit Analysis of both the living wall installed on the building skins of a school building, and the plant-shaded greenery system of a residential building, considering environmental and social benefits as well as life cycle span of the building skin. Installation, maintenance, and running costs of the greenery systems are compared with cooling load reduction, air-quality improvement; sound treatment, and other related benefits. The cost benefit analysis covers the initial cost the greenery systems, maintenance cost, and running costs [11]. It should be noted that economic benefits related to building skins longevity and energy saving for cooling systems are also included in the study. The calculation of some related benefits are based on the literature review. The cost-benefit analysis is based mainly on determining simple payback period considering the capital and operating costs while energy savings and increased rental value are included as benefit while ignoring the environmental benefits and inflation rates at this stage.
5.1 Cost-benefit Analysis of Living Wall System -
Tested space: one identical class room directed to south east with an average area of 60m2 Plastic planter boxes 30 x 30 x 25 cm, including installation cost, plants and growing media: 220 US$/m2 (1 US$ = 3.67 AED) Irrigation system cost (PVC pipes): 30 US$/m2 Water for irrigation: 0.9 US$/m2/year Cost per unit area= 250.9 US$/m2 The façade area of the tested space covered by Living Wall = 10 m2 Total LWS cost for the tested space = 2509 US$
The average temperature reduction on the external surface, internal surface and indoor space between day- and night-times reflects the cooling energy saving. The drop in average temperature represents the energy saving and the drop in peak temperature represents the reduction the capacity of the HVAC system to be installed.
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The benefit of the Living wall system is calculated through the energy savings caused by reduced cooling load and increased rental rate [15]. -
Cooling load reduction= 1.01 MWh/year Average yearly rent for the space= 4000 US$ Increased rental rate = 4 %. Savings on rental = 0.04 x 4000= 160 US$/year
Scenario 1: -
Local unsubsidized cost of electricity =320 AED/MWh =87.12 US$ Energy cost savings = 87.12 x 1.01= 88 US$/year Savings on rental = 160 US$ Total Savings = 160 + 88 = 248 US$/year Payback period = 2,509 / 248 = 10.1 years
Scenario 2: -
International levelled energy cost = 132 US$//MWh [16] Energy cost saving= 132 x 1.01= 133.3 US$/year Savings on rental = 160 US$/year Total savings= 160 + 133.3 = 293.3 US$/year Payback period= 2,509 / 293.3 = 8.6 years
5.2 Cost-benefit analysis of plant-shaded wall -
Tested space: Living space of the housing unite with same direction of the class room (south east) with an average area of 60 m2 Plants and growing media = 31 US$/m2/year Irrigation system cost (PVC pipes) = 4.6US$/m2 Water for irrigation = 3.4 US$/m2/year Cost per unit area= 39 US$/m2 Faรงade area = 12*4.5 = 54 m2 Total cost for the tested space = 54*39 = 2,106 US$
The benefit of Plant-shaded wall is also calculated through the energy savings caused by reduced cooling load and increased rental rate. -
Cooling load reduction = 0.93 MWh/year Average yearly rent for the space= 5,100 US$ Increased rental rate = 4 % Savings on rental = 0.04*5,500 = 220 US$
Scenario 1 -
Local cost of electricity = 320 AED/MWh= 87.12 US$ Energy cost savings = 87.12*0.93= 81 US$/year Savings on rental= 220 US$ Total Savings = 81 + 220 = 301 US$/year Payback period = 2,106 / 301 = 7 Years S.ARCH-2017 306.8
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Scenario 2 -
International leveled energy cost = 132 US$//MWh Energy cost saving = 132*0.93 = 122.8 US$/year Savings on rental = 220 US$/year Total savings = 122.8+220= 342.8 US$/year Payback period = 2,106 / 342.8 = 6.1 Years
The cost-benefit analysis results conclude that the used modular living wall system with plastic planter boxes might not be the best economic sustainable option of the green wall, as the installation costs are high comparing with similar systems using plastic mesh living wall system [11]. Payback periods are quite high in both scenarios i.e, 10 years considering unsubsidized local electricity rates while 8.5 years considering international electricity rate level. It therefore finds that the living wall system cannot payback in a reasonable time as it stands. In the case of using plant-shaded wall, the payback period is more reasonable (between 6 and 7 years in both scenarios) in comparison to the use of vegetated living wall system. The authors expects to achieve reduced payback period once the environmental impacts are included as subject of future study to make the use of greening systems financially viable.
6
Conclusion
The use of vegetated and plant-shaded walls was successfully adopted in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, UAE to reduce cooling load in buildings. The decreased wall surface and indoor ambient air temperature occurred due to low thermal conductivity of the plants acting as heat insulators. Vegetated and plant-shaded strategies can reduce peak time indoor air temperature by at least 5 °C during the hot summer period, and reduce the peak air conditioning energy demand by up to 20% in case of using vegetated living walls, and 18.5% in the case of using plant-shaded walls. The result of cost-benefit analysis concludes that the modular living wall system might not be the best economic sustainable option of the vegetated wall, as the installation costs are extremely high. The payback period of using living wall system is quite high (8-10 years). In case of using plant-shaded walls, the payback period is more reasonable (average of 6.5 years) in comparison to the use of vegetated living walls. It is expected to achieve more reduction in the payback period once the environmental impacts are included as subject of future study to make the use of greening systems financially viable.
Acknowledgements The authors expresses their appreciations to the College of Engineering at the UAE University for funding this research project.
References [1]
K. Axarli & E. Eumorfopoulou, “The impact of the vegetation on building facades on microclimatic modification in temperate climates in summer”. 4th ISES Europe Solar Congress on Renewable Energy for local Communities of Europe (EUROSUN), paper 202, 2002. S.ARCH-2017 306.9
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[2]
K. Kontoleon & E. Eumorfopoulou, “The influence of wall orientation and exterior surface solar absorptivity on time lag and decrement factor in the Greek region”, Renewable Energy; 33: 1652–1664, 2008)
[3]
K. Kontoleon, & E. Eumorfopoulou, “The effect of the orientation and proportion of a plant-covered wall layer on the thermal performance of a building zone”, Building and Environment, 45: 1287-1303, 2010.
[4]
M. Haggag & A. Hassan, “Experimental approach to investigate thermal performance of plant-shaded façade in hot climate”, 4th Annual International Conference on Architecture and Civil Engineering, 2016.
[5]
M. Wigginton & J. Harris, Intelligent skins. Butterworth, Oxford, 2002
[6]
T. Caplow et al., “Vertically Integrated Greenhouse: Realizing the Ecological Benefits of Urban Food Production”, The Ecocity World Summit, San Francesco, 2008.
[7]
P. Katia et al, “Vertical greening systems and the effect on air flow and temperature on the building envelope”, Building and Environment, 46: 2287-2294, 2011.
[8]
O. Timur & E. Karaca, “Vertical Gardens” chapter 22, http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55763
[9]
N. Wong et al. “Thermal evaluation of vertical greenery systems for building walls”, Building and Environment, 45: 663-672, 2010.
[10] Green over Grey – “Living Walls and Design”, www.greenovergrey.com [11] M. Haggag & A. Hassan, “Cost-benefit analysis of living wall systems on school building skins in hot climate”, 5th International Conference on Energy and Sustainability, 2014. [12] E. Alexandri & P. Jones, “Temperature decreases in an urban canyon due to green walls and green roofs in diverse climates”, Building and Environment, 43: 480-493, 2008. [13] J. Luvall & H. Holbo, “Measurements of short-term thermal responses of coniferous forest canopies using thermal scanner data”. Remote Sensing of Environment, 27:1-10, 1989. [14] M. Haggag et al, “Experimental Study on Reduced Heat Gain through Green Facade in High Heat Load Climate of UAE”, Energy and Buildings, 82: 668–674, 2014. [15] K. Perini & P. Rosasco, “Cost-benefit analysis for green façades and living wall systems”, Building and Environment, 70:110-121, 2013. [16] https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/657 13/6883-electricity-generation-costs.pdf
S.ARCH-2017 306.10
TEMPORARY RETAIL SPACES IN CASTILLA LA MANCHA (SPAIN) DURING THE XIX CENTURY: FLYING MERCHANTS AND DEPLOYABLE STRUCTURES Juan RoldĂĄn MartĂn, Assistant Professor
American University of Sharjah University City, 26666, Sharjah, UAE, jroldan@aus.edu
Abstract 19th century engravings of the Azoguejo Square in Segovia (Spain) offer repeated scenes of flying merchants and street markets at that time. Within all these repeated and copied romantic scenes, some elements are a constant in all of them: The Aqueduct and its surrounding (changing and re-interpreted in many cases depending on the artist), Architecture and one other element: the merchant's tent, a deployable self-supported textile solution made out of a stretched fabric braced to a self-supported central wooden tripod structure. The research will try to understand its built environment, the permanent city in which these transient elements move from town to town. The paper will also try to shed some light on these specific prototypes as a specific traditional and non-scientific wisdom of experimentation developed by peasants and merchants, besides being a refined small-scale structural solution. On a third part, we will try to bridge the typological gap between traditional light and deployable structures from the traditional Arab Khaimah (tent), linking it with other small-scale devices like the parasol or the umbrella, imported from China. The paper will try to prove how this typology cannot be considered just as a mere temporary element of a larger city structure (street market), because its consistency and adaptability is what actually makes it a primary element of the urban tissue. The tent is an element which occupied the city during centuries, adapting its function and organic footprint to an everchanging urban landscape. It is this kind of elements the ones that remain beyond the built form, the ones that create the city trough memories, trading and social interaction. They are, at the end of the day, the most permanent part of the city: the real place makers.
Keywords Temporary City, Deployable Structures, Merchants, Tents, Instant City
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1
Tent Structures and Public Space
Figure 1. David Roberts, Great Aqueduct at Segovia. 1837, engraving 10 x 15 cm. From: Thomas Roscoe. The Tourist in Spain. London: Robert Jennings and Co., 1837. Plate 14 Beside endless interpretations of the Tabernacle (portable tent-shaped structure) as a transportable and temporary space before the construction of the Solomon's Temple -built by Moses under very accurate instructions by God-, there are not many descriptions in history on temporary tent structures. One of the first pictorial representation of tent structures is a fresco conserved at the National Archeological Museum in Pompeii, entitled "The Riot between the Nucerians and the Pompeians" (Fig.2). The fresco describes the overall view of a riot on the site and its surroundings, where we can see several tent structures (poles and fabric) used by merchants at that time.
Figure 2. Riot between Pompeians and Nucerians AD 59. National Archeological Museum of Napoli, Italy. Full fresco and detail (right). S.ARCH-2017 401.2
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Before the XIX century thereâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s record of many pictorial representation and romanticized scenes, depicting the military tent structures during their campaigns in the Middle East, like the ones carried by the French troops under the command of Bonaparte in the XVIII century. Tent structures can be traced back to more than 41.000 years, traditionally -and until the Industrial Revolution- and always linking their origins to nomadic and semi-nomadic tradition or to military purposes.
Figure 3. Egyptian Expedition Under the Command of Bonaparte. LeĂłn Cogniet (1827-1835). Louvre Muesum Beside this main function of fabric tent structures there is little bibliography apart from descriptions made in literature. It is during the XIX century when, thanks to romantic travelers (French and English mainly), we begin to have images (over romanticized in many cases) of these urban scenes. The transition of these temporary deployable structures has a turning point from the technical point of view if we consider the theory of having adapted their simplistic structural scheme (marquee or canopy) into more sophisticated stretched fabric structures (Fig.5) while keeping their light-weight and deployable condition. The study of these typologies between mid XIX century until the beginning of the 20th century shows that a clear change in its structural typologies has to do with its adaptation (and influence) from different and smaller devices like the umbrella or similar collapsible inventions, being widely spread fashion accessories (besides its inherent protecting condition) among the French and English high society fashion accessories like fans, canopies, parasols or the so called umbrellos 1 since the XVII century (Fig4). 1 Wright Thomas. The History of Domestic Manner and Sentiments in England during Middle Ages. London, 1862 and previous images of the logo of Jendal and Sons, umbrella manufacturers (Leicester, 1756) S.ARCH-2017 401.3
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Figure 4. Jonas Hanway and his first umbrella, brought from France in the early 1750s. (Photo: Bettmann/Getty Images) In both cases -the umbrella and the stretched tent structures-, had a strong influence on our study thanks to the trading and exchange produced along the Silk Route. Spanish merchants, due to their daily routines of moving from one town to another (all according to the trading routes and national permits) needed certain functions to accommodate and make their duties in a more convenient manner. The element to be transported: goods, household items, food, clothes and the tent; all of them carried usually on a carriage or barrow depending of the scale. The specific Spanish merchant structures, focal point of this research paper will have this specific need in order to travel with certain readiness: ∗
Stability
∗
Lightweight
∗
Deployability
∗
Open perimeter
Figure 5. Many Romantic scenes of the XIX Century depicts the tipology of deployable structure, adopted as a strecteched fabric in some cases by merchants in the area of Castilla La Mancha. Left: Oviedo, Peasants in the Market. Manchón (drawing) and J. Cuevas (engraving). La Ilustración Gallega y Astuariana (magazine). Oviedo, 1880. S.ARCH-2017 401.4
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We find then, a popular engineered 2 device. An element which defines a perimeter and that protects from the sun and the rain. As final conclusion, the research pretends to restrict the study to nomadic retail use -beyond the already established guilds-, shops where smart solutions where applied, introducing the first idea of shop as a pavilion (Fig.3), the origin of pop-up store and the first detached and independent retail space, not depending of an existing architecture.
2
The City and the Street Market
To understand the context of this type of retail flying spaces, we need first to understand the main element where the tent is embedded: the street market. This type of market had a fast growth during the industrialization of Spain in the XIX century thanks to the construction of the railway network (RENFE). It is in our area of study (Castilla La Mancha) where we can find some anomalies in this network: a five-branch intersection in the area of Medina del Campo (Fig.6).
Figure 6. Spanish railway network, 1906. Source: RENFE EspaĂąa
Our area of study (Medina del Campo and Segovia) would be called at that time "*The Market of Markets"* due to the large amount of street markets happening in its streets during the month. Regarding the importance of the location we can see some anomalies in the railway network during the XIX century, which clearly respond to the adaptation of a new railway network to previous trading routes. Street markets, became in these transition days, an anchor of activities and social life within small villages and towns all over Castilla La Mancha. 2 "verb [with object] design and build (a machine or structure): the men who engineered the tunnel.â&#x20AC;˘ skillfully or artfully arrange for (an event or situation) to occur: she engineered another meeting with him.â&#x20AC;˘ modify (an organism) by manipulating its genetic material: [as adjective, with submodifier] (engineered) : genetically engineered plants." British Thesaurus S.ARCH-2017 401.5
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The city has been traditionally studied from a static point of view, paying attention to its built environment and its historical traces. Classical maps like La Nouva Topografia di Roma Comasco by Giambattista Nolli (ca. 1692-1756) go beyond the archetypical distinction between public and private spaces, taking his survey into some public interiors like churches or public spaces. Even in this case it´s the built form the only graphic representation on a map using the poché cut to depict the solid parts, therefore the non-poché parts of map will be the accessible urban space of the city. It is only recently that attempts of a holistic depiction on the complexity of the urban realm have been able to be conveyed thanks to technologies like GIS, in which several layers of information can be overlapped and related among them. The XX century has been the time when the city has been understood as built environment + human behavior. The crisis of the Modernism and the radical built manifestos of Le Corbusier have put in crisis the idea of an Architecture that does not care about the dweller beyond certain ergonomic aspects. The idea of the city made for the car and its crisis during the 50s and 60s, makes that some disciplines start studying the city, their inhabitants as well as their rituals and actions. It´s now the moment of Gordon Cullen (The Concise Townscape, 1971), where the perspective of study changes. The city is now understood as a sequence of images (townscapes), in a more similar way to our human perception, therefore the city can be designed in an improved manner. The understanding of the human rituals is also studied with film and photography as new ways of mapping the city like the case of the film studies by William H. White on “The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces”, where thanks to filming techniques the urban spaces is analyzed to see its flaws and the most important part: the real usage of the urban space by the people. Recent studies go beyond and define the understanding of the city as the comprehension of the built environment and it´s interiority (Sennet, 2014). The urban phenomena have to be understood with the pre-defined city (closed system by R. Sennet) and the spontaneous behaviors, with the unsolicited designer and the unexpected user: the temporary city. The city, and more specifically its ground floor (Hermida, 2011) is where built form and users find consensus depending of the regulation, the opportunities (of inhabitation) and capabilities of the user of the appropriation (temporary or permanent) of the city. Coming back to our theme: trading, merchants and their deployable elements, we find that their behavior is defined by the macro structure of the street market. It´s this temporary infrastructure with plug-in units, deployed in the city in a weekly or monthly basis (depending of the scale of the city and the type of market deployed), the element that gets defined in shape, extensions and footprint by the government or the municipality 3. These places have historically been the origin of local and regional trading but also the first urban settlement for banks (from the traditional mediaeval pawnshops and loan stall as a way of combating "loan sharks", now in public open spaces). Street markets were also the origin of public books selling and of course the social occasion for (weekly) gathering.
3 1853 becomes a turning point in the national legislation of street markets in Spain. Municipalities have now independency in legislation markets, in their typology, duration and extension in the city. S.ARCH-2017 401.6
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Among the different typologies that we can find in most of the scenes in Castilla La Mancha during the XIX century, we see a clear evolution from the traditional guild workshop (A in Fig. 7) to the tent stall (C in Fig. 7).
Figure 7. The three different retail typologies: in yellow [A] the permanent workshop (guilds); in magenta, the [B] temporary tented structure of a workshop and in yellow: [C] the temporary tent structure. Photo: Unknown circa 1896. Segovia
.
3
The Merchant´s Tent as an instant city
Many engravings and drawings by foreign travelers in Spain during the XIX century, depict street scenes of street markets with a lot of detail. One main problem with these depictions is not the level of definition but the distortion or over romanticized aspects of the views (Fig. 8). In many cases (like David Roberts), the Architecture of the backgrounds was modified, changed or even removed 4. The work of this Invention of Tradition 5 also happened in the realm of literature during this period due a lack of national identity after the French occupation.
4. As described by Silver Ph. W in *Ruins and Restitutions: re-interpretation of the Romanticism in Spain*.(CĂĄtedra, 1996) 5. A term coined by E. Hobsbawn and T. Ranger, trying to foster some rituals and practices know as traditional and truly Spanish. This type of revision of typical customer and practices was widely used by authors under the so called Spanish Constumbrismo. S.ARCH-2017 401.7
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Figure 8. Court of the Lions (La Alhambra, Granada). A comparative between an engraving by J.C. Murphy on the left (1815) and a recent photograph of the same place. The magenta silhouette shows the distortion introduced by Murphy, giving more depth (x2) and height (x3) to the courtyard. While authors like Jenaro Villaamil are accurate in the description and loyal to the reality mainly because they were in charge of taking the first drawing studies and finish the process of the final drawing or engraving-, while foreign authors like David Roberts would require a more complex step-by-step process of production of the drawing, followed by the interpretation by an engraver back in London. This kind of long process may introduce distortion and help to recreate a new reality for the readers of magazines like "The Tourist in Spain” 6 in London or "Le Tour du Monde" in France. Trying to decipher the real truth behind them, we have established a comparative method between similar tent structures and different authors. In Fig.9 we find the same textile structure drawn by two different authors already mentioned: Federico María Eder on the left and David Roberts on the right. Having studied previous images of Roberts, we get two different conclusions: he distorts the scale (more likely to be like the one depicted by Eder) but Roberts has several aspects to take into consideration: the tent is not drawn as an isolated element (like Eder does). Roberts draws a caravan on its right, a logical element used by this kind of merchants. Another important aspect of Robert´s depiction is the structure and the disposition of the product in relationship with the structure: the form seems to follow the logic of the function giving a true character of its internal hierarchy (Fig.10).
Figure 9. Left: Oranges stall by Federico María Eder, 1865. Right: Great Aqueduct at Segovia by David Roberts, 1837 6 Robert Jennings and Co., London, 1837 S.ARCH-2017 401.8
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Figure 10. The deployable tent structure as a first temporary retail typology. A basic element of place making in the city with its internal hierarchies Recent studies go beyond and define the understanding of the city as the comprehension of the built environment and it´s interiority (Sennet, 2014). This urban phenomenon has to be understood with the pre-defined city (Closed System by R. Sennet) and the spontaneous behaviors, with the unsolicited designer and the unexpected user. Looking back into our more recent history of Architecture we find some curious examples of visionary Architecture like the ones proposed by Archigram (Victoria & Albert Museum n.d.). This group was composed by the architects Warren Chalk, Peter Cook, Dennis Crompton, David Greene, Ron Herron and Michael Webb. This collective initiative proposed several radical (at that time) elements of architecture using the technology as the left motif of their core values. Among their projects, there are projects like a human-scale Living Pod (an inflatable and portable capsule), but you can also find urban interventions like the Walking City. Besides these technological examples there is one which relies less in the utopian high-tech and thinks about the way or re-utilize existing technology like zeppelins, projection and sound systems; this is the case of the Instant City by Peter Cook: "an airship containing all the cultural and education resources of a metropolis which could land in remote areas giving inhabitants a taste of city life”. This sort of collection of floating devices would deploy their technology on a (so called) sleeping city in order to activate it through different types of activities. The Instant City eventually would leave, leaving a re-activated city.
4
Conclusions
If we remove the images of a hyper technological zeppelin-shaped vessel, the collage format of all Archigram´s images and we focus on the definition of this type of city we can conclude that the Instant City: ∗
Is a device which arrives to the pre-existing city and
∗
Deploys certain devices in order to
∗
Create a number of activities which
∗
Activates an existing (sleeping) city S.ARCH-2017 401.9
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This is the definition of an Instant City without powerful imaginary. These four points would essentially explain this type of city which by indirect definition: These four points would essentially explain this type of city which by indirect definition: ∗
It´s a temporary element in space, not meaning to last.
∗
It is an a-functional 7 architectural device
∗
It is not a typological piece of Architecture
∗
All its part is not designed, they are pre-existing elements and devices
∗
It is (in essence) a designed event
Having these characteristics in mind and going back to our deployable tent structure, we can then conclude that they share most of their core values, formal aspects and temporality. The only difference would be, in our case, the consistency and the repetition of the act or event by deploying a tent (done by these merchants and traders since medieval times).
Figure 11. The evolution of the public square and the adaptation of the different retail typologies. The city changes, the street market remains. Although it could be understood as a piece of temporary city. This is the part of the city that remains, reconfiguring its activities and its footprint according to an ever-changing and shifting city planning (Fig11). This Instant City, is the one that descends -in a weekly basis- to activate the sleeping town trough trading and exchange, filling the liminal built environment with their objects and rituals. This is the part of the city hidden to the eyes of Giambattista Nolli or Bernard Rudofsky, but it is the real city made by the people for the people. Making city without architects.
Acknowledgements Thanks to Dr. Joaquín Roldán for his unconditional support during this research.
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References [1]
Victoria & Albert Museum, M.O., Available at: http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/a/archigram-walking-city-living-pod-instant-city/.
[2]
Roberts, David. Roman Aqueduct at Segovia. London: N.p., 1887. Print.
[3]
Beard, M 2006, The fall of the Roman Republic, viewed 30 January 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/ fallofromanrepublic_article_01.shtml>.
[4]
Le Tour Du Monde (Paris. 1860) - Année disponible1872 - Gallica. Accessed October 19, 2016. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb32878283g/date1872.
[5]
Waters, Michael. "The Public Shaming Of England’S First Umbrella User". http://www.atlasobscura.com. N.p., 2017. Web. 15 Feb. 2017.
[6]
Díaz, Joaquín. “Estampas de Ferias y Mercados”. Valladolid, 2005.
[7]
Sánchez del Barrio, Antonio. “Grabados y Estampas de Ferias y Mercados”. Valladolid, 2002
[8]
Sennett, Richard. "The Open City". Ph.D. New York University, 2013.
[9]
Whyte, William H. “Social Life Of Small Urban Spaces”. New York: Municipal Art Society of New York, 1980. film.
[10] Oliver, P. “Shelter in Africa”. London, 1971. [11] “Ilustración Española y Americana”. Madrid, 1868-1921 [12] Silver Ph. W. “Ruins and Restitutions: re-interpretation of the Romanticism in Spain”. Cátedra, 1996 [13] Cranstom, M. “El Romanticismo”. Barcelona, 1997 [14] Fernández Montesinos, J. “Costumbrismo y novela, Castilla”. Madrid, 1983 [15] Baker, E. “Materiales para escribir Madrid. Literatura y Espacio Público”. Madrid, 1991 [16] ETH CAAD Lectures series. A-Functional Architecture. 2017. Web. 15 Feb. 2017.STEPHEN GAGE, 2011. https://vimeo.com/23216289 [17] Nolli, Giambattista. La Nuova Topografia Di Roma Comasco. 1756. Web. 15 June 2015. http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/maps/nolli.html [18] Benjamin, W.. “Passagewerken/The Arcades Project”. Cambridge: Harvard University, 1999 [19] Geist, J.”Arcades The History of a Building Type”. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1983 [20] "Archigram: The Walking City, Living Pod And The Instant City". Vam.ac.uk. Web. 15 Feb. 2017. [21] "1964 - Walking City - Ron Herron". Cyberneticzoo.com. N.p., 2017. Web. 14 June 2017. [22] Sadler, Simon. “Archigram: Architecture Without Architecture”. Boston: MIT Press, 2005. [23] La Pietra, Ugo. “Urban Furniture for Society”. Milan, 1977
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[24] La Pietra, Ugo. “La Riappropriazione Della Città”. Italy: Centre Georges Pompidou, 1977. film.
S.ARCH-2017 401.12
PLUG-IN HOME MSc. Vasilija ABRAMOVIÄ&#x2020;, ing.arch Cabinet of Architectural Modelling, Faculty of Architecture, Czech Technical University ThĂĄkurova 9, 160 00, Prague, Czech Republic vasilijaabramovic@gmail.com
Abstract A quest for an architecture of change is a reflection of the world we live in. A rapidly changing socio-economic, cultural, and technological environment demands buildings and spaces that can adapt quickly. Namely our own homes, office spaces, classrooms etc. There is a necessity to embed robotic building components in the built environment in order to address contemporary needs for reconfiguration and demand-driven production. These components are able to animate (actuated, sentient) architectural environments, human needs and requirements for responsive and adaptive reconfiguration of the living space, while keeping interactive relation with the surroundings.
Keywords Artificial Intelligence, Digitally-driven, Adaptable, Interactive
1
Introduction
A quest for an architecture of change is a reflection of the world we live in. A rapidly changing socio-economic, cultural, and technological environment demands buildings and spaces that can adapt quickly. Namely our own homes, office spaces, classrooms etc. There is a necessity to embed robotic building components in the built environment in order to address contemporary needs for reconfiguration and demand-driven production. These components are able to animate (actuated, sentient) architectural environments, human needs and requirements for responsive and adaptive reconfiguration of the living space, while keeping interactive relation with the surroundings. In our home situation, there are several cycles of activities that require changing the space in terms of furniture configuration. On a daily level these are the morning, afternoon, and evening cycles; during the week, they are working days and weekend cycles; during the month they are social events like visits and parties, regular occurring events like cleaning, or contingent events like repairs and maintenance; during the year they can be linked to the seasonal change, and so on. Configuration changes in the domestic situation are usually kept to a minimum because of the associated effort to establish the changes before and to revert to the previous situation after the event. This leads to situations that are well balanced to one major configuration but sub-optimal or even bad for many other events. In this research we investigate what will
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happen when such change becomes much easier, by giving indoor spaces intelligent and autonomous mobility. Here discussed the study of “Plug In Home” based in an indoor space, aims to show how interactive and reconfigurable indoor spaces with embedded artificial intelligence (AI) give a possibility for multiple use of interior spaces in condensed timeframes, allowing at the same time social interaction. This gives efficiency, varied and adaptable use of space.
2
Problem and the reasoning behind
Automated clever house has to make its grand debut. If we imagine that we can have a home which is wirelessly connected to any location we might be, then it also suggests that all the people – modern nomads of today could be able to move and take their homes along with them. This home system already learned their habits, affinities and requirements and could therefore make it significantly easier for moving around and being more location flexible. We could be moving from conventional, rigid and solid architectural space towards something that can be shape changing, responsive, and adaptable having interactive responses, while heading towards intuitive experience of homes. This idea which dwells around AI (Artificial Intelligence) presents one side of the Plug-in Home, while another one is connected to its physical flexibility and adaptability, also discussed in this paper. However, it is important to stress that both parts are closely intertwined in such a way that one requires the other, and the system would not be able to function without its brain “the operator” and the physical “the executor” (components which interface directly with the real world).
3
Abilities of Plug-in Home
Indoor environment of this system would act as an automotive Think-Tank which would be learning, controlling and managing the data generated by people and pre-given layers (goals), taking specific surroundings into the account. We also explore the possibilities to improve efficiency of space use through spatial reconfiguration and adaptability to different timeframes. Here, agents incorporated are based on reflex agents, goal and utility, but also learning agents. This allows for choosing between different solutions embedded in the system, while having the ability to become more competent in the future (learning agents). These robotic devices are embedded in the furniture and other indoor components and are able to communicate between each other through high speed local networks allowing the user to transform the space while not being physically present. The final shape and the layout of the room is the result of the mutual and continuous interaction between the possible solutions offered by designer, the selection of some of them by the user and the unexpected situations and indeterminate solutions. This implies developments of interactive building components, which respond to users’ needs in ever-changing environments and requires seamless, numerically controlled and robotically supported design-to-production and operation chains enabling implementation of robotic building components from conceptualization to use. Thus leading to the emergence of performative building components that are responding to individual needs in ever-changing spatial and environmental conditions, which is based on understanding buildings from a lifecycle perspective with respect to their socio-economical and ecological impact. [1]
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AI theories and techniques are then presented to show how to design indeterminate solutions: by engineering machines that interface directly with the real-world, self-sense, record and learn from their own physical performance. Digitally-driven architecture accommodates human needs by addressing imperative requirements for flexibility and reconfiguration; equally important, it transcends pragmatic needs by instigating new evocative and ‘emotive’ relations with the built environment. [2] The system would be a constant adaptive growth which could enable flow of data inputs and outputs, also informing about new requirements and solutions. After learning the habits, the system would be able to suggest new things based on user’s learned affinities (learning agents). In this way the house would not act as a perfect butler but rather as an interactive machine. Or in another words, from the founder of the Hyperbody group, the entire building ideally consists of interconnected families of specified building components, each of them acting/performing locally and interacting with the changing conditions at the exterior side of the skin, and with the whimsical needs of the users at the interior side. “I no longer consider to add brains to the building body, but consider the building to be the brain." [3] The system has to become HELPING INTERACTIVE AND RESPONSIVE SUSTAINABLE AWARE
of our lifestyle.
2.1 System operations and goals The AI of such system would be drawn of many operating layers. By having multiple parallel activities, and by removing the idea of a central representation, there is less chance that any given change in the class of properties enjoyed by the world can cause total collapse of the system. Rather one might expect that a given change will at most incapacitate some but not all of the levels of control. Each layer of control can be thought of as having its own implicit purpose (or goal). Since they are active layers, running in parallel and with access to sensors, they can monitor the environment and decide on the appropriateness of their goals. Second, as each layer is built it must be tested extensively in the real world. The system must interact with the real world over extended periods. Its behaviour must be observed and be carefully and thoroughly debugged. [4] Instead of the architect’s attempt to find a unique, fixed and ideal solution, the challenge is designing an indeterminate solution, offering a range of alternatives for the users of a building. In order to design an indeterminate architecture, the designer has to envision a range of possibilities, leaving part of the definition open, according to incidental situations that may occur in time and throughout the use of the building. [5] After doing surveys and interviews which included different personalities and professions such as – journalists, economics, chemists, architects, lawyers and many others, we were able to see how different the affinities of people may be concerning their own homes. Here listed are some of possible goals (Table 1):
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Table 1: system layers/goals
1 2
3
4
THE PLUG IN SYSTEM CAN : (layer – “goal”) Order the food
BASED ON:
Voice command, or external input (e.g. sms text, application operated) Inform when the user will be missing out on some Learned process or voice things inside the house ( anything bought in the command market which can include a barcode), and suggest Explanation: buying them before the expiration If a user shops with their credit card, everything can be scanned and stored with its barcodes to an account. This barcodes list would be then stored bellow “shopping script” inside the house system. First 3 months would be used as a house learning process where the system can keep track of how often/fast a person spends and buys again the same things. Based on this learnt “shopping script” the house can inform the user that something will be running out soon, and suggest and ask if the user wants it ordered. Gain: Unnecessary time spent on managing around the house would be put to a minimum. Internet shopping would not need to be done by us anymore, but rather by a house robot system which will learn what we need, and also when do we need it. In case of a mistake, this still remains a two way communication system. Controlling sensors - which could control the Sensors heating, while keeping track of users body temperature and based on its lower or higher values change the room temperature accordingly Give pre-given temperature script modes: On built scripts a) At the work S.ARCH-2017 403.4
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b) Coming home c) Exercising d) Sleeping etc.
5
Opening the windows
6
Guest program, modes: a) Friends gathering b) Studying mode c) Party d) Meditation etc.
7
8
9 10
House system can be connected via application to for example mobile device of the user. In this app user can chose some already pre-given modes which the house should put on request. E.g. when coming back from work house can track the user with its GPS signal where it can “read” user arrival and set the program upfront – start heating, etc. On built scripts or sensors
On built scripts. Learning different home situations. In some specific situation the system will start performing wanted operations such as different temperature, music in the background, air control if there is many people in the room etc. Help the social activities Social media access, voice a) Send invites for e.g. movie night commands and inputs b) Send postcards for bdays etc. System could access the c) Organize an event by informing people calendars and agendas and from the list based on a “question” perform tasks instead of the user. Holograms in the flat e.g. while buying the new Hologram technologies furniture existing technologies: - HoloLens Microsoft - Google TANGO Reconfigure non constructive house elements Deployable walls structures Robotic operated systems Clean the house Robotic operated systems
11
Suggest and respond on an input from the user: Voice command, results by a) What are the gyms around? internet research b) Give me the recipe for an avocado smoothie? c) How is the weather tomorrow? d) What happening are there tonight in the city? Etc. ….. ….. …..
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This kind of house interface can be called kinetic interface since it would be communicating the stories of the activities of its inhabitants and react on them. The space would consist of robotic architectural agencies and sensory spaces. The vision here is that during the design process, future situations are uncertain, since not only buildings generate unprecedented and unexpected situations, but also these situations evolve and change through use and time. Building remains in an open-ended process of definition and redefinition according to clients’ incidental needs, demands and desires. As explained in the work by Daniel Rosenberg this could be defined by two complementary design considerations: Designing the Range and Enabling the Choice. While Designing the Range refers to transformable buildings able to offer a variety of states, enabling the Choice refers to the users’ selection of states (layers/goals in our case), within the range and according to emergent situations. While Archigram’s ideas are presented to show how indeterminacy can be pushed to an extreme by proposing flexible and almost immaterial building environments, kinetic architecture is used to address the technical domain of indeterminacy by mechanical structures able to transform according to variable demands. [5] For example - non constructive home structures could also become robot operated e.g. – deployable furniture structures which could be moveable, transformable and adaptive based on each user needs. When having this reconfigurable inside home structures as for example the non-structural walls, we could include the scripts e.g. “guest mode – 10 people” and in case of smaller places the house could adjust so it would make more space in the living or dining room, on the expense of the bedroom e.g., and with the goal of creating a comfortable environment for more people than usual. This gives flexibility of the indoor space, with the option of change connected to the house system. Charles Eastman, for instance, envisioned spaces and users as feedback systems that would allow architecture to self-adjust to fit the needs of users. When it comes to using holograms to measure or map some changes around our own homes, technology is already going in this direction and we can witness several projects that are connected with this topic HoloLens Microsoft [9] Google TANGO [10] Jibo robot [11] As for Jibo we can argue that having a system as this one, rather than a robot, would be much easier for use and for upgrade. This system could be easier transportable and could offer phone connection via app and voice commands (e.g. Siri), and would be able to offer more abilities in a wider context. Nonetheless all of the mentioned technologies could be of great use to developing this specific Plug-in home system.
4
Gain
This changing relationship between physical and virtual implies not only a change in the operation and use of buildings but also a change in their physical configuration, and therefore, their design and production. The progressive integration of networked, interactive devices into the physical environment is implying a transformation not only in the operation and use of built environments but also a change in their physical configuration, and therefore, their design. [6] S.ARCH-2017 403.6
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It is not enough to offer a fixed space of possible solutions, but also to enable the user to choose what type of transformations the systems would produce. We can think of many ways of how this specific system can help our lifestyles. When having something like this running and dealing with our own daily requirements we are creating an automated architecture which truly follows the new age way of living. Concrete passive house containers are no longer of any use, and the request for a change is more visible day by day. Instead of designing unique fixed and ideal solutions, the new direction proposes transformable environments able to offer a range of alternatives to be defined and redefined by the users in real-time: An indeterminate architecture, sympathetic to uncertainty, incompleteness and emergent situations, wherein the building is reduced to an ambiguous, ephemeral and almost immaterial building environment [5]. We will design a range of possibilities, of which some mentioned above, but leaving a part of it open to users and the changes that might occur later in time. Following Archigram’s vision of indeterminate architecture - architecture that could respond to open-ended and uncertain conditions. ‘Architecture can be much related to the ambiguity of life. It can be throw-away or additive; it can be ad-hoc; it can be more allied to the personality and personal situation of the people who may have to use it.’ [7]. In other words, architecture that echoes the work of Nicholas Negroponte is understood as an adaptive, responsive machine—a sensory, actuated, performative assemblage of spatial and technical systems that creates an environment that stimulates and is, in turn, stimulated by users’ interactions and their behaviour. [8]
Acknowledgements Presented work is part of the PhD research project “Interactive Architecture” carried out by the author at Faculty of Architecture, Czech Technical University in Prague, Cabinet of Architectural Modelling (MOLAB) and supervised by prof. Henri Achten. This research is funded by a grant received from Ministry of Science of Montenegro through "National scholarship program for excellence”. The scholarship is a part of HERIC project which is placed within the framework of the Government of Montenegro’s strategies for European integration in the areas of science and research.
References [1]
H.Bier, Robotic Building as Physically Built Robotic Environments and Robotically Supported Building Processes, 2014
[2]
H.Bier, T. Knight, Digitally driven architecture, ISSN 1875-1504, 2010
[3]
K.Oosterhuis, Game Changers, DOI: 10.7564/13-NGBJ7, 2014
[4]
Rodney A. Brooks, Intelligence without representation, 2003
[5]
Daniel Rosenberg, Indeterminate Architecture: Scissor-Pair Transformable Structures, ISSN 1875-1504, 2010
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[6]
H.Bier, Interactive Building, 2012
[7]
Peter Cook, Experimental Architecture, London: Studio Vista, 1970
[8]
Branko Kolarevic, Exploring Architecture of Change, ACADIA 09 reForm, 2009
[9]
HoloLens, Microsoft https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ic_M6WoRZ7k&feature=youtu.be
[10] Google TANGO, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eYlIprTlsmQ [11] Jibo robot, https://www.jibo.com/
S.ARCH-2017 403.8
PRODUCTIVE REVIVAL OF ROAD SPACE Dan Han1, Zhang Yukun1, Zhang Rui1* 1School
of Architect Tianjin University 999001, 300072, Tianjin, China, 616842764@qq.com
Abstract The compound and intensive integration of different multi-functions are the new trends of scientific and technology development. Integration of road space and urban productive functions has practical significance for achieving sustainable development of social and economic environment and saving energy and land. Road space as an important part of urban function, its theoretical development has gone from passiveness to activeness, from twodimensional space to three-dimensional space, from single to complex functional process, and is gradually changing under the influence of urban planning theory. Productive city that emphasized production and self-sufficiency will also bring productive revival to road space, including both energy and agricultural production. Fully exploiting productive space of road would be an effective measure to resolve the problems of urban traffic and promote the development of sustainable cities. In the energy production sector, we proposed the concept of Road Integrated photovoltaic (BIPV), analysed their strengths and development opportunities comparing with BIPV and solar farms, and estimated their potential for future development. In agricultural production sector, we raised the idea of integration of road space and urban agriculture and analysed its value and benefits according to the relevant case. Finally, we pointed out the opportunities and challenges of the current productive revival of the road space and put forward the future development plans.
Keywords Road traffic; productive city; road integrated photovoltaic; urban agriculture
1
Introduction
The relationship between traffic land and other functions of the urban land is closely integrated and interactionalďź&#x152;and traffic land is also an important link to a variety of functions of land use. In recent years, the development of diversities of green traffic land has promoted new ideas for the development of mixed land use and mixed building types. Therefore, considering the clever integration of traffic land and other development land, it has a positive significance for the common development of green traffic and related industries.
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2
Productive City& Productivity of Road Space
With the advance of urbanization, what will become the key to sustainable development in the future is whether citiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; comprehensive carrying capacity can support the survival and development of cities. We need to look at cities with a new way of thinking - not only to reduce the consumption of resources, but also to tap the city's production potential and improve the city's comprehensive carrying capacity, so as to take the initiative to achieve a sustainable future. This new model of urban development (or spatial strategic planning) is the "productive city." The term "productive city" first appeared in the field of economics, mostly referring to high- efficiency or high-productivity cities. Due to the productive characteristics of agriculture, the term "productive city" also appeared in the field of urban agriculture and it has gradually enriched the contents of space production, economic production, environmental production and social production. Prof. Zhang Yukun from Tianjin University has combined the advanced research theory in the world and put forward the theory of productive city with more connotations due to the ecological crisis, demand expansion, lack of supply capacity and other urban problems of consumer cities, which is one of the means to improve the comprehensive carrying capacity of cities, to alleviate the urban supply imbalance and guide cities to maximize the self-sufficiency and sustainable development. It is the guiding principle of cities from resource consumption to fully exploiting its production potential. 1"Productive city" is a rich and extensive concept that its theory and methods can apply to all aspects of cities, especially in the development of traffic patterns.
2.1 Space Utilization The development pattern of plane road traffic has caused the utilization rate of land resources to be low, while the development of three-dimensional traffic can improve the utilization rate of land, but the cost of construction and the technical level are all demanding. Productive functions, such as agricultural cultivation and renewable energy development, need to absorb energy from land or solar energy resources and a large area of land. If the space required for road traffic and productive functions is integrated, the utilization rate of land can be greatly improved. The roads have the potential for secondary development over the surface and both sides of the buffer area which are often idle and the utilization of their solar energy production donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t affect the normal operation of traffic.
2.2 Combination of Production and Use Transport is the main function of road traffic, which requires a lot of energy. If the lines along road traffic can be combined with renewable energy development, then energy production and use can be cleverly combined. Therefore, the resulting energy can be supplied to the energy consumption of the vehicles on the road, avoiding the loss of energy from long distances. Road traffic land for agricultural production can greatly shorten the food mileage, facilitating the transport of food and reducing carbon emissions.
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2.3 Promotion for the Development of Surrounding Towns The area occupied by road traffic is huge, and the resources and energy generated by road traffic combined with productive functions can be transported to the nearest villages and towns in addition to meeting the consumption of transportation itself, which will provide nearby residents with lower cost of electricity and more job opportunities.
3
Classification of Road Space Productivity
If the urban road space is reformed from the point of view of production, the sustainable development of urban transport will be largely realized, bringing unexpected social, economic and ecological benefits. First of all, if conservation is just a kind of production, we can understand that the efficient use of land transport is productive. Secondly, the compound development of urban land can reduce the single development of urban land and there are principles of planning to use urban traffic linear land and space. 2Finally, the integration of a functional space and traffic space can become a new way of traffic space.
3.1 Efficient Utilization of Land for Transportation （1）Road underground Space Utilization In the 1940s, traffic in the urban area of London had become crowded, and the proposal for the construction of the Mass Transit Railway was put forward. After that, the construction of the subway was popularized in the world's major cities, which also became a typical example of making full use of underground space. In the “Space under Urban Roads and Common Trench” 3, Peng Fang and others put forward the comprehensive utilization of urban road space, especially the urban road underground space that is an important way to effectively use the urban road space, which is also one of the ways people think of first. （2）The Use of Space over the Road Overpasses and viaducts are typical cases of making full use of the space over the road in transport, but more and more new designs are no longer confined to the overpasses that are only convenient for the cars when considering the use of space over the road. These functions including pedestrians, landscapes, communications, recreations are also completed in the space over the road. The Hovenring, located in Eindhoven, Holland is the example for bike and pedestrian access by making full use of the space over the rode, which is becoming a new landmark in the city (Fig.1). In 2012, the overpass for bikes was designed by ipv Delft, like a flying saucer, which broke the common sense and provided a convenient way for passers-by and riders. 4This design not only makes full use of the city's existing land and space, but also provides a more comfortable and safe traffic environment for pedestrians and riders.
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Figure 1: The Hovenring in Eindhoven, Holland ďź&#x2C6;3ďź&#x2030;The Use of Road Pavement Road pavement space appears to have been fully utilized, but if we have rational planning of vehicles and layout of traffic facilities, there is still room for improvement in its transportation efficiency. For example, cycleway in the middle of the road. There are some cycleways in the middle of the road in Santa Monica of The United States, Brazil's Sao Paulo and Colombia's Bogota and other cities. In Yichang, China, the urban expressway is also used to carry out the comprehensive transformation and the first cycleway in the middle of the road in China appeared below the viaduct (Fig.2). In order to avoid mutual interference vehicles, non-motor vehicles and pedestrians, the cycleway is disposed beside the median strip of the road on both sides of the viaduct piers and isolated with hard fences, which makes riding be more safe and smooth and free from weather, enhancing the riding experience and solving the problem of bike storage.
Figure 2: Cycleway in the middle ofthe road in Yichang China S.ARCH-2017 501.4
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(4)The Use of Vehicles In addition to the innovation of the transport infrastructure to achieve three-dimensional traffic, recently, China's very popular straddling bus which attempts to start from the vehicles to achieve three-dimensional traffic. Straddling bus is a wide-body elevated tram between the bus and the tram with more compartments, traveling on the light rail (Fig.3). The upper transports the passages and the lower is empty for cars with window and lights. It is totally dependent on electric-powered with large capacity and have advantages of bus rapid transit BRT (BRT) and subway with the ease of traffic congestion, high efficiency of carrying passengers, low cost, short construction period, no need for parking lot, saving energy and many other advantages. Although it is difficult to match the existing transport facilities and other issues, it is really an innovative idea to achieve efficient use of land use by means of vehicles.
Figure 3: Straddling bus in China
3.2 Mixed Land Function Utilization The development of mixed urban land utilization is to emphasize the full use of the existing urban traffic land and its surrounding buffer area, to develop other functions of land in the city with no waste of every inch of land, which is not only to better achieve the efficient use of land and save unnecessary waste of land, but also shorten the distance between the functions of the city to reduce the transport volume, so as to achieve the purpose of sustainable development including energy saving, emission reduction and the protection of the ecological environment. In the 1930s, the people who learned urban planning which had been separated from architectural disciplines began to realize that the absolute division of functions did not contribute to the development of the city. In the planning of the Rockefeller Center in New York, the American Harrison used a lot of corridors to connect the public constructions, making connections with underground. So, a large-scale commercial center appeared which spawned a combination of urban complexes and urban traffic. 5In the 1970s, the traditional distribution of urban planning was challenged. Thanks to the renaissance of urban in Europe and America, people began to study the mixed design of urban function. The integrated S.ARCH-2017 501.5
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transportation hub was a typical representative of combination of urban traffic and urban function. With the continuous development of urban traffic, a large number of "traffic complex" continued to emerge, forming comprehensive passenger transport hub combined with aviation, railways, subways and road. Traffic complex is a combination of a variety of aviation, railways, highways, subways, light rail railways, taxis, car parking and other traffic functions, including many urban functions, such as business functions, service functions, leisure function and other functions. 6In recent years, with the rapid development of China's cities, integrated hub is also under development and construction. In some major cities, railway stations are mostly integrated with a variety of traffic functions and architectural functions, such as Xujiahui, People's Square and Wujiaochang in Shanghai.
3.3 The Combination of Traffic and Production The combination of transportation and other functions of the city is mainly in inner-city traffic or urban transport hub where people transfer, such as business, service, leisure and other functions. But it is difficult to directly combine a large area of road and city road with the building space, which also have the potential for secondary development. If these neglected roads are fully utilized to produce energy and resources, we can have new ideas for urban planning and promote the positive development of urban traffic. In addition to the basic production space, it also needs targeted production measures to achieve the combination of traffic and production. There are two major production measures including renewable energy production and crop production. Each production measure has a certain advantage for combining traffic system. According to the specific mode of urban traffic, environmental characteristics, climate characteristics, economic costs and other factors, we can put forward targeted production measure in order to maximize the realization of the green system of traffic. (1)Energy Production It can create more clean energy and reduce environmental pollution from fossil fuels from the combination of traffic and renewable energy production. RIPV (Roads Integrated Photovoltaic) refers to an integration which can make full use of road transport facilities and their occupied space to make solar photovoltaic power generation as far as possible. The electricity generated can be used for transportation or the local development and construction, so as to improve the efficiency of land use and to avoid the loss of long-distance transport of electricity, promoting the development of the surrounding towns to achieve green traffic and urban sustainable development. Compared with conventional solar farms and popular BIPV (Building Integrated Photovoltaic), traffic space combined with solar power has unique merits (Tab. 2). Table 1: Comparative analysis of RIPV and the traditional form of solar power Merits and Demerits Energy Production
Distributed (BIPV)
Photovoltaic
Small and scattered production
Centralized (Solar farms)
Large and centralized production
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Energy use Land Use Problem
1 Tightly integration of 1 Separation of the produced production with use and use 2 Complex solar grid 2 High cost of long-distance conditions transmission Use of architectural Occupation a large area of surfaces desert 1 Limited roof area and 1 Impact on the ecological dispersed complex environment of the desert 2 Management 2 Sandstorm hazards inconvenience
Tightly integration of production with use Conservation of land 1 High investment 2 Intermittent 3 security risks
RIPV can fully absorb the solar energy exposed to the natural environment, becoming a largescale energy production to meet the huge energy needs thanks to large length of road traffic and large area. China is very rich in solar energy resources with an average annual radiation at 4 kWh / m2 in most majorities of areas. According to the power generation efficiency of polysilicon solar panels which is generally 12 ~ 17%, the average daily solar power can be 0.48 ~ 0.68 kWh / m2 in most majorities of China (the following calculation is according to 0.5 kWh / m2). If all the 7,942,000 hectares of traffic land can achieve the integration of photovoltaic, it will produce 1.407 billion kwh of electricity every year, which is equivalent to 2.64 times the total annual electricity consumption. (2)Agricultural Production When the road is through the town, the original land for planting becomes very limited, resulting in shortage of land. Therefore, the residents grow vegetables and other crops in front of their houses (road land), which is actually not strange at all. This phenomenon banned by government departments is repeated, which not only shows that urban agriculture is very popular, but also prove that traffic land is not fully utilized and it is very feasible to combine traffic with agricultural cultivation. The traffic system has many advantages for crop production. Firstly, the economic benefits will be relatively prominent if we choose economic crops for production. Secondly, crop production requires human labor and relevant technical staff who know the agricultural cultivation, which can partly solve the employment problem of rural population in the urbanization. Thirdly, crop production has a certain ecological benefit including alleviating the environmental pollution and improving the micro-climate. In addition, the agricultural production of traffic system will bring a series of benefits to the traffic system itself, such as more stable roadbed, more beautiful road landscape and more comfortable temperature and humidity of the pavement. If government departments and planners can reasonably and effectively formulate relevant policies, it would be feasible to combine agricultural production with traffic land. The Farmington Urban Landscape Planning made by the University of Arkansas Community Design Center is a good blend of transportation and agricultural production, which was once the largest apple growing area in the United States. In this planning, the commercial roads were changed to hybrid roads for agricultural planting, forming an "edible" embedded design of agricultural production which maximized the development of public space and made a new planning for landscape of urban roads in the commercial area (Fig.4). This design enables safe production of agricultural products and can provide more jobs to promote local economic S.ARCH-2017 501.7
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development. The designer has established a set of ecosystems that can maintain the soil and control pests and diseases. Under the premise of ensuring good and safe traffic, the designers have integrated the landscape, nature, economy and other factors, establishing the model of highway planting design.
Figure 4: A new hybrid Avenue and sidewalk planning for growing food
4
Opportunities and Challenges
The production of traffic space is realized on the basis of the original urban traffic system. Without the development of large area of land, the purpose of improving and alleviating the urban problem can be achieved and the intensive utilization and production of urban land can be realized. However, there are still many restrictions on the combination of traffic and production, including technical factors, economic factors and social factors. There is a greater risk that the possibility of recovering costs is low in the first few years of operation because of the high investment on the combination of transportation and renewable energy. Compared with traditional energy sources, renewable energy is also intermittent. For example, if there are snow, rain or storm and some other bad weather, the renewable energy equipment is likely fall off resulting in the safety hazards, affecting the traffic safety. In terms of planting production, maintenance and food safety are the main constraints. As the road space for agricultural production is generally linear, it is difficult to use large-scale mechanization for the implementation of fertilization, pest control and other maintenance measures. Therefore, traditional manual methods will increase costs and we also should consider the impact on transport and security issues made by maintenance. Traffic space for agricultural production will absorb car exhaust, resulting in food safety problems. However, with the promotion of clean and environmentally friendly electric vehicles, the problem will be solved. In addition, the economic crops such as cotton and gourd can be used for industrial production, having no food safety problem.
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References [1]
Dan H, Yukun Z, Rui Z, Production analysis of traffic space, Proceeding of International Conference on Architecture and Civil Engineering, Annual International Conference on Architecture and Civil Engineering (ACE 2016), Singapore, 2016, pp. 262-266.
[2]
Ong S, Campbell C, Denholm P, et al, Land-Use Requirements for Solar Power Plants in the United States, NREL/TP-6A20-56290, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Denver ,U.S., 2013.
[3]
Bill Holdsworth, 2003.Solar energised roads and infrastructures. Refocus, 4, (2003) ,3, pp. 58–60.
[4]
Jaffery S H I, Khan H A, Khan M, et al, A study on the feasibility of solar powered railway system for light weight urban transport, Proceeding of World Renewable Energy Conference (WREC), Denver, USA. 2012, pp. 1892-1896.
[5]
Sharma P, Harinarayana T, Solar energy generation potential along national highways, International Journal of Energy & Environmental Engineering, 4, (2013), 1, 1-13.
[6]
Kirkegaard J F, Hanemann T, Weischer L, et al, Toward a Sunny Future? Global Integration in the Solar PV Industry, Surgical Clinics of North America, 47(1967), 1,49-60.
[7]
Castaneda S M, Mori J D, Sustainable "Green" Transportation Systems: Integrating Renewable Energy Technologies into Automated Fixed Guideway Systems, Proceeding of International Conference on Automated People Movers and Transit Systems, 13th International Conference on Automated People Movers and Transit Systems, Paris, France 2011,pp. 283-293.
[8]
Bayraktar M E, Zhu Y, Mahmoud N V, et al, Opportunities on the State Highway System to Generate Revenue or Offset Expenditures for the State of Florida, 9780784411933, Florida Department of Transportation Research Center, Tallahassee, U.S., 2013.
1
Zhang Yukun, Zheng Jie. A Call for New Spirit A Centurial Turn of the Contemporary Cities and Buildings [J]. Architectural Journal, 2016(10):114-119. 2Sun Genyan，Study on Theories and Methodology of Compact-City Transportation Planning，Doctoral thesis，Chang’an University, Xi’an, China，2012 3Peng Fangle, Sun Dexin, Yuan Dajun. Space under Urban Roads and Common Trench. Underground Space, 2003, 23(4):421-426. 4 ipv Delft, ipv Delft, https://hovenring.com/news-2/ 5Li Bin，The Study of Multidimensional Connecting Space between Comprehensive Building and Urban Traffic System，Master Thesis，Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology，2005 6Guo Liang, The Transportation of Urban Planning, Nanjing: Southeast University Press ，2010 S.ARCH-2017 501.9
THE FUNCTION OF URBAN DECAY
Hotel Ascension Revitalization of Buffalo’s Historic Marine A Silo
Thanks to the development of digital tools and manufacturing technology, prefabricated units finished at an off-site factory can provide the modules for all programmatic needs. This changing culture in building industry allows noble opportunities for us to transform the urban decay into meaningful space, responding to our dynamic cultural shift. Therefore, the research poster presents projects examining the function of urban decay. Hotel Ascension suggests the transformation of the monumental and vacant Silo into an innovative type of hotel, open both to temporary residents and local citizens. PAMO (Prefabricated Adaptive Mobile Offices) suggests a design strategy to repurpose post-industrial warehouses to innovative workplaces.
L5. PANORAMIC FLOOR
HOTEL ASCENSION PROPOSES TO TRANSFORM THE VACANT MARINE A SILO INTO AN INNOVATIVE TYPE OF HOTEL, OPEN BOTH TO SHORT TERM TEMPORARY RESIDENTS –WRITERS, ARTISTS, MUSICIANS, THINKERS– AND LOCAL CITIZENS, SUGGESTING STRATEGIES THAT CONTRIBUTE TO A LARGER VISION OF REVITALIZATION OF BOTH SILOCITY AND THE CITY OF BUFFALO.
2
WHILE THE SIMPLE GEOMETRY PROVIDES UNINTERRUPTED VERTICAL ROOMS THAT CAN BE SEEN AS A MEANS OF TOTAL RETREAT, WITH UNLIMITED PLAY OF LIGHTS FROM THE TOP TO BOTTOM, REVERBERATION OF SOUND AND VOICE, THE GROUND AND TOP FLOORS ARE INTENDED AS ACCUMULATORS OF PUBLIC PROGRAMS, THAT PROVIDE GREAT VIEWS OF THE CITY.
L3. WORK/ART SPACE LEVEL
1
THE FOYER, GALLERY, BOOKSTORE, RESTAURANT, CAFE, PUBLIC LIBRARY AND WATERFRONT LEISURE SPACES ARE HOSTED IN LUMINOUS AND LIGHT GLAZED VOLUMES, WHILE THE WORKSPACES AND LIVING ROOMS FOR THE TEMPORARY HOSTS ARE THOUGHT AS CAREFULLY POSITIONED PREFABRICATED MODULES, LOOKING FOR AN EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT TO REDUCE TRANSFORMATION COSTS.
L2. HOTEL ROOM LEVEL
= STURCTURE MODULE FOR THE TRANSPORT ONE MODULE CAN FIT INTO THE TYPICAL TRAILER
CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE
THROUGH PREFABRICATED CONSTRUCTION
3
L1. GROUND FLOOR FOYER
INSIDE THE SILO 1. METAL ANCHOR 2. MEP CONNECTION 3. SMALL WINDOWS FOR HOTEL ROOM
0
PLAN OF HOTEL ASCENSION
10M
SECTION OF HOTEL ASCENSION
PAMO (Prefabricated Adaptive Mobile Offices) : Repurposing post-industrial warehouses to workplaces PAMO SUGGESTS A GALLERY-LIKE SPACE FOR PEOPLE TO WALK AND TALK, WITH NODES FOR COLLABORATION AND REFLECTION. THIS SYSTEM ALLOWS FOR THE ADAPTIVE REUSE OF ANY SPACE, SUCH AS AN ABANDONED WAREHOUSE OR FACTORY, MAXIMIZING THE SUSTAINABILITY OF THE CONCEPT BY MINIMIZING TRADITIONAL CONSTRUCTION AND WASTE RELATED TO TYPICAL NEW-BUILDS AND RENOVATIONS. PAMO FOCUSES ON THE FUNCTIONAL OPPORTUNITIES POST INDUSTRIAL OPEN PLANS PRESENT FOR THE USE OF MOVABLE PREFABRICATED MODULES. IT IS AN EMBRACE OF THE CHANGING OPERATING ENVIRONMENT WITHIN THE OFFICE FROM A MODE OF INDIVIDUAL EFFICIENCY AND COMMUNICATION TO A FLUID NETWORKING OF KNOWLEDGE AND COLLABORATION, FREED FROM THE TRADITIONAL OFFICE SETTING. WITH THIS PROPOSAL, THE TIME WE SIT ON PERSONAL COMPUTERS IS MINIMIZED AND AN OPEN FRAMEWORK OF A
1
BEFORE
2
3
KNOWLEDGE MARKET AND WELL-BEING WITHIN THE OFFICE IS SUGGESTED. 4
5
1. CORRIDOR (WALKING UNITS) / 2. OURDOOR UNITS / 3. MEETING, CONFERENCE /4. GALLERY WORKSTATIONS / 5. WORKSTATIONS
AFTER 40% OCCUPANCY
0
A 4
Section A
CLERESTORY WINDOWS 1
1 3 2
CLERESTORY WINDOWS B
2
3 3
Future office = Gallery for knowledge networking and collaboration
5
2
B’
3
1. WORK STATIONS 2. MEETING / CONFERENCE 3. OPEN SPACE / PLAY AREA 4. OUTDOOR EVENTS PAVILION 5. EXHIBITION SPACE 6. ENTRY PAVILION 7. RESTROOM
4 3 1
4
Fluid Technology + Prefabrication = Office can happen anywhere
1
6
LEVEL1
0
10m
Section B
10M
Sustainability and Flexibility = Investment for the Future
RESEARCH ON THE PHOTOVOLTAIC POTENTIAL OF URBAN BUS STATION Xiaoying Ding, Yukun Zhang*, Wen Zhang, Rui Zhang School of Architecture,Tianjin University 92 Weijin Road Naikai District Tianjin China, 300072, Tianjin, China, 568334000@qq.com This article is the National Natural Science Foundation of China (General Project) funded project: Community research cooperation urban agriculture based on ecological footprint analysis (project approval No: 51578363)
Abstract Nowadays electric bus has become more and more popular because of the energy crisis and environmental problems. However, in most cases, the power source of these electric buses still relies on state grid, which uses fossil fuel as its basic energy. To reduce carbon dioxide emissions of transportation system fundamentally, this paper firstly proposes an integration mode of bus station and photovoltaic system. Then it evaluates the city-wide bus station photovoltaic (PV) potential in Tianjin by the analysis of different influence factors, such as the bus station orientation and the photovoltaic system selected. The result indicates that the total number of the available bus stations is 150 and the summarization of the bus station PV potentials in Tianjin is about 103032MWh/year. Moreover, this paper calculates the economical and environmental benefits of the integration mode. At last, the advantages of the bus station applied photovoltaic system are analysed. The findings of this study assists the policy decision on the use of renewable energy of public transportation in Tianjin.
Keywords Photovoltaic potential, Bus station, Solar energy.
1
Introduction
Nowadays, carbon dioxide emissions of transport sector in developed counties accounts for about 1/3 of the total. Although lower than the level of developed countries, the carbon dioxide emissions of China's transportation sector is increasing in recent years, which is expected to reach 14% in 2050. Meanwhile, with the rapid development of traffic volume, the growth rate of carbon emissions in the transportation sector will be higher than that of the whole society.[1] Therefore, the use of electric vehicles and the construction of electric vehicle charging station will be an effective way to solve environmental problems. Because electric bus has fixed routes which provides an convenient way to install the supporting devices, it has become the important direction for China's new energy automotive industry. By 2016, electric buses have accounted for about 14% of the domestic bus inventory. In addition, in order to promote the development of electric bus, the state promulgated a series of policies, such as the "Application policies and related assessment methods aiming S.ARCH-2017 503.1
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to promote the improvement of urban bus oil price subsidies and the application of new energy vehicles". However, in most cases, the power source of these electric buses still relies on state grid, which uses fossil fuel as its basic energy. Therefore, in order to achieve the goal of energysaving and emission-reduction rather than pollution transfer, the energy supply form of electric bus must be changed fundamentally. Nowadays, many scholars have proposed that using renewable energy to provide power for electric bus can effectively reduce the consumption of fossil fuels, thereby reducing environmental pollution. As the research on the wind energy-based charging station is in the early stages [2], the integration of city bus system and phohotovoltaic system is more easy to be implemented.
2
Research Overview
With the development of photovoltaic technology, there have been an increasing number of research on the integration mode between the photovoltaic systems and transportation systems. For example, Han Dan et.al. have proposed the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Road Integrated Photovoltaicsâ&#x20AC;? concept which combines transport with new energy and taken the Lanzhou Xinjiang Railway as an example to analysis its electrical energy generation potential (Han Dan et. al., 2016)[3]. Qi Jianyong introduced the application of distributed solar photovoltaic power generation system on the service zone of motorway and discussed the advantages of this mode (Qi Jianyong et. al., 2016)[4]. However, there is relatively little research on the integration mode of parking stations and photovoltaic systems. Much of what exists focuses on the construction of PV-based EV battery swapping or charging stations (Chen, 2014; Ming, 2015; Jin 2016)[5-7]. Karin Axelsson et al. analyzed how to set up an independent PV system at the bus station to be self-sufficient in electricity demand. It was done by investigating two types of standardized bus stations, one in central Uppsala and one in the village. They also made a comparison of the construction cost between the independent PV system bus station and the bus station connected with the city power system [8]. Kawashima T et al. proposed a new public transport system based on the roadside bus stops in the city. In this system, every bus stop and the ancillary public facilities are all equipped with photovoltaic devices. When a bus arrives at one of the bus stops, it will be charged by the photovoltaic devices so as to reach next bus stop. Moreover, the effectiveness of this project is proved by experiment and the photovoltaic area required for each individual bus stop is simulated [9]. At the practical level, domestic and foreign cases of photovoltaic bus stations have emerged. Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority (VTA) installed elevated solar parking structures at three bus maintenance divisions in California. The clean electricity produced by these photovoltaic systems will offset three bus maintenance divisions electricity demand and save $2.7 million in electricity costs over the next 20 years. The solar panels will help to reduce the impact on the environment by reducing about 2,000 metric tons carbon dioxide each year, which is equivalent to removing more than 9,000 cars from roads or planting 10,000 acres of trees over the next 20 years [10]. Another case is Dart Central Station. The transfer platform is completely covered by a small-scale canopy, protecting passengers from natural influences. In addition, this canopy is combined with photovoltaic glasses, which is used to illuminate and generate electricity[11]. The well-known domestic practical projects are the newly built photovoltaic bus stations in Meijiang City, Guangzhou [12].
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VTA Bus Station[10]
Dart Central Station[11]
Meijiang Bus Station[12]
Figure 1: Practical cases of photovoltaic bus stations In conclusion, current theoretical research of the integration mode of photovoltaic system and bus station mainly falls on concept introduction and the main research object is single bus station. There is a lack of data on the photovoltaic application potential analysis of bus stations in urban area or on a larger scale. Similarly, the practical cases of PV bus stations are scattered and unsystematic.
3
Bus Stations Integrated With Photovoltaic
Due to the high cost of building new PV bus stations in urban areas and the large parking lots of existing terminal bus stations, this paper puts forward using the existing terminal bus stations as sites for the bus stations integrated with photovoltaic system, so that the electric buses can get charged at each terminal station. The bus stations integrated with photovoltaic design refers to a full use of the terminal bus stations by covering with solar photovoltaic power generation system. The electricity generated is given priority to meet the buse daily transport energy demand. While, the excessive electricity can be fed into the state grid. This self-built self-generation mode improves the land use efficiency and production efficiency, reduces the power supply pressure, and promotes the development of regional electric bus system. PV bus station generation system, using photovoltaic panels to convert the solar energy into electricity, is mainly made up of solar panels, power storage components, controllers, inverters, charging piles and other devices. The working principle is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Working Principle Diagram Figure 3 displays the design for the bus stations integrated with photovoltaic system. In order to minimize the influence on the daily operation of the bus system, the structural supporters are fixed about 4.5 meters high over the existing bus parking lots, where the solar panels are installed on the upper level. The necessary devices are connected to these solar panels and anchored in the designed room. The power generated is preferentially used for the charging piles.
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Figure 3: Design Project
4
Potential Evaluation Of Bus Stations Integrated With Photovoltaic In Tianjin
Based on the concept of bus stations integrated with photovoltaic power generation, this paper attempts to evaluate the potential of the bus stations in Tianjin, hoping to providing a reference for the local PV industry development.
4.1 Objects of Research The reasons selecting bus stations in Tianjin as research object for photovoltaic potential evaluation are as follows: a) The economy of Tianjin is growing fast but the local government is still confronted with overpopulation and resources starvation challenge. The data of "China Statistical Yearbook" shows that Tianjin's per capita coal share is 19.57 tons by 2014, ranking 19th among the 31 provinces. While the per capita electricity consumption is 5236.38KWh/year, ranking 8th in the country. b) In May 2010, Tianjin has been listed as one of the second batch of "Expanding public service areas of energy and new energy vehicle demonstration and extension" pilot cities. "Tianjin energy-saving and new energy vehicle demonstration and promotion and industrial development plan (2013 ~ 2020)" proposes that the number of electric buses in Tianjin is anticipated to be 2,000 vehicles in 2015[13]. The statistics show that the bus running consumption is 96.46KWh per 100km [14]. The average mileage of bus lines is 18.36km [15]. The daily trip is 3 times a day. Then, in 2015 Tianjin electric bus power consumption is up to 7.775 billion KWh/year. The report "Tianjin Statistical Yearbook" shows that Tianjin electricity supply capacity is 82.394 billion KWh in 2014, which means that the electric bus power consumption accounts for 9.4% of the total. Therefore, it is imperative to explore the photovoltaic potential of bus stations integrated with PV systems in Tianjin, which contributes to reduce the dependence of Tianjin on traditional energy and promote the use of Tianjin new energy vehicles on a wider range.
4.2 PV Potential Evaluation of Photovoltaic Bus Stations This research objects mainly include each bus lineâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;terminal bus stations with parking lots in Tianjin downtown area, apart from the waiting-bus stops. The screening process includes the following steps. Initially, the available bus stations are selected by Google Earth software S.ARCH-2017 503.4
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and Tianjin bus station information data. Then, combined with visual interpretation method, the active areas of these bus stations are calculated. Put specifically, this study measured the perimeter of each bus station and calculated the available area in Google Earth. Moreover, the statistical data is verified through the actual investigation. The bus stationsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; orientations and the types of different public facilities are classified (Figure 3). At last, this study made a summary of these data and formed statistical graph (Figure 4). The results show that the number of available bus stations in Tianjin is about 150. A rough estimate of Tianjin available bus stations area is 633925.75 square meters.
Figure 3: Partial statistics of bus stations in Tianjin
Figure 4: Distribution map of bus stations in Tianjin Bus station design should combine both photovoltaic power efficiency and aesthetic characteristics. As for the solar panel's power generation efficiency, the main influence factors are azimuth and tilt angles. The azimuth angle refers to the angle between the projection of the solar panelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; plane normal on the horizontal plane and the direction of the south (the northern hemisphere). The tilt angle refers to the angle between the solar panel and the horizontal plane [16]. Therefore, according to the different site environments and S.ARCH-2017 503.5
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the original bus routes, this paper proposes corresponding suitable installation modes of solar panels for different bus stations. The statistics show that the appropriate installation orientation of solar panels in Tianjin are divided into south, south west and south east. When the solar panels face the south, the optimum inclination of the component is 30°. In this study, the tilt angle of all types bus stations is set at 30°. In view of the aesthetic value and the impact on the surrounding environment, the direction of the solar panel plane normal’ projection on the horizontal plane is the same as that of the bus stations, the orientation of which is south west or south east. Namely, the azimuth angle is the angle between the orientation of stations and the south. In general, if the solar panel azimuth is 30°to 60°(deviating from the south), the photovoltaic power generation will be reduced by about 15% to 30%. In this paper, the reduction of photovoltaic power generation is about 22.5% [17]. The optimization plans of different bus stations are shown in Table 1. Table 1: Optimization plans of different bus stations Orientation
Case studies
Name
Paving Pattern Tilt
Azimuth
South
Jiulianshan
30°
0°
South East
Jinzhonghe
30°
angle between the orientation of station and the south direction
South West
Haihejiaoyu yuan
30°
angle between the orientation of station and the south direction
Electricity Reduction 0
22.5%
22.5%
Based on the statistical results shown in 4.3, assuming that the areas of bus stations with orientations of south, south west and south east are A1 (340215.28㎡) A2 (197229.758㎡) A3 (96480.71㎡), then the final available bus station area is A1 + (A2 + A3)× (1-22.5%) = 567840.89㎡. This paper selects thesolar panels containing high cost-effective polycrystalline cells as the basic component of this photovoltaic system. By inputting the bus stations area data into PVSYST6, the results show that the bus stations in Tianjin can annually produce electricity up to 103032MWh/yr (Table 2). Table 2: Results of PVSYST location
Project Parameters
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Output results
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Tianjin Latitude(°N): 38.9 Longitude(°E): 117.6
Area：567840.89 ㎡ Module Cost：0.70 EUR/Wp Technology：Polycrystalline
Annual Yield： 103032 MWh/yr Investment： 138035500 EUR Nominal power： 73819 KW
4.3 Economical and Environmental Analysis of Bus Stations Integrated with Photovoltaic Systems in Tianjin Since the electricity generated by this system can’t meet the power demand, the running mode of the bus stations integrated with photovoltaic system is self-built and selfgenerating. The following equation (1) is applied for calculating the first year electricity selling income:
E = W × λ × (Pb + Ps1 + Ps2)
(1)
where P S1 is the state subsidy price (yuan/KWh). P S2 is the local subsidy (yuan/KWh). Pb is the purchase price of Tianjin industrial electricity. According to the data of the "Opinions of the State Council on Promoting the Healthy Development of Photovoltaic Industry" (GuoFa [2013] No. 24) and the relevant provisions of Tianjin Development and Reform Commission, P S1 is 0.42 yuan/KWh, P S2 is 0 yuan/KWh, and P b is 0.89 yuan/KWh. Generally, the system efficiency is 80%. Based on the above calculation results, the first year electricity selling income E=103032×103×80%×(0.42 +0 + 0.89) = 1.079×108yuan. However, the actual benefit in not equivalent to the electricity selling income, due to the performance loss. Because the decay ratio varies as the time changes, there are two different equations (2) and (3) respectively applied for calculating the first year benefit and the annual benefit of next few years (except the first year):
I = E × (1－ ρ 1) In = E × [1－ 2.5%－ ρ 2(n - 1)]
(2) (3)
where I is the first year benefit. I n is the annual benefit of next few years. The value of 2.5% for decay rateρ 1 and the valua of 0.7% for decay rateρ 2 are adopted in this paper.[18] While the cost of this system can be calculated using Equation (4) and (5):
Co = nCi × Ro C = Co + Ci
(4) (5)
where C o is the management cost, R o is the management rate, C i is the investment cost, n is the years of operation. This paper assumes that the n is 25. The value of 3% of the management rate is adopted[19]. In order to show the system’s profit status in a more clearly way, P is set to describe the relationship between the accumulated benefits B and costs C:
P=B C
(6)
where B=I 1 +I 2 +I 3 +I 4 +……+I n . Based on above calculated results of 4.2, the curve of the P change is shown in Figure 5, where “1” indicates that accumulated benefits are equivalent to
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the accumulated costs. The diagram displays that the project is profitable at the 15th year, where the ratio P is more than 1.
Figure 5: Variation of Benefit/Cost The environmental benefit of the PV system in the life cycle is equivalent to the difference between the energy consumption caused by the coal-fired power generation (A 1 ) and the energy consumption in the installation and operation process of the PV system (A 2 ). According to the existing research results, the initial energy demand for the photovoltaic power generation system with polysilicon battery components and 20kWp installed capacity is 59406kWh [20]. Therefore, the environmental cost of the bus stations integrated with photovoltaic power generation system is 219264575.7kWh, and the power generation capacity of the system is 2.295Ă&#x2014;109kWh. The data of China's "power development thirteen five plan" shows that the average value of net coal consumption rate is about 318 grams of standard coal / kWh. Thus. Calculated by this conversion rate, the system in the life cycle can save 660,000 tons of standard coal. The reductions of pollutant emissions are shown in Table 3. Table 3: Reductions of pollutants emission Parameter
CO2
SO2
NOX
Smoke Dust
Pollutant emission reductions (103t)
1847.64
15.27
6.94
11.80
4.4 Results Analysis There are many advantages of the bus stations integrated with photovoltaic system mode: (1) The distributed photovoltaic power supply system reduces the power supply load of state grid. Meanwhile, the form â&#x20AC;&#x153;local electricity production for locally useâ&#x20AC;? decreases the energy loss caused by power conversion and long-distance power transmission. According to the estimated annual electricity output result, the terminal bus stations integrated with photovoltaic system design can meet the operating energy demand of 266 electric buses throughout the year, which means offsetting 13.28% electricity demand of the electric bus planning program in Tianjin in 2015. (2)The organic integration mode of bus stations and photovoltaic systems makes full use of the parking space and improves land use efficiency. (3) The photovoltaic canopy covered in the upper spaces of the parking lot effectively resists the impact of summer solar radiation, which also provides shelters for passengers. Moreover, the comfort level of the buses is improved and the energy consumption of air conditioning is reduced. (4) As the part 4.3 shown, compared with the traditional coal-fired power supply way, bus stations integrated with photovoltaic system saves a lot of fossil energy, bringing S.ARCH-2017 503.8
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huge ecological benefits. According to the following unit emission reduction cost calculation equation:
R = (A1 - A2) / P0
(7)
where P 0 is the system installed capacity. Thus, the savings of environmental management cost is 3.67 yuan per WP. With the development of renewable energy technologies, the initial investment cost of PV systems will be further reduced. Therefore, the bus stations integrated with photovoltaic system can make it cost-recovering in a more fast way and further reduce the impact on the environment. Since the mounting disposition of solar modules of the bus stations integrated with photovoltaic system is similar to that of solar modules on the flat roof, this paper choose the “Flat roof” as the system’s mounting disposition pattern. Thus the cost of the structural supporters is not included in the calculation. This type of error can be corrected by adding the cost in further study. Due to the fact that the information of the structural supporters has not been included, the total cost may be underestimated.
5
Conclusion
This study is the first ever to calculate the photovoltaic potential of the terminal bus stations over the entire Tianjin, considering the influence of orientation and solar system selected. The economic and environment benefits are analyzed based on a set of equations. Results of photovoltaic potentials are promising, which can help to promote the use of solar energy in public transport system. The database and the developed calculation methodology can be applied for the further study of the solar energy in Tianjin.
References [1]
Liu Jiancui, Energy Saving Potential and Carbon Emissions Prediction for the Transportation Sector in Chinatitle, Resources Science, 33, (2011), 04, pp. 640-646.
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Goli Preetham, Shireen Wajiha, Control and Management of PV Integrated Charging Facilities for PEVs, in Plug In Electric Vehicles in Smart Grids, (S. Rajakaruna, A. GarciaCerrada, A. Ghosh ), Springer, Berlin, Germany, 2015, pp. 23-53.
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Han Dan, Zhang Yukkun, Zhang Rui, Exploration of Roads Integrated Photovoltaic for New Silk Road Economic Belt, 2016 International Energy Technology Conference on Silkroad Economic Bell, Xian, China, 2016.
[4]
Qi Jianyong, Chen Xianzhe, Zhu Rongyao et. al., Application of Distributed Solar Photovoltaic Power Generation in Expressway Service Area, Science Innovation and Application, 03, (2016), 01, pp. 292-292.
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Chen Zheng, Research on Optimization Method for Integrated System of PV-based EV Batter Swapping and Charging Station, Doctoral Thesis, North China Electric Power University, Beijing, China, 2014.
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Ming Lingling, Research on Optimization Method of Integrated System of Electric Vehicle Photovoltaic Power Station, Master Thesis, Shandong University, Jinan, China, 2015. S.ARCH-2017 503.9
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[7]
Jin Jie, Jin Yan, Research on Solar Power Station and Electric Vehicle Battery Swapping Station With the Function of Valley Filling, Smart grid, 01, (2016), 04, pp. 50-53.
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Axelsson K, Ekblom T, Olsson A, How to supply bus stops with electricity without connecting them to the electricity grid. Bachelor Thesis, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden, 2013.
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Kawashima T. New Public Transportation System with Bus Charged Intermittently at Every Bus Stop Using Green Energy, Journal of Environment & Engineering, 02, (2008), 03, pp. 374-384.
[10] MV bus yard goes solar/27-03-2017/VTA, voice.com/news/2012/02/02/mv-bus-yard-goes-
http://www.mv-
[11] Dart Central Station/27-03-2017/CBC,http://www.archreport.com.cn/show-6-39281.html [12] PV bus shed put into use/27-03-2017/Meizhou,http://www.archreport.com.cn/show6-3928-1.html [13] Tianjin Development and Reform Commission, Report title Tianjin energy-saving and new energy vehicle demonstration and promotion and industrial development plan (2013 ~ 2020), 2013[92], Tianjin Development and Reform Commission, Tianjin, China, 2013. [14] He hongwen, Sun Fengchun, Yu Xiaojiang, Analysis of Energy Consumption of BJD6100EV Bus in Urban Driving, Transactions of Beijing Institute of Technology, 24, (2004), 03, pp. 222-225. [15] Brief Introduction of Tianjin Bus Line/27-03-2017/Tianjin Public Transport Group, http://www.tjbus.com/FrontPage/index.aspx [16] Gao Hongling, Zhao Yi, Analysis of Factors that Influence Generating Efficiency of Gridconnected Photovoltaic Systems, Industrial Technology Innovation, 01, (2014), 02, pp. 148-154. [17] Niu Shuangguo, Li Shufang, RESEARCH ON 2MWp SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER GENERATION TECHNIQUE, Architecture Technology, 44, (2013), 07, pp. 611-613. [18] Zhang Wen, Liu Ruifeng, Liu Jing, Pan Wenyang, Chen Tianen, Probe into Cost and Trend Forecast Model of Photovoltaic Power Generation Baes on Mutiple Factors Analysis, Shanxi Electric Power, 11, (2013), 41, pp. 17-20. [19] Shi Jun, Mathematical Model Analysis of Photovoltaic Power Generation Cost, Solar Energy, 02, (2012), 01, pp. 53-58. [20] Zhang Zhenyu, Yang Guohua, Che Chao, Zhao Wenqun, Study of economic and environmental benefits analysis of roof photovoltaic system, Electric Power Environmental Protection, 32, (2016), 04, pp. 53-55.
S.ARCH-2017 503.10
DYNAMICS OF THE URBAN BUILT ENVIRONMENT IN VIETNAM Iftekhar AHMED*, David Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;BRIEN University of Newcastle, School of Architecture and Built Environment, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia, <ifte.ahmed@newcastle.edu.au>* University of Melbourne, Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning, Parkville Campus, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia, <djobrien@unimelb.edu.au
Abstract This paper is based on two of the main cities of Vietnam, Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) and discusses the dynamics of the urban built environment in the context of rapid urban development. The economic reforms of the late 1980s, known as Doi Moi, ushered in a new era of prosperity, optimism and urbanization. However, challenges exist in addressing issues relating to urban equity, environmental management, and importantly, climate change impacts in a country seriously exposed to climate change. Much of the new urban development has been led by the private sector and internationalized models and an idealized approach to urban planning has resulted in dislocation from local culture and communities. Issues of coordination between different government agencies acts as a barrier to effective urban development and planning, and key services such as water, energy, transport and waste management are deficient and amplify urban problems. There is also a need for urban management beyond the planning of new developments, with a large bulk of the urban built environment being informally built without any planning oversight. There are nonetheless opportunities arising to address the urban challenges and some new urban development projects should be investigated as possible models for future development.
Keywords Vietnam, urban development, climate change, built environment, informal development.
1
Introduction
Vietnam is experiencing rapid urbanization with its urban population exceeding 25 million and comprising more than 33% of the national population [1], a jump of almost 8% in 5 years [2]. The 3.4% urbanization rate adds more than a million people annually to the urban population and it is expected that the urban population will grow to more than 40 million by 2020, comprising 40-45% of the national population [2]. Since the introduction of economic reform policies of the late 1980s, known as Doi Moi, private and foreign investment has been encouraged by the government mainly in or near the large cities, namely Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC). This has attracted large numbers of migrants to seek employment in the cities, a significant contributor to the rapid urbanization S.ARCH-2017 506.1
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[3] [4]. Migration and internal growth [4] has pushed urban expansion into the surrounding countryside [3] [5], resulting in the development of large metropolitan conurbations or Extended Metropolitan Regions (EMR) [6]. Foreign investments for new urban developments on city outskirts have introduced a new form of urbanization. However, the current global economic slowdown is having its impact â&#x20AC;&#x201C; investments are reported to be declining â&#x20AC;&#x201C; and this could introduce further changes in the rapidly changing Vietnamese urban context. Hanoi and HCMC have been decreed as Special Class Urban Centers in 2001 [7]. These are the two prime cities in Vietnam with estimated populations in 2014 of nearly 3 million in Hanoi and 6.4 million in HCMC [8], with possibly much higher populations due to unregistered migrants not being counted; the population of HCMC could be more than 8 million [3]. HCMC is experiencing more urbanization and migration because of being an important business hub and attracting the bulk of investments [1] [3] [6], but Hanoi, the national seat of government, is also growing rapidly. Therefore, because of their primacy, national significance and being drivers of development in Vietnam, these two cities are discussed in this paper.
2
A Time of Optimism
Recent poverty estimates indicate a positive picture falling from nearly 60% in the 1990s to less than 10% in 2010 [9]. Recent expansion of free-market enterprise catalysed by Doi Moi is reflected in the growth of many new multinational and local businesses at breakneck pace. The urban skyline in cities such as Hanoi and HCMC are changing continuously due to the addition of many new skyscrapers and tower blocks. Many enterprises are growing; high-tech electronic processing, services, medium and light scale industries, production and processing of building materials/ agro-products, etc. New and trendy hotels, clubs, bars and boutiques amidst traditional street markets/stalls has resulted in an atmosphere of exuberant contrasts.
Figure 1: A panoramic view from HCMC showing the recently commenced construction of the subway train system (source: Yim Nguyen Li, 2015) Optimism and ambitions accompanying sudden economic and physical growth after decades of repression and war appear to overshadow concerns for environmental sustainability and social equity. The previous era typified centrally controlled closed economic planning with an emphasis on an anti-urban development model with decentralised development. The recent S.ARCH-2017 506.2
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radical shift towards urban-focused development embracing a consumerist free marketdriven approach is having a liberating effect in national policy and practice. There are plans for a new port, new airport, subway trains (see Figure 1), many bridges, highways and skyscrapers, and urban renewal schemes involving colossal financial investments. The prevailing mood is captured in a comment by the Director of the Urban Planning and Architecture department of HCMC, “We want to become the biggest city in Vietnam and be the center of ASEAN and be the center of Asia and the center of the world as well.” [10]
3
The Urban Challenge
Doi Moi policies have resulted in economic growth, but being concentrated in the main cities has led to rural-urban disparity [3]. Although there has been reduction in national poverty [1] [9], the rich-poor gap began increasing [3] [11]. Changing lifestyles of the wealthy towards a high-consumption mode has resulted in increasing environmental problems [3] [5] and the poor in this situation of deepening inequality have limited scope for traditional collective action to deal with economic and environmental crises and downsides of urbanization. About 20% of the national population was below the poverty line and 6% the urban population was poor [9], but these estimates explain little in terms of the actual deprivation and equality experienced by the urban poor. Unregistered urban migrants, often among the poorest, are seldom included in these estimates. Informal housing is widespread [12] [13]; Doi Moi policies led to a relaxed attitude on migration to allow the flow of workforce to fuel economic growth. Thus housing demand has increased, but not the means to provide supply, resulting in the growth of inadequate buildings and urban poor settlements in hazardous and marginal areas. While poverty has reduced in the larger cities such as Hanoi and HCMC, it is concentrated in the large number of small and medium sized cities [9]. Urban transport is one of the biggest challenges. Motorcycles are the main mode of transport for a large bulk of the urban population and they dominate traffic – there are more than 4 million motorcycles in HCMC. Dense traffic congestion and air pollution from vehicles is persistent in Hanoi and HCMC. With rising prosperity and aspirations, private automobiles may eventually substitute the ubiquitous motorcycles, placing greater demand for space on already congested streets – a car requires space equivalent to 6 motorcycles. It is not hard to imagine the impact this would have on the urban environment. Vietnam is expected to be among the countries most severely affected by climate change [14], particularly by sea level rise along its extensive coastline. HCMC is particularly vulnerable due to its low-lying position in the Mekong Delta; 43% of the province could face inundation [15], particularly half of the areas planned for future development that are located less than 2 meters above sea level [16]. Cities are the generators of economic growth in Vietnam; HCMC contributes significantly to the national GDP [3]. To drive this growth, infrastructure and property investments are concentrated in cities, making them particularly vulnerable to significant economic loss with national repercussions due to climate change impacts. Such impacts in urban Vietnam present new built environment challenges. This is a concern, given that Vietnam has such a rapidly growing urban built environment that is set to face major climate change impacts. There is thus an important need for promoting adaptive and sustainable built environment options in the challenging urban context of Vietnam.
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4
Private Sector Driven Urban Development
With the Doi Moi ‘open door policy for foreign investment’ there has been a construction boom in Vietnam, particularly in the main cities. It is estimated that 60-70% of housing in Hanoi and HCMC began to be built with private funds and more than 80% built without permits [5]. Despite the centralized political system, the government is keen for private sector investment to help Vietnam towards accelerated economic growth, captured in a comment at an interview of an official of the Ministry of Construction: “There is more money now and the issues more complex, so there is need for international experience. We need to bring in new concepts from outside.” [17] According to another official at the Management Authority for Southern Area Development (MASD), HCMC, “The Vietnam government gives no priority to sea level rise, so far only on investment. In Phu Quoc island off the HCMC coast, huge investment has been made by U.S. companies, but it may go under water.” [17] New urban developments and industrial parks financed by foreign and joint venture investment is a major form of private sector investment in Vietnam. These areas are often built by reclaiming low-lying land, particularly in HCMC, and have impacts on the region’s hydrological patterns and existing population, and face the risk of climate change impacts. Substantial funds are invested in these developments, but there does not appear to be much concern about climate change. The case studies below of prominent new urban development illustrate the nature, scope, aspirations and outcomes of such developments.
4.1 Saigon South, HCMC Approved in 1994, Saigon South is an early example of new urban developments. Established on the southern outskirts of HCMC, it was planned for a population of 500,000 to 1 million people with residential, educational, commercial, recreational and other facilities [5]. Expected to be almost 100% financed by private investment, this nearly 3,000 hectares development is located on wetlands of the Saigon River system. The land has been raised by more than 2 meters above sea level by dredging the river and sloped adequately for drainage [16], and the area is safe from flooding and water-logging common elsewhere in HCMC. However, according to several sources the land modification in Saigon South is a cause of increased upstream flooding in other parts of HCMC [18]. Saigon South is projected as an example of modern “well-planned” urban development [19] [20], an “economic answer for the city with an embedded market economy” [6], but only upper income groups can afford property here [2]. On the other hand, as gained from local sources, only 20% of the expected population density has been achieved with about 25% of the area still held by original landowners. Land acquisition and compensation is a critical issue; in some cases, landowners were paid at existing market rates, but the price went up rapidly due to the new development, leading to complications in compensation agreements. Because of such issues, compounded by official corruption, there were delays in obtaining construction permits and land remained vacant for long periods, resulting in informal housing development [18] [6]. Because of this, since 2002 legislation stipulates that developers build within a year of land acquisition, leading to further disputes. There are also plans to include affordable property options for low-income earners [18]. Such changes in the policy and economic context will determine how Saigon South develops in the future, allowing the opportunity to understand how such a planning experiment can inform urban development practice. S.ARCH-2017 506.4
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Out of 20 zones in Saigon South, 5 zones are owned by the Taiwanese company Phu My Hung for a large residential development with high-rise apartment blocks, typical of the area. Another example is Sunrise City, another high-rise residential development. The project is served in front by only one road, the main connection to central HCMC over the river, which already experiences traffic jams. Due to this lack of planning coordination, once occupied, serving the few thousand residents by the existing infrastructure would be problematic. In Saigon South one gets the impression of quiet openness more characteristic of Western cities, unlike the busy and dense urban environments typical of Vietnam (see Figure 2). This creates a form of social dislocation because of the contrast of this internationalized expression to local patterns. However, it is yet to be known whether Saigon South will remain a place of dislocation or become localized through changing policy, economic conditions and informal interventions, and perhaps most significantly, climate change impacts.
Figure 2: A view from Saigon South HCMC
4.2 Ciputra West Lake City, Hanoi In Hanoi, new urban developments are built at a smaller scale than HCMC, but the pattern is similar. A well-known example is the Ciputra West Lake project. A joint venture of the Indonesian company Ciputra initiated in 1997 on the bank of the largest lake in Hanoi, West Lake (Tay Ho), this residential development with international business centers and a wide range of facilities was planned for 365 hectares of land. It soon ran into trouble due to the Asian economic crisis of the late 1990s and the land remained undeveloped. In anticipation of the project land values had increased, land-use began being converted from agriculture, and the population of the area grew. Soon informal developments began (see Figure 3). In 2002, the law was changed to restrict developers to build within one year, and the Hanoi Peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Committee ordered Ciputra to complete 200 hectares of the project by 2006. Work was resumed, but conflicts over landownership ensued in areas around West Lake. Nonetheless, by 2005 two 20-storey apartment towers had been built and the apartments S.ARCH-2017 506.5
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sold, and ten more apartment towers with 1,500 apartments and 400 houses were being built [6]. As in Saigon South, dislocation from local culture and communities can also be noted in Ciputra – a typical characteristic of such developments.
Figure 3: Informal development around West Lake, Hanoi
5
Limitations to Urban Planning
There are three main types of national level planning. Socio-economic plans by the Ministry of Planning & Investment (MoPI), sectoral plans by respective line ministries (water and electricity, infrastructure, roads, sewage, etc) and spatial plans under the Ministry of Construction (MoC). Spatial plans are of four levels: orientation plans (per national policy), regional plans, general plans (province, city) and detailed area plans (ward, industrial or new urban development) [20]. The spatial planning process followed in Hanoi and HCMC is based on the centralized approval process with final approval by the Prime Minister’s office. Drawbacks identified in this top-down centralized multi-layered system are manifold: it is “time consuming and dissemination of information and legislation … can be inefficient and subject to interpretation by various agencies” [18], “hampers foreign investments and causes major delays to urban development programs” [16] and “ambiguity in the division of responsibilities between central and municipal governmental structures” [6]. There are many such critiques of the centralized urban development and planning process [21]. Most seems to be associated with the problem of coordination between the different ministries and institutions at different administrative levels – parallel work, overlaps and duplication abound. For example, sector plans are sometimes included in socio-economic plans, leading to confusion about responsibility among ministries and other entities [7]. To add to this, because master plans are not mandatory, they are generally ignored or not followed properly and informal development outside the plan’s desired intent is practiced widely. S.ARCH-2017 506.6
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In urban development built through private investment, infrastructure and services are wellplanned within property boundaries, but public infrastructure remains in poor condition particularly in the low-income areas, perhaps one of the greatest challenges in urban planning. Services such as water and electricity are provided by government companies, but a large part of the urban population rely on informal services, often pirated from the mains. Informal settlement residents often have to pay much higher amounts above market rates for basic services from private vendors, yet shortage of clean water remains a major problem. Accompanying the development of informal settlements and the lack of adequate infrastructure, there is a serious solid waste problem, particularly waste disposal into waterways in inner city informal areas.
Figure 4: Open waste disposal at the back of houses in Hanoi In both Hanoi and HCMC, the front of buildings is generally orientated towards the street and in areas near rivers and waterways, the backside of buildings orientated towards the river. Toilets and kitchen areas are usually at the back of buildings and from there waste water and solid waste is discharged directly into the waterways in many parts of the cities (see Figure 4). In Hanoi, there is a system of dykes along the river for flood-protection, but through various informal and unofficial processes settlements have been built outside the dykes. Because of this, there is lack of infrastructure and waste disposal is not managed by the municipal authorities in most of these informal settlements. The problem is not confined to only informal settlements; the increase in affluent consumption orientated lifestyles is resulting in an increasing volume and variety of waste. Over the long term, the pressure on the ecosystem will increase with the growing urban population and the waste management problem will amplify. The impacts of climate change are unpredictable in such a scenario, but it is clear that people living in informal settlements are the most vulnerable to climate risk [15]. During meetings at institutions for this study, it was clearly underscored that waste management was the most pressing issue in urban environmental management. Because of the immediacy of this issue, other environmental issues that are considered more long-term, such as climate change, are not addressed. S.ARCH-2017 506.7
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As noted during visits to different agencies in Vietnam, urban planning in Vietnam follows the practice of production of idealized plans – beautiful drawings and models adorn government offices – but it is not possible to realize these plans in their entirety in the socio-economic and environmental conditions of Vietnam. As noted by one source [2], “The [plans] tend to be representations of what the planning experts and city administrators would like their city to become if there were unlimited resources.” High planning standards are set and this reduces coverage to urban informal settlements. “Idealized top-down plans” [7] tend to overlook the needs of local communities resulting in disintegration of well-established communities and instead encourage prospects for land-use conversion by investment for new urban or industrial developments. Plans thus not matching the economy can be realized only in bits and pieces, while informal development occurs in parallel. There is perhaps a need for a more “flexible and incremental” planning approach instead of the rigid production of utopian plans to take into account the nature of the changing and developing socio-economic and environmental conditions of Vietnam. Urban planning roles are served mostly by architects or engineers. In Vietnam’s competitive education system, only ‘good students’ can qualify for these professions. Therefore, the production of idealized plans – lovely drawings, models, etc – is a reflection of the diligent hard work of skilled professionals who tend to view spatial planning as a sectoral design problem, and less so of wider coordination with other plans. Because of the lack of an adequate education system for planners, the urban planning profession has not developed in Vietnam [21]. This is an important national capacity building need and efforts for development of the built environment in Vietnam should address the need for training and education with a long-term view towards development of the urban planning profession. In addition to planning new built environments, it has become imperative to manage the existing urban built environment with its large stock of buildings and infrastructure. Representatives of several key urban development institutions including MoC and MASD indicated recognition of the importance of urban management and also acknowledged the lack of capacity within their institutions in this area. This need is particularly crucial at the level of local authorities. The greater part of the existing urban development has occurred in an informal, spontaneous and unplanned manner, presenting tremendous challenges for managing and delivering services particularly in the large cities of Hanoi and HCMC. Planning for the future will have to understand the linkages with this existing unplanned built environment and its management will need to be part of a larger framework of new urban development. Management of existing urban areas may also allow implementing ‘green’ and climate change adaptive retrofitting and upgrading. It is not sufficient to only plan and design new urban developments, as generally practiced at present; managing the implementation of such plans through an efficient system of monitoring, review and updating would be part of a comprehensive urban management framework. This example is illustrative of the problems that can arise from the conflict between the idealized approach to urban planning and informal urban development: On the eastern side of West Lake (Tay Ho), Hanoi, runs the main city dyke to protect from flooding of the Red River. During the private informal housing boom that ensued since the Doi Moi and after initiating the Ciputra West Lake Development discussed earlier, the area grew rapidly. Extensive informal developments were built on both sides of the river embankment despite official regulations outlawing this practice. The buildings were constructed on the embankment slopes and almost reached the street that ran on the embankment. Abruptly, in S.ARCH-2017 506.8
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the mid-1990s, the front parts of the buildings on both sides of the embankment slopes, were demolished by city officials to create an easement and small road. For many days, until the owners could restore the demolished front parts, the insides of the buildings could be seen from the street causing security and privacy problems for the residents. The buildings were considered to be encroaching on public property and action was taken, but the fact that most of the buildings were constructed illegally seems to have been overlooked.
6
Opportunities for Addressing Urban Challenges
Despite a range of problems and complexity of institutional structure, Vietnamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rapidly changing policy, environmental context and large scale of urban projects present opportunity for guiding the development towards a sustainable track. As institutional mechanisms are weak in this area, new decentralization policies would need to be the vehicle for developing capacity and to strengthen it at different institutional levels. A series of decentralization policies have been initiated â&#x20AC;&#x201C; for example, the Urban Planning Law of 2009, although still applicable to cities other than Hanoi and HCMC, provides more opportunity and resources to local authorities to guide urban development according to the needs of their context [1]. Climate change paradoxically presents great opportunity for institutional change. Because of frequent extreme weather events and increased public awareness in cities due to media exposure, pressure is mounting for the government to address climate change. Small changes are beginning to happen: for example, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MoNRE) has added a climate change focus to its former Department of Hydrometeorology. The Energy Efficiency Building Code, although not yet mandatory, has been approved [22]. There are also new urban development projects that demonstrate a higher level of environmental sensitivity than in the past, which could become the models for the future. The project below is such as example.
Figure 5: Master-planning of Thu Thiem showing retention of natural water flows; normal water elevation; and flood episode with use of flood zones (source: Sasaki Associates) The wetlands area of Thu Thiem is located in a bend in the Saigon River south of HCMC. Sasaki Associates, a US-based urban design firm, won the first prize in an international design competition for master-planning the area and is working with the governmental Investment and Construction Authority (ICA) to implement the plan to accommodate 130,000 people in the next two decades. While compensation and resettlement issues are being resolved by ICA, Sasaki is designing the new development to fit into the existing wetlands instead of the typical fill-and-level approach. An ecologically sensitive approach is being followed, preserving native vegetation and mangroves, and allowing flood and tidal water flows through natural and built S.ARCH-2017 506.9
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canals and waterbodies. A system of water flowing through the area to maintain hydrological balance, large low-lying wetlands to serve as water retention area during floods and minimal impact of the built environment on the natural ecosystem are some of the key elements of the project (see Figure 5). Areas to be built upon are raised above the flood level, yet close to the water to create a sense of belonging to the delta landscape. The master plan includes transport connectivity and public spaces to make the area habitable. Adhering to the basic concept, options for detail area plans are being prepared for local level consultations [18] [23].
7
Conclusion
The rapid urbanization process in Vietnam is accompanied by extensive construction and development of infrastructure and buildings, with high likelihood of continuing and expanding in the foreseeable future. This vast national â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;construction siteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; offers opportunity for developing, promoting and raising awareness and understanding of sustainable urban development, particularly in a context facing strong climate change impacts. At present, there are very few examples of such processes. Therefore, even if a small proportion of the buildings being constructed can be built following sustainability principles, it could pave the path for wider uptake by setting new trends and demonstrate that this is not an experimental idea that only the West can afford, as commonly perceived in Vietnam, but practicable as well as appropriate. Over the long term, it would allow studying and monitoring to understand performance and any shortcomings that need to be addressed and convince users about the qualitative and environmental merits and advantages of such built environments. On a broader level, the potential for leapfrogging into a future sustainable built environment can be realized by avoiding mistakes made by countries that had industrialized earlier. Since the introduction of Doi Moi reforms there has been tremendous economic growth, transforming one of the poorest countries in the world to one of the fastest growing economies in Asia. This means that more disposable funds are available both at institutional and community levels, evident from the increased consumption patterns particularly in the cities of Hanoi and HCMC. To the observer, the sheer scale of urban development and construction of infrastructure and buildings is astonishing in terms of the huge volume of funds that are being mobilized and invested. It is apparent that there is no significant fund constraint for sustainable, socially equitable and climate change adaptive urban development. It is a matter of changing existing perceptions and priorities, channeling political goodwill and funds, and the need for champions to spearhead the cause for better urban built environment. It is still too early to draw definite conclusions about the direction the urban dynamics of Vietnam will take, only time will reveal what the future has in store for its cities.
Acknowledgements The authors thank the Global Cities Research Institute, RMIT University, Australia for providing a seed grant to undertake a scoping study [17] on which this paper is partly based; Yim Nguyen Li, Southern Institute of Social Sciences, Vietnam, for the image in Figure 1 and Dennis Pieprz, Sasaki Associates, USA, for the image in Figure 6.
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References [1]
World Bank, Vietnam urbanization review: Technical assistance report, World Bank in Vietnam, Hanoi, Vietnam, 2011.
[2]
UN-Habitat, Vietnam country programme document 2008-2009, UN-Habitat, Fukuoka, Japan, 2008.
[3]
Anh, Dang Nguyen, The mega-urban transformations of Ho Chi Minh City in the era of doi moi renovation,â&#x20AC;? in The transformations of mega-urban regions in Pacific Asia: Urban dynamics in a global era, (Gavin Jones and Mike Douglass), University of Hawaii, Honolulu, USA, 2007, pp. 188-217.
[4]
Sang, Le Thanh, Urbanization and urban structure in pre- and post-reform Vietnam (in Vietnamese), Asia Research Center and Korea Foundation for Advanced Studies, Hanoi, Vietnam, 2008.
[5]
Douglass, Mike, DiGregorio, Mike, Pichaya, Valuncha, Boonchuen, Pornpan, Brunner, Made, Bunjamin, Wiwik, Foster, Dan, Handler, Scott, Komalasari, Rizky and Kana Taniguchi, The urban transition in Vietnam, UNCHS/UNDP, Department of Urban and Regional Planning and University of Hawaii, Fukuoka, Japan, Hanoi, Vietman, Honolulu, USA, 2002.
[6]
Geertman, Stephanie, The self-organizing city in Vietnam: Processes of change and transformation in housing in Hanoi, Bouwstenen Publicatieburo, Eindhoven, Netherlands, 2007.
[7]
G. McGrath, George, The changing nature of planning and participatory processes in Hanoi, Vietnam: A case study of actors and institutions in transition, MSc thesis, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, 2007.
[8]
Index Mundi (June 2015), Vietnam demographics 2014, http://www.indexmundi.com/vietnam/demographics_profile.html
[9]
Thanh, Hoan Xuan, Anh, Truong Tuan and Phuong, Dinh Thi Thu, Urban poverty in Vietnam: A view from complementary assessments, International Institute for Environment and Development, London, UK, 2013.
profile
[10] Mydans, Seth, High-rise development plans threaten Vietnamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s once gracious former capital, The New York Times, 18 November 2006. [11] Gattoni, George, A guide: Improved communities, better cities for Vietnam. Printing and Cultural Products Company, Hanoi, Vietnam, 2003. [12] Ahmed, Iftekhar, A diagnosis of urban poor housing in Vietnam, Open House International, (in press), vol. 42, no. 2.
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[13] Ahmed, Iftekhar, Sager, Jalel and Cuong, Le Vu, Sustainable low-income urban housing in Vietnam: Context and strategies, Open House International, (2010), vol. 35, no. 3, pp. 56-65. [14] Dasgupta, Susmita, Laplante, Benoit, Meisner, Craig, Wheeler, David and Yan, Jianping, The impact of sea level rise on developing countries: A comparative analysis, World Bank, Washington DC, USA, 2007. [15] Carew-Reid, Jeremy, Rapid assessment of the extent and impact of sea level rise in Viet Nam (report), International Center for Environmental Management (Vietnam office), Hanoi, Vietnam, 2008. [16] Tanner, Thomas and Mitchell, Tom, Governance and capacity assessment for urban climate change resilience-building in ten Asian cities, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton, UK, 2006. [17] These quotes are taken from a study by the author, from which this paper has been partly derived: Ahmed, Iftekhar, Infrastructure scoping study: Sustainable urban built environments in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (research report), RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia, 2009. [18] Cat, Hoang Anh, Chirgwin, Ryan, Durrant, Catherine, Findley, Caitlin, Grandison, Clare, Jenkin, Aaron, Kyne, David, Meich, Simon, Muir, Simone, Stevenson, Sally, Stottelaar, Ross and Sutherland, Rebecca, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, undergraduate research report, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia, 2008. [19] MASD, The Management Authority for Southern Area Development (MASD) of Ho Chi Minh City (report), MASD, HCMC, Vietnam, n.d. [20] World Bank, Infrastructure strategy: cross-sectoral issues (report), World Bank in Vietnam, Hanoi, Vietnam, 2006. [21] Wilmoth, David, Building capacity for Vietnamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s urban planning system (report), Learning Cities International, Melbourne, Australia, 2006. [22] Ministry of Construction, National Technical Regulation on Energy Efficiency Buildings, QCVN 09:2013/BXD, Ministry of Construction, Hanoi, Vietnam, 2013. [23] Sasaki Associates, Thu Thiem New Urban Area, http://www.sasaki.com/project/139/thu-thiem-new-urban-area/
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IS THERE AN OIKOS-LOGICAL ARCHITECTURAL SPACE OF THE CITY? A SUSTAINABLE TOWN OR AN ECO-LOGICAL CITY? Professor Marc Belderbos Faculty of architecture of the KULeuven Faculty of Architecture, Architectural engineering and Urbanism [LOCI], UCLouvain. Belgium marc.belderbos@kuleuven.be marc.belderbos@uclouvain.be marc.belderbos@architecturer.net
Leiedam 200 - 9800 Deinze - Belgium
Abstract Once all requirements to build in a sustainable way, cities or buildings, essentially guarantying use of renewable energy, renewable materials, and all requirements of sustainability for a low footprint… what has the design of the architecture itself of the city, in his spatial structure, to do with ecology…? This paper will present the requirements to the architecture of the city to be not only ‘sustainable’ but also ‘ecological’. And it will show how these requirements are exiting! So, we will make the difference between sustainable urbanism of towns and ecological architecture of cities. We will defend that the same question would be 'what is a nonanthropocentric architecture of the city?'. The answer we would like to present is that we should first orientate the mind in the direction of a non-anthropocentric structure and then develop the architectural space of the city in this direction. The structure of the anthropocentric mind is very centered on itself at the point that it presents an opposition between inside and outside, an opposition between finite and infinite, and an opposition between surface and depth. It is a closed mind. Eco-logical, or Oikos-logical, or non-anthropocentric architecture of the city is the architecture of a human which is non-centred on itself in a closed mind. This human being, more precisely called the subject has an open architecture in spatial non-opposition between inside and outside, in spatial non-opposition between finite and infinite, in spatial non-opposition between surface and depth. The full paper explains the richness of that.
Keywords Belderbos, sustainable town eco-logical city
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1
Introduction
In this paper, we would like present and let think about a maybe strange question… Please notice that we will not tell you a lot … but just a small and, in our eyes, essential point, for architects of course, but also for everybody, in this field of the architectural space, who wants to found his action in a fine thought and not only in the acceptance of new and better technics. The point is this: We will sustain that Ecological architecture is far more than a sustainable way of building. And so, … there is a question: Is there an eco-logical or oikos-logical architectural space? The answer to that question will permit us to analyse shortly also a not enough known bundle of recommendations for not a sustainable town but for an ecological city built up by Tshallingii. Or: Once all requirements of building in a sustainable way, cities or buildings, essentially guarantying less use of energy, only renewable materials, and all requirements of sustainability… what has architecture itself to do with ecology…? The answer is built like what follows. First we have accepted, that the new abode, or the new OIKOS of mankind, isn’t anymore the architectural ‘object’ out and in front of Nature, and isn’t anymore an architecture with an environment strictly out of her. The new abode, or the new OIKOS is in and with Nature. So that, at the end, we try to say that architecture is ‘OIKOS-LOGY’ or an Oikos in his logic in and with Nature. So, Nature makes part of our abode. A second point immediately arising from the first one, is an ethical point. (Not a moralistic point, but an ethical point. It’s not the same). In Ecology, we cannot sustain that there is only a question of Nature and environment. It is not only a question of the environment of mankind. It is also a question of mankind. Ecology is not about saving Nature… We could even say that if we want to save Nature and environment, the good solution is to do nothing….! Because then mankind would or disappear, or at least experiences essential and huge problems. Some scientists tell us even that mankind will disappear in 100 years under the pressure of huge political problems due to climate change…. After that, ’Nature’, which has no sentiment and is totally indifferent to the human…and even to itself… would reconstitute itself as it has already done several times… Nature disappeared already at 98% once …. and reconstituted itself… In Ecology, understood as Oikos-logy, there is an essential point: it is to save mankind…. from anthropocentrism. We, architects, have to save mankind from the anthropocentric space! What is this space? A very current anthropocentric spatiality is the spatiality of the sprawl of allotments…. one find in the suburbs of all Europe, in the States… (Figure 4) and now everywhere, even in the area's in the world which hadn't an anthropocentric 'spirituality'. Those are the typical anthropocentric space…. Even if one find such type of allotments with energy passive housing… they are made by an order of thoughts prioritizing first, not individualism in a societal mental space, but particularism in an 'economical happiness' space.
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In such a space, each individual lives at the edge of the society and not in and with a society. This is the anthropocentric space. This particular economical well-being where everybody is a particular or an economical and even political particle has a structure of his space… The space of the anthropocentrism is out and in op-position or in front of ‘Nature.’ (Nature is for the anthropocentrics humans, which are a large majority, Nature is for them something very sympathetic crystallised in reduced images like land-scape or projected image of Nature. Or just reduced to the 'green' part of Nature….) This space, the anthropocentric space, has three specifications: 123-
Opposition between inside and outside. Opposition finite and infinite. Opposition between surface and depth.
In one word: it is a closed architecture. The very model of it was created in the architecture of humanism in Italy. It is there that the anthropocentric space was conceived by thoughts placing mankind or the 'human' at the centrum or at the highest point of all considerations. Mankind became out of 'Nature'. Be careful…. This was an absolutely wonderful architecture … But it is the architecture of a human being which, after a long middle age, is finally central to itself. And so, it is, of course, an architecture that is centralistic. Here you see the most paradigmatic…
Figure 1: Casa del Mantegna at Mantova
Figure 2&3: San Sebastiano at Mantova by Alberti
You see it …inside in opposition with outside…Infinite outside in opposition with finite inside. Surface between inside and outside in opposition to the depth inside…. Nature outside, and closed world… These specifications are also, but in a poor way and in a continuity of this paradigmatic architecture shown here above, the ‘qualities’ of the sprawl architecture of the allotments:
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1-Totally inside small particular worlds in opposition with the outside which is rejected… No neighbour … and Nature, as such, rejected outside. 2- Infinite world of society and infinite nature outside in opposition with small finite particles (without any individualism) inside.
Figure 4: Paradigmatic allotment.
3- Surface of the image of the house or image of architecture, or façade, in opposition to the private depth inside….
You also notice that this here is an accumulation of particular and closed worlds, and closed spaces all different the ones from the others with no other law of aggregation than parcellation or compartmentalization… And I let you notice now a maybe unexpected point… . These three points - ‘Opposition between inside and outside’, ‘Opposition between finite and infinite’, ‘Opposition between surface and depth’ - are the main qualities of what we call ‘Volume’. In fact, a ‘volume’ has an interior fully enveloped by a surface which makes of it always a finite object with a strong inside in front of or in opposition to his infinite outside space…. Why I’m telling you that…? Because one of the most known definition of architecture is the following: Architecture is the correct, savant and magnificent game of VOLUMES assembled under the light. Everybody knows that this statement about architecture was very often expressed by Le Corbusier… But it is meaningful here to remember that this definition was invented by Charles L'Eplattenier who was an idealistic artist of the XIX° century. And this definition is the definition of anthropocentric architecture. But strange no? That architecture could be made only by volumes….? In our way of thoughts of this communication, we could re-formulate this definition …of idealistic anthropocentric architecture by this: Anthropocentric Architecture is the correct savant and magnificent game of spatial oppositions between inside and outside, of spatial oppositions between finite and infinite, of spatial oppositions between surface and depth, assembled under the light. In my lessons, I use this to explain that this definition, which was pertinent, isn’t pertinent anymore and even, -you’ll see it-, that there is a better word than definition to formulate a main sentence about ecological or non-anthropocentric architecture. This word is ‘infinition’ … In-finition in place of de-finition. How does this happen?... First, we say that in ecological thoughts we cannot anymore consider that architecture is just out of Nature… or out and in confrontation with Nature. We can really help ourselves saying that architecture is in Nature, we have to accept that - but has also to be with Nature. ‘In and with’ Nature… and we remember of course the great work of Ian Mac Harg ‘Design with Nature’. So: ‘in and with Nature….’ We S.ARCH-2017 507.4
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could say almost this: in and with ‘the other’ because the human being is not natural, and architecture is not natural. And Nature is so: ‘the other'. In and with the other or in and with Nature are for us the essential qualities of ecological architectural space. It means that Nature makes part of our abode. So, this space, if it is with the other, with Nature, so that Nature makes part of it, this ecological architectural space is ‘open’. This ecological architectural space is in spatial non-opposition between inside and outside, in spatial non-opposition between finite and infinite, in spatial non-opposition between surface and depth. It is not a closed world. It is not made by volumes essentially! It is an open architecture which is not central to itself. It is the architecture of a human being which is not central to itself. It is not a humanistic architecture; It is a human architecture. Does that architecture exist? YES!!! Here is one of it….
Figure 5 & 6. Mies van der Rohe –Barcelona with the beautyful drawing op Paul Rudolf
Absolutely without volumes… not even one trihedron… and where the local finite is in conversation with the infinite, and where the local inside is in conversation with the outside, and where the surfaces are not the fence of the depth of the space. The same here, where you see that you can look through the inside space of the buildings… so that the volumes are all open…. Open Volumes.
Figure 7: Seijo Apartment – Sejima Tokyo – by Sanaa.
The same here Where you see that in the matters of this architecture the space of the other is seen in reverberation…. as making part of the architecture…
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Figure 8&9.
SANAA. Toledo Museum of Art.
And now: a last essential example… : The city itself. The lobe city or Ecopolis of ’Tjallingii Figure 10. The lobe city or Ecopolis of ’Tjallingii
Where you see all recommendations to build a city in and with Nature. The form of lobs has really to do with what is given by the natural environment. We see different types of lobs articulated in diverse manners with and in the Nature.
Where you see, that Nature is coming inside the city till to the very heart of the city in such a way that inside and outside are in real conversation. With very long borders till in de heart city Who remains still very dens.
Where you see, that the built lobes don’t have a closed face in front of Nature so that the sur-face of the city is not in opposition with her depth …It is just open. Where you just see, that the finite of the city is immediately and almost everywhere in conversation with the infinity of Nature… the hedges of the lobs or fingers are without border line. In mathematics this is called an 'open ensemble'. And by this The city comes in the nature and with nature in well controlled contact. And nature is coming in the city. And with the city in well controlled contact. But both are absolutely identifiable. S.ARCH-2017 507.6
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Here you see what Copenhagen tries to do
Here you see what Amsterdam tries to do
In the lobe-city we can see that difference between human and humanism by a not centralistic city but by an open radial city working in and with nature. The lob city is the expression of a human philosophy. The anthropos is not central anymore... The anthropos is not the only master anymoreâ&#x20AC;Ś.. The anthropos is not everywhere anymore..... The anthropos is not spread every where anymore.... The anthropos is not parcelling the world anymore. The anthropos lives not anymore as a particle outside the city. The anthropos lives in the city. The Lobe-city is a city. The lobe-city is a city but in a new type of city S.ARCH-2017 507.7
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Where man needs the man and nature. So this city is not only a sustainable town but an ecological city. The lobe city and the citizens there are in open, intense, nuanced, graduated en well controlled interference with all their environment anthropic or natural. The Lobe city is the expression of the scientific conclusion expressed by H Laborit: the subject, let's say the anthrop doesn't exist a priori. He is the crossing of the other, anthropic or natural. In the ecological city, and this not so much the case in the sustainable town, there is also a change of the notion of what is called the 'human being'. We call it here the anthropos or better the subject. Subjected or literaly lying under the crossing of the other becoming so the Subject capable of his own sentence. * It's clear that an anthropocentric human will not seek a non-anthropocentric space. Which anthropos will seek such a space. Well…an anthropos who handles in his life, by the qualities of a non-anthropocentric orientation of his mind, 1in non-opposition between his inside and his outside, 2in non-opposition between the limitation of his body and the infinity of his abilities, or between the limitation of his body and the infinity of the other, finite and infinite, 3and in non-opposition between his face and his depth, is an open anthropos which is not central to himself. He is an ecological anthropos. The scientists call him the sub-ject. Because he is also subject to the other around him. Or he makes part of it …just to become himself…! He is a human being which cannot be the fact of a definition but of an infinition. He is subject. It’s a little bit what about is Buddhism…But, more essentially, it corresponds perfectly to what science says about the anthropos. The subject doesn’t exist (a priori). He is the crossing of the other… (Henri Laborit, who was a neurologist). The human reason is founded in his emotion coming from outside of him… (Antonio Damasio, who is a neurologist). This anthropos is a ‘sub-ject’. Not a Cartesian anthropocentric subject but a more rational ecological sub-ject. And this sub-ject is ‘open.’ He is and lives in non-opposition between inside and outside, non-opposition between finite and infinite, non-opposition between surface and depth. And I end with this proposition about architecture in complete opposition to the de-finition of Charles L’Eplattenier. So, here an in-finition of architecture and about architecture of the city
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Architecture establish in and with the Real, or in and with the great Other, or in and with ‘Nature’, not a closed com-position of figures but an open dis-position of matters of his OIKOS, dis-position of matters called space, for the well being or for the open ‘being there’ (Da-Sein) of the anthropos, now called Subject which new purity lies in the incompletion. This infinition of Architecture can helps us much more to conceive an Ecological architecture and to do much more than just to build in a sustainable way. 'Purity lies in the incompletion.' is a quote of Louis Kahn, who said in an extreme synthetic way that the human being cannot be anthropocentric anymore. It could be a main sentence about ecological space.
References Tshalingii Z, https://www.researchgate.net/profile/sybrand_tjallingii/publications/3 Tjallingii Z, Schurch, t. w., Ecopolis: strategies for ecologically sound urban development, Journal- American planning association; 63, 1, 160, Journal-American planning association, 1997 Tjallingii S., Ecological conditions. Strategies and structures in environmental planning, IBN Scienti c contributions 2, Wageningen, 1996, 320 p. (Doctoral Delft University of Technology thesis). TJALLINGII S., Ecology on the edge. Landscape and ecology between town and country, in Landscape and urban planning, 48 (2000), p. 103-119. Tjallingii S., Carrying Structures. urban development guided by water and traf c networks, dans Hulsbergen E., Klaasen I.& Kriens I. (eds.), Shifting Sense, Techne Press, Amsterdam, 2005, p. 355-369. Tjallingii S., Ecopolis: stromen, gebieden en actoren, 2009 (Lezing in Antwerpen op 11 dec 2009
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Rombaut E. & Heuts E., ‘Duurzame Stedenbouw’ in woord en beeld. Gids met praktijkvoorbeelden voor de transitie naar een ecopolis, Boek samengesteld voor VIBE vzw en ABLLO vzw (i.s.m. KaHo Sint-Lieven dep. Sint-Niklaas en het departement voor architectuur en stedenbouw Sint-Lucas Gent/Brussel), Uitgeverij Die Keure, 2010, 164 p. ill. (www. ecopolisvlaanderen.be) Rombaut E , Duurzame Architectuur, Ecologische Stedenbouw en Biodiversiteit: Naar een klimaatbestendige ecopolis. Pleidooi voor de Lobbenstad. Enkele gidsprincipes voor het inzetten van ecosysteemdiensten in urbane en rurale ruimtelijke planning. http://www.vsv.be/sites/default/files/plenair_-_erik_rombaut_-_bijlage__deel_1.pdf Duyvestein K., Duurzame stedenbouw. Waar zit de grootste milieuwinst, Referaat, 1996, 10 p. (SEV congres Duurzame Stedenbouw: trendbreuk of modegril. 29 oktober 1996, Utrecht). Gieling S., Stadsvorm (lobbenstad) Amsterdam, Plan Amsterdam jaargang 12 (1) feb 06, Dienst ruimtelijke ordening A’dam, Amterdam, 2006, 36 p. (http://www.dro. amsterdam.nl/Docs/pdf/ PLAN%201%202006.pdf) Antonio Damasio, https://osp.revues.org/748 Laborit H, L’homme et la ville, Seuil, Champs, Paris, 1971 Alain Badiou, Théorie du sujet, Éd. du Seuil, Paris, 1982
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UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF GEOGRAPHIC TERRAIN AND CULTURAL FORCES IN SHAPING THE SETTLEMENT PATTERN OF SOUTH ASIAN TERTIARY CITIES THROUGH BAGERHAT AS A CASE-STUDY Farasha ZAMAN, Badruzzahan AHMED 66 Mohakhali, BRAC University, Department of Architecture, Dhaka 1212, Dhaka, Bangladesh. farashazaman@gmail.com, badru.a19@gmail.com
Abstract Situated at the southern end of Bangladesh along the periphery of the Sundarbans mangrove forest, the Bagerhat district is a tertiary city that is experiencing rapid spontaneous development in recent years. Although it is still most well-known for the 15thcentury ‘Shait Gumbad Mosque’, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, an influx in the trading activities of this district is currently establishing a mark on the economic fabric of Bangladesh. The city is also home to the Port of Mongla, a significant seaport in the Ganges. Previously known as Khalifatabad and founded by Khan Jahan Ali, a Muslim Sufi-Saint, Bagerhat’s settlement explicitly portrays the insight of dealing with a terrain that was derived from the position of mangrove forests and the tidal dynamics of the river Bhairab. Studies show that a shift in the course of the river Bhairab influences the present-day density and placement of Bagerhat’s settlements. However, a more critical analysis reveals how several spiritual sites, chiefly the Shait Gumbad Mosque and the Mausoleum of Khan Jahan Ali, are still playing a role in shaping the urban fabric of Bagerhat today. It illustrates that the spirituality remains unbroken in the people’s mind, over generations, even when their current habitats have adapted to the changes in Bhairab’s course for everyday purposes. Using the city of Bagerhat as a case study and through detailed mapping, observation and interviews as research tools, this paper will discuss how human settlement can be affected by both the natural land terrain and the cultural forces that comprise the identity of the occupants of a city over generations. The study has the possibilities to contribute to the better understanding of tertiary cities in densely populated countries such as Bangladesh, and how a city could be better designed through addressing both the tangible and intangible aspects of the city dwellers’ lives.
Keywords: tertiary cities, Bagerhat, settlement pattern, cultural forces, natural
land terrain.
1
The Rise and Fall of Khalifatabad
The southern part of Bengal, constitutes of the world largest mangrove forest, the Sundarbans. This area has experienced a mix of religions, from Hinduism to Animism in the S.ARCH-2017 508.1
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past years, resulting in a variety of religious entities speckling the marshy landscapes of this region. The area first went under the Muslim reign, in the mid-15th centuries [1], under a Sufi - Saint Khan Jahan Ali. Also known as Ulugh Khan Jahan to some, this leader sculpted a settlement, namely Khalifatabad along the inland edge of the mangrove forests. Known as the presentday Bagerhat, the town, built out of jungles and marshlands, is said to have constituted of 360 mosques, a well sufficed locality with numerous manmade dighis (manmade lakes) that served the settlement with desalinated water [2], and a thoughtfully designed infrastructural system. Islam rapidly flourished in this town under the Khan - e - Jahan reign, overshadowing other religious practices to a minority. However, during the early days of development this thriving Muslim city faced a minor earthquake, which shook it back into its state of inhabitancy. Some of the north-western zones of the city had been pushed upwards during the disaster, giving this flood prone zone of Bangladesh an unusual landscape pattern consisting of highlands in some areas. The city partially abandoned by its people who took shelter on more favourable grounds was rapidly reclaimed by the mangroves ensuing many of the brick Khan - e - Jahan shrines to end up in irreparable relics. Till today Bagerhat has not been able to restore the urbanism that had grown on spirituality. Among the few remaining religious establishments, the Sixty Domed Mosque, the Mausoleum of Khan Jahan and his most dedicated advisor and friend, Pir Ali, are only enlisted as a UNESCO world heritage site since 1985 [3]. The other heritage sites also present the unique architectural techniques and innovations of the Khan-e-Jahan period, but they lie in ruins. A new tertiary city is grows along the lines of present Bhairab River today. Climatic conditions have meandered the previous course of this river up towards the northern regions, away from where the hub of shrines were built by Khan Jahan. The recent fast paced spontaneous development is a result of human needs and independent of religious factors. The Port of Mongla, a significant seaport in the Ganges, acts as an initiator for the re-growth of the settlement within this area. Other economic prospects which pulsate the development of an economic hub within this region include the coconut products industry under the Bangladesh Small and Cottage Industries Cooperation (BSCIC), the betel- nut industries and the national scale timber distribution ports of Bagerhat. The city has recently also adapted means to utilize it slow lying topography, which allows saline water to seep into the landscape, to cultivate shrimps in agrarian lands. Newspapers report this sector to be fast growing with an aspiration to supply international markets soon. The emergent city, known today as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;The Mosque City of Bagerhat,â&#x20AC;&#x2122; seeks to make a mark on the economic map of Bangladesh, which may not be implausible given the infrastructural support and determination of the people. But the urbanism purely based on daily needs grows stronger by the day and pushes the city towards a more secular growth. The fragile remnants of an urbanism and socio culture based on spirituality is thus highly threatened of disappearance if its potential is not nurtured.
2
The Geographic Terrain of Bagerhat
Bagerhat, due to its position above the Sundarbans, has a high presence of salinity in its soil naturally. The Sundarbans enhances this feature as their roots contribute to retaining the
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salinity during tidal shifts. Today however, these levels of salinity are on the rise as a large number of locals are involved in shrimp cultivation, a trade which thrives in salinity. Additionally, the rivers of the low-lying deltaic Bangladesh are subject to constant meandering through both silt depositions and wash away. River Bhairab is no different and is subject to these natural geographic changes, with its alluvial edges in a state of constant shift. History narrates how shifts in the river courses have influenced settlements to move or how river courses are intentionally controlled once a settlement has grown to its full strength. A shift in the course of Bhairab, thus also influenced the positioning and shifts of Bagerhat.
Image 1: Ancient survey drawings of Bagrhat showing the change in river course Source: Site plan of Bagerhat, The buildings of Khan Jahan in and around Bagerhat, Nazimuddin Ahmed, p10 However, this was not the only impact of Bhairabâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s change of course. The older course of Bhairab has left behind a rich deposit of soil that is highly suitable for farming. These lands, presently inhabitable, influenced the present location of farm lands. The location of these farming strips in turn influenced the growth of homesteads that commonly cluster around farmlands. Today, the river Bhairab continues to meander its way through southern Bengal, the shift unseen by the open eye. The rivers of Bengal have been a major mode of transportation for the 16th century settlements. It has highly influenced trade and economics, and in turn the livelihoods of people. River edges have also been naturally favoured by growing human S.ARCH-2017 508.3
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settlements other practical reasons, such as cultivation, fishing, reliable source of water and more. Although due to the change in the key mode of transportation, Bhairab is no longer a prime route, it is still one of the major routes to transport betel nuts and coconut products from Bagerhat and its surrounding regions to the other parts of the country. It is important to note that Bagerhat is subjected to flooding once in every few years. Bhairab today continues to flood its plains and deposit alluvial soil on to its banks. It still plays a significant role in shaping the settlement pattern of Bagerhat. The locals here prefer to adapt to the threat of flooding, over higher grounds, as living close to river proves to be more beneficial for them yet today.
Image 2: Green and Open Space Mapping Source: Badruzzahan Ahmed
3
The Cultural Identity of Bagerhat
Khan Jahan Ali is renowned among architectural scholars for designing climate responsive structures in a challenging context and among others for his indebt understanding of city planning. His preachingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s and notable contributions to Khalifatabad remain enrooted to the minds of the local people and followers. They accolade this saint through generations, naming academic institutions, roadways and amenities after him. Narrations by the elderly and local news reporters of Bagerhat, giving an indebt knowledge of Khan Jahan's S.ARCH-2017 508.4
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contributions, clearly portray the high opinion held for this Islamic preacher in the hearts of the people even today. Records also show a high annual pilgrimage rate to the Khan-e-Jahan shrines, and it is claimed to be one the most visited ones in Bangladesh [4]. Driven by an unbroken spirituality, Islamic and Non- Islamic devotees journey from far northern districts of Bangladesh, during seasons of commemorations or otherwise to pay a tribute to Khan Jahan. They believe that visiting his mausoleum with candles, incense sticks, flowers and sweets, will bring blessings upon their lives. The sense of submission goes to an extent where whole chickens are sacrificed and fed to two fresh water crocodiles, namely Kala mia and Dhola mia, for spiritual purposes. These reptiles are believed to have been domesticated by Khan Jahan himself and are currently bred in the thirty acre manmade lake, namely Pocha dighi, lying close to Khan Jahan's mausoleum. Followers of Khan Jahan believe that taking care of these 'holy' reptiles will please their leader who in turn will grace their lives in happiness. A path leading to the mausoleum is lined with temporary structures built with locally available materials. Each houses a small economy based on spiritualism. The annual revenue of this economy serving food, tasbih, flowers, candles and other related Islamic apparatus(alternate word?), is largely dependent on an annual fair held within the dargah (the premise of the mausoleum) during the month of Chaitra of the Bengali calendar. During this time, which coincides with the month of March and April, Bagerhat experiences massive agglomerations. Irrespective of the harsh lack of basic amenities that the pilgrims face within this city, hundreds of them visit the holy shrines during the peak season, and also all year round.
Image 3: A sectional perspective through the street leading towards the Khan Jahan Ali mausoleum is a vivid example of the informal commercial zones found in the tertiary cities in Bangladesh. Source: Farasha Zaman Not equipped to accommodate such huge accumulations, the city, houses its guests in rooms rented out by the locals or in temporary tents laid out in open fields otherwise belonging to the government school premise. Even so, sometimes many pilgrims cannot make a dayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s stop as the locality is packed, and they have to return immediately. There is S.ARCH-2017 508.5
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also a major lack of toilets and ablution space, which results in people using the water from the dighis, introducing a concern for hygiene and environmental degradation. While the city centre has relocated along the river Bhairab's edge today, localities still cluster around the religious shrines. Communities have redeveloped around some of the shrines, such as the Shingar Mosque and the Ronvijoypur Mosque, maintaining the space as one of worship. However, most of these unique architectures today are lost in nature or illegally inhabited by locals. The people unaware of the merits and in need for a habitat after the natural disaster built into the ruins of the shrines, catalysing the degradation of the tangible heritage.
Image 4: Existing conditions of some heritage sites of Bagerhat Source: Farasha Zaman Although the belief remains steadfast within locals and followers spread out over Bangladesh, the number of mosques and mausoleums that present the Khan â&#x20AC;&#x201C; e â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Jahan style has reduced to a mere seven from three hundred and sixty. Timid measures taken to conserve the structures are proving to fail resulting in fast vanishing spiritual urbanism.
4
The Tangible and the Intangible Urban Elements
As discussed in the above sections, Bagerhat is highly influenced by a combination of tangible and intangible factors. Its geographic features are equally as important to its residents as is its cultural identity and history. The settlement pattern of the city, bifurcated along the river Bhairab's edge and around the Islamic heritage sites, is a clear reflection of these aspect. Another factor which contributes to Bagerhatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s settlement pattern is its considerably newly built administrative zone which is placed adjacent to the main commercial area along Bhairab. As this administrative zone expands slowly towards the south, its residents are finding another anchor to influence their housing choices. Therefore it is evident to the critical eye how the river Bhairab and its course pull the settlement to the east, the spiritual sites influences the growth of the city to the west and the administrative zone influences Bagerhat, however slightly, to expand to the South. The pattern is currently supported by the development of two major transport routes that connect the commercial zone to the spiritual sites, giving Bagerhat its V shape fabric.
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Image 5: Growth of Bagerhat city resulting in the V-shape Source: Farasha Zaman Although a unique city, influenced by both the physical and the nonphysical, Bagerhat, growing around its three nexus points remain divided into zones separated b agricultural lands. Even though the growth is currently guided by the tangible urban elements, the city lacks an overall guided development growth. The previous discussed cases also show how this is catalysing the possibility of a vanishing cultural identity and architectural heritage. Although the spiritual events synonymous to Khan Jahan Aliâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mausoleum and mosque still play a major role-players in the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economy and the locals live in close proximity to Khan Jahan Aliâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mausoleum and mosque simply out of spiritual belief, interviews give insight to how the annual income from the religious festivals are not proving to be enough and why, given an opportunity, the next generation hope to adopt to more profitable profession rather than maintaining a disappearing culture.
5
Spiritual Urbanism and Possible Methods of Achieving it in Bagerhat
Urbanism of a place builds up from its 'genius loci.' For Bagerhat, this is the spirituality that still remains unbroken within the people. This character of spiritualism sets the city apart from the other growing ones of Bangladesh. Thus it is crucial to understand how the emergent modernity, growing along the current river edge, which threatens to tear this city into two can be moulded into supporting a more well suited urbanism that respects the tangible and intangible heritage of Bagerhat. The idea of a new city planned around heritage has been practiced time and again, as we can see in many examples worldwide. Thus it is quite understandable why developing Bagerhat city as a whole along the lines of a spiritual urbanism will be more successful than mere declarations of the historically significant sites as UNESCO heritage. One of the possible proposals could include a heritage route that connects all the existing heritage points of Khan - e - Jahan style, through an experiential journey for national and international tourists. This could effectively tie the city into one entity helping it overcome the current segregation.
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Image 6: Possible route map connecting all the heritage sites within Bagerhat Source: Farasha Zaman Different portions of the route have to be detailed out according to its adjacent regions. The route can potentially start from the Khan Jahan Ali Mausoleum as it is a place of prime activity and the pioneer of the spiritual culture. It may then run in a loop connecting the Shait Gumbad Mosque, the nine domed mosque, Zinda Pir mosque, Rezakhoda mosque, Shingar mosque, Chunokhola mosque, BibiBegumi mosque, the Shait Gumbad mosque, the ten domed mosque through the agricultural fields to Ramkrishna Mandir (a significant structure that represents the time before Khan Jahan), and then to the riverfront, taking the traveller through a story that ends in modernity.
Image 7: Possible Section A _ through the main thoroughfare that connects the current growth to the historical regions of Bagerhat. Source: Farasha Zaman S.ARCH-2017 508.8
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Image 8: Possible Street Section B _ through the proposed roadway along agricultural fields Source: Farasha Zaman
Image 9: Possible Street Section C _ through the edge bounding the man made dighi adjacent to heritage sites Source: Farasha Zaman Thus proposing a tourism based on spirituality will not only help conserve tangible heritage of Bagerhat through revitalization and adaptive reuse, but strongly ensure the existing cultural identity to flourish through a generation of new possibilities in the economy. The development of hotels, cafes and other amenities that will have to be accommodated to S.ARCH-2017 508.9
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help support the tourism is a potential pull factor that can help revive the interest of those locals who now tend to look into other professions rather than caretaking the heritage sites.
Image 10: Possible programmatic proposal around Khan Jahan Ali mausoleum Source: Farasha Zaman It is important to understand here that the urbanism of Bagerhat developed only through international funds may not remain successful after a short time. The city if not given to its people will soon falls back into despair. This is because urban design approaches which do not encourage participation of the users, overlook how the users feel detached and imposed on after some time. If the development undergoes a conservation method, which involves training the users and locals into understanding the importance of the place, it is more sustainable as this system ensures empowerment of the society as a whole, reduces dependency on external factors and allows distribution of responsibility.
6
Conclusion
A place without its identity is no place at all. The tertiary city of Bagerhat has grown an identity built around spiritualism. Though the aspect of making a livelihood has currently become a more important factor in the lives of Bagerhatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s locals, a clear sense of spirituality is evident through their cultural practices. A comprehensive urbanism which integrates the two factors of economic need and spirituality will thus allow Bagerhat to develop uniquely enhancing its own identity. S.ARCH-2017 508.10
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Acknowledgements The organizer gratefully acknowledges the work done by Programme Committee and Lecturers of the International Conferences S.ARCH-2017 for efforts done for the success of this event. The authors thank A.K.M. Sirajjuddin for guiding the research process and necessary field work behind this paper.
References [1]
Steel, TM,Time, The Princely City/September 10, 2016/ Dhaka Tribune, http://www.dhakatribune.com/opinion/heritage/2016/09/10/the-princely-city/
[2]
Karim, EK, Elita, The Shrine by the Dighi /April 8, 16/ The Daily Star, http://www.thedailystar.net/star-weekend/heritage/the-shrine-the-dighi-1205707
[3]
Rahman, HR, Hafizur and Ud-Darain,Kh. Mahfuz, A description of buildings in Khalifatabad city, Bagerhat, Journal of the Department of Architecture, BUET,10, (2007), pp. 17-22
[4]
Raj, SJR, Selva and Harman, WPH, William, Dealing with Deities: The Ritual Vow in South Asia, State University of New York Press, Albany, 2006
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SOCIAL HOUSING PRODUCTION IN ISTANBUL AS A CONSTRUCTIVE DESTRUCTION AND CHANGE IN LIFE QUALITY Alper BODUR* – PhD, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey • boduralper@yandex.com
Yurdanur Dulgeroglu YUKSEL –Professor, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey • yukselyu@itu.edu.tr
Abstract In the literature, commonly it is evidenced that there are shared properties of life quality, as well as differentiated ones based on its context. Quality of life is associated with social, economic and physical environments as well as individual and the public. In the city, quality of life is determined by the interaction of social, economic and physical environments; and is directly related to the decision and implementation of the central and local decision-makers. Metropolitan municipalities that serve the urban population has important responsibilities related to quality of life. They in fulfilling these responsibilities, obviously remain insufficient. The emergence of slums and the formation of an infra- structure and unhealthy environment is an example. Slum areas have not yet reached the level of desired urbanization. Therefore, these areas have become targets for various urban renewal projects. As a result, today, through the State and municipalities, social housing is produced in order to find solutions to the housing problems of the low income and to prevent squatters. Improvement of the city 's quality of life in general is the major goal. This article discusses the result of a study which sought to evaluate how the resettled residents had adapted to their new social housing in Istanbul. The objective of this study is to examine the impact that social housing productions based on squatter housing demolition in Istanbul have had on their residents’ quality of life (by Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality Directorate of Residential Applications). The resulting impact on quality of life of slum owners and the urban squatters.is surveyed by a large sample of households in Istanbul’s Social Housing. Removal of the squatter dwellers and their relocation to the social housing affects significantly their life quality after the removal. To assess the quality of life of residents, structured interviews were conducted. A total of 506 interviews with questionnaire were completed in 3 districts of Istanbul. The results of this research provide unique information from which improvements in future social housing projects could be made. Accordingly, demographic (family life), living situation (individual well-being, quality of life), physical (housing, shelter), environment (habitat, urban infrastructure), social (neighbourhood relations, family relations), economic (business, employment, income, indebtedness), access to services (transportation, municipal services)
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and 8 indicators, including general factors of life quality were identified, to formulate the concepts and questions in the questionnaire given face to face. As a result of this study, slum residents and practitioners, in order to improve dwellers’ life quality are suggested to work together and develop the paths of communication firstly. Only then, approach to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of social housing production can be attained.
Keywords: Life quality, social housing, relocation, dweller satisfaction, slum demolition.
1
Introduction
Housing is not only a physical shelter, but also is a means of playing a significant role in its dweller’s physical, mental, and emotional health conditions with regards to the qualitative dimensions provided by the housing conditions and its surrounding environment (Zainal et al, 2012). Due to various needs, challenges and obstacles, families may face conditions that affect their quality of life (Soliman et al., 2015). Today, change of living conditions has changed the expectations and priorities of the people. In this post-modern globalized era where economic growth and disparities co-exist, the study of human well being and quality of life is more significant (Jha and Tripathi, 2014). Projects of slum resettlement have gradually become a feature of everyday life in the world. Moving from slums to new homes is not easy for slum dwellers (Camargo-Cavalheiro and Abiko, 2015). Improving the lives of slum dwellers is regarded as one of the indispensable tools for ending poverty (UN Habitat, 2016). Social problems, differences, prosperity and quality of life are new areas of geographical research in the post-modern era. Quality of life studies are becoming more appropriate for inclusive development of the community and the country (Jha and Tripathi, 2014). In the 1960s and 1970s, international organizations such as the World Bank and UN focused their urban development goals on improving housing and basic services in developing countries (UN Habitat, 2016). The rapid and often uncontrolled development of the city from the beginning of the twentieth century has not only brought nature into a dysfunctional state, but also caused the deterioration of the quality of life of individuals (Oren and Yüksel, 2013). Despite being an area that has been studied in international literature for a long time, the quality of life is a new research field in Turkey (Şeker, 2010). For this reason, quality of life studies are very important for public administrators and local managers (Koyuncu, 2011). In recent years, various state agencies have been involved in urban poor displacement projects (Booth and Camp, 2007). The municipalities that are in the service of the local quality of assets have significant responsibilities in the service of the population living in the cities. The fact that municipalities are unable to provide services effectively and efficiently despite their increasing duties and responsibilities affects the quality of urban life negatively (Üçer, 2009; Karasu, 2005). Today, through the state and municipalities overall, social housing is being produced to find solutions to low-income housing problems and to prevent slums and thus improve the quality of life in the city. Within the context of this study, it is aimed to explain the situation
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in the social housing produced by Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, to discuss the situation in terms of the studies done in the developed countries and international organizations. Thus, a clear analysis of the relationship between quality of life and social housing policies is explored in order to produce indicators and measures that determine quality of life.
2
The Concept of Life Quality
The quality of life is being investigated for more than forty years. Research on the quality of life in today's sense is based on the movement of social indicators in the United States in the 1960s (Yavuzรงehre ve Torlak, 2006). It is stated that the concept of quality of life has emerged in order to investigate differences and inequalities in living and social conditions in society (Koramaz, 2010). There have been many attempts to describe the quality of life in different disciplines. There are more than a hundred definitions in the literature (El Ariane, 2012). While quality of life is defined in poor conditions, it focuses on basic needs such as work, food, housing and security facilities. On the other hand, in good terms the definition of quality of life extends to access to entertainment and recreational opportunities, a happy society, a clean environment and a successful personal and professional life (Andrews, 2001). On the other hand, the quality of life in the research conducted is measured by different methods in the direction of different purposes and targets. Research scales also differ in this direction (Pacione, 1982; Wish, 1986; Felce and Perry, 1995; Cummins, 1999; Rapley, 2003; Lee, 2008). There is no consensus on the types and criteria of the indicators to be used in measuring the quality of life (van Kamp et al, 2003, Koyuncu, 2011, Atik, 2014). Factors related to quality of life can change according to cities, cultures, conditions and over time (Yavuzรงehre ve Torlak, 2006). In recent years, research on urban quality of life has increased rapidly in developed countries, while it has progressed more slowly in developing countries. The quality of life studies in Turkey did not start simultaneously with the Western countries and did not progress at the same pace (Koyuncu, 2011). The concept of quality of life is also included in the development plans in Turkey. In connection with the rapid increase in population in cities, it is estimated that urbanization, renewal and housing needs arising from disaster will be 4.1 million in the period of Development Plan (2014-2018). In the Development Plan, it is mentioned that priority will be given to transformation projects that generate high utility and value in production and common use areas, especially areas bearing disaster risk, which contribute to growth and development, and widespread increase in space and quality of life (Ministry of Development, 2013). However, the principles, policies and measures introduced regarding the housing problem by the development plans have not been implemented sufficiently and the problems have increased with the speed of urbanization (Bodur, 2012). Despite the increase in the number of studies on quality of life in Turkey today, it can be said that it is still inadequate.
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3
Social Housing
For the first time, the housing constraint that emerged after World War I forced states to think about the solution of the housing problem. In the West, however, the state played an active role in solving the problem by participating in housing production either by the social housing policies developed after World War II and implemented until the 1980s, or by supporting local governments (Kara, 2012). Developed countries have solved the problem of housing with the social housing policies that they put into practice since World War II (Bayraktar, 2006). The thirty years after World War II can be called the golden age for social housing. Most are produced in these years (Reinprecht et al., 2008). On the other hand, the number of residences produced for the poor continue currently to be one of the major problems in developed and developing countries worldwide (Soliman et al., 2015, Kara, 2012). While social housing is emerging as a cheap rental housing for middle and low income cities in western developed countries, developing countries are predominantly selling housing, not rent but real estate, with low interest and long term collective housing loans. Social housing applications are being implemented through municipalities and housing associations in developed countries, but these practices are being carried out by central governments in developing countries (Kunduracı, 2013). In Europe, the construction of social housing is carried out by many different institutions. Some of them are central and local governments, non-profit public or private organizations, voluntary organizations or foundations, cooperatives and non-profit private sector organizations (Kutsal, 2012). As a result, it seems very difficult to decide whether the social housing is normal or standard in Europe (Tutin, 2008). According to Whitehead and Scanlon (2007), social housing practices in developed countries have commonalities and there is no standard social housing practice and policy in each country. In some countries, only the poorest segment of the population can benefit from these residences, while in some countries low-wage segments and in some countries, middle-income segments can benefit from them (Kunduracı, 2013; Blanc, 2010). As a part of the social policies of the developing countries, social housing activities started to progress gradually from the 1980s and different developmental trends were observed for each country (Kunduracı, 2013).
Figure 1. A slum (left) and social houses (right) in Kâğıthane district (personal archives).
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In Europe and the United States planning approaches and methods of evolution to Turkey is not a positive reflection (Mutlu, 2007). While the urban transformation activities in European countries are mostly applied to depressed areas that have consumed their economic life, the most important foot of the urban transformation activities in Turkey is the slum transformation (Bayraktar, 2006). A slum in Kâğıthane district is shown in Figure 1. It is not possible to mention a systematic public policy of social housing in Turkey as in European countries (Alkıser and Yurekli, 2004; Taşar and Cevik, 2009). From 2003 until today, there have been significant changes in the actors responsible for housing policies in Turkey, and as a result, TOKI (Mass Housing Authority) has become the most authoritative institution in housing policies in the country today. TOKİ continues to produce many buildings in every province of Turkey and abroad especially in residential zones (Çağlayan, 2011, Gür, 2009). Metropolitan municipalities have become a very important actor in housing production in recent years (Kara, 2012). Within this context, the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality Directorate of Housing continued its activities. Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality Housing Directorate's activities are regularly reported to the upper authorities every year. In the annual report for the year 2013, one of the four basic elements of the Directorate's vision is to improve the quality of life of slum dwellers (Mesken, 2013). Between the years of 1988 and 2013, 4.606 slums have been demolished in about 465 projects; and 10.638 residential units were produced. Approximately 3.381 housing units have been allocated to squatters. The remaining social houses are not allocated to squatter houses and sold under the law to low income families.
Figure 2: Eyup district moving plan (personal archives) The Housing Directorate allocates the social housing that is available and ready to be acquired when building social housing for slum owners, and can be allocated to social housing in different districts. Moving to social housing in Eyüp between 1988 and 2013 is shown in Figure 2. There are people who are removed from many provinces in the social
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housing produced in the Eyüp district. Blue marked points are social housing areas while purple colored points are gecekondu areas.
4
Methodology
The universe of the research is the slum dwellers that are transported to the social dwellings produced by Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality for the slum owners. The sample of the study was formed as the result of the data obtained from the stage. Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality Housing Directorate has realized social housing projects in many districts. The most social housing production is in Pendik, Eyüp, Güngören, Kâğıthane, Kartal, Esenler, Şişli and other districts respectively. It has become clear that the most developed social housing for the people who have been liquidated in different cities or remote areas and who have to adapt to a different cultural structure, even if they are in Istanbul, are the social residences produced in Eyüp, Şişli and Kartal. For this reason, social houses in Eyüp, Kartal and Şişli districts have been determined as a sampling area. Random sampling technique was used on the basis of cluster sampling. Survey questions were created with the research model, the pilot questionnaire was completed and the questions were finalized. With the project support of Istanbul Technical University Scientific Research Center, a total of 506 interviews (378 in Eyup, 93 in Kartal and 35 in Sisli district) were completed in face-to-face with the help of a company. A total of 21 revisions were made in the studies conducted from the beginning on the questionnaire, and the final form of the survey was taken on 26 February 2016. In this study, studies on the concept of the quality of life, which is defined by different perspectives and different approaches in the literature, have been carried out to use an understandable fixed language. An indicator set for social housing was tried to be established. It is understood that, in the studies carried out, the concept of the quality of life is more than one dimension, it covers a wide area and emerges with different purposes and it is tried to be explained by different indicators and different variables system depending on these aims and targets. The indicators presented in this study were prepared together in conjunction with the pilot survey questionnaire and literature. The questionnaire created for evaluation includes: in this context, (1) living conditions, (2) physical factors, (3) environmental factors, (4) comparisons for social relationships, (5) access to services, (6) economic factors, (7) general satisfaction. The main category and a total of 80 indicators under these categories were identified. A total of 9 interviewers, including 5 girls and 4 boys, participated in the fieldwork and conducted 506 questionnaires. In addition, in the questionnaire for the reliability test of the questionnaire analyzed by SPSS, the correlations of each question with other questions were handled and the reliability coefficient was calculated. In order to provide evidence of reliability and homogeneity of the scale, general reliability coefficient was calculated with SPSS program and Crα = 0.958. This value is a high value in terms of the Reliability Scale and indicates that the scale used in the survey is "highly reliable" in terms of the Kalaycı’s 4Reliability scale (Kalaycı, 2005). The survey was conducted between 02-14 March 2016.
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5
Findings and Evaluation 5.1 Findings
In the scope of the research, dwellers were informed about basic characteristics such as age, gender, marital status, educational status, place of birth, occupation, social security situation, monthly average income. Factor, cross and mean analyzes were used to define participants' general knowledge and level of satisfaction. According to this survey, nearly half of the respondents are from households between 36 and 55 years of age, about half of whom have emigrated from the Black Sea Region in Turkey. More than half of the participants showed that primary and junior high school graduates were supported by one person working with more than half of the participants and two people working in about four quarters. More than half of the participants have an income between 1000 TL and 2500 TL (equivalent to US$ 273.8- US$ 684.4) (Url-1). The highest number of families are living with a month income between 1000 TL and 1500 TL (equivalent to US$ 273.8- US$ 684.4) (Url-1). Participants stated that life quality is to live in a city that is mostly safe (22.3%), no livelihood (20.9%), health (14.7%) and good social amenities (11.2%). Participants had lived in gecekondus for five or fewer years (9,5%); for 6 to 10 years (21,5%); for 11 to -15 years (16,4%); for 16 to -20 years (20,8%); the rest for 20 and more years. The number of residents who have lived in social housing for five or fewer years was 9,3%; for 6 to -10 years was 46,4%; for 11 to -15 years was 23,9%; for 16 to -20 years was 17,8; the rest for 20 and more years. Half of the participants have lived with a size between 70 and 100 m² in the slums (49,1%). While more than half of the participants lives in social housing with a size between 90 and 110 m² (69,6%). According to the majority of participants, the ideal residence should be in a place with gardens and single storey, close to the center, with scenic and future value. Participants were mainly satisfied with the social housing experience and about half said they were generally satisfied with the services of the municipality. General tendency is towards social housing in physical factors. Physical factors can generally be referred to as a lesser improvement. In environmental factors, general tendency is towards social housing. Environmental factors can be referred to as a general improvement. Getting acquainted with tradesman
-26%
Interview frequency with relatives
-27%
Borrowing things from the neighborhood
-28%
Solidarity
-31%
Neighbourhood Relationships
-31%
Figure 3: Housing preferences by social factors. In Figure 3, housing preferences are shown according to social factors. As seen in Figure 3, the preference and general tendency in the factors related to the social relations are
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towards the slums. In terms of preferences for social relations, it is stated that the factors of the slums are better. General tendency in municipal services is towards social housing. Preferences for service factors were found to be better in social housing than other factors except proximity to hospitals, entertainment and cultural areas, and shopping facilities such as shops and markets. In some of the service factors, improvement is observed in some areas, but it can be said that the service is not improved enough in some factors in social housing areas. Figure 4 shows housing preferences according to economic factors. As can be seen in Figure 4, in the preferences for the economic factors, it is stated that other factors besides the economic aid factor of the state are better for the slum life. It can be stated that economic factors generally do not improve in social houses. State economic aid
3%
Possibility to make payment by cash on hand
-13%
Education costs Invoice expenses Living without debt
-1% -25% -24%
The suitability of the product prices
-10%
Extra job opportunities Your economic situation
-6% -10%
Figure 4: Housing preferences by economic factors. It shows that physical, environmental, access to services and general satisfaction dimensions have seen some significant positive change, but in social relations and economic factors, they preferred life in slums and expressed that social relations were better in slums.
5.2 Evaluation Studies in slum areas are aimed at producing social housing with a better functioning system (Kintrea, 2007). The destruction of a neighborhood is an important consequence in the changing cities (Eke, 2000). The number of relatives and friends on the periphery is an objective indicator for the existence of social relations (Türkoğlu et al., 2008; Salleh and Badarulzaman, 2012). Being from the same region etc. is very important in the slum process. As a result of this study, it has been determined that there is no preliminary work by the municipality about what will be the result of the existing citizenship relationship. It is also the result of the study that the demographic characteristics of the households are not evaluated by the municipalities in their transformation process. In the work of Clampet-Lundquist (2004), many people in America want to move closer to their former home. Kleinhans (2003), Gaumer et al. (2014), Cavalheiro (2015) and İçli (2011) studies have shown that the social interaction about neighborhood relations is lower than the old ones. Bolt et al. (2010), Phillips and Harrison (2010) stated that the state agencies demolished not only the houses but also in social relations with the slum dwelling. When the perceptions of the factors related to social relations are examined in this research results,
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similar to other studies, it has been found out that social relations are much better in the slum life, and then they deteriorate after moving to the social area. Accordingly, moving to social housing is becoming a rather devastating activity than being constructive in terms of the social relations of the slum dwellers. Displacement, along with the deterioration of social relations, has played a role in enhancing loyalty to the past rather than increasing the sense of belonging to the social housing that has been moved into. Participants stated that 33,5% neighborhood, 17,0% green area and 9,1% transportation were missing in the residential area. The most positive aspect of social housing is that they have a building quality of at most 54.9%. 24.5% stated that there was no difference. Obviously, to be able to specify the improvement of living conditions in physical terms, at least the favorable approach to building quality should be more by means of improvements in building quality. The most basic element of quality of life is income level without doubt. The level of income directly relates to health, education, social interaction, housing, leisure time and general lifestyle conditions as well as determining the level of satisfaction of families’ needs (Aydıner-Boylu and Terzioğlu, 2008). As long as the income distribution is balanced among the classes in the society, the quality of urban life also increases (Yavuzçehre and Torlak, 2006). More than half of the participants have a month income between 1000 TL and 2500 TL (equivalent to US$ 273.8- US$ 684.4) (Url-1). It is seen in the study that income is the effect of perception of changes in living conditions. It is stated that the increase in income level leads to more physical, environmental, access to services and economic factors. It seems that satisfaction decreased when income decreased. One of the aims of social housing production should be to reduce unemployment and increase the workforce and thus to improve living conditions. In Istanbul, the social housing made by the municipality with the aim of improving the quality of life seems to have not reached the target in this sense. Accordingly, it is necessary for the municipality to take measures to increase income in social housing activities to be carried out from now on. For this reason, measures to increase the economic levels of households must be taken into consideration in the context of social services of the municipalities. In this study, it was found that the perceived quality of life in squatter houses is important in the perception of quality of life. For 10 years and less, those living in squatter houses have become more satisfied with social housing and have increased the quality of their lives. Satisfaction with life in social housing is decreasing as the period of time in the slum region increases. For this reason, municipalities should strengthen their sense of belonging in order to reduce the acclimatization period in social housing, and increase satisfaction in social housing.
6
Conclusion
The aim of this study is to determine the characteristics which contribute to the life quality of slum dwellers in the allocation of social housing. For implementing social housing projects, the relationship between upgrading quality of life and social housing allocation is
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analyzed. However, it is possible to make recommendations for future improvements to quality of life of social housing dwellers. Since the benefits of social housing projects to the residents of the city are reflected in the whole of the city, this benefit needs to be considered in a holistic manner. According to this research, it is inevitable to carry out a number of activities to increase social relations in social housing applications, which are somewhat satisfactory from a physical point of view. As long as these studies are not carried out, the solution of the problems will not be fully realized and the social aims will not be achieved. The general perception of households is positive in terms of living in social housing. The lack of knowledge of the characteristics of the family affects perceptions of quality of life in the worst way. Social and demographic characteristics, needs of families should be considered in social housing applications. Local governments have a very important role in their quality of life studies. In order to increase the quality of life in social housing to be produced by the local administrations based on slum dwelling, indicators should be determined. Collaborating with other organizations such as universities and trade unions, a holistic approach to these indicators should be demonstrated and efforts should be made to improve living conditions in every sense. There are no quality-of-life indicators set by the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality regarding social housing produced in Istanbul. Particularly in the slum areas to be demolished, it is necessary to carry out repetitive studies with a view to be formed considering the demographic structure. The municipality needs to develop a comprehensive approach to social housing production addressing both social and physical features. The Municipality should consider householder’s demographic preferences in slum clearance areas when producing social housing. For that matter, it is necessary to increase scientific research from different perspectives on the subject such as economical, sociological, psychological aspects of quality of life. Since this once-performed study refers to a static situation, these and similar studies should be repeated at regular intervals as in developed countries. With this, changes in life quality of social housing dwellers should be monitored and evaluated. One of the most important contributions of the study to theory and practice is that social municipalism should be reflected in social housing practices according to the characteristics of the target population. The demographic characteristics of the target population are as important as the characteristics of the house they lived in the previous period. These characteristics can be physical, social, economic, perception of services, etc.. Since the aim of social housing production is to produce happy life in a healthier and more qualified environment, it is impossible for these targets to be realized without knowing the characteristics of the target group. The solutions and applications related to the housing problem that has emerged along with the daily unfolding urbanization will continue in the future. The sustainable solution of these problems and the success of the municipalities go hand in hand with participants and actors coming together and taking into consideration the current conditions.
7 [1]
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[30] Kunduracı, N. F. (2013). Social housing practices in the world and Turkey, Çağdaş Yerel Yönetimler, 22 (3), 53-77. [31] Kutsal, S. (2012). Study of social housing within the contex of the low-income housing problem in Turkey: Istanbul Bezırganbahce case study, Master’s Thesis, Yıldız Technical University, Institute of Science and Technology, Istanbul. [32] Lee, Y. J. (2008). Subjective Quality of Life Measurement in Taipei, Building and Environment, 43 (7), 1205-1215. [33] Mutlu, S. (2007). The process of gecekondu fact in turkey and solving proposals: the case of Ankara, Master’s Thesis, Ankara University, Institute of Social Sciences, Ankara. [34] Oren, K., and Yuksel, H. (2013). The housing problem in Turkey and its main dynamics, SDÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 18 (2013/2), 47-84. [35] Pacione, M. (1982). Space Preferences, Locational Decisions, and the Dispersal of Civil Servants from London, Environment and Planning A, 14 (3), 323-333. [36] Phillips, D., & Harrison, M., (2010). Constructing an integrated society: historical lessons for tackling black and minority ethnic housing segregation in Britain, Housing Studies, 25 (2), 221-235. [37] Rapley, M. (2003). Quality of life research: a critical introduction, SAGE Publications, London. [38] Reinprecht, C., Lévy-Vroelant, C., and Wassemberg, F. (2008). Learning From History: Changes and Path Dependency in the Social Housing Sector in Austria, France And the Netherlands (1889-2008). In K. Scanlon, C. Whitehead (Eds.), Social Housing in Europe II A Review of Policies and Outcomes (Vol. 1, pp. 31-46). London: London School of Economics and Political Science. [39] Salleh, A. G., & Badarulzaman, N. (2012). Quality of Life of Residents in Urban Neighbourhoods of Pulau Pinang, Malaysia, Journal of Construction in Developing Countries, 17 (2), 117-123. [40] Soliman, H. H., Alzamil, A. F., Alsharqawi, N. I., Hegazy, H. M., and Almeshaal, M. A. (2015). Families’ Satisfaction With Public Housing in Saudi Arabia and Its Effect on the Quality of Their Lives, Journal of Social Service Research, 41, 385–397. [41] Seker, M. (2011). Life Quality Survey in Istanbul. İstanbul, Istanbul Chamber of Commerce Publications, Publication No: 2010-103. [42] Sencer, M., Irmak, Y. (1984). Toplumbilimlerinde Yöntem. Say Kitap. İstanbul. [43] Tasar, O., and Cevik, S. (2009). State intervention in the social housing and housing sector: European countries and Turkey, Journal of Aksaray University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, 1 (2), 133-163.
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[44] Tutin, C. (2008). Social Housing: Another French Exception?. The Central and East European Workshop on Social Housing, organised by the Metropolitan Research Institute, Budapest, Hungary: October 6-7. [45] Turkoglu, H. D., Bolen, F., Baran, P. K., Marans, and R. W. (2008). Measuring urban quality of life in Istanbul, itüdergisi/a, 7 (2), 103-113. [46] Ucer, Z. A. G. (2009). An approach to determine and improve the quality of urban life in the context of municipal services: med-sized city cases, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Gazi University, Institute of Science and Technology, Ankara. [47] UN-HABITAT, 2016. World Cities Report. Nairobi : United Nations Human Settlements Programme. [48] Url-1 <http://paracevirici.com>, date retrieved 30.03.2017. [49] Van Kamp, I., Leidelmeijer, K., Marsman G., and de Hollander, A. (2003). Urban environmental quality and human well-being: towards a conceptual framework and demarcation of concepts: a literature study, Landscape and Urban Planning, 65 (1-2), 5-18. [50] Whitehead, C. and Scanlon, K. (2007). Social Housing in Europe. London, London School of Economics and Political Science. [51] Wish, N.B. (1986). Are we really measuring quality of life, American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 45 (1), 93-99. [52] Yavuzcehre, P. S. and Torlak, S.E. (2006). Quality of urban life and municipalities: Denizli Karsiyaka district sample, SDÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 2 (4), 184-207. [53] Zainal, N. R., Kaur, G., Ahmad, N. A., Khalili, J. M. (2012). Housing Conditions and Quality of Life of the Urban Poor in Malaysia, Social and Behavioral Sciences, 50, 827838.
S.ARCH-2017 510.14
IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY IN OUTDOOR SPACES: DEPENDENCY STUDY BETWEEN OUTDOOR COMFORT AND PEOPLE´S PRESENCE Daniele SANTUCCI, Ata CHOKHACHIAN, Thomas AUER
Chair of Building Technology and Climate Responsive Design / Research Lab Department of Architecture Technische Universität München Arcisstraße 21, 80333 München
Abstract Environmental conditions strongly affect the use of public space and influence movement patterns: the evaluation of these conditions demands innovative computational methodologies and tools to collect data, process it and interpret such huge arrays of information. Computational and coupling methodologies open the way for developing an integrated understanding of dependencies to prefigure more liveable urban environments. The influence of thermal comfort on outdoor activities is a complex issue comprising both climatic and behavioural aspects. This research investigates on the possible relation between fluctuating outdoor comfort conditions and their effects on people’s presence, with the aim of finding a systematic correlation. The proposed methodology was applied to the survey of the Elytra Filament Pavilion, manufactured in summer 2016 in the John Madejski Garden of the Victoria & Albert Museum in London. Through data manipulation and mapping, the final aim is to provide new approaches to understand the influences of the environmental conditions and their perception on human activity and people’s use of outdoor space, thus creating more attractive outdoor spaces.
Keywords Urban microclimate, sensing, outdoor comfort, environment, urban space.
1
Introduction
Outdoor comfort conditions affect the way people occupy and use public spaces in all seasons and weather conditions. The evaluation of such behaviours demands innovative computational methodologies and tools. Nowadays, there is a preponderence of research data available to social scientists – especially the manifold data of social life that is generated by human activities in cities and urban areas: public transport, everyday interactions and demographics, education, public health, crime, environment and etc. As a result, the challenge facing social scientists is not only the question of how to collect, process and interpret such huge arrays of information, however, It lies in how to manage this data in an interdisciplinary setting, through the exchange of expertise between disparate S.ARCH-2017 511.1
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disciplines in order to develop an integrated understanding of socio-technical environments and social interactions. Recent advancements in technologies and tools – such as big data and fast computation power – are opening up a completely new platform for allowing us the ability to push into the microscale to monitor behaviors in high resolution. In light of this, the necessity for developing tools that allow us to sift through different layers of data gathering, data visualization and data mapping is growing in importance. Within this framework, our research group is investigating the relationship between environmental conditions in urban areas and cities, and how people occupy and use urban spaces – especially in regards to individual mobility. In the case of Elytra Filament pavilion (fig.1) 1, new ways were explored to combine real time on site measurements and simulations, in order to estimate the microclimate effects of the canopy and to seek correlations between people's movement and thermal comfort [1]. The results of the first research phase were presented at the Powerskin Conference in Munich in January 2017. Aim of the present research phase is to integrate the graphical correlation (fig.2) between comfort levels (assessed by the UTCI – Universal thermal climate index) and movement patterns, with a statistical approach considering spatiotemporal patterns of mobility in relation to thermal comfort.
Figure 1: The Elytra Filament Pavilion in the V&A Museum in London
1
The Elytra Filament pavilion is an experimental pavilion which comprises of a modular robotically constructed canopy commissioned by the Victoria & Albert Museum in London, a collaborative work between the ICD (Institute for Computational Design, University of Stuttgart), the ITKE (Institute of Building Structures and Structural Design, University of Stuttgart) and Transsolar climate engineering. S.ARCH-2017 511.2
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Figure 2: Graphic correlation between movement intensity and outdoor comfort
2
Objectives
The Elytra Filament Pavilion has been adopted as a case study for the first step of undertaking evaluation of the outlined relation and methodology. Since the beginning of installation, the project has considered the opportunity to sense movement, relating it to microclimatic conditions, at a resolution that corresponds to the human scale. The present study aims at developing a statistical approach on top of the graphical evaluation in order to open new possibilities to analyse much bigger data sets with higher resolution to apply the methodology in the urban scale. Big data holds the promise of a data deluge â&#x20AC;&#x201C; of rich, detailed, interrelated, timely and lowcost data â&#x20AC;&#x201C; that can provide much more sophisticated, wider scale, finer grained understandings of societies and of the world we live in [2]. It offers the possibility of shifting from data-scarce to data-rich studies; static snapshots to dynamic unfolding; coarse aggregations to high resolutions; relatively simple hypotheses and models to more complex, sophisticated simulations and theories [3].
3
Sensing People Flows
Monitoring and knowing the real-time distribution of people in public spaces and urban contexts permits for the flow management as well as making the city more safer, and more pleasant to live, work and visit. Within this context, sensing, recording and collecting the data regarding people presence and movement is not a new tendency. There are several applications for indoor cases, but they have been rarely used for outdoor environments. One of the reasons for this lack of application cases could be the limitation of recording devices in relation to the scale of urban context. As an example for indoor application of sensing people flows in relation to indoor climate, Katabira [4] proposed an advanced airconditioning control system in public space such as railway stations or exhibition halls that S.ARCH-2017 511.3
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aims to ventilate specific places where conditioning seems to be necessary, based on the pedestrians' flows. Sensing presence of people was done using multiple laser range scanners and wireless sensor network technologies. Another possible method for people tracking was introduced by using CCD (charge-coupled device) cameras [5][6][7]. However, those video-based approaches have some limitations and restrictions, such as strong requirements for well-established lighting conditions and narrow viewing angles as well as security problems for recording people’s faces passing by. There are also a couple of indirect ways to follow people flows’ movements. One of them is using mobile phones data. This data is more secure and anonymous - location based without any user identity with the resolution of 100 by 100 square meters. Another indirect approach for sensing people presence was developed and introduced by a Swedish company, a device called “modcam” that will be presented in the following section.
4
Methodology 4.1 Limitations
The challenge we had to face in the second research phase, was finding a numeric relation between the UTCI [8], an index that expresses equivalent temperature in degrees centigrade and the movement that in our case study did not have a specific metric. In fact, the movement was recorded by modcams, an occupancy patterns tracking device. The device has a built in camera and by analysing the pixel difference between frames, movement patterns emerge, that measures movements within a specific area [9]. The results are images similar to “heat maps” which highlight the areas where movement is taking place. Movement corresponds to human presence, even if the recorded movement intensity does not correspond to a specific amount of people: counting people was not allowed due to privacy restriction in the museum. Since the Garden is freely accessible, not even the amount of sold tickets could be used as an indicator. The first limitation we encountered is the different resolution used for recording movement – recorded in 5 minutes frames – and the UTCI – recorded in 15 min frames. The variations that occur in movement are much higher and unpredictable than those in UTCI. Also the spatial resolution of movement and UTCI used two different dimensions: movement was recorded in a grid of 0,1 x 0,1 m, whereas UTCI was simulated per each module of the pavilion, having a diameter of approximately 2.6 meters. This aspect was a strong limitation for comparing the two different metrics. The high resolution used for movement measurements is useful as it indicates precisely where presence happens and how it varies within each time frame. The resolution used for the UTCI calculation is less effective since the variations are minor in terms of spatial resolution. The UTCI calculation method uses [10], within a time frame, the same values for air temperature, humidity and wind speed. The only varying parameter, which varies from one module to the other, is the mean radiant temperature. The results show minor differences, which are therefore negligible. Another limitation we encountered in the given setup, is choosing to record the movements without counting people: the relation between amount of movement and amount of people was set as a hypothesis. S.ARCH-2017 511.4
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4.2. Methodological setup The main target of this research phase, was defining a methodological approach, which goes beyond the graphical evaluation, enabling a statistical approach for finding a numerical relation between outdoor comfort and movement patterns. The first step was finding out a dimension and a scale for movement. We noticed that movement intensity varies continuously during the observed time without showing a specific relation to weather conditions. Weekend days always show higher average movement intensity rather than weekdays, even if weather conditions are worse (fig.3).
Figure 3: Comparison between UTCI and movement - average values Most of the observed period, from the inauguration on June 6th to July 31st, is within the comfort zone, as it is defined in the UTCI scale (marked in red in Fig. 3). Considering that days we selected for the evaluation have strongly different weather conditions [11] – 2 hot, 2 average and 2 cold days – but are different week days, it became clear that the movement scale has to be referred to the maximum presence recorded on the analysed day; a comparison with a different day would be incoherent (Fig. 4).
Figure 4: Movement intensity peaks per day Furthermore we clustered the pavilion into “influence areas” scaling up the resolution to get more significant values in relation to the size and sensibility of people (Fig. 5). In fact, also during the first research phase, we have observed that functional distinction and material inherent characteristics of the flooring have a significant impact – and correspondences – to movement patterns. In addition, in some areas movement intensity is absent or very low.
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Figure 5: Influence areas 4.3 Statistical Approach The main objective of this phase was the definition of a correlation model that uses the recorded data to translate the graphical representation into numerical models. Taking into consideration the outlined methodological approach and to the given limitations, we defined comfort zones according to the UTCI scale. To give movement a metric, we normalized it referring to the day´s peak. This allowed us to find a relation within the observed area.
For each time frame, the normalized movement value was divided by the UTCI value and multiplied by 1000 to obtain a comparable metric.
The ratio F between normalized movement and UTCI expresses movement intensity in relation to UTCI, for each cell and time frame. We grouped the UTCI values for each influence area and calculated the average. Once represented in a graph, the values for each time frame were interpolated.
5
Achievements
The results of the outlined methodology show growing UTCI values during daytime that can easily be referred to increasing air temperatures within the observed period (from 12 to 4 p.m.). Furthermore we observed that the interpolated factor F values generally decreases; except for those cases where both movement intensity and UTCI increase: in those specific
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cases the ratio becomes constant. This means, that constant values show correspondent growth between movement intensity – people’s presence – and UTCI values. Another significant achievement refers to the proposed resolution: for the UTCI evaluation, the adopted resolution is too high; the specimen, the human scale, is disproportionate in relation to the test area. The difference from one cell to the other is generally lower than 1 K ET, a value that is not perceived by human beings. Especially in days with moderate and average climatic conditions, with UTCI values between 16 and 25 C ET, the difference is irrelevant to the movement patterns. In those cases, movement is generally not directly affected by the UTCI values. With regard to this, significant is also the influence of climatic conditions in which the study took place. During the observed period, June and July 2016 from noon to 4 p.m., where people’s presence is significant, comfort conditions – according to the UTCI scale - don’t generate thermal stress. Except on two days – July 18th and 19th- where values correspond to moderate heat stress.
6
Results
The results show clear tendencies: - On cold, rainy days, the climatic conditions clearly show how people chose shorter paths and avoid staying under the structure. Even if some modules are covered, people tend to pass by: the movement patterns correspond to the path that connects the two wings of the museum through the courtyard. The F graph shows values that rapidly decrease over the observed period (Fig.6).
Figure 6: UTCI and factor F interpolated values for July 1st
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- On days with moderate, average conditions, those do not affect directly people movements. For all influence areas, the interpolated F values decrease (Fig. 7)
Figure 7: UTCI and factor F interpolated values for July 9th
On hot days, the impact is clearly higher (UTCI higher than 30 C ET). When the UTCI interval between different areas of the canopy structure is higher, its impact on movement patterns increases. Figure 8 shows the UTCI and the ratio F values for a hot day: In the tree and walkway area the variation trends are similar. Considering the UTCI patterns in relation to the movement (Factor F) the garden is the influence area showing more presence. The minimum presence is registered on the entrance area where movement and UTCI have a very similar variation, resulting in an almost flat F trendline. This is this due to the general fact that over the observe time period, movement in the courtyard is decreasing.
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Figure 8: UTCI and factor F interpolated values for July 19th The statistical approach confirms what the graphical evaluation had announced in the first research phase.
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Outlook
The study presents a methodology that addresses the use of sensing technology to evaluate the impact of outdoor comfort conditions on peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s way of using outdoor spaces: both for creating more livable public spaces and to counteract more frequent extreme climatic phenomena. In a further development, it will become more relevant to analyse locations with more varying climatic conditions than London (UK) for a longer time interval with more extreme, differentiated microclimatic conditions. Furthermore, tracking devices related to individuals that enable to record velocity and thermal history, could integrate the present method contributing to the development of a dynamic comfort model.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their gratitude to Luigi Capobianco, Director of Axint Solutions Ltd, whose support was determining for setting up the data evaluation. Furthermore we would like to thank Moritz Doerstelmann of the Institute for Computational S.ARCH-2017 511.9
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Design at Stuttgart University, project manager or the Elytra Filament Pavilion, and the transsolar team – Boris Plotnikov, Elmira Reisi and Eduard Mildenberger - involved in recording and simulations, for their support.
References [1]
Santucci, D., Mildenberger, E., Plotnikov, B., An investigation on the relation between outdoor comfort and people’s mobility: the Elytra Filament Pavilion survey, in Powerskin 2017 Proceedings, Powerskin 2017, Munich, Germany, 2017, pp. 97 -107.
[2]
Kitchin, R., Big data and human geography: Opportunities, challenges and risks, Dialogues in Human Geography 3(3), 2013, pp. 262–267.
[3]
Batty, M., Axhausen, K.W., Giannotti, F., Pozdnoukhov, A., Bazzani, A., Wachowicz, M., et al. in Smart cities of the future. European Physical Journal Special Topics 214, 2012, pp. 481-518.
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Katabira, K., Zhao, H., Nakagawa, Y., & Shibasaki, R., Real-time monitoring of people flows and indoor temperature distribution for advanced air-conditioning control, in Intelligent Transportation Systems, ITSC 2008. 11th International IEEE Conference, 2012pp. 664-668), 2012.
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Yang, D. B., Gonzalez-Banos, H. H. , Guibas, L. J., Counting people in crowds with a realtime network of simple image sensors, in IEEE Conference on Computer Vision, vol. 1 pp. 122-129, 2003.
[6]
Cai, Q., Aggarwal, J. K., Automatic Tracking of Human Motion in Indoor Scenes Across Multiple Synchronized Video Streams, in IEEE Conference on Computer Vision, pp. 356362, 1998.
[7]
Curio, C., Edelbrunner, J., Kalinke , T., Tzomakeas, C., von Seelen, W.,cWalking pedestrian recognition, in IEEE Trans. Intelligent Transportation Systems, vol.1 no.3 pp.155-163, 2000.
[8]
Chen, L., & Ng, E., Outdoor thermal comfort and outdoor activities: A review of research in the past decade, in Cities, 29(2), pp. 118-125.
[9]
Modcam (2016-04-09). Retrieved 2016 from http://modcam.io/
[10] Kessling, W., Engelhardt, M., Kiehlmann, D. (2013) The Human Bio-Meteorological Chart - A design tool for outdoor thermal comfort, in PLEA 2013 Conference proceedings, Munich, Germany, 2013. [11] Mildenberger, E., Mensch und Stadtraum, Master Thesis in Architecture, Department of Architecture, Research Lab, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany, 2016.
S.ARCH-2017 511.10
GREEN ROOFTOPS - EXTENDED URBAN RECREATIONAL SPACE Patrycja Haupt Cracow University of Technology 31-155, KrakĂłw, Poland, ph@pro.onet.pl
Abstract Contemporary environmental threats were a starting point for the search of the new sustainable architecture and urban environment. The research in that field are conducted multidisciplinary involving architects, urban planners, environmental engineers, as well as landscape architects. In result, there are more and more environmental conscious designs constructed in contemporary built environment. One of the common features of those buildings is the use of green roofs. Their impact on the urban space is beneficial in many ways e.g. they reduce the negative effects of carbon dioxide emission, improve water management system, absorb dusts, minimize the urban heat island effect. The use of green roofs on such a large scale caused the change in the building appearance and in the larger scale â&#x20AC;&#x201C; in the image of the contemporary city. The boundaries between the building and the urban environment have become smooth, providing continuity with the surrounding urban environment. This type of space therefore may be used as extended public space providing new urban recreational areas within the city structure.
Figure 1: Polish examples of extended recreational green rooftop spaces
Green rooftop space provides a potential for a variety of functional and compositional solutions providing a new field for architectural and urban experiments. The article discusses multiple Polish designs providing the worldwide background context in order to create a typology of contemporary forms of the extended public space. It also concentrates on spatial, environmental and social benefits of this kind of creations. Recreational rooftop areas are the indicatives of the interpretation of the continuity of space in the structure of contemporary city providing a new solution for the sustainable urban environment. Keywords: urban environment, green rooftops, sustainable architecture
1. Introduction Architecture, like other fields of science and art, is an expression of the times in which it arises. It answers the urgent needs and problems of the users at the particular time. Contemporary trends in shaping urban space are expressed in efforts to reduce the negative impact of violent urbanization on the state of the environment and the quality of life of the population. The changing priorities are S.ARCH-2017 513.1
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followed by the achievements of science and technology that emerge in the appearance of architectural and urban space. The transformation of the city is reflected by the changes in its image. The beginning of the 21st century marks the commencement of the introduction of pioneering technological solutions to address today's standards for improving the quality of the environment through the efficient management of energy and water. These assumptions are set out in the European Union Energy Efficiency Directive 1 adopted in 2012 that obliges the states to take measures to protect the environment, also in the field of construction. Their implementation involves the use of innovative technologies and materials, new insulation methods, and the acquisition of alternative energy. It also covers issues related to the management of drinking water and precipitation including its economical consumption, as well as the processes of purification and recovery for reuse. The above conditions make us witness changes in the appearance of the urban space as a result of the process of searching the best solutions mainly in the contact zones between the building and its surroundings. What used to be a hard edge of wall or roof nowadays becomes soft, absorbent surface covering contemporary structures. One of the ways of metropolization and transformation in urban planning processes is the realization of the idea of shaping contemporary cities as "garden towns". The idea origins in Ebenezer Howard’s a garden city movement 2 and Frank Lloyd Wright’s Broadacre City 3, and it aims at improving the quality of urban environment by changing it into a new type of a garden city based on not only the use of the undeveloped land but also the surface of the buildings. The rooftops have become not only technological and environmental necessity – they became an added value to the city’s green infrastructure, a new type of recreational area, a commuting spot. 2. Green rooftops The research in the field of green rooftops are conducted multidisciplinary involving architects, urban planners, environmental engineers, as well as landscape architects. In result, there are more and more environmental conscious designs constructed in the contemporary built environment. One of the common features of those buildings is the implementation of green roofs. Germany is widely considered the leader in this field comprising technology and usage. It is estimated that 12% of all flat roofs in this country are green. Their impact on the urban environment is beneficial in many ways e.g. they reduce the negative effects of carbon dioxide emission, improve water management system, absorb dusts, minimize the urban heat island effect.
2.1 Classification Biologically active roofing was already known in antiquity, hanging semiramis gardens from the 6th century BC. In traditional Scandinavian construction, lichen areas are encountered to increase the 1 Directive 2012/27 / EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2012 on energy efficiency, amending Directives 2009/125 / EC and 2010/30 / EU and repealing Directives 2004/8 / EC and 2006/32 / Official Journal of the European Union 14.11.2012 EN. It assumes an increase in energy efficiency by 2020 by 17%. 2 Howard E., The Garden Cities of To-morrow. Swan Sonnenschein % Co., Ltd. London 1902. 3 Wright F.L., The Future of Architecture, Mentor, New York 1963.
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thermal insulation. In more urbanized areas, the green roofing was used to protect the structure against the spread of fires, as it was common in the case of Silesia.4 Currently biologically active roofs are most often used in urban space, where they reduce the effect of urban heat island to improve hydrological balance and air quality. They can also be attributed to noise suppression. Modern green roofs can be categorized as ‘intensive’ or ‘extensive’ systems depending on the plant material and planned usage for the roof area. The most common form of green roofs, however, is an extensive, non-use type. This is due to the relatively low cost of investment and the lack of intensive irrigation and maintenance work. Extensive roofs are limited to herbs, grasses, mosses, and drought tolerant succulents such as Sedum, can be sustained in a shallow substrate layer (< 10 cm (4 in)), require minimal maintenance, and are generally not accessible to the public. What can be grown depends on such factors as climate, microclimate, substrate depth and composition, and whether supplemental irrigation is available. By using this type of roof, alongside the already mentioned benefits of improving air quality and thermal insulation, it is possible to reduce the amount of rainwater drained to the storm drain by about 50%. Compositionally, these forms are separated from the terrain, often invisible from the perspective of a man moving in public space. One of the largest such implementations in the USA is the green roof of over 1.5 hectares designed on the top of the Music City Center in Nashville. The building was designed in 2013 by the tvsdesign group. Architects’ inspiration was the hilly landscape of the Tennessee state. It is visible from the roofs of nearby skyscrapers. Alongside the lichen on the roof, a rainwater tank and solar collectors have been designed to maintain the low energy balance of the building, which has been honored with a LEED gold certificate. 5 In contrast, intensive green roofs utilize a wide variety of plant species that may include trees and shrubs, require deeper substrate layers (usually > 15 cm (6 in)), are generally limited to flat roofs, require ‘intense’ maintenance, and are often park-like areas accessible to the general public. It is characterized by high thermal insulation and a reduction of rain waters up to 90% with a soil layer above 75 cm. The advantage of such a solution is the introduction of a new usable space in contact with nature, the possibility of arranging and breeding garden plants analogous to those planted in the ground. The disadvantages of this system include the high cost of such a solution, the need for constant care and irrigation. Intense green roofs also allow location of water tanks upon the building. One of the first such examples was Shingonshu Honpukuji Temple, built by T. Ando in 1991.6 The reservoir apart from its compositional meaning - the symbolic boundary of purification between the profanum of the environment and the sacred interior - is the place where ecosystems forms. The concrete water pool provides a natural habitat for aquatic plants and insects. The water reservoir located on top of the roof of an underground parking lot of a housing complex in the Dutch city of sHertogenbosch functions as energy gaining premises. 7 This project has been part of a strategy for revitalization of the post-industrial area since 1990 in line with the idea of sustainable design. The water tank here
4
Palej A., Farmy miejskie – przedsięwzięcia wspomagające strategie zrównoważonego rozwoju miast.. Technical Transactions, Architecture, 6-A/2010, p. 39–44, CUT, Kraków, 2010. 5 Music City Center, http://www.nashvillemusiccitycenter.com/leed, access: 10.08.2015. 6 Water Temple, http://www.architravel.com/architravel/building/water-temple-shingonshu-honpukuji/, dostęp: 10.08.2015. 7 http://www.bdp.com/en/projects/projecten/a-g/Paleiskwartier-and-station-area-s-Hertogenbosch/ dostęp: 10.08.2015. S.ARCH-2017 513.3
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serves as an accumulation of thermal energy, which, along with that derived from the exchange of heat used in services and geothermal sources, supplies residential buildings.
2.2 Composition Intensive green roofs can be either connected with the surrounding terrain, sometimes imitating the natural topography or detached from it lifted upon the roof level of the buildings, even not visible from the ground. The first group often involves incorporating the building, or its part into the ground, where the use of green roofs improves the thermal insulation of the building, as well as supports the management of water. That kind of design results in shaping the new terrain’s of topography creating a new urban landscape. Historically the city's space was varied and delaminated between ground level and the other, introduced by the cubature of the buildings. Today shaping of the buildings has become a pretext for terrain geometry experiments, allowing nostalgic human attachment to natural areas that are characterized by the sculptural diversity. Green roofs made these experiments, despite universal accessibility, desirable in the urban environment. Zaha Hadid says, "I use the concept of artificial landscape and topography as a means of saturating, filling the ground with activity, without losing the fluidity and seamless character of urban geometry." 8 She draws attention to the possibilities of introducing new links created through such a new topography. The new topography was created by Peter Eisenman creating the space of the City of Galicia in Santiago de Compostela. The implementation of this premise, preceded by an international architectural competition held in 1999, has been ongoing since 2001. The architect's concept was inspired by the neighborhood of the historic city, that image was mapped and transformed into a computer. As a result, an urban-landscape complex was created that mimics the natural, hilly terrain of the land through the forms of rippling green roofs. The museum, which includes the Galicia Historical Museum as well as the International Art Center, was crossed by canyons of pedestrian alleys and internal communication. "We see a stone plateau crossed by faults and ravines. The natural sculpture of the terrain was repeated in new bodies, bringing in wave shapes, mountains, valleys and ravines."9 And this impression was obtained by creating a new, reconstructed topography and combining its forms fluently, almost invisibly, with the surrounding landscape. The Vancouver Convention Center, designed by LMN, DA Architects & Planners, Musson Cattell Mackey Partnership, is the largest green roof in Canada. It is detached from the ground level, shaped in the form of geometric terraces covered with vegetation. The green area of 2.5 ha provides a habitat for about 400 thousand native species as well as 4 colonies of bees. Designers call it "architectural topography" 10. The roof technology was designed to maintain proper temperature inside the building. The rich vegetation of the roof owes its unique irrigation system. In addition to the collection of rain water and the recovery and filtration of water, the building is equipped with a desalination plant, which allows seawater to be used during periods of lack of precipitation. These systems, in addition to innovative installation techniques, have made the building a Platinum LEED 8
Z. Hadid, Pritzker Prize Speach, Architecture and Urbanism 2004 nr 9, s. 7.
M. Gyurkovich, Hybrydowe przestrzenie kultury we współczesnym mieście europejskim, Wydawnictwo Politechniki Krakowskiej, Kraków 2013, p. 111-116. 10 Vancouver Convention Centre - http://www.vancouverconventioncentre.com/, dostęp: 2.10.2015. 9
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Certified. The green roof of the building is not open to the public, so its artificial topography can fully serve the developed ecosystem, restoring biodiversity in degraded harbor areas. Similar composition on the roof level was created on the nearly 7 hectares of green roof of the Pole Scientifique et Technique Paris-Est (PST), now called Espace Bienvenüe. The project was designed to create a training center for the Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development and Energy, which would be a model, eco-friendly building. It was crowned with the undulating green roof, creating a varied terrain topography, distinct from the flat landscape of Marne-la-Vallée. The entire roof surface is covered by vegetation. Grassy hills are overgrown here and there, planted in disciplined geometric shrubs. The rippling bands are intertwined and merging, bringing to mind the natural hills. Jean-Philippe Pargade designed the building, changing the face of this Paris suburb, and completed its construction in 2015. The introduction of a new topography serves to multiply the urban space, thus creating new surfaces for the green infrastructure. On one hand they have utilitarian importance for the buildings and their environmental performance but at the same time they form a new type of urban space – transition space.
2.3 Extended space Nowadays, the problem of linking buildings with the environment is understood as an interpretation of the continuity of space. The new urban topography generated by the introduction of green roofs results in emerging the new type of space, on the edge of the building and its surroundings that provides extension of the city’s public areas. Transition space describes the field of interaction between subject and object, in this case the structure and its environment. This term originates in psychology and was first used by D. Winnicott describing the area between the inner life and the objective reality, the sphere of experience. In site-specific art, where "place" is in some way part of the creation or affects its perception – it refers to the realm of interaction between the work and its location. In architecture, following Tadao Ando’s writings, it is defined as a space linking the two areas of different character. The contact zone between the building and its environment has gained importance as a place of social relations as well as interaction of man with nature in a place of residence, work or recreation. Lucyna Nyka stresses that this phenomenon coincides with the abolition of historical opposition between the object and the environment - architecture and nature. 11 At the same time there are concepts of binding space with the community formed and indications of the role of direct experience in the creation of urban space. The extension of the building into its surroundings is possible by the use of natural elements in the transition spaces. The zone of interaction between the structure and the environment is expanded especially by the use of terrain topography and green roofs. Public and semi-public space is extended onto the surface of the roofing providing a walking surface – the soft edge between architecture and nature. Greenery, reaching out to the city public space encourage users to enter the building rooftop zone. Urban space can also penetrate the interior of the building in the form of
Nyka L., Od architektury cyrkulacji do urbanistycznych krajobrazów, Wydawnictwo Politechniki Gdańskiej, Gdańsk 2006. 11
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open or closed courtyards, creating enclaves providing access to the extended roof space. In this way they also define the new public space image by introducing greenery into urban environment. Contemporary public spaces are characterized by the fluidity of the boundary between the building and the city. Buildings whose roof tops are made available to users are expanding the urban space. They are formed in a way that allows movement, encouraging to use the new spaces, connections, views. They become parts of the inhabitants’ everyday paths, offering them new scenarios for discovering urban landscapes. This makes the structure entangled in the structure of pedestrian connections. The edge between architecture and the surrounding is blurred, one becomes a complement to the other. One of the pioneer compositions of this type is the Villa VPRO building dating back to 1997 12. It was built in Hilversum, the capital city of Dutch cinematography. The building consists of several interconnected solids which, like the historical development of this district, were situated amidst greenery. The composition of the building's contact zone with the environment was based on multilayered links with the terrain as a grass slope. They are implemented on different levels through reinforced concrete slabs. The integration of the structure of the building with the landscape was also achieved through the glazing that makes the building almost completely transparent. This allows to travel from ground level through the interiors of the building and its open courtyards to the recreational space of its green roof, many times crossing the physical border of its glass facades. The vegetation here plays an insulating role on the ceiling floor, and also protects the building and its interior from sunlight.
2.4 Rooftop recreational areas Extended roof space usually serves recreational purposes, while at the same time it provides sustainability by improving bioclimatic performance of the building, or by reducing the structure’s environmental impact. Intense green roofs allow to compose different types of green in combination with pedestrian paths and road surfaces. They can be divided into two groups: visible and accessible from the surrounding area, and these not directly connected to the surroundings but possible to access through the external communication or the building’s interior. One of the pioneering buildings, covered by a green accessible roof, was the library of Delft Technical University. Mecanoo Group, the designers of the project, set up the task of activating the campus by creating a new form of public space, simultaneously realizing the postulates of energy efficiency and the economic management of rainwater. 13 The investment accomplished in 1998 fulfills its objectives. Sloping meadow roof slabs attracts users at different times of the day and year, and the green roof system efficiency has been proved especially in the process of cooling. The pioneer roof garden of that type in Poland was the Warsaw University Library. Architects Badowski, Budzynski, Kowalewski created a new public space by extending the library gardens, in the form of green slopes, on its roof. The building completion in 2000 was considered pioneering, also in Europe. The landscape architecture project by Irena Bajerska contributed to this 12 13
P. Haupt, Hilversum – zielone wnętrze mediów, Architectus 2012 no 2(32), p. 79-84. P. Jodidio, Buidling a New Millenium, Taschen, Kolonia 1999, p. 342-349. S.ARCH-2017 513.6
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proclamation.14 It included not only the sequence of gardens in the park and on the roofs of the library, but also the green, vine-covered faรงade. Green compositions incorporate solar elements and water storage systems, making the building consistent even with current standards for sustainable solutions. The green roof serves as a publicly accessible urban recreation area in the invested area in the near of Vistula River bank providing a wide panoramic view of the city. Vegetation on the surface is an extension of a green park, thus blurring the imaginary boundary between the building and the environment. At the same time the gardens are used to improve the energy performance of the object.
Il. 1. Warsaw University Library Badowski, Budzynski, Kowalewski, Warsaw 2000
14
A. Rumiล ska (ed.), 101 najciekawszych budynkรณw dekady, Warszawa 2011, p.124. S.ARCH-2017 513.7
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Il. 2. Geo-Education Center Geopark, PALK architects, Kielce, Poland 2011
Il. 3. International Congress Center, JEMS Architects, Katowice, Poland 2014
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Il. 4. Tarasy Zamkowe, Bolesław Stelmach, Lublin, Poland 2014
Another building using the form of a green roof for integration into the environment, creating the continuity with the surrounding park, while using its thermal insulation properties is the GeoEducation Center Geopark Kielce. The location of the building completed in 2011 is the site of the former heap dug out of the recovered rock waste. The authors of the project - PALK architects referred to the varied sculpture of the site creating a one-storey pavilion with different interior heights. The superimposed green roof planes create a variety of possibilities for interior lighting. The building is connected to the surrounding area by the sloping grass plane leading connecting two squares, at the bottom, and at the top of the structure that provide transition space inevitable to cross while entering the pavilion. The building of the International Congress Center in Katowice, designed by the JEMS Architects, is another investment that uses the green roofs as publicly accessible recreational area that can be entered directly from the city’s ground level 15. The building completed in 2014 is subdivided by a green plane, which splits the structure into two solids introducing a footpath in between them. The roof plane next to its importance for energy efficiency and supporting rainwater management has gained a new dimension. It has become a multi-level public space, a walking trail providing distant views of the city. Therefore it is a place frequently visited by people at every time of the day serving not only the visitors of the building, but also other inhabitants. Archinea, Centrum Geoedukacji w Kielcach – Palk Architekci, http://archinea.pl/centrum-geoedukacji-wkielcach-palk-architekci/, access: 10.09.2015. 15
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The architectural design of the Tarasy Zamkowe shopping mall in Lublin prepared by Boleslaw Stelmach provides both types of access - one, by a wide staircase along the façade, the other through the interior space. The building floor plan is set on the triangle with three public squares at the corners providing space for rest and organization of various events. The shopping center is two stories high covered with the large multi-plane garden including squares, ramps, walking strolls and lookouts. The most impressive element of the composition is the viewing platform facing the panorama of the castle and the Old Town. Bolesław Stelmach, the author commented: In the era of global ecological and energy crisis, architects face two challenges: how to strengthen cultural and environmental identity and to provide energy-efficient buildings in a comprehensive manner. These two objectives have laid the foundations for the Tarasy Zamkowe project. Due to extraordinary sustainable solutions used in the building, alongside with the roof the investor has applied for the BREEAM certificate. The other type of recreational area on rooftop access is through the interior of the building with restricted access. The so far largest area of this type designed for the employees upon the 3.5hectare roof tops the new Facebook headquarters opened in 2015 in Menlo Park, CA. 16 It was designed as a garden, mimicking the natural landscape with the geometry of inclined planes. They are connected to the stairs located at the edges of the surface, which allow free movement between the interior of the building and the recreation space of the green roof. The assumption of the last project of Friedensreich Hundertwasser, the Austrian architect known from his specific aesthetic style was to create a semi-public recreational area on top of the roof of multifamily residential building. The structure called Waldspirale was built in Darmstadt in the year 2000.17 The name originates in the form of a rising spiral ramp on the U-shaped plan. At its highest point, the building reaches a height of 12 stories. The entire roof surface is a garden connecting green areas, playgrounds, and even a water reservoir. This way of managing the roof is one of the expressions of the ecological character of the building. Concrete is recycled and green roofs are one of the components to ensure energy efficiency. Limited access recreational area was planned on the roof level of the largest shopping mall in Malmö, designed by Wingårdhs park office. 18 In contrast to the level of entrances to the building, as well as to the monotony of the flat environment, a terrain relief was proposed - a surface made up of dynamically inclined planes. They are covered with the mixture of grass lawns and the wooden lining. The impression is complemented by small architecture and forms - exit pavilions connecting facade design with the character of the roof through the materials used for their construction. The multi-level space can be used for walking, offering panoramic views of the city. One can admire them from the series of ramps and steps, which are integrated into in sloping planes of artificial hills. A special case of creating a new roof topography is the development of the center of the Dutch town of Almere. By implementing the plan prepared by Rem Koolhaas in 2006, De Citadel project, a residential-office-commercial complex occupying the central area of the city, was created. Thanks 16 Starr B., Facebook’s New HQ has a Massive 9-Acre Garden on the Roof, Visual News, 2.04.2015, http://www.visualnews.com/2015/04/02/facebooks-new-hq-has-a-massive-9-acre-garden-on-the-roof/, access: 10.08.2015 17 Waldspirale Darmstadt - http://www.oekosiedlungen.de/waldspirale/, access: 2.10.2015. 18 ArchDaily, Emporia, http://www.archdaily.com/386107/facts-emporia-wingardhs, access: 2.10.2015.
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to its construction bringing to mind a layered piece of land undergoing geological processes, it has become an icon of the youngest city in the Netherlands. At the ground level, it creates an impression of conventional city center architecture, with the townhouses arranged in the frontage. However, at the height of the roof it resembles a more natural area than the city center. Over compact quarters of the lower floors, there are small forms of single-family homes placed on the roof level that use green spaces as private gardens. The recreational area in this case is strictly private. Similarly, recreation space users of a multi-family building at Wimbergergassein Vienna was designed as strictly private, for the residents and office users. It was formed in the way that it resembles an artificial landscape. The authors of this idea, which became a completed project in 2001, are architects from Delugan & Meissl.19 The concept of the project was to integrate two different functions - residential and office, accompanied by sloping green roof gardens. As a result a new layer of city was created as an artificial landscape imitating nature.
2.5 Roof gardens Green roof areas may also serve as place for developing urban agriculture. Facing global instability the requirements for the cities, as a place of residence change constantly. One of the most important needs is to address the issue of community resilience. In order to meet the necessities of energy, water and food independence is providing architecture that is capable of it. Roof gardens may be considered one of the means to satisfy that demand. The city currently concentrates rather on urban horticulture that becomes a new form of public space, generating a new community behaviour model. However, the development of vertical structures is often addressed in the concepts of the future city. In urban vertical farms designed and raised in the twenty-first century, production appears on a par with other functions more and more frequently. Food production is planned as one of the functions in bioclimatic, sustainable office buildings and in residential highrisers that change the image of urban space. One of the most interesting examples of urban horticulture is a part of refurbishment of former dockland in Paris located at the Seine River in near of the Austerlitz railway station. The concrete structure of storage facility from 1907 was transformed into a hybrid building serving local community Cité de la Mode et du Design. On the roof of the building there is an urban farm that was created as a project called "Living Rooftop". The top of the building was designed to serve as the extension of public space. In addition to the cafes located there, there is also space provided for plants cultivation, as a
form of activity of the local community. In addition it offers chicken farm, carp pond and the apiary. Polish most interesting example of that type is the “Teatr w budowie" designed in two stages by Stanislaw Bieńkuński in 1972 and by Stelmach i Partnerzy Biuro Architektoniczne Sp. z o.o. in 2016. The idea of building a new theater building in Lublin arose in the 1960s. In 1972, the City Council decided to build an opera house in Lublin with a theater and a congress hall capable of housing 1000 people. A nationwide architectural competition was announced with the participation of the Association of Polish Architects SARP. Prof. Arch. Stanisław Bieńkuński from Warsaw. The project was completed in 1972 and was one of the largest facilities of that type at that time in Poland and 19
Exhibition catalogue pt. Housing in Vienna. Innovative, Social and Ecological, red. A. Viehhauser, Wiedeń 2008, p.94, online access: http://www.urbel.com/documents/becki%20stan_katalolg.e.pdf. S.ARCH-2017 513.11
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Europe. It was redesigned and finally opened for the public in 2016. The new building id covered by the roof garden accessible from the internal communication tracts. There are fruit and vegetables plant there, and the apiary. Apart from the biotechnological performance the roof garden provides recreational space that can also be used for small scale food production. It is often visited by local community members, especially children who are allowed to take care of the plants and then eat the crops.
Il. 5. Teatr w budowie, BolesĹ&#x201A;aw Stelmach, Lublin, Poland, 2016
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Il. 6. Teatr w budowie, Bolesław Stelmach, Lublin, Poland, 2016
3. Conclusions The contemporary buildings are described as spaces of circulation, and expansion of the city space by theorist of urban design. Recreational rooftop areas are the indicatives of the interpretation of the continuity of space in the structure of contemporary city providing a new solution for the sustainable urban environment. The green roof space may be used for recreational connections, enabling contact with nature. At the same time they may introduce biodiversity, and support the functioning of the building by participating in energy and water management systems. The use of green roofs on such a large scale caused the change in the building appearance and in the larger scale – in the image of the contemporary city. The boundaries between the building and the urban environment have become smooth, providing continuity with the surrounding urban environment. This type of space therefore may be used as extended public space providing new urban recreational areas within the city structure. They have potential to serve as community common space allowing direct social contact and cooperation. Green rooftop space provides a potential for a variety of functional and compositional solutions generating a new field for architectural and urban experiments. It may also become valuable for satisfying the resilient communities’s need for energy and water management as well as food production. Therefore green roofs are assumed to be one of the manifestations of the compact city idea.
Funding source DS – Cracow University of Technology
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References [1] Directive 2012/27 / EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2012 on energy efficiency, amending Directives 2009/125 / EC and 2010/30 / EU and repealing Directives 2004/8 / EC and 2006/32 / Official Journal of the European Union 14.11.2012 EN. It assumes an increase in energy efficiency by 2020 by 17%. [2] Howard E., The Garden Cities of To-morrow. Swan Sonnenschein % Co., Ltd. London 1902. [3] Wright F.L., The Future of Architecture, Mentor, New York 1963. [4] Palej A., Farmy miejskie – przedsięwzięcia wspomagające strategie zrównoważonego rozwoju miast.. Technical Transactions, Architecture, 6-A/2010, p. 39–44, CUT, Kraków, 2010. [5] Music City Center, http://www.nashvillemusiccitycenter.com/leed, access: 10.08.2015. [6] Water Temple, http://www.architravel.com/architravel/building/water-temple-shingonshuhonpukuji/, dostęp: 10.08.2015. [7] http://www.bdp.com/en/projects/projecten/a-g/Paleiskwartier-and-station-area-sHertogenbosch/ dostęp: 10.08.2015. [8] Z. Hadid, Pritzker Prize Speach, Architecture and Urbanism 2004 nr 9, p. 7. [9] M. Gyurkovich, Hybrydowe przestrzenie kultury we współczesnym mieście europejskim, Wydawnictwo Politechniki Krakowskiej, Kraków 2013, pp. 111-116. [10] Vancouver Convention Centre - http://www.vancouverconventioncentre.com/, dostęp: 2.10.2015. [11] Nyka L., Od architektury cyrkulacji do urbanistycznych krajobrazów, Wydawnictwo Politechniki Gdańskiej, Gdańsk 2006. [12] P. Haupt, Hilversum – zielone wnętrze mediów, Architectus 2012 no 2(32), pp. 79-84. [13] P. Jodidio, Buidling a New Millenium, Taschen, Kolonia 1999, pp. 342-349. [14] A. Rumińska (ed.), 101 najciekawszych budynków dekady, Warszawa 2011, p.124. [15] Archinea, Centrum Geoedukacji w Kielcach – Palk Architekci, http://archinea.pl/centrumgeoedukacji-w-kielcach-palk-architekci/, access: 10.09.2015. [16] Starr B., Facebook’s New HQ has a Massive 9-Acre Garden on the Roof, Visual News, 2.04.2015, http://www.visualnews.com/2015/04/02/facebooks-new-hq-has-a-massive-9-acregarden-on-the-roof/, access: 10.08.2015 [17] Waldspirale Darmstadt - http://www.oekosiedlungen.de/waldspirale/, access: 2.10.2015. [18] ArchDaily, Emporia, http://www.archdaily.com/386107/facts-emporia-wingardhs, access: 2.10.2015. [19] Exhibition catalogue pt. Housing in Vienna. Innovative, Social and Ecological, red. A. Viehhauser, Wiedeń 2008, p.94, online access: http://www.urbel.com/documents/becki%20stan_katalolg.e.pdf.
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PROCESSES OF URBAN TRANSFORMATION: EXPLORING THE NEXUS BETWEEN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT AND ISLAMIC IDENTITY IN SAUDI ARABIA [BETWEEN 1938 AND 1990] Oumr Adnan OSRA and *Paul JONES Sydney School of Architecture, Design and Planning University of Sydney Wilkinson Building, 2006, Sydney, Australia, oosr3429@uni.sydney.edu.au
Abstract This paper focuses on exploring the nexus between the patterns and form of the urban built environment and the nature of Islamic identity which increasingly defines the urban landscape of Saudi Arabia. The review is set within the wider urban transformation processes at play in Saudi Arabia during the period 1938 to 2005 when Saudi Arabia transitioned from an economy strongly focused on oil exploration to one which is now centred on oil plus the creation of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;economic citiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Islamic identity in the built environment is increasingly influenced by the adoption of both modern housing designs and western residential neighbourhood patterns. On the other hand, these physical forms and patterns also shape the nature and meaning of Islamic identity and its resulting spatial expression. In the twentieth century, the relationship between urban patterns, architecture, and people was highly compatible in Islamic cities in Saudi Arabia and the Arabian Gulf region as most were conservative societies. Within this context, this paper traces urban patterns, housing and neighbourhood designs from the period of discovering oil in 1938 until 2005 when economic diversity became a major driver of urban growth.
Keywords Islamic Identity, housing, urban pattern, modernization, transformation.
1
Introduction
The story of the urban development in Saudi Arabia is unique; oil has played a significant role in planning the modern city, while Islamic identity was the main feature of the traditional city. As a result, the traditional city may have visualised socio-cultural values either of the level of the urban pattern or the architecture. In 1973, the oil boom abundantly contributed to economic and urban development in Saudi Arabia. In thus context, investigating the urban development within the context of Saudi Arabia has been divided into two main parts: the traditional urban pattern in the pre-modern oil modernisation and to contemporary urban fabric after discovering the oil in 1938 by the Arabian American Company Aramco.
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The Traditional Urban Pattern in Saudi Arabia
Homogenisation between the urban pattern and the architecture resulted in providing a unique example of the Islamic city. However, there are different factors contributing to shaping the unique urban fabric in the traditional cities in Saudi Arabia, which are religious, socio-cultural, economic, and environmental(Saleh 2001). Islam is a “precise” religion as it forms the lifestyle of people within the city to ensure equality not only for the human beings but for all creatures. This relationship between the environment and creatures is derived from the Shari'ah (Qur'an and Sunnah), which informs the socio-cultural values of Muslims. Sociocultural values represent the Islamic Identity in the traditional city in Saudi Arabia through either the urban pattern or the architecture. The unique geometries of the buildings are difficult to comprehend from the first glance; for example the irregular outline of the buildings is a result of applying the Islamic principles that divide urban patterns and house designs into three degrees of privacy: public, semi-public, and private (Y.A. Aina 2013). This can be clearly seen in the traditional urban pattern of the city through the transition between the narrow streets and the public spaces, from semi-public to public spaces. The same technique has been applied in designing the residential houses: the main entrance of the house that leads to the courtyard through narrow hallway which does not directly connect with internal courtyard, as well as spaces of the house to protect the privacy of the residents, especially women who live inside (Figures 1 and 2) (Zulkeplee Othmann 2015). This represents how the guests are always exposed to the architectural filtration system when travelling from the public to the semi-public parts and end with the private space.
Figure 1: Privacy has been applied in Muslims’ houses through using the hierarchy technique of the privacy degree in relation to the house’s zones, Source: (Zulkeplee Othmann 2015) Figure 2: The Traditional urban fabric at Alkut. The urban fabric consists of a number of Freej (neighbourhoods) that are shown in black, Source: (Romaya and Rakodi 2002)
3
The Relationship between the Urban Context and the Sociocultural Values:
The alleys played a significant role in the urban fabric of the old cities in Saudi Arabia. Thus, they were designed to treat several aspects such as the harsh climate circumstances, sociocultural values, and religious practices at the city(Akbar , Harbi 1989). For example, at the alleys, architects can see the overlap between the different circumstances has led to provide a unique outline of winding corridors. Providing convenient alleys is an essential demand as a
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result of the extensive use from the residents due to the different activities which take place in or passing through these corridors(Akbar). To begin with, one of the seven pillars in the Islam is performing the five prayers at Masjid for the men. As a result, the residents were walking through the alleys five times a day just for pray. During and after this journey people were sitting on the side of the alleys to communicate with each other, buying and selling groceries till muezzin starts in the azan to collect the people to perform their prayer at Masjid(Wikipedia 2017). In terms of the socio-cultural matters, the majority of the people are using the closed end of the alleys to celebrate the official public Occasions, marriage celebrations for the men only where the women celebrating together at homes and watching the men when the performing traditional dancing from behind the Mashrabiya (this architectural element is used widely in the western region of Saudi Arabia especially Makkah and Jeddah cities), or to establish the condolence ceremony(Akbar). The social relationships between the residents were very strong which contribute in reinforcing the using of the public spaces(Saleh 2001). In the front of the majority of the houses there was a special place called Mastbah which is a platform which is raising from the street level by 3 to 4 stairs, while the other houses could have what called Mirkaz which is an outdoor sitting bench used by the dweller to meet his daily guests from the men(Akbar). During the summer the majority of the residents were starting in sprinkling water at the front space of their house before putting the Mirkaz to decrease the temperature of the air(Akbar). That kind of the sociocultural interaction was resulted in reinforcing the social relationships between the residents, so it became the norm how the neighbors could help each other in the daily duties as well as in the official occasions like wedding celebrations(Akbar). That trend has been expanded by the residents till they started to borrow the kitchen utensils from each other(Akbar). There were strong relationships between the neighbors which significantly contributed in extending the occupantâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s domain. As a result, residentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; public awareness toward their public urban spaces has increased(Akbar). So the general attitude of the alleyways is to keep them clean as well as for the front space of each home in the neighborhood they kept it clean like their houses' rooms(Akbar). There were some sociocultural factors formed the human behavior at the urban spaces such as the moving from one neighborhood to another, and the degree of the privacy at the different urban spaces. One significant feature of the urban spaces at old cities in Saudi Arabia is there were no clear boundaries between the public, semi-private, and private urban spaces like any other traditional Islamic city, which contributed in designing specific architectural elements to provide effective communication with the urban spaces. The architecture and the urban pattern were compatible where we can clearly see that each of them is complement the other, this relationship between the architecture and the urban pattern has consolidated when they had harmonized with the sociocultural values of the people as well as environmental circumstances(Akbar).
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The Oil Boom in 1938:
The arrival of the modernity in Saudi Arabia goes back to the discovery of oil by the Arabian American Company Aramco in 1938 (Al-Ankary and El-Bushra 1989, Al-Mubarak 1999, Al-Naim 2008). Before that year, Aramco was unsure about the future of oil in Saudi Arabia and whether it would be fruitful or not, so it decided to build temporary basic shelters to accommodate its American workers (Kimball 1956). By discovering the oil well Dammam No.7,
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which produced over 1500 barrels per day, Aramco became very confident about the future of oil exploration within Saudi Arabia (Wikipedia 2016). As a result, the company started to set up a housing scheme to replace the basic shelters which had been built earlier. Raw materials such as steel and cement were imported to accelerate the construction process which Paralleled the oil exploration process (Al-Barqawi 2012). Aramco created a new urban development, which mainly aimed to meet the desires of the American workers and their families. As a result, new building typologies were introduced in Dahran such as shopping malls, medical centres, and educational facilities (Al-Ankary and El-Bushra 1989, Al-Naim 2008). The housing project which was built between 1938 and 1944, introduced both new urban pattern and housing typologies (Al-Naim 2008). It was a sample of western urbanism, as it illustrated modern housing development which was connected by streets networks (Figures 3 and 4).
Figure 3: The satellite image on the left hand side illustrates Assalhiyyah Neighbourhood which is the first grid pattern with traditional building system inside the blocks in 1935,Source: (Al-Naim 2008)
Figure 4: The American Camp, which has been taken in 1949 during this year the number of the employees jumped to 13.000, Source: (Aramco 2013) Faisal Al-Mubarak mentioned that: “I argue that Aramco’s planners encouraged a policy of physical segregation, based on ethnicity and professional grade within its industrial (company) towns and fell short in aiding the nascent government in developing a genuine planning model suited for local society.”. ((Al-Mubarak 1999), pg.32) The American western lifestyle was introduced through the American workers’ community as an ideal of modern urbanism, as well as presented via media. According to early literature, the Sun and Flare magazine “was the most powerful medium that reflected the Aramco lifestyle”
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(Al-Barqawi 2012). The magazine was reporting both local and foreign news (Figure 5), and also focused on the sports and social activities of the residents within the company’s campus. It also discussed new sports activities that were introduced by the American workers in Aramco such as tennis and bowling games, which extended to include dancing classes (AlBarqawi 2012).
Figure 5 : The Sun and Flare Magazine, which was reporting both local as well as international news, Source: (Al-Barqawi 2012) The concept of westernization was expanded to include broadcasting western programs and documentaries which targeted the Americans viewers who work in Aramco (Figure 6). At the same time, on the other side of the Aramco campus there were two traditional villages called Al-Hafuf and Al-Qatif, which were very different from Aramco's campus both in terms of the built environment and socio-cultural values of the residents (Al-Naim 2008, Al-Naim 2008). Mashary Al-Naim pointed out that the early intervention by Aramco has deeply affected but not immediately on the Saudis (Al-Naim 2008). Questions to raise such as how will Americans live there, What they do, and about how the existence of the Americans workers would contribute to changing the socio-cultural values of the native people (Al-Naim 2008). At the beginning of the transformation toward the modernity the conflict between the traditional socio-cultural values and the westernisation was limited and did not have a wide effect, because the Saudis accepted what matched their socio-cultural values, and applied it to their lifestyles as well as their houses (Al-Ankary and El-Bushra 1989, Al-Naim 2008). Mashary AlNaim stated that: “… the contrast between traditional images and the new images in the minds of local people can be considered the beginning of physical and social changes in Saudi architecture...” ((Al-Naim 2008), p.128) .
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Figure 6: The part of the live broadcast of a program on TV Aramco, and the reader can see at this stage for the first time that a woman has appeared to the public without wearing a Hijab, Source:(Al-Barqawi 2012) Later, a heated debate between old and younger Saudis arose about if their traditional neighbourhood pattern with its narrow and winding streets should be changed to adopt the modern layout which was presented on the other side of the city (Al-Naim 2008, Al-Naim 2008). The Aramco camp had introduced new spatial relationships both at the level of the internal arrangement of the house structure and where the houses were situated in relation to each other in the urban pattern. By examining what was presented in the Aramco camp, it can be seen they were opposite to the built environment in the two traditional cities (Al-Naim 2008). Solon T. Kimball described the nature of the Aramco camp, which imported western urbanism features from the USA, by building single storey houses surrounded by a grassed yard (Kimball 1956, Al-Naim 2008) (Figures 7 and 8).
Figure 7: The Aramco camp which features the basic shelters which has been built in 1938., Source: (Aramco 2013) Figure 8: The second American workers camp at Ras Tanunurah in the 1950, Source: (AlNaim 2008) The majority of Saudis at that time were still adherent to their indigenous socio-cultural values, which formed in a built structure sense (Kimball 1956). As a result, the majority of the native people rejected the imported socio-cultural values and architectural forms, deciding to maintain their own traditional pattern (Figure 9) (Al-Naim 2008).
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Figure 9: The Saudi Camp where employees built their settlements using the traditional pattern and local materials, Source: (Al-Naim 2008) This led to social tension between the Saudi and American workers in Aramco. Therefore, when Saudi workers decided to bring their families and move to the Aramco camp to live there, they set up their own traditional settlements(Kimball 1956). Any non-structured land was targeted by the Saudis workers, and they started to build their fenced settlements from available local materials at the site; settlements were separated from each other by setting narrow winding footpaths. This created “a community of mud-brick and timber houses built in a traditional and comfortable way” (Al-Naim 2008), p.128).
5
The First Planned City in Saudi Arabia in 1947:
It is fruitful to look at how Kimball described the position of the Saudi workers during their first socio-cultural contact with the American workers in Aramco camp. Kimball described the Saudi workers’ settlements as “neither planned nor welcomed” when he compared them to the Senior staff camp((Kimball 1956), pg.472) . Then he explained how the Saudi workers were trying to create sort of settlements who are familiar with and matching their socio-cultural values. According to Mashary Al-Naim: “…Kimball recognized the insistence of the native people on their own identity through his description of the Saudi camp as ‘an emerging indigenous community life” ((Al-Naim 2008), p.129). Early literature mentioned that urban transition usually taking time especially when combined with economic transformation, and that what exactly happened in Dhahran. The time frame to achieve any transition depends on several factors, the most significant factor is the role of the government as well as population behaviors in facilitate achieving the transition; Sovacool mentioned that: “Moreover, transitions to newer, cleaner energy systems such as sources of renewable electricity or electric vehicles often require significant shifts not only in technology, but in political regulations, tariffs and pricing regimes, and the behavior of users and adopters.” ((Sovacool 2016), pg.202). The native people at Aramco camp were still committed to their socio-cultural values, which made them reject the American workers' modern lifestyle. However, that did not end the matter of sociocultural change for Saudis workers, change took time, and occurred slowly (Kimball 1956, Al-Naim 2008, Al-Naim 2008). Comprehending the change in the physical environment and accepting the new spatial arrangements of the houses were basically
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dependent on how fast the Saudis were in accepting or rejecting changes to their existing socio-cultural values (Al-Naim 2008). During mid-forties, the Saudi government and Aramco were not satisfied with the traditional settlements, constructed by the Saudis at the camp (Al-Mubarak 1999, Al-Naim 2008). As a result, the Saudi government asked Aramco to find a solution for the traditional urban sprawl by managing the urban growth in the areas around the oil wells (Kimball 1956, Al-Naim 2008). Through this decision, the first urban transformation in Saudi Arabia occurred and the government announced the first planned cities, which are Dammam and Al-Khobar (Figure 10) (Al-Naim 2008). The urban design approach of the two new cities followed a gridiron pattern, which greatly differed from the traditional cities which followed a compact pattern (AlBarqawi 2012). The proposed urban pattern showed new spatial arrangements through three levels: the urban spaces in the city, the new outline for neighbourhoods, and the modern design of the houses (Figure 11).
Figure 10: The first planned city in Saudi Arabia, Al-Khobar in 1947, Source: (Al-Naim 2008) Figure 11: The introduction of the western planning system at Dammam and Khobar cities in Saudi Arabia, Source: (Al-Barqawi 2012) This led to accelerating the change in the socio-cultural values, not only in the two new cities but also extended to other traditional cities. For example, the native people who lived in one of the traditional cities, called Al-Hofuf, which was close to the new two planned cities, developed a new house typology that is called Bayt Arabi (Arabic house) (Al-Naim 2008). According to Mashary Al-Naim the native peoples' perception of the socio-cultural changes around them made them developed a new housing design and gave it an Arabian name (AlNaim 2008). However, in the past before the introduction of the new houses scheme by Aramco, house designs was almost the same across the urban areas of Saudi Arabia so there was no need to give them specific names when they were similar in terms of spatial arrangements and architectural images (Al-Naim 2008). What the author asserts is that releasing a specific name for the type of houses is strong evidence demonstrating how the native people react towards the threat to their identity as a result of the development of the new citiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; scheme (Al-Naim 2008).
6
Aramco Home Ownership Program in 1950
The development of the Bayt Arabi, which was emerging in 1930, demonstrated a new type of housing that developed further to become known as a villa. Then in 1950, Aramco announced its Home Ownership Program for its Saudi Employees to encourage them to build their homes (Figure 8) (Al-Mubarak 1999, Al-Naim 2008). Saudi employees were required to
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provide a design for their homes in order to qualify for a Mortgage loan (Al-Naim 2008). However, the Saudis were not qualified to design their houses and the number of the architects within Saudi Arabia at that time was too limited, so they relied on architects and engineers who work for Aramco to design their homes (Al-Naim 2008, Al-Barqawi 2012). The number of Saudi employees who applied for receiving accommodation was quite high and the number of architects and engineers who worked for Aramco was limited, so the company decided to develop a set of proposed designs for its employees to choose from. However, according to early literature (Al-Naim 2008, Al-Hathloul & Anisur-Rahmaam, 1985), the proposed designs did not incorporate the traditional design principles. Instead designers adopted a specific style called the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;international Mediterraneanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; detached houses scheme(AlMubarak 1999). On one hand, the eastern region of Saudi Arabia has seen a wide urban transformation which results in some changes in the socio-cultural values of the native people between 1930-1940 (Figures 12 and 13), while some indicators of changes in socio-cultural values were also occurring in the capital of Saudi Arabia (Riyadh)(Al-Mubarak 1999).
Figure 12: Saudi workers during the workshops of designing their homes. It is obvious that the Saudi workers started to adopt western lifestyle, as demonstrated by wearing shirts and trousers, Source: (Al-Barqawi 2012)
Figure 13: The modern streets in Dammam in the eastern region of Saudi Arabia. Right an American woman buying her groceries at a supermarket without wearing a Hijab, Source: (Al-Barqawi 2012)
Figure 14: An American woman walking in the street in one of the most conservative societies in the Middle East, Source: (Al-Barqawi 2012)
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According to Mashary Al-Naim, Facy mentioned that the new neighbourhoods in Riyadh had been classified based on the economic and social status of the residents; however, the spatial arrangements of the houses and the construction methods were still traditional. He described the changes in Riyadh in the1940s as: “Despite the mushrooming development of the city outside the walls, traditional methods of construction continued to be employed. The local architecture had to be adapted to the creation of buildings for government and the royal family on a scale hitherto unimagined by local craftsmen.” ( (Al-Naim 2008), p.130). In 1953, King Saud decided to modernise Riyadh city; Riyadh has seen series of urban development after announcing the transformation from traditional toward the gridiron urban pattern; in 1951 the Saudi government decided to build the royal residential district (Annasriyyah), however it was finished in 1957 (Al-Naim 2008, Middleton 2009). A significant highlight for this project is the use of the reinforced concrete as a building material for the first time in Riyadh (Al-Naim 2008). Tension was growing during this period among the Saudis regarding the traditions and modernity after seeing the recent urban developments within Riyadh, which led to radical changes in socio-cultural values as well as in the built environment (Al-Naim 2008). This was manifested in late 1950 by the decision of the government to construct the Al-Malaz neighbourhood (Figures 15 and 16) (Fadan 1983, Al-Naim 2008).
Figure 15: The urban pattern of Riyadh in 1862, Source: (Al-Naim 2008) Figure 16: The Master plan of the new district Al-Malaz in 1953, Source: (Al-Ankary and El-Bushra 1989, Al-Naim 2008, Middleton 2009) The same urban perspective was also applied in developing Dammam, Khobar and Riyadh, however there were major differences between the earlier urban developments. In the case of the urban development in Dammam and Al-Khobar, the project was totally controlled by Aramco ,which is a private company (Al-Naim 2008). Another significant difference that is Aramco gave the workers the right to design their houses. However, in the case of the Annasriyyah and Al-Malaz districts in Riyadh, the project was controlled by governmental agencies, which were responsible for the different stages of the project from the begining until the construction of the housing units (Al-Naim 2008). The residents were given no choice to take part in the designing process nor express their desires and opinions about their future houses. In terms of describing the emerging urban design Mashary Al-Naim stated that Yousef Faden described the recent urban development in early fifties as: “… a completely different
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conception of a house, cluster, and neighborhood has been introduced. It starts from the tiny details of the house construction, and spreads to the internal spatial organization of the rooms and finally to the external appearance and the relationship of the house to those in the neighborhood.â&#x20AC;? ((Al-Naim 2008), p.132). The new housing pattern which was built in Dammam, Khobar, and in Riyadh were acceptable for the employees of both governmental agencies and Aramco for different reasons. One significant reason that the majority of the Saudi employees at that time studied abroad and they spent time with people from other socio-cultural backgrounds, so they were not concerned about the new housing pattern. Another important reason was that the rest of the employees were not Saudis and had experienced different socio-cultural values during their working journey. However, in the modern residential districts in Riyadh that were mentioned above, the Saudis searched for answers to critical questions about designing the new houses (Al-Naim 2008). People's perceptions about the changes in the physical environment in Riyadh were like what had happened in Dammam and Al-Khobar. Until the late 1960s the majority of the people who were living in the traditional areas still conserved their traditions as well as socio-cultural values, which formed their houses. The indigenous society was resisting the socio-cultural changes as well as the changes in the physical environment (Al-Naim 2008). However, Mashary Al-Naim has mentioned that some people in the traditional areas at that time had made some minor changes in their houses to imitate the architectural features of the new houses in Al-Malaz (Al-Naim 2008). The urban sprawl of the traditional cities outside its indigenous boundaries were a significant indicator on how people absorbed modernity in Saudi Arabia. New houses that, had been constructed outside of the traditional cities, demonstrated both local and modern images; residents tested the modern aspects of building practices before applying them to building's facades (Al-Naim 2008). As a result, they accepted what agreed with their socio-cultural values and rejected anything else. Mashary Al-Naim conducted a visual survey for the new neighbourhoods which had been built outside the boundaries of the traditional cities in Riyadh. The survey revealed that, the built environment in terms of the form was similar to those in the traditional districts, however the residents started modifying some of the local architectural elements to communicate modernity (Figure18) (Harbi 1989).
Figure 17: Due to the Aramco Home Ownership program, a variety of modern houses have been built at Dammam in 1950, source:(Al-Naim 2008) According to Al-Said who also discussed the changes in the traditional neighbourhoods in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia in Dammam and Al-Khobar cities, he found some evidence that matched what had already happened in Riyadh. Al-Said focused on studying the growth of the traditional settlements in two neighbourhoods, which were Dammam and Al-Dawaser (Figures 19 and 20) (Al-Said 1992). In the first city, Al-Said noted that the number of the houses
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in the neighbourhood dramatically grew from 56 to 250 residential units between 1930 and 1970. Moreover, the outline of the houses were still the same and, the courtyard was still in the middle of the house and was surrounded by the rooms. The situation in Al-Khobar was quite similar, the architectural style of the houses was derived from the traditional settlements in the region (Al-Naim 2008). There were some modern houses that had been constructed within the two cities as a part of Aramco's Houses Ownership Program, but the majority of those residents still adherent to the local traditional socio-cultural values, which was reflected in the form of their settlements at that time. Mashary Al-Naim argued that native people at this time chose to maintain their traditional house designs because they were familiar with it and it was easy to apply (Al-Naim 2008). However, he touched on a significant matter: during this time the government had not yet announced the building regulations system, and as such this allowed the Saudis to have the freedom to design and build their own houses that agreed with their socio-cultural values(AlNaim 2008). Another important point Al-Naim raised was how the houses’ features, which express the modernity become communication tools between the residents and the built environment, which led him to raise significant questions: “…Was it an internal mechanism developing to absorb the new? Did the localizing of these new images by associating understandable social meanings form the main step towards internalizing these images in the collective memory? If so, this internalization of the new images was the first stage towards generating a new identity in the home environment.” ((Al-Naim 2008), p.135).
Figure 18: Left: The traditional urban pattern as well as the courtyard houses. Right: The modern urban pattern where the narrow streets have disappeared and, the multiple storey buildings have been constructed instead of traditional houses, Source:(Al-Naim 2008)
Figure 20: The urban transformation in the neighbourhood pattern between 1935 and 1973 in Dammam, Source:(Al-Said 1992) To conclude, this era had seen significant changes in urban pattern as well as the houses’ design; several lessons can be learned about how the residents have dealt with the modernity. For example, most the residents continued in their own socio-cultural values, which formed
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their local identity at that time. By using architectural elements, the native people have achieved communication between the architectural elements, urban pattern, and sociocultural values. So, when they decided to replace the traditional communicative elements with new ones, the people to evaluate the new elements to determine if they coincide with their held socio-cultural values or not prior to applying them to the houses. This process has been described as a ‘filtration’ process (Al-Naim 2008). This process illustrates how the native people gradually absorbed the new architectural elements, which informed the built environment until it became a part of the local architecture in the country (Al-Naim 2008). Consequently, new architectural forms have emerged due to merging new elements into the traditional architecture, which resulted in expressing new local meanings. Some early literature described this period as the identification era, when the native people struggled to form the modern Saudi home environment which matched their sociocultural values (Al-Naim 2008).
7
Modernisation of Capital Cities at Saudi Arabia in the 1970
Modernity was greatly growing in Saudi Arabia and the aim of some Saudis and the government during late sixties was to modernise their traditional physical environment. Thus, a new challenge arose for those who accepted some changes, and they do not have any concerns to accept more changes to achieve the aims of the modernisation process. By 1970, the Saudi government decided to widely modernise the physical environment in Saudi Arabia because previous attempts were having a limited impact on the people’s perceptions of the changes in their physical environment as well as their homes (Al-Naim 2008). To achieve that aim, the government was working on three matters to show the importance of the modernity to the public, which were: changing the economic situation after the discovery of the oil, necessity of developing the education sector, and finally improving the communication system in terms of how that would have effects on Saudi families (Al-Naim 2008, Middleton 2009). The previous matters when merged together contributed to make great changes in the traditional socio-cultural values of the Saudis which led later to change the houses’ design. The modern media played a very significant role in introducing the modern housing design to the people of Saudi Arabia; the media campaign coincided with some other radical changes in the economic sector which made the people feel more comfortable regarding the modernisation process (Al-Naim 2008). At that time, important questions started to surface about modifying Saudi identity to absorb modernity, especially the houses, which were designed based on the traditional socio-cultural values, and how that design might change in the modern era (Al-Naim 2008). The majority of the cities in Saudi Arabia have witnessed dramatic changes in the physical environment to achieve the transformation to become a modern country. Achieving modernity in Saudi Arabia was based on imitating the western lifestyle, and this trend extended to adopt western house design and apply them widely within the country (Al-Naim 2008). The Saudi government was working on facilitating this vision by applying planning policies and regulations(Middleton 2009). Early literature mentioned that the first building in the history of Saudi Arabia, which followed the building regulations was in 1960; before that date the urban growth within the country was slightly controlled by the government because most of the previous attempts, to regulate the urban growth had failed or had only minor impacts(Al-Said 1992). Al-Said mentioned that:
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“the turning point in [the] Saudi Arabian contemporary built environment physical pattern and regulations. It requires [d] planning of the land, subdivision with cement poles, obtaining an approval for this from the municipality, prohibited further land subdivision, controlled the height of the buildings, the square ratio of the built [are] require setbacks …” ((Al-Said 1992), p.258). However, to effectively apply the building regulations within the country it took around fifteen years. Al-Hathloul et al iterate the delay in applying the building regulations was until the government confirmed the master plans of all Saudi regions between 1968 and 1978 (AlHathloul and Anis-ur-Rahmaan 1985). Between 1968 and 1973 the government announced the first master plan for a Saudi city Riyadh ,which was designed by Doxiadis (Figure 21) (AlNaim 2008). The proposed master plan of Riyadh was similar to Al-Khobar's master plan in terms of approving the buildings' setback regulations and some other aspects(Al-Naim 2008). The grid pattern of the houses, which were joined together by street networks, was the dominant urban approach within the country. This officially started at Riyadh and then was widely applied in other cities. Although of applying the building regulations at the beginning of changing the built environment in Saudi Arabia however it failed in regulating both the architectural forms as well as urban spaces in the country (Al-Naim 2008). Some early literature suggested that situation arose because of the absence of having an official governmental body to control the application of building regulations in the developing Saudi cities (Al-Naim 2008).
Figure 19: The master plan of the modern Riyadh showing the future expansion by Doxiadis in 1968,Source:(Middleton 2009) In 1975 the government decided to establish the Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs and Real Estate Development Fund (REDF) and it realised the necessity of regulating the construction of the houses of the citizens who received Real Estate Development loans (AlNaim 2008). However, the rules which were enforced by those governmental bodies were quite strict and left the citizens with no options except constructing the villa as the only type of residential building, as it was the only type of structure which meet the government’s requirements (Al-Naim 2008). By going back to Aramco's developments, which took place at Dammam and Al-Khobar between 1938 and 1950 by establishing Aramco’s home ownership program, which considered as the first spark of the physical contradiction in the built environment, which manifested later in both the urban pattern as well as the architectural forms at Saudi Arabia. The impact of the proposed housing design pattern when it was announced in the Aramco home ownership program in 1950 was huge and continued in to
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spread until the government announced the building regulations system, which was in line with what Armco had done to encourage its employees to own modern houses twenty years ago (Al-Naim 2008). As such, the Villa or also known as the ‘detached house’, became the dominant style in the country and it was symbolised both personal and social identity (Al-Naim 2008). According to Mashary Al-Naim there was a relationship between the peoples' income and the types of their residential buildings. He linked the wide-spread construction of the villas to the emergence of the middle class in Saudi Arabia in 1950 (Al-Naim 2008). The middle class group at Saudi Arabia at that time included people from different cities within the country, however the majority of them were working either in Aramco or other governmental bodies (Al-Naim 2008). This group of citizens has experienced socio-cultural changes as a result of living side by side with expatriates who were mostly from western socio-cultural backgrounds (Fadan 1983). Moreover, they were highly educated compared to the rest of the population, which made them try to express their status by living in a villa. In addition, this type of dwelling was widely constructed in the Middle East during the colonial era in some countries, and the villa expressed the social status of the landlords (Al-Naim 2008). The people in Saudi Arabia were adherent to their traditions which were expressed through socio-cultural values, which contribute to forming the built environment. By introducing the villa into the society as a tool to achieve modernity, people started to create individual identity through their villa’s designs. Moreover, the popularity of this kind of dwellings led to social tension between Saudis where fans of individualism who preferred the modern lifestyle and saw the native people who still lived in the traditional dwellings, and adhered to the traditional socio-cultural values as a backward group.(Al-Naim 2008). There was some evidence for the spread of this attitude in some cities in Saudi Arabia. Mashary Al-Naim mentioned that Jomah has pointed out that this socio-cultural attitude was represented the transformation from being ‘tradition directed’ to becoming a ‘self-directed’ in the Saudi society (Al-Naim 2008). He also extended that to includes how the traditional dwellings considered the spiritual aspects of the residents, while the modern ones focused more on physical and spatial aspects (AlNaim 2008).The villa was developed as a device by the Saudis to express their new sociocultural status through the architecture. Mashary Al-Naim stated that: “…. In that sense, the home can be seen as a dynamic dialectic process between individuals and their community (Altman & Gauvain, 1981)". While the Saudi family expressed its wealth and modernity by owning and living in a villa, they used the uniqueness of their villa form to represent their personalities….”((Al-Naim 2008), p.139).
8
Understanding Sociocultural Transitions through the Housing Industry and Planning in Saudi cities
In the late seventies, people’s passion and desires for achieving satisfactory social status by owning a villa or an apartment led to an unstable situation in the housing industry, which combined with the approval of the building regulations by the government that made the situation even worse. People usually employed architectural forms as a communication device to translate their socio-cultural values when dealing with the environment and constructing their houses (Al-Naim 2008). As a result, people started to make some interior and exterior changes in their villa to match their socio-cultural values(Al-Naim 2008). Bahammam discussed the previous changes, which led to a contradictory situation in the contemporary
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housing design in the country (Bahammam 1992). There were evidences which supports that point of view; for example, in one of the modern residential districts that had been constructed at Riyadh and was called the Al-Malaz project, the residents started to change plans of modern villas to meet their socio-cultural values. Some of the early literature took people’s reactions at that time as an evidence for not accepting the houses imposed on them by the government, especially when they started to change their outlines to express their socio-cultural values (Romaya and Rakodi 2002, Al-Naim 2008). For example, Mashary Al-Naim mentioned that Al-Said was studying the urban transformation that happened in Al-Malaz between 1960 and 1991 (Figure 22); Al-Said was asserting on that the changes, which occurred in the houses at Al-Malaz were a result of hidden rules which were agreed upon between the residents; he described them as “unwritten rules” ((Al-Naim 2008), p.140). Al-Said also said that: “those hidden rules were derived from the traditional Arab-Muslim territory type” ((AlSaid 1992), p.266).
Figure 20: The spatial arrangements of the houses have been changed in Al-Malaz between 1960s -1991, Source: (Al-Naim 2008) In relation to the same case, Bahammam also pointed out that the majority of the residents living in the same region have changed their house’s pattern to meet their socio-cultural values(Bahammam 1992). However, Mashary Al-Naim mentioned that Al-Hussayen had discussed the matter from different perspective; when he interpreted the changes which had been made by the people to meet their sociocultural values which they were a result of ignoring the designers as well as governmental bodies to the role of the women in the Saudi society(Al-Naim 2008).
9
Conclusion:
In conclusion having pattern reflect a myriad of socio-cultural values of the people who make and shape the built environment in cities, socio-cultural values are sometime difficult to change because they are embedded in the ancestral past of under histories. Therefore, the process of change in housing types could be difficult to achieve in the short term especially when people derive their socio-cultural values from their religious beliefs. Thus, the majority of the indigenous people decided to modify the physical environment to meet their sociocultural values. However, some of them have no choice except to accept some of the new values of the built form which are inconsistent with their socio-cultural values and religious beliefs. Those two streams result in wide contradictions in the built environment in Saudi Arabia. Therefore, to achieve urban transformation both planners as well as designers should consider the continuity of socio-cultural values as well as the society’s flexibility as significant
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factors which contribute to better understanding for how the identity could be changed or not.
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REFERNECE LIST
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