Some terms in ELT: approach, method, technique, syllabus and types

Approaches, m Approaches, methods, procedures, and Approach, techniquesmethod, technique & Syllabus vs Curriculum ethods, procedures, and techniques

English Language Teaching APPROACH, METHOD, TECHNIQUE, PROCEDURE, SYLLABUS, CURRICULUM

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İçindekiler Approach = yaklaşım - Method = yöntem - Technique = teknik ............................................... 2 Yaklaşım(approach), .................................................................................................................. 2 Yöntem(method), ...................................................................................................................... 2 Teknik(technique) ...................................................................................................................... 2 Approaches, methods, procedures, and techniques ..................................................................... 3 Approach: .................................................................................................................................. 3 Method: ..................................................................................................................................... 3 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................. 3 Technique: ................................................................................................................................. 3 The Difference between Approach, Method and Technique ........................................................ 3 Approach, Method and Technique Defined .................................................................................. 4 APPROACH ................................................................................................................................. 4 A method ................................................................................................................................... 4 •

AN APPROACH .................................................................................................................. 5

•

A METHOD........................................................................................................................ 5

•

A TECHNIQUE ................................................................................................................... 5

•

A PROCEDURE .................................................................................................................. 5

Timeline of Teaching Methods ...................................................................................................... 6 QUESTIONS ON APPROACH, METHOD, TECHNIQUE ..................................................................... 7 FURTHER QUESTIONS .................................................................................................................... 8 TYPES OF LANGUAGE SYLLABUS ................................................................................................... 11 Syllabus ve Curriculum ............................................................................................................. 11 1.

A grammar or structural syllabus. ..................................................................................... 12

2.

A notional or functional syllabus. ..................................................................................... 13

3.

A situational (topical) syllabus. ........................................................................................ 14

4.

A skill-based syllabus. ...................................................................................................... 15

5. A task-based syllabus. ........................................................................................................... 16 6. A content-based syllabus. ..................................................................................................... 18 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................... 20 REFERENCE .................................................................................................................................. 20

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Arkadaşlar, İngilizce öğretimindeki yöntem ve teknikleri tanımaya başlamadan önce bazı kavramları tanımamızın faydalı olacağını düşünüyorum.

Approach = yaklaşım - Method = yöntem - Technique = teknik

Yaklaşım(approach), dilin ve dil öğretiminin doğasına yönelik genel bir anlayış, teori ve felsefe ifade eder. Mesela " structuralism " (yapısalcılık) bir yaklaşımdır. Bu anlamda NEDEN dil öğretmeliyiz soruna cevap verir. Dilin belli yapıların üst üste koyulması ile meydana gelen bir bina gibi olduğunu düşünür yapısalcılar. Bu yaklaşımdan Audio Lingual Method gibi bir yöntem çıkmıştır.

Yöntem(method), ise belli bir dilbilimsel yaklaşıma, psikolojik anlayışa ve eğitim felsefesine dayanan, birtakım teknikler ve uygulamalar bütünüdür. Mesela ALM (audio-lingual method), dilbilimsel olarak yapısalcılığa, psikolojik olarak davranışçılığa yaslanır. CLT (communicative language teaching) ise dönüşümsel-üretken dilbilime yakındır ve daha çağdaş öğrenme anlayışlarını ve öğretmen rollerini benimser. Dili Nasıl öğretmeliyiz?

Teknik(technique) ise bir yöntem içindeki özel ve durumsal uygulamalara gönderme yapar.

Mesela, ALM'de sıkça uygulanan substitution drills buna örnek gösterilebilir. CLT'de de information gap tarzı çalışmalar yaptırılır; bu da ona özgü bir tekniktir. Dil öğretirken Ne kullanmalıyız?

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Approaches, methods, procedures, and techniques Approach: This refers to “theories about the nature of language and language learning that serve as the source of practices and principles in language teaching”. It offers a model of language competence. An approach describes how people acquire their knowledge of the language and makes statements about conditions which will promote successful language learning.

Method: A method is the practical realization of an approach. Methods include various procedures and techniques as part of their standard fare.

Procedure: A procedure is an ordered sequence of techniques. A procedure is a sequence which can be described in terms such as first you do this, then you do that…

Smaller than a method and bigger than technique.

Technique: A technique is the specific activities manifested in the classroom that are consistent with a method. Comprehension questions, translation of literary texts, dictations, etc are common techniques used in class.

A term that is also used in discussions about teaching is “model” – used to describe typical procedures, usually for teachers in training. Such models offer abstractions of these procedures, designed to guide teaching practice.

The Difference between Approach, Method and Technique APPROACH ==> ASSUMPTION: An approach is a set of correlative assumptions about the nature of language and language learning.

METHOD ==> PLAN: A method is a plan for presenting the language material to be learned and should be based upon a selected approach.

TECHNIQUE==> TRICK: A technique is a very specific, concrete stratagem or trick designed to accomplish an immediate objective.

Thus we can conclude that approach is translated into method that contains technique with series of procedure.

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Approach, Method and Technique Defined The simple diagram found below is an attempt to distinguish them:

APPROACH

The “How” Dimensions of Teaching (Garcia, 1989) Based on the diagram, it clearly shows that approach encompasses the whole orientation of teaching.

Approach is the broadest of the three, making technique the most specific, and the method found in between approach and technique.

An approach is an enlightened viewpoint toward teaching. It provides philosophy to the whole process of instruction. As presented by the diagram, the method and technique are just parts and parcels of approach.

Approach gives the overall wisdom, it provides direction, and sets expectations to the entire spectrum of the teaching process. Furthermore, approach sets the general rule or general principle to make learning possible.

A method, on the other hand, is an organized, orderly, systematic, and well-planned procedure aimed at facilitating and enhancing students’ learning. It is undertaken according to some rule, which is usually psychological in nature. That is, it considers primarily the abilities, needs, and interests of the learners.

Method is employed to achieve certain specific aims of instruction. To make it as an effective instrument, it should be presented with certain amount of efficiency and ease. More so, the teaching method aims to achieve greater teaching and learning output, thus saving time, efforts and even money on the part of both

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the teacher and the learner. It directs and guides the teacher and the students in undertaking any class lesson or activity.

To appraise that teaching method is good and effective, the following characteristics would tell if it is so:

 good method recognizes individual differences;  if it provides students’ learning;  if it facilitates growth and development;  if it achieves the desired results of the teacher as reflected in her instructional objectives.

One must remember that there is no such thing as the best method. Thus, there is no single correct way to teach a class. Instead, there are many good ways of teaching the students.

The procedural variation of a method calls for the third term, technique. Technique encompasses the personal style of the teacher in carrying out specific steps of the teaching process. Through technique, teachers enable to develop, create and implement, using her distinctive way, the procedures (method) of teaching.

•

AN APPROACH

•

A METHOD

•

A TECHNIQUE is the tools and the tasks you use to make your method succeed

is a set of language teaching and learning theories and principles (Answers the question Why? ) is the way you apply these theories and principles to language teaching and learning (How)

in language teaching and learning(a classroom device or activity) •

A PROCEDURE is an order of sequence of techniques (such as First you do this, then you do that … ).

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Approaches, m Approaches, methods, procedures, and Approach, techniquesmethod, technique & Syllabus vs Curriculum Timeline of Teaching Methods ethods, and kafamızda canlandırabilmemize yardımcı olacak.

Bu tablo da procedures, tüm öğretim yöntemlerini techniques

Daniela, B. (2014). Teaching Methods: An Overview. In www.tjtaylor.net. Retrieved 21.05.2014, from http://www.tjtaylor.net/english/teaching-method-summary.

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Approaches, m Approaches, methods, procedures, and Approach, techniquesmethod, technique & Syllabus vs Curriculum QUESTIONS ON APPROACH, METHOD, ethods, procedures, and TECHNIQUE techniques 1. The main activities include reading aloud dialogues, repetitions of model sentences, and drilling.

A. Grammar-Translation B. The Direct Method

C. Audio Lingual Method

2. Teaching concepts and vocabulary through pantomiming, real-life objects and other visual materials.

A.Grammar-Translation

B. The Direct Method C. Audio Lingual Method

3. Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.

A. Grammar-Translation B. The Direct Method

C. Audio Lingual Method

4. The structures of the foreign languages are best learned when compared and contrasted with those of first language.

A. Grammar-Translation B. The Direct Method

C. Audio Lingual Method

5. Teaching grammar by using an inductive approach (i.e. having learners find out rules through the presentation of adequate linguistic forms in the target language).

A. Grammar-Translation B. The Direct Method

C. Audio Lingual Method

6. One of the main goals is to develop students’ reading ability to a level where they can read literature in the target language.

A. Grammar-Translation B. The Direct Method

C. Audio Lingual Method

7. The teacher drills students in the use of grammar.

A. Grammar-Translation B. The Direct Method

C. Audio Lingual Method

8. It refers to theories about the nature of language and language teaching.

A. Approach

B. Technique

C. Procedure

9. It is what really happens in the classroom, in the actual teaching.

A. Method

B. Approach

C. Technique

D. Procedure

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10. It is understood as a system that clearly explains how to teach a language (syllabus organization- contents and skills to be taught-, roles of teachers and learners, kinds of materials to use.)

A. Method

B. Approach

C. Technique

D. Procedure

11. It can be understood as a set of actions, operations and strategies which have to be executed accordingly to a perception on how to obtain an expected result, in our case on how to increase competition in a foreign language.

A. Method

B. Approach

C. Technique

D. Procedure

12. Vocabulary is taught in the form isolated word lists.

A. Grammar-Translation B. The Direct Method

C. Audio Lingual Method

13. L2 is learned the same way as the L1 acquired- by total immersion technique.

A. Grammar-Translation B. The Direct Method

C. Audio Lingual Method

14. Students self-correct by teacher offering choices between what they said and the proper pronunciation/structure.

A. Grammar-Translation B. The Direct Method

C. Audio Lingual Method

15. Students learn by repeating structures/patterns in drills; mimicking dialogues; memorizing set phrases.

A. Grammar-Translation B. The Direct Method

C. Audio Lingual Method

16. Errors are corrected immediately, and reinforced by correct response.

A. Grammar-Translation B. The Direct Method

C. Audio Lingual Method

1.c/2.b/3. a/ 4.a/ 5.b/ 6. a/ 7.c/ 8.a/ 9.c/ 10.a/ 11.d/ 12.a/ 13.b/ 14.b/ 15.c/ 16.c

FURTHER QUESTIONS 1. Why did the old navigators take translators with them?

A.

to do business

B.

to buy gold and silver

C.

to sell European goods

D.

to communicate

E.

to teach European languages

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2. The most important language in old ages was---A.

Greek

B.

English

C.

Latin

D.

Indian

E.

Italian

3. Which of the following is not the purpose of learning foreign languages?

A.

religion

B.

trade

C.

business

D.

travel

E.

marriage

4. In the early days of language teaching the literary pieces were the only source of language instruction because they---A.

represent the language ideally

B.

cover various information about geography

C.

introduce different writers

D.

compare and contrast the literature of two languages

E.

give examples of all language skills

5. Cognates are an inevitable part of languages, so, anybody can easily find out the meaning of words of foreign word(s) because----.

A.

learners use bilingual dictionaries when necessary

B.

learners can find out the LI equivalent by considering orthographic features

C.

words are exactly the same in terms of pronunciation

D.

language learners are supposed to find out the meaning easily

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E.

cognates are regarded as universal among all languages

6. Latin was taught through Grammar Translation Method in the 18,th Century. What made teaching a foreign language (Latin) successful in those days?

A.

Latin was favorite and important

B.

Learners liked literature and thought they develop intellectually

C.

Learners studied

D.

Teachers were very successful

E.

Learners compared their language with Latin

7 What is the mostly used technique in Grammar Translation Method?

A.

using real texts

B.

teaching pronunciation

C.

translating the texts into mother tongue

D.

games

E.

dictation

8. Latin was taught through---A.

Communicative Language Teaching

B.

Silent Way

C.

Direct Method

D.

Grammar Translation Method

E.

Audiolingual Method

9. Which Method didn’t have a specific theoretical background?

A.

Communicative Language Teaching

B.

Community Language Teaching

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C.

Grammar Translation Method

D.

Audiolingual Method

E.

Silent Way

10. Which one is not one of the steps in a GTM classroom?

A.

reading the text sentence by sentence

B.

translating sentences into mother tongue

C.

unknown vocabulary is given by the teacher

D.

grammatical points are given by the teacher

E.

learners talk about their feelings

ANSWERS:1.D 2.C 3.E 4.A 5.B 6.B 7.C 8.D 9.C 10.E

TYPES OF LANGUAGE SYLLABUS Arkadaşlar bu dersi işlerken aklımıza takılacak olan noktalardan biri de syllabus ve çeşitleridir. Bunun için aşağıdaki derlemeyi yaptım. Dili çok kolay.

Anlayacağınızı umuyorum. Syllabus çeşitlerine geçmeden karıştırılan iki kavrama açıklık getirelim.

Syllabus ve Curriculum Curriculum: Türkçe düşündüğümüzde müfredat demek. Dönemlik, yıllık, hatta bir kaç yıllık yapılabilir. Öğretilecek konular, onayları alındıktan sonra, hafta hafta bölünerek kodlarını da içerecek bir program hazırlanır. Oldukça geniş kapsamlıdır. Bir eğitim kurumu tarafından hazırlandığını unutmayalım.

Syllabus ise: Bir öğrenim döneminde dersin içereceği kaynak, makale, kitap vb dokümana ait tüm bilgilerin yer aldığı bilgilendirme çıktısıdır. Bu çıktı içerisinde ders programı, sınav tarihleri ve sınavların ağırlıkları, değerlendirme ölçütleri(derse devam, katılım, zamanında ödev teslimi) gibi

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bilgiler yer alabilir. Bu programın eğitim kurumu tarafından değil dersin sorumlusu tarafından hazırlandığını unutmayalım.

Ayrıca “syllabus” kavramının İngiltere’de; “curriculum” kavramının ise Amerika’da kullanıldığını aklımızda tutmalıyız. Bu durumda her ikisi de aynı anlamda kullanılabiliyor(Brown, D. 2001).

There has been much confusion as to what types of syllabus are possible in language teaching and to how different they are in the level of implementation. Knowing the syllabus types will help us to decide and choose the one(s) that is appropriate with our teaching goals and our situations and conditions. The following are some types of language teaching syllabus that will be distinctively discussed (Lingualinks Library, 1999).

1.

A grammar or structural syllabus. The content of the language

teaching is a collection of the forms and structures of the language being taught.

Steps: a. We decide on a set of forms and structures that the students have to learn and arrange them in increasing complexity, meaning from simple to complex forms and discourses. b. We decide a set of vocabulary to be learned together with forms and structures. c. We sequence the vocabulary, considering that concrete nouns and more common forms should be taught. d. We fit the vocabulary, forms and the structures together into a set of learning tasks.

Below are language materials that have been developed based on grammar syllabus (taken from SIDE BY SIDE: English through Guided Conversation by Molinsky and Bliss, 1983).

Book 2A 1.

Past Continuous Tense

Simple Present Tense Present Continuous Tense

3. Future: Going To

Pronouns

Future: Will

Subject and Object

Future Continuous Tense

Possessive Adjectives

Possessive Pronouns

2. Simple Past Tense (Regular–Irregular Verbs)

4. Present Perfect Tense

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5. Present Perfect Tense vs. Present Tense

Present Perfect Tense vs. Past Tense For, Since

The benefit of a grammar syllabus is that students move from simpler to more complex structures and they may learn the structures more easily. Even though the materials seem to consider grammar-based arrangement, activities in the book enforce students to learn English through guided conversations. The disadvantage of this syllabus is that students are often preoccupied with grammar when they are learning communicative activities, which may block natural communicative process. This syllabus may be more useful in a context in which the students do not have immediately communication needs.

2.

A notional or functional syllabus. The content of the language teaching is a collection of the functions or the notions that are performed when the language is used.

Steps: a.

We make a list of communication functions of the language that students expect to master. b. We make a list of the semantic notions (meanings) based on the culture the speakers of the language. c.

We group the functions and the notions together into learning tasks.

The example below is a language syllabus that has been developed based on notional syllabus (taken from Impact: English for Social Interaction by Watcyn-Jones, 1980).

Unit 1: Socializing a.

how to approach the person you are meeting

b.

how to reply

c.

How to introduce yourself

d.

How to respond and reply to an introduction

e.

Etc.

Unit 2: Asking and Answering Questions

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a.

How to ask and answer direct questions where a short Yes or No answer is expected

b.

How to ask and answer direct questions where a longer answer than Yes or No is expected c.

How to ask a direct question when you already think you know what the answer will be d.

Etc.

Unit 3: Finding the Way a.

How to ask someone the way

b.

Etc.

The benefit of a notional/functional syllabus is that students learn how to use the target language to express their own ideas, notions and purposes. The disadvantage of this syllabus is that different kinds of structures are often used to express the same functions so that it is difficult to arrange the structure of the target language from simpler to more complex forms. This syllabus may trigger language learners to use the target language to express their own emotions, ideas or purposes.

3.

A situational (topical) syllabus.

The content of the language teaching is a collection of imaginary situations where the language is used.

Steps: a.

We make a list of communications situations that students may face.

b.

We make a list of topics, grammatical forms and vocabulary and sequence them.

c.

We group the topics, forms and structures and fit them with communication situations.

The teaching units below are language materials that have been developed based on situational syllabus.

Unit 1

At Post Office

Unit 2

At School

Unit 3

At the Airport

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Unit 4

At Restaurant

Unit 5

Shopping

The benefit of a situational syllabus is that students learn how to use the target language in an authentic communication. The advantage of this syllabus is that when unexpectable situations happen in communication language learners are not accustomed to communicate in the language spontaneously. This syllabus is good for language learners who are preparing to go to a country where the language is being learned. This situational teaching has the goal of teaching specific language content that occurs in situation.

4.

A skill-based syllabus. The content of the language teaching is a collection

of specific skills in using the target language. Examples of skills in using the target language may include reading for the main idea, writing good paragraphs, and listening for the main idea.

Steps: a.

We make a list of language skills that students need to acquire.

b.

We make a list of topics, grammatical forms and vocabulary and sequences them.

c.

We group the topics, forms and structures and fit them with the language skills.

The language materials below have been developed based on skill-based syllabus (taken from Writing Academic English by Oshima and Hogue, 1983).

Part I: WRITING A PARAGRAPH 1- What is a paragraph?

Paragraph Structure The three parts of a paragraph Two additional elements Assignment format How to write a title The Topic Sentence

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Position of topic sentences The two parts of a topic sentence Writing topic sentences: two reminders The concluding Sentence Review: What is a Paragraph?

2- Unity and Simple Outlining Simple Paragraph Outlining Simple outlines The 'equivalent value" rule The "parallel from" rule Review: Unity and Simple Outlining 3- Etc. The benefit of a skill-based syllabus is that students can specify their learning to reach their communicative competence, such as using telephone, booking a hotel, and others. The disadvantage of this syllabus is that it is harder to sequence the materials. This syllabus is good for those who want to learn specific language skills, such as the writing skill as the example above.

5. A task-based syllabus. The content of the language teaching includes a series of purposeful tasks that language learners need to perform; tasks are defined as activities that are needed when using the target language. Examples of a task-based syllabus may include applying for a job, ordering food via the telephone and getting housing information over the telephone. This syllabus is similar to a situational syllabus but it focuses on more general linguistic competence that is less culturally loaded.

Steps: a.

We make a list of abilities or tasks that students need to acquire.

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b.

We make a list of topics, grammatical forms and vocabulary and sequences them.

c.

We group the topics, forms and structures and fit them with the tasks.

The following is a list of task-types used in a five-year project that consisted of teaching a small number classes in primary and secondary schools in southern India (Prabhu, 1987: 138).

1- Diagrams and formations a.

Naming parts of a diagram with numbers and letters of the alphabet, as instructed.

b. Placing numbers and letters of the alphabet in relation to one another, as instructed, to arrive at particular formations. c.

Placing numbers and letters of the alphabet in given crossword formats; constructing/completing such formats, as instructed.

2- Drawing a.

Drawing geometrical figures/formations from sets of verbal instructions.

b.

Formulating verbal instructions for drawing/completing such figures.

c.

Comparing given figures to identify similarities and differences.

3- Clockfaces a.

Telling the time from a clockface; positioning the hands of a clock to show a given time.

b. Calculating durations from the movement of a clock's hands; working out intervals between given time. c.

Stating the time on a twelve hour clock and a twenty-four hour clock; relating times to phases of the day and night.

4- Etc. The benefit of a task-based syllabus is that students learn to carry out activities using the target language. Language teaching through task-based syllabus occurs only as the need arises during the performance of a given task. The disadvantage is that students often learn to perform tasks and language learning is less emphasized.

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6. A content-based syllabus. A content-based syllabus in language teaching is actually not a language syllabus. The primary purpose of instruction is to teach subject matter of the content course or information using the target language. The subject is primary and language learning occurs automatically while language learners are studying the subject. An example of a content-based syllabus is a science class that is taught in the target language.

Steps: a.

We make a list of topics from the content (subject).

b.

We make a list of topics, grammatical forms and vocabulary and sequences them.

c.

We group the forms and structures and fit them with the topics.

The following is a list of topics that have been developed based on a content-based syllabus and is designed to improve the job-specific English of non-native speakers who are working or being trained in the telecommunications industry (Comfort, et al, 1994).

Unit 1

Networks

Unit 2

Transmission

Unit 3

Switching

Unit 4

Computer communications

Unit 5

Radio communications

The benefit of a content-based syllabus is that students feel satisfied with the purpose of learning the target language, namely acquiring information. The feeling of satisfaction will promote their learning. The disadvantage of this syllabus is that the content of instruction is not organized around the language teaching so that there is almost no teaching of the target language even though the students will automatically learn the language. This syllabus is often used in the immersion program, which has been addressed earlier.

Some syllabus types may be overlapped with the others. To some extent a content- based syllabus is similar to a skill-based syllabus, in a content-based syllabus students are often involved in activities that link the skills. Students might read and take notes, listen and write a summary, or respond orally to things they have read or written (Richards and Rodgers, 2001:

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208). Richards and Rodgers suggest that the teacher or course developer has the responsibility to identify relevant grammar and other linguistic focuses to complement the theme of activities in a content-based syllabus. This implies that the teaching materials are arranged a combination of skill-based and grammar syllabus and such a teaching program may also be called an immersion program.

The types of syllabus mentioned above are not the only types of syllabus that are commonly known in the context of communicative teaching. There are some other types that are not very popular, such as interactional syllabus and learner-centered syllabus (Richards and Rodgers, 2001: 164). In having which type of syllabus would work optimally in providing students with learning activities to gain communicative competence, we must take into consideration all factors that might affect the practicality and teachability of a particular syllabus. By experiencing each type of syllabus, we may finally choose one or two types of syllabus that are appropriate in our teaching settings, or combine the types of syllabus according to local conditions and needs.

Even though we define the types of syllabus in isolated contexts, we often combine them in actual teaching settings. No single syllabus may be appropriate for all teaching settings. We may combine them in more or less integrated ways, with one type as the basis with which the others are related. The guidelines to syllabus choice and design below

may be worth considering (Reilly, 1988). a.

We determine what outcomes are desired for the students in the instructional program or define what the students should be able to do as a result of instruction. b. We rank the syllabus types presented above as to their likelihood of leading to the outcomes desired. c.

We evaluate available resources in materials and in training for teachers.

d.

We rank the types of syllabus relative to available resources and consider what syllabus types would be the easiest to implement given the available resources. e.

We compare the lists of the syllabus types, make as few adjustments and produce a new ranking based on the resources constraints. f.

We repeat the process, taking into account the constraints contributed by the teacher, student and other factors. g.

We determine a final ranking, taking into account all the information from the earlier steps.

h.

We designate one or two types as dominant and one as one as secondary.

i.

We translate the decisions into actual teaching units.

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SUMMARY To reach the goal, teaching materials may be arranged in different considerations and based on the considerations the materials will be arranged in different types of language syllabus. In language teaching contexts, there are six types of language syllabus, namely grammar syllabus, situational syllabus, notional syllabus, task-based syllabus, skill-based syllabus and contentbased syllabus. Each syllabus has strengths and weaknesses and it tells us how the target language should be presented. Even though we have different types of syllabus in isolated contexts, we often combine them in actual teaching settings. We may combine them in more or less integrated ways, with one type as the basis with which the others are related.

REFERENCE 1. Canale, Michael and Merrill Swain. 1980. Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing. Applied Linguistics, Vol. I, No.1.

2.

Comfort, Jeremy, Rod Revell, Ian Simpson, Trish Stott, and Derek Utley. 1994. English for the Telecommunications Industry. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

3.

Frodesen, Jan and Janet Eyring. Grammar Dimensions: Form, Meaning, and Use

4.

Larsen-Freeman, Diane. 1986. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. New York: Oxford University Press.

5.

Molinsky, Steven J. and Bill Bliss. 1983. Side by Side: English through Guided Conversation. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc. 6.

Prabhu, N.S. 1987. Second Language Pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

7.

Reilly, Tarey. 1988. Approaches to Foreign Language Syllabus Design. Washington DC. ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics. Retrieved September 7, 2001, from http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC-Digests/ed29460 8.

Richards, Jack C. and Rodgers, Theodore S. 2001. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERICDigests/ed29460 9.

________________ and David Bycina.1985. Person to Person. Oxford University Press.

10. LinguaLinks Library. 1999. How to design language syllabus. SIL International. Retrieved December 7, 2001, from http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/LANGUAGELEARNING 11. Oshima, Alice and Ann Hogue. 1983. Writing Academic English. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

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12. Brown, H.D. (2001). Teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy: Longman.

13. Dilforum.com 14. TURENG forum

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