Jennifer Ross

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GRADUATE STUDENT FORMAL COMPOSITION

First Prize Jennifer Ross

Employee Engagement: Crisis Effects on Remote Office Personnel Professor JoDee Goracke

Second Prize Megan O’Brien

Examining Performance Management and Its Relationship with Leader Behavior and Employee Engagement Professor JoDee Goracke

Third Prize Adrianne Presnell

Employees with Visible Tattoos: The Impact of “Cover-Up” Professor JoDee Goracke

JENNIFER ROSS

Employee Engagement: Crisis Effects on Remote Office Personnel

Abstract

Employee Engagement has grown in business popularity since 1990. The topic has become mainstream as it can affect organizational retention, productivity, and workplace environment. However, relatively little is known about employee engagement and crisis combined. This study examines how a crisis affects employee engagement for in-office personnel who were forced to move to remote work. The participants are from all levels of an organization and worked remotely during COVID-19. The study utilized qualitative (CIT) and quantitative (ISA) methods. The primary data was collected through an online survey of 114 employees from across the United States whose organizations rapidly moved to work remotely due to COVID-19. The research concludes that there is a decrease in employee engagement scores; however, the results are not statistically significant to determine whether the COVID-19 crisis affects engagement. Results did indicate a correlation between the during-crisis score and the ISA engagement and the Task Performance, Organizational Citizenship Behavior, and Quit Intention. Based on the level of analysis conducted, the researcher suggests that organizations focus on other impact variables that might cause the decrease of engagement during a crisis. Further investigation is essential to determine the variable causing the engagement score decrease. The findings, limitations, and accompanying suggestions for future research are also discussed.

Keywords: Employee Engagement, Crisis Management, Crisis, ISA, CIT, Virtual Teams, COVID-19, Coronavirus, Pandemic

1.0 Employee Engagement: Crisis Effects on Remote Office Personnel

March 11, 2020, is when the Coronavirus (COVID-19) disease was declared a global pandemic by the World Health Organization. The virus causes severe acute respiratory syndrome with symptoms ranging from fever, dry cough, fatigue, diarrhea, sore throat, loss of smell and taste, and chills in some people (Carlson, 2020; WHO, 2020). Many organizations were operating in person and were forced to find ways for employees to work remotely (Cucinotta & Vanelli, 2020; Kniffin et al., 2021). The transition to remote work was rapid, and while some organizations were better prepared than others, the impact was overwhelming. Examples of the impacts are mandated six-feet distance between individuals, facial coverings in public, and a limited number of people indoors. Hospitals were forced to limit physical visits by utilizing telehealth technology, and grocery markets were barren from heightened demand. Certain professions were deemed essential, and those that were not were mandated to quarantine and work from home (Contreras, 2020, Kniffin et al., 2021). Although employee engagement is not the first thing that comes to an organization’s mind when preparing to combat crisis challenges; research has shown a correlation between employee engagement and mental health, causing insecurity, confusion, emotional isolation, and stigma for employees during tough and uncertain times (Pfefferbaum & North, 2020). With uncertainty looming, the organization must implement preventative or assistive measures to maintain or improve employees’ mental health to sustain engagement. Through evidence-based practice, employee engagement research suggests positive correlations between engagement, profits, productivity, customer satisfaction, and shareholder returns (Crawford et al., 2010). The current study will explore how a crisis affecting national and international areas will affect in-office employee engagement through a mixed-methods electronic survey.

1.1 Research Rationale

The rationale for conducting the study is to help organizations understand and prepare for the next business crisis. For example, research from the financial crisis in 2008 prepared various organizations to increase mental health services and make other resources available to employees during COVID-19 (Kniffin et al., 2021). A crisis is defined as an unstable or crucial event that affects people for better or worse, locally, nationally, or internationally (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). Being prepared for a crisis helps organizations exhibit genuine care for their employees while preserving organizational productivity and culture. According to Kniffin et al. (2020),

organizations are focusing on mental awareness, stress, anxiety, fear, and health during COVID-19. Therefore, the pandemic has created an opportunity to study employee engagement during a crisis to fill the gaps in the under-researched area of employee engagement and virtual teams.

1.2 Research question

The current study aims to find how a crisis affects employee engagement while working remotely for in-office personnel that shifted to remote work. Therefore, stating that if a crisis happens and office personnel are moved to work remotely, they will experience low employee engagement. Employee engagement is defined as employee commitment to the organization and the positive behaviors they display (Kahn, 1990). The research will measure the hypothesis by rating remote employee engagement, with the dependent variables being the participants and their remote engagement. The independent variable is the crisis, which is COVID-19. Additionally, it is expected that participants will experience low social employee engagement during the national and international crisis while working remotely. Figure 1A, in the Appendix, illustrates a model of the anticipated antecedents and consequences from employee engagement during a crisis. There are three types of employee engagement; Intellectual, Social, and Affective, that follow the conceptual framework of Soane et al. (2012) and Kahn (1990). These three levels combined comprise employee engagement in its entirety, which then leads to possible consequences.

1.3 Significance to Practice

The aforementioned involuntary push to work remotely gave organizations little time to figure out how to train leaders, acquire equipment, and develop remote employees’ policies. Leaders who do not have virtual team experience had to figure out how to manage the technology change (Tena-Chollet et al., 2018). With current studies uncovering how organizations were unprepared for virtual conversion, the study aims to help organizations develop the understanding of engagement areas to prepare crisis management teams in planning, sustaining, or increasing productivity even during a national or international crisis. The researcher anticipates that the information obtained from this study will begin to inform the area of employee engagement research during a crisis when quantitative and qualitative data is lacking.

1.4 Significance to Social Change

Organizations can apply the study’s findings to understand what challenges their employees face in intellectual, social, or affective engagement areas, what resources they should offer, and how leaders can mitigate disengagement. Should the study’s data positively correlate, the research can serve as a starting point to validate how crisis affects employee engagement, creating a need for preventative measures. Having participants reflect on the pandemic allows them to express their experiences through the mixed-methods survey to generate change within their organization.

2.0 Literature Review

Current research of employee engagement and virtual teams discusses the flexibility of working remotely and the benefits of the employee’s experience. A virtual team is an arrangement where team members work remotely, have limited face-to-face interactions, and utilize electronic communication software to achieve common goals (Dulebohn & Hoch, 2017). Alternatively, a few studies oppose the benefits of employee engagement and the use of virtual teams. Discussed below are articles from Kahn (1990), May et al. (2004); Pierce & Agunis (2013); and Bryne et al. (2016) on Employee Engagement. Articles on Virtual Teams (VT) are from Gilson (2014), Horowitz (2016), Rezugi’s (2007), and Gupta (2018). Lastly, articles on Crisis Management are from Akhmetshin (2019) and Bundy, et al. (2017). The background and conclusions helped the researcher decide what to investigate, why the area should be studied, and to determine the gaps in previous research.

2.1 Supporting Employee Engagement Research

2.1.1 Kahn’s Research

Although there are numerous predominant studies on employee engagement, one of the most notable researchers in employee engagement is William Kahn’s research conducted in 1990. Kahn’s research of Psychological Conditions of Personal Engagement and Disengagement at Work has been used many times as the foundation for understanding and defining employee engagement (Albrecht et al., 2015). Kahn interviewed camp counselors and employees from an architecture firm to uncover engaged or disengaged employees (Kahn, 1990; Kahn, 1992). There were 32 participants selected from two different organizations in which all the participants were white Americans from middle-class to upper-class backgrounds. When collecting qualitative data, observation methods, data analysis, self-reflection, an in-depth interview was utilized (Kahn, 1990). There are three phases for data analysis. The first phase was immediately

after the camp study where Kahn transcribed the interviews to identify engaged and disengaged moments. The second phase was conducted directly after the interviews at the architecture firm. The third phase revisited the camp data to investigate for more complex categories. The research was primarily categorized and sorted by instances of engagement and disengagement. According to Khan (1990), engaged employees express themselves intellectually, emotionally, and physically during work. Disengaged employees’ withdraw and regret the lack of connections physically, cognitively, and emotionally. Since Kahn’s 1990 research, organizations have embraced employee engagement research, making employee engagement widely popular (Soane. et al., 2012). The researcher utilizes Kahn (1990) as the foundation for the conceptual framework and employs an engagement scale developed by Soane et al. (2012) from Kahn’s research.

2.1.2 May et al.’s Research

A study conducted by May et al. (2004) enhanced Kahn’s theory (1990) by validating his work; moreover, May et al. found a positive correlation between intellectual, emotional, and physical engagements. The researched areas are meaningfulness, safety, and availability, which are believed to influence a person’s engagement (May et al., 2004). The research utilized a large insurance firm to conduct a survey that measured the employees’ perceptions of themselves, their jobs, and their supervisors. There were 213 participants with a mean age of 35 and a mean of at least 2.5 years of college education with a 79% response rate. The researchers administered the engagement survey to the entire organization on a single day during two separate sessions. The participants ’ occupations were from an array of departments associated with the insurance firm. The survey encompassed Kahn’s three cognitive, emotional, and physical engagement components that consist of 24 questions. Each question is categorized into psychological meaningfulness, safety, availability, job enrichment, work role fit, coworker relations, supervisor relations, and norm adherence. The data analysis conducted suggested moderate levels of psychological engagement, meaningfulness, safety, availability, self-consciousness, coworker relations, and job enrichment. Results showed low engagement levels for the categories work role fit and relations with supervisors. As years progress, researchers such as May et al. use Kahn’s research as the foundation for researching engagement scales or other areas of employee behaviors (Soane et al., 2012). Discussions by Kahn and May et al. explain that more support is necessary to investigate employee engagement further. There are still areas in employee engagement, which are theorized and need validation.

2.2.1 Gilson et al.’s Research

Before COVID-19, approximately 66% of organizations actively worked in virtual teams. Virtual teams continue to increase as technology becomes embedded in everyday business practices (Mathieu et al., 2008; Society for Human Resource Management, 2012). When virtual team research began, it was typically in a university lab setting involving student teams (Gilson et al., 2014). Not only are virtual teams increasing in business, but also they are rising in educational settings. The research consisted of a literature review on virtual teams from the past ten years and investigated emerging themes. Gilson collected studies and coded them by types of teams, team size, and task duration; then categorized and examined each theme by methodology, processes, emerging states, and outcomes. The emerging themes are research design, team input, team virtuality, technology, globalization, leadership, mediator and moderators, trust, outcomes, and ways to enhance virtual teams (hereafter VT). After analysis, VTs have been shown to evolve due to technological advancements. As technology increases, so do the way teams interact. A few benefits of working remotely include flexibility, reduced commute stress, money savings, and increased productivity and performance (Putri et al., 2020). However, there could be potential unfavorable effects of working from home due to employees not leaving their residence. Gilson et al. (2014) mentions areas that call for future research: study setting, methodological considerations, member mobility, team adaptation, transition process and planning, and teammember well-being. Thus, there is a need to fill the research gap and investigate how a crisis such as COVID-19 affects virtual teams.

2.2.2 Horowitz’s Research

Additional research discusses the development and disabling factors of virtual teams. Research from Horowitz et al. (2016) sought to investigate enabling and disabling factors in VT development. Horowitz explicitly looked for team development, leadership, and communication as contributors for virtual team effectiveness. Participants of 115 virtual team members totaled a 55% response rate. Virtual teams that participated completed an online survey that combines quantitative Likert scale with qualitative explanatory questions (Horowitz et al., 2006). The questions entailed the following variables: trust, employee roles, relationships, responsibilities, and team dynamics. Additionally, 90% of the participants were under 50 years of age, with no other reported demographic information. Analysis suggests that the participants felt their VTs perform

successfully. The second factor is that participants showed the importance of face-to-face interaction between coworkers and leadership (Horowitz et al., 2006). Horowitz calls for more research in knowledge-intensive firms, telecommunications, research, and development to provide virtual teams insight, which further cements the research gap on employee engagement in VTs.

2.3 Supporting Crisis Management

2.3.1 Akhmetshin’s Research

The first reaction for any employee in a crisis concerns what will happen to them personally. During a crisis, it is the organization’s decision to demonstrate empathy, address concerns, and mobilize staff to overcome the crisis. A study conducted by Akhmetshin et al. (2019) expresses that the way an organization withstands crisis determines its viability. Therefore, Akhmetshin et al. investigated the relationship between employees and business results. The objective is to understand how employee engagement contributes to recovering from a crisis. The study’s primary basis is to review five study results and combine them to develop a conclusion based on the pooled results. One of the studies collected data from 7,939 business units from 36 companies, validating the adequate sample sizes utilized in Akhmetshin’s study and other reviewed literature. From the literature reviews, Akhmetshin concluded that management and modern communication is the key driver to employee engagement during a crisis. Focusing on employee engagement can help organizations withstand and succeed in times of crisis. After a crisis, the engaged employees will help an organization make it through challenges (Sorenson, 2013). Therefore, an opportunity for research investigating employee engagement and crisis together exists.

2.3.2 Bundyet al.’sResearch

Opposing research in crisis management claims that the perspective of crisis management is fragmented, making it difficult for scholars to understand core conclusions. Bundy et al.’s (2017) research investigated crises within organizational strategy, theory, and behavior. Their review reveals extensive and integrative articles published in major academic journals. The period of the articles ranged from 1998 to 2015. From these articles, the researchers categorized critical themes that are most relevant to management and organizational scholars. After review and categorization, emerging crisis themes are uncertainty, change, harmful or threatening disruption, behavioral phenomena, and processes. The

researchers then developed a model that breaks down the crisis process; the pre-crisis prevention, crisis management stage, and postcrisis outcomes stage. Researchers conclude that prominent factors of crises and crisis management have yet to be tested simultaneously on a large scale, and examination of multiple factors remains elusive (Bundy et al., 2017). Identified future research areas are integrative opportunities on a macroand micro-organizational level, utilizing their model to conduct more multilevel research. Therefore, crisis management research is an excellent topic of study, especially when coupled with employee engagement.

2.4 Opposing Employee Engagement Research

2.4.1 Pierce and Agunis Research

Opposing research contends employee engagement is timeconsuming, irrelevant, and too ambiguous. These articles declare that 79% of organizations measure employee engagement once a year, and 14% do not measure engagement (Burnett & Lisk, 2019; Deloitte, 2017). Pierce and Agunis (2013) discuss why and whether an organization should consider employee engagement. Additional opposing arguments cite length of time, over-engagement, and resources as the main reasons for not measuring engagement regularly. For some, employee engagement research could take up to one year to complete, time which organizations might use for other administrative necessities. Pierce and Agunis convey that Too Much of a Good Thing (TMGT) can cause diminished returns and counter-productive actions. TMGT happens when previously enjoyable experiences reach heights, begin to fall off, and cease to be linear and positive (Pierce & Agunis, 2013). The purpose of Pierce and Agunis’s study is to present a meta-theoretical principle to account for the paradoxical results. The researchers hypothesize that relatively high-level antecedents may lead to unexpected and undesired outcomes. For example, an over-engaged manager may infringe upon employees too much, causing frustration and beginning a counter-productive cycle.

2.4.2 Bryne et al.’s Research

In literature, employee engagement is often labeled as ambiguous because of the lack of clarity. According to Bryne et al. (2016), employee engagement research has not made any significant changes within the last couple of years, and ambiguity about the definition remains. Multiple challenges to several scales ’ validities have raised significant concerns about the measurement and conceptualization of employee engagement. The research sought to examine construct relationships and related variables

while controlling measurement error through five field samples. The employee engagement tools adopted are the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) and Job Engagement Scale (JES). While analyzing the differences and similarities between the two scales, the researchers concluded that the type of engagement scale used is essential to measuring different areas of the organization’s engagement (Bryne et al., 2016). The two engagement scales do not capture the same effects in each sample; therefore, employee engagement is still ambiguous. Bryne et al. suggest that organizations should take extreme caution when selecting an engagement measure. Considerations for selecting the proper measurement are based on the area of engagement, the time, and resources the organization wants to investigate. Reasons for selecting the proper engagement measure are essential to determining whether employees are experiencing low engagement or a product of burnout.

2.5 Opposing Virtual Teams Research

2.5.1 Rezugi’s Research

Competing research on virtual teams states that the teams are not successful because of the technology but due to the skills possessed by the team members. Rezgui (2007) expresses that VTs are not solely successful when technology alone is implemented. However, it is the critical analysis of social and organizational processes that make VTs successful. Rezgui’s study utilized a qualitative approach to find if VTs are the proper organizational form that can provide flexibility, responsiveness, and effectiveness. Action research was conducted to associate research and practice through change and reflection (Rezugui, 2007). Three reviews were conducted over 27 months, including feasible project preparation, modeled core business processes, and comprehended practice (Rezugui, 2007). These reviews helped capture the socio-organizational environment of a team working in construction. Ultimately, construction teams have insufficient technological support. When addressing technical challenges, the VT model is only successful if the development, evaluation, human capital, and organizational aspects are monitored closely (Rezugui, 2007). The research ultimately suggests that without the proper technology, virtual teams are unsuccessful.

2.5.2 Gupta’s Research

Additional research on opposing VTs investigates the outcomes of these teams over time. Gupta (2018) sought to document the experiences of a VT’s outcomes and to expand the literature on challenges related to virtual work and their work arrangements. The study utilizes an exploratory

qualitative approach that sampled semi-structured interviews with 52 participants from IT organizations. Responses were recorded digitally and transcribed for analysis. The themes that emerged from the research are familiarity, functionality, motivation, challenges, and skills. The study’s analysis suggests that VT members’ perceptions of VT work are favorable; however, fundamental challenges must be met, such as network and communication-related issues. The study respondents have also suggested that specific skills are required to be a successful member of a virtual team (Gupta, 2018). From Gupta’s research, one can adopt the notion that the virtual team will fail without proper management, training, or skills.

2.6. Summary of Literature

The collection of supportive studies provides the foundation, validity, and reliability of this research. Literature is abundant on employee engagement; however, the methodology has been primarily qualitative. The research will enhance the current literature on employee engagement by utilizing mixed methodology for the study’s design to support suggested outcomes. Crises such as COVID-19 do not often happen; therefore, many studies are currently being conducted (Kniffin et al., 2021). The literature supports the need for crisis management and will assist organizations with preparing for the next crisis. Although research on crisis and employee engagement is lacking, the study being conducted fills the gap by further investigating these topics. As more organizations incorporate technology and VTs, literature is steadily rising. Literature for VTs suggests technology alone does not make a VT successful; however, it is the leaders and employees who do (Gupta, 2018). Current VT literature on the crisis is small; hence, this study enhances the existing literature on VTs and VT engagement to fill gaps. The collection of opposing literature suggests TMGT can negatively impact employee engagement. The ambiguity of employee engagement and measurement tools is too vast and needs to be narrowed down. Lastly, organizations that do not have the monetary funding to incorporate the latest technologies can be left behind or fail in times of crisis. Additionally, managerial skills are essential in the success of a VT. Research from competing perspectives was null in the area of engagement.

3.0 Methodology

3.1 Conceptual Framework

The construct stemmed from previous research on how working remotely affects employee engagement during a crisis. Several empirical

studies have uncovered that working remotely positively impacts employee engagement (Albrecht et al., 2015; Crawford et al., 2010; May et al., 2004; Putri et al., 2020). The researcher began questioning the engagement of teams that were rapidly forced into VTs due to COVID-19. According to Albrecht (2015), engagement increases performance; therefore, stakeholders and leaders are open to ways that might enhance their employees’ work. Gallup (2015) found that 70% of employees in the U.S. are not engaged at work. A quantitative and qualitative electronic online survey was administered to collect data. The survey contained a validated employee engagement scale and qualitative CIT technique. The quantitative data assists in viewing demographical trends through regression analysis (Bott & Tourish, 2016). The qualitative data showed some insights on the participant’s emotional engagement from their responses to the social challenge, utilizing visual board software to categorize emerging themes.

3.2 Research Design

The research design takes advantage of the unique period when the world must operate differently due to COVID-19. There is a heavy focus on mental health during quarantine, and many employees are experiencing stress, anxiety, fear, awareness, and loss (Kniffin, 2020). Research from the financial crisis in 2008 has prepared some organizations to increase mental health services and other resources as applicable (Kniffin, 2020). Therefore, a large part of the research investigates the Intellectual, Social, and Affective (ISA) areas of engagement in a virtual setting. Intellectual engagement measures the range to which people are intellectually immersed in their work. Social engagement measures the level to which people feel socially connected in their work environment. Lastly, Affective engagement measures the scope to which people experience optimistic and energizing feelings about their work (Soane et al., 2012). The proposed research design utilizes a quantitative survey and exploratory qualitative research method to gain insight into employees’ remote engagement levels during a crisis. Survey questions utilize the validated ISA scale and Critical Incident Technique (CIT). The scale is an employee engagement measurement tool based on Kahn’s theory and development model (Soane et al., 2012). The CIT technique is a descriptive reflection to deepen the understanding of emotions (Douglas et al., 2014).

3.3 Rationale for Mixed Methods Research

The researcher is utilizing mixed methods that combine qualitative and quantitative research. The qualitative approach assists in comprehending how employees feel about work and if they are engaged

remotely during the crisis. A study by Dvorak and Sasaki (2017) shares that more than half of remote employees are disengaged and experience isolation due to the lack of social interaction, workplace culture, and physical visibility. The developed CIT questions identify the current remote engagement trends during a crisis in an organization. The quantitative data can help determine engagement levels in addition to age, ethnicity, gender identity, tenure, and work industry (Grootaert et al., 2004). When combining the Likert scale’s quantitative factors, additional insights into the organization’s root cause are identified from emerging themes (Creswell, 2012).

3.3.1 Rationale for Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is optimal for situations with no clear outcomes, such as the crisis effects of employee engagement for remote office personnel. Organizations are unsure about timelines for returning to physical work locations as state and city mandates regulate when organizations can physically return (Kniffin et al., 2021). Numerous organizations question whether they should make plans to return or continue to work on virtual challenges and stay working remotely. Therefore, making exploratory research a good fit for this study. Furthermore, exploratory research captures the circumstance thoroughly (Baxter & Jack, 2008).

3.3.2 Rationale for Survey Method

The rationale for utilizing an online survey is to ensure the appropriate number of participants is obtained for an adequate sample size. An online survey is the quantitative portion of the study, which provides data for the regression analysis. The online survey distribution was chosen to gather information instantaneously and reach a wider geographic area. The survey is a self-administered electronic survey to allow the participant to complete at their leisure. There are inclusion criteria that the participant must meet before they participate. Once the requirements are met, they are given a consent form. They decide to terminate participation or continue taking the survey. Figure B1 illustrates the consent form. According to Patterson et al. (2018), 30% of people finish online surveys; to prevent such an inadequate response; the survey is relatively short, easy to answer, and almost entirely multiple choice. The survey questions were constructed by Soane et al. (2012) and were tested for validity and reliability with employee engagement and job satisfaction surveys with a seven-point Likert scale. Lastly, the demographics are added to the end of the survey to assist with survey fatigue and narrow down areas of need. Immediately after the survey, the participants are debriefed with an online form.

3.4 Limitations and Delimitations

Some limitations for using these techniques entail data from a crosssectional field that utilizes a self-reporting method for both the independent and dependent variables. Using this method establishes a potential for the same source bias. As time passes, participants’ responses could change with further reflection; a long-term study can be conducted to mitigate the limitation. Research from Campton and Wagner (1994) investigated samesource bias with 42,000 correlations over 25 years, concluding that one cannot rule out same-source bias; however, it is not likely to alter conclusions (George & Pandey, 2017). Second, other variables are not included, such as the organizational culture and size. The third limitation is the inability to gather scores for task performance, organizational citizenship behavior, and quit intentions before the crisis. Lastly, regression analysis limitations only consider linear relationships, and other variables are not studied yet to influence the response. The delimitations are the population, as it is limited to only office personnel ranging from 19 years of age and older. Many of the participants are located from the middle to western portions of the United States, encompassing only a few from the United States’ eastern coast. Lastly, data collection will only be for three months; although, the time given is enough to acquire an adequate sample size.

3.5 Role of the Researcher

The researcher’s role is to maintain the research and results’ integrity and to develop competence in methods. Secondly, the researcher’s responsibility is to collect qualitative and quantitative data from participants and explore relevant literature to understand the psyche, methodologies, and effects behind employee engagement during a crisis. The role should be unbiased to leave emotion out of the research, hypothesis, and results. The researcher is also responsible for creating unbiased themes based on the participants’ responses to the qualitative questions online survey.

3.5.1 Researcher Bias

The identified biases include some insider information through convenience sampling. A few of the participants have a relationship with the researcher; therefore, they may be more willing to disclose more on the topic than a random participant would divulge. The researcher expects remote employees will experience low engagement due to the lack of flexibility during a worldwide pandemic. Furthermore, the researcher is aware of

confirmation bias and will take every precaution necessary to ensure confirmation bias is not present.

3.5.2 Research Ethics

3.5.2.a Confidentiality and Anonymity. Participants are informed not to leave any identifiable information when responding to the descriptive questions to keep the participants ’ confidentiality. Comments submitted in the surveys will not be verbatim; they are combined and generalized to present findings as a group. The primary researcher is the only individual who has access to the information, and a number is assigned to participants to keep their identity anonymous. The Qualtrics survey has built-in software to immediately anonymize responses while keeping track of who has not completed the survey to send reminders (Qualtrics, 2021).

3.5.2b. Voluntary Participation and Informed Consent.

Participants are free to refuse to partake in the research or withdrawal their consent at any time. An electronic consent form (see Figure B1) is given to the participants through Qualtrics before the survey, including procedures, risks, benefits, confidentiality, compensation, voluntary participation, and researcher contact before the participant can partake in the survey. Informed consent is required before participants are administered the survey. If the participants select the “NO” option to any one of the inclusion criteria, they cannot participate in the study. If the participants pass the requirements and select the “YES” button, the Qualtrics software will electronically administer a survey to the qualified participants.

3.5.2.c Protecting Data. The data collected is stored in a HIPPAcompliant Qualtrics-secure database until the primary investigator has deleted it. The Qualtrics password is private and is not shared with anyone other than the primary researcher. Emails received from Qualtrics are only sent to the primary researcher, so no one else has access to the emails.

3.5.2.d Risk of Harm. There are no immediate risks to the participants and no risks to taking the survey. The participants are free to refuse to participate in the research or withdraw consent at any time. They may also decline to answer any or all questions and may terminate involvement at any time. The researcher submitted the survey procedures, consent, debrief form, and methods to the Institutional Review Board (IRB) to ensure human subjects' safety (American Psychological Association, 2021). The IRB has approved the researcher to proceed with the study.

The main tools used were the CIT technique and the ISA engagement scale. The CIT and ISA scale provide the framework to collect data with a systematic approach. These approaches investigate employee engagement, reflection description, outcome, emotions, and perceptions (Bott & Tourish, 2016; Soane et al., 2012). With this systematic approach, the results and themes are analyzed to support or reject the hypothesis.

3.6.1 ISA Scale

The ISA scale categorizes responses by the previously discussed engagement areas. The ISA scale has been validated and researched since 2012, making it a preferred option for the investigation of employee engagement (Sidharta, 2019). The tool employs a 7-point Likert scoring method that generates low, medium, and high engagement areas (Soane, 2012). The 7-point scale ratings are labeled as 1=Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Slightly Disagree, 4=Neutral, Slightly 5=Agree, 6=Agree, and 7=Strongly Agree. Additionally, the ISA scale was developed utilizing Kahn’s Employee Engagement Scale as the foundation (Soane, 2012).

3.6.2 CIT Technique

The rationale for choosing the CIT technique is years of validation and reliability, which couple well with behavioral studies (Douglas et al., 2014). When following the CIT protocol, one develops research questions before adding them to an interview or survey. The CIT questions have been added to the end of each ISA engagement level. The second step is planning. Each survey is administered through the Qualtrics software utilizing a unique link to the survey shared through various online outlets, such as email, social media. Step three is the data collection process. Step four is the analysis of the descriptive data and summary of the case study. Step number five is analyzing the process for potential bias in the data (Papouli, 2016).

3.6.3 Survey Questions

The case study begins with a convenience selection process that includes participants within the required criteria. The 29-survey questions encompass one Pre-COVID-19 engagement question, nine ISA engagement scale questions developed by Soane et al., three qualitative questions the researcher developed utilizing the CIT Technique, five task performance questions based on research from Janssen and Van Yperen

(2004), four organizational citizenship behavior questions designed by Lee and Allen (2002), two questions on the intentions of quitting based on research from Boroff and Lewin (1997), and five demographic questions. The demographic questions follow the survey to ease survey fatigue. Once the survey is complete, a debriefing form will be displayed to the participant. Once data is collected by Qualtrics, the information is moved to SPSS (v 27) to assist with the regression analysis to test the relationship and significance. An illustration of the survey is visible in Figure C1.

3.6.3a Task Performance. The rationale for adding task performance survey questions is assessing how employees rate themselves to complete tasks during a crisis, which is part of comprehending employee engagement. Research from Janssen and Yperen (2004) found a positive correlation between self-rated task performance and engagement. Janssen and Van Yperen’s study measured leader-member exchange of goal orientation. The results found that employees had a more robust job performance based on goal orientation.

3.6.3b Organizational Citizenship Behavior. The rationale for adding Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) is observing employee behavior which contributes to a positive organizational culture by going beyond a job description. Measuring OCB is relevant to an organization as the measured outcomes are linked to positive motivational behaviors (Lee & Allen, 2002). Kahn (1990) and Kahn (1992) proposed that engaged employees are more likely to participate in organizational events because of positive input and rewarding outcomes. Validating the proposal was Lee and Allen’s (2002) investigating the role, affect, and cognition in predicting OCB. The study found a positive correlation between cognition and discrete emotions (Lee & Allen, 2002).

3.6.3c Intentions to Quit. The rationale for adding the intentions to quit questions is to determine if the employee intends to remain with the organization. Highly engaged employees are associated with positive emotional well-being. These individuals are likely to interact with others and display positive organizational behaviors influencing their attachment to their role and current employer (Boroff & Lewin 1997). As Kahn (1990) indicated, the lack of engagement could lead to cognitive and behavioral withdrawal from work. An organization benefits from these questions to measure workplace culture and turnover.

3.6.4 Participants

Participants must meet the specific criteria to participate; they must be age 19 and over, have worked in-person, move to remote work during COVID-19, and work in an office setting. The survey is administered utilizing the Qualtrics program software. The goal is to reach a minimum of 100 participants to meet an adequate sample size for the population through an online survey. The participant’s role and responsibility are to self-report honestly and to answer the survey questions to their best ability, thereby aiding in the quantitative and qualitative data. Completion of the survey will take about 7-10 minutes.

3.7 Data Analysis Plan

Case studies are used when researching behaviors in a real-world setting (Baxter & Jack, 2008). The plan to analyze the data is to utilize a five-step data analysis process. The five steps consist of organizing data, exploring the data, connecting, and creating categories based on data, creating themes, and cohesively presenting the themes. Participant responses are placed on a visual board utilizing visual collaboration software to categorize descriptive data by engagement area. Once all the information is on the visual board, the next step is to identify and connect participant responses into emerging themes. Once the themes are found, the scale of the participant’s experience working remotely during COVID19 can be understood. The ISA categories are already organized and ready to be input into SPSS for data output. When the SPSS output is complete, analyzing data commences to look for emerging trends and to support or reject the hypothesis.

4.0 Results

4.1 Demographic Results

4.1.1 Gender

There are 114 participants, all of whom are 19 years of age or older, who worked in a physical office setting, and began working remotely due to COVID-19. As seen in Table D1, participants comprised 91 Females (F) and 20 Males (M), giving the participant ratio of Females=79.8%, Males=17.5%, 2.6% Prefer not to answer, and 0% Transgender Female, Male, and Non-binary. Figure D1 illustrates the pre-COVID-19 score between Males and Females, in which Males have a pre-Engagement score of 6.5 compared to the Females score of 6.3. The scores for Male and Female Engagement scores during the crisis are similar in which Males (M=6.0) compared to the Females’ (F=5.3) engagement scores. An

additional area to note is the Quit Intention (QI) scores for Males (M=2.5) and Females (F=3.2) (Figure D1).

4.1.2 Age

When analyzing figure E1, the lowest pre-Engagement score is 6.2 from the 25-34 age range, and the lowest score during the crisis is the 65-74 age range with a 4.0 score. The highest score belongs to 65-74 and 75 and up with a 7.0 pre-engagement score. The highest during crisis engagement score is 7.0, by the 75 and up age range (Figure E1). The lowest score for Intellectual and Affective engagement is 2.0, by the 65-74 age range; however, the lowest Social score is 4.2 by the 19-24 age range. Lastly, the highest quitting Intention of 7.0 is by the 65-74 age group, and the lowest quitting Intention is 75 and up with a 1.0 score (Figure E1).

4.1.3 Ethnicity

The Ethnicity with the lowest pre-engagement score is 6.0 from Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander ethnicity, with the highest score being 7.0 from Middle Eastern or North African ethnicity (Figure F1). The lowest during engagement score, 5.0, is shared from the Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander ethnicities and Middle Eastern or North African ethnicities while the highest score is 5.72 by the White, German, Irish, English, and Italian ethnicities (Figure F1). The lowest score for quitting intentions is 1.0 from the Middle Eastern or North African ethnicity while the highest score is 4.1 from the Black or African American ethnicities (Figure F1).

4.1.4 Tenure

When analyzing the pre-engagement score for Tenure, the lowest score is 6.1 from the 0-1 tenure range while the highest score is 6.6 from the 26–30-year tenure group (Figure G1). During the crisis, the lowest tenure score is 5.1 from the 11-15 tenure range, and the highest score is 6.0 from the 26-30 and 30 or more tenure range. Lastly, the lowest score for Intention to quit is 2.1 from the 26-30 tenure group while the highest Intention to quit score is 3.7 is from the 0-1 tenure range (Figure G1).

4.1.5 Work Industry

When analyzing the Work Industry’s lowest pre-crisis engagement score, the lowest score is 5.3 from Construction (Figure H1). The highest pre-engagement score is 7.0 from the Legal Services, Hotel and Food

Services, Military industries. The lowest score for engagement during COVID-19 is 4.0 from the Scientific or Technical Services industry while the highest score is 7.0 from the Hotel and Food Services industry. Lastly, the QI lowest score is 1.5 from the Military industry, and the highest score is 7.0 from the Hotel and Food Services and Retail industries (Figure H1).

4.2 Quantitative Results from Regression Analysis

Figure I1 indicates a decrease in the overall engagement between the pre-engagement score and the during-COVID-19 crisis engagement score. However, a more in-depth analysis suggests the pre- and during COVID-19 Engagement Score displays a mean of 6.4 with a Standard Deviation (SD) of ± .80 out of 7 score. The results translate to participants being engaged before COVID-19 (Table I1). The pre-Engagement score accounts for 1.5% of the variation (Table J1). The F-statistic (2.71) explains that there is a 97% chance of the null hypothesis is true; therefore, the linear model fits for finding the prediction during Engagement over Engagement's mean value (Table K1). Although there was an initial suggestion of a slight drop in score between the pre- and during crisis engagement scores, the regression analysis determined no significance between the two variables. Other correlation areas should be investigated (Table K1), thus rejecting the hypothesis and accepting the null hypothesis. The next group of scores is the Intellectual engagement scores, displaying a mean score of 5.6 ± 1.3 out of a 7 score (Table K2). The Social engagement mean score is Social 5.28 ± 1.3 (Table K2). The final ISA engagement score is Affective with a mean of 5.21 ± 1.5 (Table K2). The ISA ANOVA and Model Summary show the p < .05, therefore stating a positive correlation between the ISA engagement areas (Table L1 & L2). When one of the areas changes, the other two areas are affected in the same direction as the initial change. The alternative hypothesis was rejected as the lowest score was not the social engagement area; the lowest score was in the affective engagement area (Table K2). The Regression Model Summary shows that the ISA areas collectively account for 91.8% of the variation (Table L1). Table L1 depicts the Adjusted square only indicates a 0.4% difference, which means there would only be a 0.4% difference if the data were gathered from the population instead of the sample. The ISA scale’s ANOVA indicates a p-value of p=0.01, therefore stating these areas are positively correlated (Table L2). The Task Performance results have a mean score of 6.3 ± .98 out of 7. The result suggests self-reporting participants complete their workplace duties (Tables M1). When Looking at the Organizational Citizenship group, the mean score is 5.1 ± 1.3 (Tables M1). The score’s interpretation suggests participants are still slightly willing to attend functions, offer ideas of improvement, and problem solve. Lastly,

the intentions to quit have a mean score of 3.1 ± 2.1, which reveals that participants do not intend to leave their current organizations (Table M1).

4.3 Qualitative Results of CIT Reflection

The qualitative responses were categorized into the three ISA categories: Intellectual, Social, and Affective. General responses for the Intellectual engagement encompassed 69% of participants having a positive experience and 32% having a negative experience. When participants reached out for help, half of them reached out to colleagues, and the other half sought help from supervisors. Additional insights describe 64% of participants receiving the help they required at work while 36% of those participants did not. When looking at the Social responses, 98% of participants increased the usage of multiple modes of communication, such as video teleconferencing, text, phone calls, email, internet calls, instant messaging through online communication platforms and social media. If participants continued physical interaction, it was with close family and friends. Lastly, in the Affective engagement, 55% of participants enjoyed working remotely while 45% did not. The more prominent positive themes consist of being more productive and not having to commute. The most significant negative response was wanting to return to the workplace. The descriptive responses collected revealed every negative response; two positive responses were made regarding the overall remote working experience during a crisis.

5.0 Discussion

The general purpose of the research was to examine the effects of a crisis on employee engagement in-office personnel. The hypothesis suggested that a crisis such as COVID-19 would affect employee engagement. Results indicated that a crisis does not affect employee engagement, and other variables should be investigated. Although the researcher does theorize some outside variables affect the employees mentally, it appears those outside factors do not affect employee engagement. The alternate hypothesis indicated that Social engagement would be a factor. However, the lowest score was Affective engagement; this indicates that the employees did not necessarily have positive feelings about their work. Descriptive data showed that frustration between technical issues, lack of communication, and project work might cause the lowered score. Organizations can utilize this information to be proactive when the next crisis occurs in remote office personnel. Additional interesting insights include low scores for females compared to males in all areas except quit intentions. Is the reason the score is lower because of self-

perception or additional responsibilities during the crisis? Minorities, Females, and people 65-74 have higher intentions to quit. People 65-74 also had the lowest engagement score during the crisis. The researcher theorizes that the low score is due to not being tech-savvy; further investigation in this area is needed in the 75-and-up age group have the highest during crisis engagement score. After data was collected, a limitation that arose was the lack of male participants. Although Male participants encompassed 16.7% of participants, the Females overshadowed their representation. Overall, results are consistent with previous literature in which the ISA scale and engagement is a reliable and validated indication way of examining emotional connection employees feel toward their places of work.

5.1 Future Research

Future research areas include examining which variables caused the lowered score since the pre-crisis engagement score was not significant with the during-crisis engagement. Investigation into why Females reported a lower engagement score than Males and why Females had a higher Intention to Quit is required. From the literature, additional areas to investigate are the outcomes of an over-engaged employee and exploring which managerial skills are the successful qualities that pull virtual teams through a crisis. Additional investigative questions that arose from this study are how often an employee’s engagement changes and if a proper home office and ergonomics affect remote productivity levels. Lastly, more research is necessary specifically on employee engagement during a crisis while working remotely to advance the area’s literature, validity, antecedents, and consequences across all three engagement areas.

6.0 Conclusion

The study aimed to answer the question of how a crisis affects employee engagement in remote office personnel. Identification of research gaps in a virtual team, engagement, and crisis areas was established from the literature summary and data collected. Finding gaps in these areas validated the necessity for the study, thus taking advantage of the COVID-19 crisis to study how engagement is affected. Participants were selected utilizing convenience sampling while using three criteria for inclusion. The case study utilized the CIT technique and the ISA scale to gather themes and trends based on the results. From these themes and results, the researcher concluded that a crisis such as COVID-19 does not correlate or significantly impact Employee Engagement. Based on the level of analysis conducted, the suggestions for organizations are to focus on other impact variables that might cause the decrease of engagement during a crisis. Areas

such as communication challenges, technical issues, or managerial style are areas to address first. Furthermore, flexible work options are optimal as most employees stated they enjoyed working remotely and not commuting.

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Figure A1

Antecedents and Consequences of Remote Employee Engagement during a Crisis

Note. The figure above illustrates the antecedent, employee experience, and consequences of the three measured levels of employee engagement.

Figure B1

Consent Form

Figure C1

Employee Engagement Survey

Table D1

Frequency Gender

Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent Valid Female 91 79.8 79.8 79.8 Male 20 17.5 17.5 97.2

Prefer not to

answer 3 2.6 2.6 100.00

Total 114 100.00 100.00 Note. n=114. The table illustrates the number of participants categorized by their gender identity and the percentage for each group. Not shown in the table are Transgender Female, Male, and Non-binary genders, as the survey did not reach anyone who selected these options.

Figure D1

Gender

Note. n=114. The figure above illustrates the median’s mean scores for gender in Pre- & During Quitting Intentions.

Figure E1

Age

Note. n=114. The illustration above depicts the median’s mean scores for Age Pre- & During Crisis Engagement scores, ISA, and Quit Intentions.

Figure F1

Ethnicity

Note. n=114. The figure above illustrates the median’s mean scores for Ethnicity in Pre- & During Engagement and Quit Intentions.

Figure G1

Tenure

Note. n=114. The figure above illustrates the median’s mean scores for Tenure Pre- & During Engagement and Quitting Intentions.

Figure H1

Work Industry

Note. n=114. The figure above illustrates the median’s mean scores for Work Industry in the Pre- & During Engagement and Quit Intentions.

Figure I1

Overall Pre- and During Crisis Engagement

Note. n=114. The figure above illustrates the median’s mean scores for the overall Pre- & During Crisis Engagement.

Table I1

Descriptive Statistics Pre- and During Engagement

Pre-Engagement

DuringN Range Min Max Sum Mean SD Variance Skewness Kurtosis

Stat Stat Stat Stat Stat Stat SEM Stat Stat Stat SES Stat SEK 114 4 3 7.0 730 6.4 .07 .80 .65 -1.3 .22 2.0 .44

114 5.0 2.0 7.0 628 5.5 .11 1.1 1.4 -1.1 .22 1.0 .44

Engagement

Valid N 114

Note. n=114. The table illustrates the Pre- and During Engagement Means.

Appendix J

Table J1

During Crisis Engagement Model Summary

Model R R

Square Adjusted R

Square Std. Error of the

Estimate Change Statistics Change Statistics

R Square

Change F

Change df1 df2 Sig. F

Change

Pre- .154a .024 .015 1.1 .024 2.71 1 112 .102

Engagement

TP, OCB,

QI .650b .423 .402 .91 .399 25.14 3 109 <.001

Note. n=114. Pre-Engagement (r=.154); TP, OCB, QI (r=.650). PreEngagement r2= .015; TP, OCB, QI ( r2= .40), *p<.05. The table above illustrates the model summary where the Dependent Variable is During Engagement. The Pre-Engagement score accounts for 1.5% of the variation. When the other three variables (TP, OCB, QI) are incorporated, the total is 40.2%. The Adjusted square indicates that there is only a 2.0% difference. The difference implies that if the data were gathered from the population instead of the sample, there would only be a 2.0% difference. a. Predictors: (Constant), Pre-Engagement. b. Predictors: (Constant), Pre-Engagement, Task Performance, Quit Intention, OCB c. Dependent Variable: During Crisis Engagement

Table K1

Pre- and During Crisis Engagement ANOVA

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Pre-Engagement Regression 3.75 1 3.75 2.71 .102b

Residual 154.74 112 1.38

Total 158.49 113

TP, OCB, QI Regression 67.04 4 16.76 19.97 <.001c

Residual 91.44 109 .839

Total 158.49 113

Note. n=114. Degrees of Freedom =df, p=<0.05 is the number of observations minus the regression model's coefficients. The table above illustrates the SS divided by the df that gives the MSR. The second model significantly improves the ability to predict the outcome. a. Dependent Variable: During Engagement. b. Predictors: (Constant), Pre-Engagement, c. Predictors: (Constant), Pre-Engagement, Task Performance, Quit Intention, OCB.

Table K2

ISA During Crisis Descriptive Statistics

Mean Std. Deviation

Intellectual 5.67

Social 5.28

Affective 5.21 1.35

1.30

1.55 N

114

114

114

Note. n=114. The table above illustrates the M and SD of the three engagement areas.

Table L1

ISA During Crisis Model Summary

Model R R

Square Adjusted R

Square Std. Error of the

Estimate Change Statistics Change Statistics

R Square

Change F

Change df1 df2 Sig. F

Change

ISA .918a .843 .839 .47 .84 197.20 3 110 <.001

Note. n=114. r=.91. r2= .843. *p<.05. Dependent Variable is ISA scale, The table above illustrates the ISA model summary. The ISA score accounts for 91.8% of the variation. When looking at the Adjusted R Square, there is only a difference of 0.4%, which means that if the data were gathered from the population instead of the sample, there would only be a 0.4% difference.

Table L2

ISA During Crisis ANOVA

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

ISA Regression 133.64 3 44.54 197.20 <.001b

Residual 24.84 110 .226

Total 158.49 113

Note. n=114. Degrees of Freedom =df is the number of observations minus the regression model's coefficients. The table above illustrates the SS divided by the df that gives the MSR. The second model significantly improves the ability to predict the outcome.

Table M1

TP, OCB, Q1 During Crisis Descriptive Statistics

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

Task_Performance 114 1.00 7.00 6.39 .98

OCB 114 1.00 7.00 5.18 1.38

Quit_Intention 114 1.00 7.00 3.17 2.19

Valid N (listwise) 114

Note. n=114. The table above illustrates the M and SD of the TP, OCB, and QI scores.