The Berkshire Scholar 2016

The Berkshire Scholar 2016

The Berkshire Scholar A collection of academic essays Spring 2016

Jackson Brex…………………………………….……….……..….3 Honor As Seen by Hal and Hotspur Tian (Victor) Li…………………………...………….……..……...6 Feminist Icons Charlotte MacKenzie ………………………………….....…...…..9 The Concordat of 1801: Improving Life in France Juliana Kokot……………………………………….…..………...11 Friend or Foe Kai Walker…………………………………………………...…...14 The Right to Choose Ieva Pranckeviciute….....………………………...………..……...20 Monsters with Pure Hearts Zach Kalk ……………………………………...……..…………24 Dissociative Identity Disorder in “Fight Club” Liza Jane Branch………………………………....………….……32 Minimalism and the Position of Women in 20th Century Art Afterword.......................................................................................43

The Berkshire Scholar 1

The opinions and arguments presented in The Berkshire Scholar are the work of the writers only and do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors, faculty, or administration of Berkshire School.

2 The Berkshire Scholar

Jackson Brex ~ Adv. English III

Honor as Seen by Hal and Hotspur One can aim at honor both as one ought, and more than one ought, and less than one ought. He whose craving for honor is excessive is said to be ambitious, and he who is deficient in this respect unambitious; while he who observes the mean has no peculiar name.

Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics Honor and its various approaches, the main theme of Shakespeare’s Henry IV, Part I, is shown through the play’s two main characters: Prince Hal and Hotspur. Prince Hal, the unruly son of King Henry IV, finds his own perspective of honor as he matures during the play. As Hal lives on, his acts of kindness and selflessness towards his friends and family reveal his balanced view of honor. Hotspur, the son of Lord Northumberland and leader of the rebellion against King Henry, has a grandiose understanding of honor; he sees it as the ultimate life goal and is willing to die for it. Hotspur sees honor as only obtainable through battle and victory, making him ambitious, whereas Hal values honor in family and companions, giving him no peculiar name.

Prince Hal believes honor can be achieved through good deeds towards his friends. Hal’s best friend, Falstaff, is a thief and highwayman. Even though Falstaff is not an honest man, Hal honors him by protecting him from the law. When a sheriff comes looking for Falstaff after he robbed a group of travelers, Hal instructs Falstaff where to hide and tells the sheriff that “the man (Falstaff) I do assure you is not here” (II.iv.532). Instead of handing over the criminal Falstaff, Hal deliberately broke the law to save his friend. Hal also shows that he cares more for honoring his friends than achieving honor on the battlefield when he credits Falstaff for killing Hotspur. Hal says, “Why, Percy I killed myself...”

[Falstaff] “Didst thou? Lord, lord, how this world is given to lying” The Berkshire Scholar 3

(V.iv.147-149). Rather than denying Falstaff of his false claim and gaining both honor and his father’s approval, Hal chose to let Falstaff take credit for killing Hotspur. Hal sacrificed all of his work and battlefield honor just to bring glory to his friend.

Hal also sees honor as obtainable through family. In the beginning of the play, Hal discloses to the reader that he has been deliberately creating a bad image for himself by spending time with thieves so that when he does finally start to behave like a prince, it will look even better on him and please his father. Hal’s first step in this plan occurs when he tells Falstaff, “I must still be good angel to thee. The money is paid back again” (III.iii. 188-189). Hal had taken the money that Falstaff stole from the travelers and gave it back to them, showing his determination to create a better image for himself and make his father proud. Hal also exhibits a desire of parental approval when he pledges to kill Hotspur. The Prince says, “I will redeem all this on Percy’s head, and, in the closing of some glorious day, be bold to tell you that I am your son” (III. ii.137-139). All along, it has been King Henry’s wish to have a son with as much battlefield glory and honor as Hotspur. By killing Hotspur, Hal will cleanse himself of his bad deeds while absorbing all of Hotspur’s achievements. While Hal himself does not care for the battlefield, he does care for his father’s approval. Hotspur, on the other hand, sees combat as the only outlet for achieving honor.

Hotspur’s view on honor is more extreme than Hal’s; he sees honor as only obtainable through battle and victory, even if it means death. King Henry praises Hotspur’s excessive desire for honor, calling him the “theme of honour’s tongue” (I.i.83). However, Lady Percy, Hotspur’s wife, wishes her husband would focus less on it. Lady Percy says, “And thou hast talked of sallies and retires, of trenches, tents, of palisadoes, frontiers, parapets... And all the currents of a heady fight” (II.iii.53-54, and 57). Lady Percy is begging Hotspur to stop thinking about his rebellion as he has even begun to talk about battle in his sleep. This passage shows Hotspur’s unwavering commitment to his revolt; he is so fixated on obtaining glory on the battlefield that he cannot spend time with his wife. Hotspur’s intense view of honor is also displayed when he first devises his plan to overthrow King Henry. Hotspur says, 4 The Berkshire Scholar

“Methinks it were an easy leap / To pluck bright honor from the pale-faced moon, / Or dive into the bottom of the deep, / Where fathom line could never touch the ground, / And pluck up drowned honor by the locks” (I.iii.206-210). Hotspur claims that he would plunge to “where fathom line could never touch the ground,” or the ocean floor, just for honor. The ocean floor is symbolic of great danger, showing that Hotspur would be willing or even excited to brave a dangerous scenario like battle in order to obtain honor.

Hotspur presents a one-dimensional view of honor via combat.

Hotspur displays an extreme notion of honor through his conduct on the battlefield whereas Prince Hal reveals a balanced view of honor through his treatment of friends and family, in his recurring efforts to aid Falstaff and please his father. While Hal has no interest in battle whatsoever, Hotspur believes it is the only way for one to obtain honor since his sole purpose is to be an honorable leader; he would rather die with honor than live a life without.

Hotspur and Hal’s different approaches toward this trait exemplify perfectly the concept of Aristotle: Hotspur’s craving for honor through battle is extreme, but Hal finds a happy medium (or mean, according to Aristotle) in honor by being fair to his companions.

The Berkshire Scholar 5

Tian (Victor) Li ~ Adv. English IV

Feminist Icons We are born with our sex manifest in bodily traits. Men and women are so different yet so reciprocal, to the point that sex has become the defining dualism of the human race. However, over the course of history, this supposedly balanced scale has become the subject of deep misinterpretation. In our chiefly male-dominant society, it has been mistakenly suggested and written into tradition that women, for their differences from men, were to spend their life on domestic and less active affairs, and thus sprung the idea of gender expectation, or as it is called today, sexism.

What do you expect from a woman? Even attempting to give an answer to this question is to risk placing yourself on the wrong side of a contentious societal debate. There is hardly a right answer because any presumption we make can be a limit. This idea probably looks familiar to you, but two hundred years ago the same argument would have been frowned upon, or even violently dismissed. The outlook on gender differences has changed dramatically since the eighteenth century. Over the past two centuries, people have come to realize that women, just like men, are capable of great achievements. Such a realization would have been impossible, however, had there not been generations of excellent women to practice and exemplify this idea. The career of Margarete SchĂźtteLihotzky, for one, serves as a great illustration to this process.

SchĂźtteLihotzky is known to be the first female architect of Austria. Born into a bourgeois family in Vienna, she became the first female student of what is today the University of Applied Arts.

Despite receiving criticism in her early career, she proved herself to be as worthy as any of her male contemporaries by designing the Frankfurt Kitchen.

The Frankfurt Kitchen was significant because it revolutionized social housing at that time. The new design managed to make the average kitchen more dignified and more efficient, a change that inspired a lot of architects and designers at that time.

As critic Deyan Sudjic remarks: “It is not for designing any single 6 The Berkshire Scholar

house that she will be remembered, but for the radical approach she brought to understanding how ordinary people connected to architectural design.” Through the design of Frankfurt Kitchen, the European design world was reminded of those who really needed their attention: the vast proletarian population that was typically not involved in architects’ modern productions.

Margarete’s residential life lacked the consistency of her works of design. After spending the earlier part of her life in Russia, she was driven out when the Great Purge made life there unbearable. The environment outside Russia, as it turned out, was not the most favorable either. Shocked by the atrocities that were taking place in Central Europe, she joined the Austrian Communist Resistance Movement. In her mission to contact the headquarters in Austria, SchütteLihotzky was surprised and arrested by Gestapo only twenty-four days after she arrived. She was immediately sentenced to fifteen years in a Bavarian prison, and did not regain her freedom until 4 years later, when she was liberated by the US troops. Fortunately, Margarete had lived long enough to see the second millennium in her lifetime. Margarete had had more than her fair share of twists and turns in her life, and her valiant and unyielding fight embodies a quality that is demonstrative of both female power and human endurance in general.

Equally demonstrative and striking is the story of Vanessa Rousso, a professional poker player from New York. This year, Vanessa has reached the top five highest earning female players of all time. The stereotypical image of a gambler in Western culture has been overwhelmingly masculine and usually marked by ubiquitous cigarettes and cool shades. The premises of the gambling industry made the entrance of Vanessa all the more remarkable.

The standards for evaluation of a player are finally being steered away from gender and onto professional skills.

What made her the center of even more discussion was her recent engagement to her girlfriend Melissa Ouelle. “The reality star’s long-term girlfriend Melissa Ouellet, ” Daily Mail reports, “proposed to the professional poker player before the CBS show’s season 17 wrap party, she announced on stage at the bash at Bar10 in West Hollywood.” Having formerly been married to fellow pokThe Berkshire Scholar 7

er player Chad Brown, Vanessa’s statement about what it means to be a woman is very clear. She does not flinch to fight acknowledged orthodoxy and she possesses a rebellious spirit comparable to that of the archetypal Greek heroine Antigone.

Antigone is one of the first plays to deal with the status of women. Sophocles’ treatment of feminist themes and vivid depictions of characters is acknowledged by literary scholars to be ahead of its time. Through a modern lens, readers can see Antigone’s story as a woman’s fight for her rights in a male dominant world.

Antigone’s fight reaches its poignant best when Ismene asks to be taken away with her older sister, signifying Ismene’s anagnorisis: “Please, let me die beside you, consecrating the dead together.”

The protagonist’s determination to die shows that the thawing of her timidity is finished at that very moment, and Sophocles implies that even the most concrete inertia may be touched by the spectacle of others’ struggle. Antigone leads Ismene through her mental development in a way that resonates with our own time.

The knowledge that women today are still compelled to experience the same struggle is critical to our realization of the injustice around us. As accepted as we might presume the assumptions of feminism to be, the progress is not over. The next time you consider someone else’s career, male or female, look for any assumption that you might make, and take a moment to reflect.

8 The Berkshire Scholar

Charlotte MacKenzie ~ Adv. Modern World History

The Concordat of 1801: Improving Life in France In 1801, Napoleon signed the Concordat with Pope Pius VII. This agreement brought the Roman Catholic Church back into French life. In doing this, Napoleon was focused on helping both the citizens as well as himself. The Concordat of 1801 greatly improved life for Napoleon Bonaparte, the First Consul, and the French citizens.

During Napoleon’s reign, he noticed that France needed security that could only be provided by the church. Though he was not extremely religious himself, Napoleon reached out to reconcile with the Catholic Church. In the Concordat of 1801, Napoleon and Pope Pius XII signed an agreement that welcomed back the Catholic Church to France after it had been banned during the French revolution. Under this agreement, bishops could be nominated by Napoleon; bishoprics and parishes were redistributed; seminaries were allowed; and the government paid the clergymen. However, church grounds that were confiscated during the revolution were not always returned.

The Concordat of 1801 was beneficial for Napoleon as well. Aside from noticing that France needed the Church back, Napoleon had several other reasons for signing the agreement. He recognized that reconciliation was politically prudent and that it would help him to maintain his position as First Consul. Napoleon also thought that the Concordat of 1801 would end the rebellion between the royalists and the clerical, reunite the clergy, and win him support from peasant farmers. However, not everyone benefitted from the ratification of this document.

While life improved greatly for Napoleon and the French citizens, that wasn’t the case for all. After the signing of the Concordat of 1801, Napoleon created the “Organic Articles,” a series of articles that limited the Pope’s power and undermined his The Berkshire Scholar 9

authority. The tension between Napoleon and the Pope continued until Napoleon had Pope Pius VII arrested and imprisoned. Despite Napoleon’s disagreements with the Pope, the Concordat was successful and remained in place until 1905.

The Concordat of 1801 was important for Napoleon and the French citizens. It helped Napoleon gain support and unite his citizens. It gave the French citizens back the opportunity to go to church for the first time since the revolution. For these reasons, the singing of the Concordat in 1801 was beneficial for Napoleon and his French citizens.

Bibliography “The Age of Reformation & Counter-Reformation.” Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

“Concordat of 1801.” The Columbia Encyclopedia. Columbia University Press, 2015. April 1, 2015.

Craig, Albert M., William A. Graham, Donald Kagan, Steven Ozment, and Frank M. Turner. The Heritage of World Civilizations. 5th ed. Vol. 2. Pearson Education, 2012.

“France under Napoleon.” World History Encyclopedia. ABCCLIO, 2011. July 1, 2015.

“RELIGION: FRANCE.” Encyclopedia of the Romantic Era, 1760-1850. Routledge, 2003.

10 The Berkshire Scholar

Juliana Kokot ~ Adv. English V

Friend or Foe Illustrating many conflicts that elite members of society experienced in the 1920’s, The Great Gatsby offers incredible insight into the complexity of human nature. Though almost 100 years old, F. Scott Fitzgerald’s novel remains relevant today because of its diverse range of characters. Among these characters is Nick Carraway, the intellectual introvert who feeds off the exciting lives and emotions of others. Then there is Jay Gatsby, a young man from modest beginnings who makes a name for himself in West Egg, Long Island. These two primary characters fill the story with life, inviting readers to share in their exciting experiences, but they could not fulfill their roles without a character named Meyer Wolfsheim. Meyer Wolfsheim is instrumental to The Great Gatsby, for he shines a light on Nick and Gatsby’s characters by contrasting their social insecurities with his own self certainty.

Although he appears to be the most dishonest man in the entire novel, constantly on the lookout for “a business gonnegtion” (70), Meyer Wolfsheim is in many instances upright and reliable, exemplifying integrity and self-assurance. While trying to find friends of Gatsby to attend his funeral, Nick comes to realize that Gatsby really has no friends at all. This sad truth is evident when he reaches out to Wolfsheim by mail, wire, and finally in person but is refused on every occasion. Wolfsheim says to Nick, “I cant do it—I cant get mixed up in it…. When a man gets killed I never like to get mixed up in it in any way. I keep out” (171). Attending the funeral of a colleague or close friend seems only natural, but to Mr. Wolfsheim, it is unthinkable. The abnormality of this reaction is striking and, equally, admirable. Wolfsheim does not pretend to have sentimental feelings towards Gatsby and unashamedly recalls their relationship as strictly business. This forthrightness is commendable because he does not compromise his own feelings for the sake of others, as do Nick and Gatsby; he is his very own man.

Wolfsheim acts only on his own behalf, doing what benefits him even if it conflicts with social norm. A contrast to Wolfsheim’s independent character is Nick Caraway.

The Berkshire Scholar 11

Early on in the novel, the narrator Nick Caraway makes a serious claim about himself that later proves to be false on many occasions. He says, “I am inclined to reserve all judgment” (1).

His character, though, is based entirely on his perception and understanding of those around him, which he achieves by placing himself in situations that allow him to judge others. We often find Mr. Caraway at extravagant parties or in intimate gatherings that typically make him uncomfortable. In these situations, he attempts to put himself at ease by compromising the truth of his previous statement. Leaving Gatsby and Daisy Buchanan to sort out the obvious discomfort of their situation—Gatsby’s reunion with the now-married Daisy—Nick goes outside and stands in the rain. Not long after, he decides abruptly, “It was time I went back…. The rain continued with gusts of [their] emotion. But in the new silence I felt that silence had fallen within the house too” (88-89). Without invitation, Nick reenters the house, only to feed off the awkwardness of Daisy and Gatsby’s interaction. By experiencing the awkwardness, he fulfills his role as one whose need it is to please others; he believes that his presence will only aid them in overcoming their five-year-long hiatus in communication. Similar with regard to his longing to please others is the title character, Jay Gatsby.

Jay Gatsby, in all circumstances, is a people pleaser. He spends the entirety of his life with a vision in mind of what will make him happiest. He achieves great financial and social success, but in the process gives away much of himself. This part of Gatsby’s persona is lost to his seeking of approval from others such as Dan Cody, who introduces him to a life of luxury and materialism, and Meyer Wolfsheim, who “raised him up out of nothing [and] knew [he] could use him good” (171). Gatsby’s quest for Daisy Buchanan ends miserably though. While giving Daisy a tour of his extravagant mansion in West Egg, Nick notices that Gatsby’s “bedroom was the simplest room of all” (91). Given his modest beginnings in rural North Dakota, and confirmed by his father’s fascination with his home and wealth, Gatsby’s desire to keep his personal space modest makes sense. However, upon Daisy’s arrival in the room, he “took out a pile of shirts and began throwing them…shirts of sheer linen and thick silk and fine flannel…while 12 The Berkshire Scholar

we admired he brought out more� (92). Jay Gatsby does not actually enjoy his wealth personally, but rather enjoys the reactions it receives from others. He throws the fine shirts around the room, not to please himself, rather to impress Daisy. This distinction between Gatsby, Nick, and Wolfsheim greatly enhances the novel.

Although he is a minor character, Meyer Wolfsheim is crucial to the development and greater understanding of major characters such as Nick Carraway and Jay Gatsby. His consistency of mind and character contrasts markedly with the minds and characters of Nick and Jay and exposes their social insecurities.

Remarkable to contemporary readers is the fact that so many of these insecurities are embodied still by modern society. The risk of judgment and vulnerability is much too great for most people to handle, so they prefer to comply with social norm rather than risk alienation to make themselves happy.

The Berkshire Scholar 13

Kai Walker ~ U.S. History

The Right to Choose Imagine if you were denied the right to protect yourself from the possibility of getting pregnant. Imagine if your right to choose whether or not to get an abortion no longer existed. These are two rights women today are lucky enough to have at their disposal. Unfortunately, life in America wasn’t always like this for women. Birth control and abortion have been very sensitive topics for hundreds of years. As women were winning the right to vote in 1920, they were also fighting for their contraceptive rights and the ability to have an abortion.

Women’s social and medical rights were very limited during the 1900s, as there were many state laws banning women from making their own choices for their bodies. Alternate forms of birth control had been around for centuries before the standard birth control pill was created. In Aristotle’s History of Animals, he talks about things he believed were contraceptives: cedar oil, lead oil, and frankincense oil. Abortion has also been around for centuries as women all around the world have been using the procedure to control reproduction in every society, no matter its illegality. Contraceptives and abortion are basic human rights that every woman should have the ability to access. Finally guaranteeing women these rights was one of the greatest steps in American history.

Margaret Sanger was able to use all her knowledge to help women in the fight for contraceptive rights. Born in 1879, she was one of the first women to begin a life working to improve women’s contraceptives, to prevent unwanted pregnancies, and to develop safer abortions. In 1910, Sanger dove into her work on women’s medical rights as she challenged the Comstock Law to open up about birth control information and allow women to use contraceptive devices. The Comstock Law was an anti-obscenity bill that also banned contraceptives. The law called birth control “obscene and illicit,” making it a federal offense to receive birth control.

Moving into 1914, the term “birth control” officially came into play when discussing contraceptive rights. In 1915, Sanger began to share information with women on contraceptives and hand them 14 The Berkshire Scholar

out. Eventually, she was indicted for sending diaphragms through the mail and arrested for opening the first birth control clinic in the country in 1916.

Following those initiatives, in 1921 Sanger founded the American Birth Control League, which was the precursor to the Planned Parenthood Federation. She spent the next three decades working to bring safe and effective birth control into the lives of American women. But, after years of promoting the diaphragm, she wanted something new: a “magic pill” that would be cheap, safe, effective, and female-controlled. Finally, in 1951, she was able to end her search thanks to Gregory Pincus, a medical expert in human reproduction and one of the only doctors willing to work with her. They were able to find a sponsor to supply them with the necessary funding, and in 1960 they came out with the first FDAapproved oral contraceptive, known as Envoid. Then, in 1964 came the legislative overturning of the Comstock Law. Before her death in 1966, Sanger was able to witness the Supreme Court Case of Griswold v. Connecticut, thus dying with the knowledge that she had done all one could to fight for women’s contraceptive rights.

Griswold v. Connecticut was one of the most influential Supreme Court Cases regarding women’s right of contraceptive use.

In 1879, the state of Connecticut had created a law that banned the use of contraceptives: Any person who uses any drug, medicinal article or instrument for the purpose of preventing conception shall be fined not less than forty dollars or imprisoned not less than sixty days…. Any person who assists, abets, counsels, causes, hires or commands another to commit any offence may be prosecuted as the principle offender.

Estelle Griswold, the executive director of the Planned Parenthood League of Connecticut, alongside Dr. C. Lee Buxton, a professor at Yale Medical School, were arrested and found guilty of providing illegal contraceptives.

After being fined one hundred dollars, they appealed their case, saying that the law violated the United States Constitution.

The Connecticut Court upheld the conviction and appealed the case to the Supreme Court. Griswold argued that the Connecticut statute The Berkshire Scholar 15

not allowing the use of contraception went against the 14th amendment.

After reviewing the case, the Supreme Court ruled the Connecticut Statute as unconstitutional in a seven to two vote.

They said that only married people are allowed to be educated on the topic of birth control methods and permitted to use contraceptive devices. The majority decision, which was written by Justice Douglas, said the Connecticut statute violated married adults’ rights to privacy, which were granted through the First, Third, Fourth, Fifth, Ninth, and Fourteenth Amendments. He said that the Bill of Rights has penumbras “formed by emanations from those guarantees that help give them life and substance.” In particular, he wrote that the Fourteenth Amendment creates “a general right to privacy.” Justice Goldberg added that marriage privacy is a “personal right retained by the people within the meaning on the Ninth Amendment.” Justices Harlan and White also agreed that privacy is protected by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Thanks to Griswold v. Connecticut, a foundation was laid for the reproductive rights of women in America.

Given the lack of access to birth control, it is not surprising that there were many unwanted pregnancies. American medical providers practiced abortion legally until around 1880, when most states began banning them. Anti-abortion legislations grew as a part of the counterattack on women’s suffrage and birth control rights. These laws were good for medical professionals as they tightened control over all women’s health care, taking away one of the roles of midwives, who had traditionally performed the task. When illegal abortions were all women had, they were very hard to attain, and access was dependent upon race, geography and economic status. Many times, only women with money who left the country could find a doctor willing to perform the abortion, at a very high fee. On the other hand, women without the ability to pay or travel were left with “incompetent practitioners with questionable motives.” Women unable to find someone willing to complete the procedure had no choice but to perform self-abortions. Selfabortions varied from inserting knitting needles or coat hangers in attempt to scrape out the fetus, douching with dangerous solu16 The Berkshire Scholar

tions, and swallowing strong drugs or chemicals. Many deaths of women at this time were attributed to illegal or self-abortions. If the women were lucky enough to survive, they could be infertile or live with chronic illness and pain.

Luckily, there were many doctors and other medical professionals who dedicated some of their time to providing safe abortions. Even at the risk of going to jail, or being fined, or losing their medical license, they still continued their work. In the 1960s, a group of pastors, rabbis, and feminist groups known as the Clergy Consultation Service set up referral services for women who needed to find safe illegal abortions. Another group, called the Abortion Counseling Service of Chicago Women’s Liberation Union, created a safe, affordable (but underground) abortion service using a special code name, Jade. Running for over four years, they were able to provide over 11,000 safe abortions. Laura Kaplan a Jane member, wrote about her time in the organization: We were ordinary women who, working together, accom plished something extraordinary. Our actions, which we saw as potentially transforming for other women, changed us, too. By taking responsibility, we became responsible.

Most of us grew stronger, more self-assured, and confident in our own abilities.

Groups like these played a large role in helping women receive the necessary medical help and, as a result, save the lives of many American women.

Between 1967 and 1973, fourteen states formed their abortion laws while four states repealed them. In 1970, New York was the first state to legalize abortion through the 24th week of pregnancy. Hawaii had done the same prior to New York, but only for residents and through the 20th week. Soon after, Washington and Alaska followed suit, compelling women who could afford an abortion to make their way to these states. At the same time, feminist networks emerged to offer support, loans, and referrals for women who could not afford it.

Roe v. Wade (1973) is one of the most well known Supreme Court cases in American history, changing the lives of thousands women and families then and still continuing to play a large The Berkshire Scholar 17

part in lives today. In 1970, two graduates of the University of Texas, Linda Coffee and Sarah Weddington, brought a lawsuit for a pregnant woman, Norma L. McCorvery, or Jane Roe. They claimed that a Texas law criminalizing abortions violated Roe’s constitutional rights and filed the suit against Henry Wade, Dallas County District Attorney. This statute banned all abortions except those necessary to save the life of the mother. Roe agreed her life wasn’t in danger, but stated that she wasn’t financially able to travel to a state where her pregnancy could be ended safely. The Texas court ruled that the statute violated Roe’s constitutional rights. Wade, not willing to give up his fight, appealed the case to the Supreme Court, where they reviewed it in 1973.

In a 7-2 decision written by Justice Harry Blackmun, the Court ruled that the Texas Statute infringed the Constitution. Very similar to Griswold v. Connecticut, Justice Blackmun wrote about the First, Fourth, Ninth, and Fourteenth Amendments, which protect one’s “zone of privacy.” This “zone of privacy” was “broad enough to encompass a woman’s decision whether or not to terminate her pregnancy.” Abortions were agreed to be in a woman’s zone of privacy; therefore, they were protected.

No other case has invoked so much controversy. Hundreds of disputes about ethics, religion, and biology took place. Those with a more right sided political stance accused the Court of legalizing the murder of a human life. Those on the left side criticized the Court for reasoning poorly and causing unnecessary political backlash against abortions. Defenders of the case said it was a “disinterested, pragmatic, and ultimately principled decision defending the most basic rights of the personal liberty and privacy.” Roe v.

Wade allowed the American people to see the different views and opinions on such a controversial case, and the topic remains a focal point for contemporary discussion and debate.

Today, the issue of abortion is making its way back into the lives of women in America. Abortions and all they entail are being questioned once again, forty-two years later. Legal access to contraception and abortion allows women to finish their high school careers, continue to work, or to keep a child from being born into a home that would not be able to sustain him or her. They are a 18 The Berkshire Scholar

fundamental right that any woman should have to option to have throughout her lifetime. The advances made in women’s contraceptives and abortions have come an extraordinarily long way from the 20th century, but there is still much to be done.

Bibliography “History of Abortion in the U.S.” Our Bodies, Ourselves. March 28, 2014.

McBride, Alex. “Griswold v. Connecticut (1965).” PBS. 2006.

McBride, Alex. “Roe v. Wade (1973).” PBS. 2006.

“People & Events: Anthony Comstock’s ‘Chastity’ Laws.” PBS. 2006.

“People & Events: Margaret Sanger.” PBS. 2006.

“Timeline: The Pill.” PBS. 2006.

The Berkshire Scholar 19

Ieva Pranckeviciute ~ English VI

Monsters with Pure Hearts Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein and Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray are gothic novels focused on male protagonists with difficult personalities and painful lives. Both novels are full of horrific images, potent symbols, and emotionally detailed explanations. Mary Shelley writes about a scientist, Victor Frankenstein, who creates and awakens a monster made from dead remains. Oscar Wilde tells a story about a man named Dorian Gray, painted in a picture, who sells his soul to ensure that the painting, not his physical body, would age and weather. Each gothic novel also features a compelling antagonist, and the downfall of the protagonists come about as a result of their own innocence. Frankenstein’s monster, “born” through ambitious but ill-founded scientific research, brings about the demise of Victor Frankstein; Lord Henry Wotton’s offer leads the naive Dorian Gray astray and creates an unhallowed, demoniacal, and promiscuous beast.

The first time Henry Wotton encounters Dorian Gray, he is fascinated by the young man’s background. Mr. Gray came from a family with a tragic history as his mother died from unbearable sorrow, leaving her child with a heartless guardian who failed to care for him. As a result, Dorian grew up to be a fragile, wide-eyed young man. Lord Henry Wotton finds Gray’s past to be romantic and conjectures Dorian to be naïve and vulnerable. Therefore, the Lord figures that Gray is going to be easy to influence or control.

Lord Wotton believed that every negative emotion or pain could be eclipsed with pleasure and that one has to enjoy one’s life to the fullest while taking advantage of beauty and wealth.

In order to portray the mysterious character traits, Wilde uses various gothic images to create a dark and shadowy atmosphere. Moreover, Henry introduces Dorian to his ideology and, with a witty tongue, convinces the young man that his own way of living without regret or civility is the way Dorian should start to conduct his life. Dorian starts to favor Wotton and spends the majority of his time with him. As time goes by, Wotton gains more and more control over Gray.

20 The Berkshire Scholar

Eventually, Dorian makes a deal with Wotton to sell his soul. The result of the transaction is that a painting of Dorian, rather than the man himself, will age, allowing the ill-fated protagonist to keep his youth and beauty. Then, Lord Wotton provides Dorian a “ ‘yellow-backed French novel’ that [leads] to Dorian’s corruption” (Brown 264) and sparks the young man’s hedonism even more, becoming the focus of his sinful activities: “For years Dorian Gray could not free himself from the influence of this book; or perhaps it would be more accurate to say that he never sought to free himself from it” (Wilde 165). Wilde continues to assert that the novel acts as almost an extension, saying “The whole book seemed to him to contain the story of his own life, written before he had lived it” (165). Mr. Gray decides to accomplish what is written in the book and completely satisfy all of his lusts and cravings that he has, since none of the drugs, alcohol or wanton activities’ after effects will appear on his body. Dorian even commits crimes and harms himself out of boredom and carelessness because “feels free to ignore the pious morality” (Buzwell 1). Lord Henry corrupts Dorian into an ignominious and promiscuous man, transforming his pure soul into a monstrous pit of despair.

On the other hand, Mary Shelley writes about a literal monster creator, Victor Frankenstein. Even though the scientist creates a criminal monster, the creature comes into being with innocent intentions. Victor’s anger over his studies turns into an obsession to bring a cadaver back to life. When he succeeds with his project, the creature is revived. Unfortunately, Dr. Frankenstein gets scared of his own creation and cannot bear its appalling appearance. Dr. Frankenstein runs away from the monster without considering the emotional repercussions that abandonment would place on his creature. The monster tries to approach his creator, but fails. Therefore, the creature is left alone and, not understanding what is going on, he wanders away.

This ogre is “born” with a pure heart without a desire to harm anyone. However, as time passes, he starts to wonder who is his creator and why did he leave the monster alone. After “the monster has adapted to his changing cultural surrounding, [he] eventually [falls into a] misunderstood depression” (Hughes 97).

The Berkshire Scholar 21

After pondering his feelings for his creator and the many negative interactions he has had with other humans, the monster tries to rebel. He decides to find Dr. Frankenstein and, along the way, engages with other humans. The monster tries to approach a family that he has been helping and saves a drowning girl, however his good deed gets rejected. Unable to make a human connection, the monster wages a war against mankind and ends up wantonly killing William, Dr. Frankenstein’s brother.

Eventually, the creature finds Frankenstein, shares his life story and says: I am alone and miserable: man will not associate with me; but one as deformed and horrible as myself, would not deny herself to me. My companion must be of the same species and have the same defects. (Shelley 101) The monster tells Victor that in order to get rid of his sorrows and become good again, he needs a female partner; Victor is the only on who can accomplish that. Since Victor is the reason for the monsters melancholy and diabolical behavior, it is only fair thatFrankenstein develop a companion for his creation. Unfortunately, Victor fails to accomplish his task, taking away the possibility of a return to innocence and bringing down severe consequences.

All in all, both Dorian Gray and Frankenstein’s monster begin their existence with pure and innocent souls. However, once they are brought into the real world, their inexperience and naïvity allow them to become easily influenced by the atrocious people surrounding them. Humans in society lead the monsters into becoming malicious beings. Dorian grows into a self-centered, tactless and sexually indiscriminate man, drowning in hedonism; Frankenstein’s monster transforms into a disconsolate killer. We see in these irreversible declines the same basic morality from their authors, Oscar Wilde and Mary Shelley.

22 The Berkshire Scholar

Works Cited Brown, R. D. “Suetonius, Symonds, and Gibbon in The Picture of Dorian Gray.” Modern Language Notes 71.4 (1956): 264–264. Web. Buzwell, Greg. The Picture of Dorian Gray: Art, Ethics and the Artist. Web. 9 Dec. 2015.

Hughes, Jacob. “A Monstrous Pedagogy.” Rocky Mountain Review 63.1 (2009): 96–104. Web. Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein: A Norton Critical Edition. ed. J. Paul Hunter. New York: W. W. Norton, 1996 Wilde, Oscar. The Picture of Dorian Gray. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2008. Print.

The Berkshire Scholar 23

Zach Kalk ~ PSYCHOLOGY

Dissociative Identity Disorder in “Fight Club” Part 1: Character Case Study I. Character Analysis The narrator and main character in the movie Fight Club is unnamed and is given no introduction regarding his background or past family life. The narrator is a typical everyday man, who is discontent with his ‘blue collar” job. He is a white male with average build, average height and average social class. He works as a recall specialist for the automobile industry, a job that he despises.

The narrator is a negative individual who believes that he has no purpose. With a bland and hateful tone, he thinks through everything and internalizes all of his emotions, creating a major build up of emotions, thus making it harder to express his actual feelings.

The narrator attends multiple support groups concerning various terminal diseases, none of which he has. The reason he does this is because he longs for a companion, or at least somebody to listen to him and care for him. He started going to these groups as he had insomnia and thought it would be the best use of his time, but once he went, he realized that these groups solved his insomnia. It seemed that all these strangers who were close to death shared so much emotion and compassion that it fulfilled some sort of inner need for the narrator. These groups then became an addiction to him. Not only was he obsessed with support groups, but also with home shopping brochures. He constantly looked at these brochures and frequently bought products that would help fully furnish his apartment. Even if he did not need these specific furnishings in his house, he “had to have them.”

The narrator does not talk of any family and does not seem to have any healthy relationships with anyone. The only people he communicates with are his boss, the people at the support groups, and the “single serving friends” he meets while traveling.

24 The Berkshire Scholar

II. Stressors & Symptoms of Mental Illness The narrator does not have any healthy relationships or life goals. He has no likes or dislikes, only extreme obsessions. For example, he is obsessed with support groups and shopping brochures and when he first encounters Marla Singer, he hates every single ounce of her without knowing a single thing about her. He has no major problems in his life other than the insomnia; he is average in basically every way yet very discontent.

At the very start of the movie, during a flashback through the narrator’s eyes, the viewers constantly see images of a person. This is the main warning sign of his illness as the narrator is experiencing visual hallucinations, which will only get worse. This warning sign occurs when he first sees Marla at one of his support groups. At first he thinks nothing of it, but then she begins going to every support group he attends; this builds up a lot of anger, which he will begin to internalize. Once again the narrator can no longer sleep and decides to split the support group visits with Marla to try and solve the issue.

His illness becomes fully present when he meets Tyler Durdon, his other identity, on the plane home from a business trip. The narrator follows his usual plan of making a “single serving friend” out of the person sitting beside him. But this time it is different, as Tyler is smart, interesting, cool, stylish, and fearless, representing everything that the narrator has longed for. The narrator then returns home and sees that his apartment has been blown up, everything that had loved was gone. This marked the first major sign of the illness affecting him.

The narrator then contacts Tyler, as he has no one else to call, and decides to go out for a drink. This marks the start of their intense “friendship,” which leads to the destruction of the narrator’s life. Their relationship only grows stronger as the narrator becomes more and more like Tyler. He begins to disregard any laws or rules and does what his impulses tell him. This relationship initiates the beginning of the “Fight Club,” a group that begins to transcend life as they know it. The narrator observes Tyler gather The Berkshire Scholar 25

followers and lead them in a revolution, performing acts of terror in their own streets. The narrator then begins losing sense of time and feels like he has been asleep for hours, then days, then weeks at a time. As his illness grows stronger and stronger, the narrator conveys that he feels as if, “Tyler’s words were coming out of my mouth”. His personality is split, but as Tyler begins to take over his mind and body, the narrator’s consciousness will not allow him to realize that he and Tyler are the same person. This irreconcilable split between the narrator and Tyler is why I diagnose him with Dissociative Identity Disorder.

III. Outcome of the Case The narrator experiences no form of treatment throughout the movie. He is not even aware that Tyler does not actually exist until trying to figure out his plans and stop a major act of terror.

The narrator then attempts to tap into “Tyler’s mind” to reveal the plan and stop it. The plan involves bombing all major credit card companies so that everybody can go back to “zero,” restoring economic equality. To prevent this plot, the narrator has to stand up against Tyler and defeat him once and for all. As they begin to fight, Tyler appears to have the upper hand as he ties the narrator up and holds a gun to his head. The narrator then closes his eyes and tries to overcome the hallucinations, putting all his mental energy into realizing that the gun is actually in his own hand. He then takes the gun and puts it to his own head, as he knows that shooting his hallucination will do nothing. He puts the barrel in his mouth and pulls the trigger. This gesture destroys Tyler once and for all, but somehow does not kill the narrator. Although the narrator is not able to stop the act of terror, he succeeeds in getting rid of Tyler and saving Marla from the trauma he had put her through.

Part 2: Research on Mental Illness I. Diagnostic Criteria 26 The Berkshire Scholar

The most common symptoms of Dissociative Identity Disorder/Multiple Personality Disorder include the presence of two or more distinct identities, each having their own specific way of thinking and seeing thus having control over the person and their behavior (Frey; Haycock 2001). These multiple identities will exhibit their own distinct history, image, physical characteristics, behaviors and even their own name. These identities may come out during situations that place stress on the individual – each identity has a specific purpose. These multiple personalities will usually deny knowledge of one another and this is the reason for major memory gaps of personal history (Slogar, 2011). These identities may occur through both cognitive or auditory hallucinations. Along with this identity disorder, individuals may experience depression, mood swings, personality disorders, suicidal thoughts, insomnia, anxiety, panic attacks or alcohol/drug abuse, along with headache, amnesia, acts of violence and loss of time (NAMI, 2015). Typical age of onset for DID is during young adulthood. Approximately 1% of people experience DID. However, many people are never diagnosed leading experts to speculate up to 5% of the population could experience the disorder, with women being much more likely than men, a ratio of approximately 6:1. (Slogar, 2011) II. Etiology – Biopsychosocial Model The severe dissociation is a result of a set of causes that are explained by the biopsychosocial model. Multiple studies have proven that it is more likely to experience DID if a close biological relative has the disorder but this cannot be concluded with much certainty. The main psychological factor is that the individual has a natural ability to dissociate from others and constantly internalize. However, it seems that the main cause of DID is due to social factors, including: episodes of severe physical or sexual abuse and lack of support/neglect occurring at a young age (Frey; Haycock 2001). It is also possible that DID could be onset due to extreme trauma from natural disasters or combat but not typically.

The Berkshire Scholar 27

III. Treatments For dissociative identity disorder, it is recommended that the individual seek out multiple treatment methods. The main treatment option for DID is psychotherapy. The patient should seek out a therapist with specialized training in dissociation, as these specialists are most qualified with handling the multiple personalities.

The psychotherapy for DID usually follows several stages: figuring out the patient’s “other” identities, dealing with the traumatic experiences, deconstructing the other identities and uniting them, and utlimately helping the patient integrate their new personality (Frey; Haycock 2001).

After the psychotherapy, it is recommended that the patient further their personality integration treatment, as it is likely that the patient has missed some of the social skills learned during their adolescence (Frey; Haycock, 2001). This additional therapy is meant for the patient to learn how to open up and experience feelings they are not in touch with or are not able to express. It is also recommended that the patient tries other forms of therapy such as: family/group therapy and adjunctive therapy, such as movement/art therapy (Slogar, 2011). Some therapists will also prescribe antidepressants or tranquilizers, but this approach is uncommon because of the risk of substance abuse.

While this is the best treatment course for a person with DID, there is no “cure” for this mental illness. There are still some good signs. Recovery rates are good for children although it is very rare that DID is diagnosed during the child’s adolescent years. Although treatment takes several years, it is usually effective if begun early. Formerly called “multiple personality disorder,” there continues to be controversy whether the illness is real. Many mental health experts debate whether DID exists as a diagnosis, whether it is just borderline personality disorder, or whether it can be created through the therapist’s influence or as a result of media exposure.

Part 3: Evaluation of The Case 28 The Berkshire Scholar

Based on my evaluation of the Narrator in Fight Club, I can conclude the he clearly suffered from Dissociative Identity Disorder. After looking at the DSM 5, it is evident that the narrator experiences all of the criteria that properly define an individual with DID. The narrator blatantly experiences all symptoms, such as: Two or more distinct identities or personality states, amnesia, trouble functioning in major life areas, disturbance in normal culture and symptoms not due to direct physiological effects of a substance (DSM-5. 2013).

The narrator was not diagnosed with any mental illness during the entire film as he was not aware that he was suffering from DID until the end of the movie. Once he found out, he took matters into his own hands (literally) and handled these issues alone. While nobody tries to diagnose him throughout the novel, I can assume that many people were aware of his mental instability, especially his girlfriend Marla Singer. She constantly says to the Narrator that he “acts like a different person sometimes” because of his constant confusion about their relationship. Needless to say, it would have been very helpful if somebody had stepped in and conveyed to him what was actually going on.

I think Fight Club did a very good job in providing a first-hand look at the life of a person suffering from Dissociative Identity Disorder. An example of this is when the narrator blows up his apartment early on the film. He is so confused as to what happened and shocked when the police suspect him of the demolotion. Eventually, as he figures out that Tyler Durdon is a part of him, he realizes that he himself blew up his own apartment. This is a great representation of how he blacks out, and becomes this “new” person without any recollection of his actions. We also see these symptoms during his entire relationship with Marla. Since he thinks that Marla and Tyler are together, the narrator is constantly mean towards Marla and jealous of Tyler. We also get to experience the massive amnesia that the narrator faces when Tyler puts the finishing touches on his plan to destroy all the major credit card companies. The obvious and most important symptom that is shown is his alternate identity/personality, Tyler Durdon, with whom the narrator speaks, bonds and even brawls.

The Berkshire Scholar 29

While this movie does a great job of depicting this illness, the narrator’s method of treatment is very unrealistic. Hypothetically, a person with this degree of mental illness would have an extremely tough time treating this illness, which was not the case in this movie. With one symbolic gunshot, the Narrator is free from his symptoms and can once again return to a life without another identity. While this ending is very unrealistic, as shooting himself in the head would kill him also, I think the conclusion is meant to symbolize that to cure a disorder like this, you must put your life on the line and do whatever it takes to overcome the challenge of mental illness.

30 The Berkshire Scholar

Bibliography “Dissociative identity disorder.”The Columbia Encyclopedia. 2015.

“Dissociative Identity Disorder.” Complete Human Diseases. 2008.

“Dissociative Identity Disorder: Get Facts on Treatments.” (n.d.).

Retrieved from www.medicinenet.com.

Frey, Rebecca J.; Haycock, Dean A., “Dissociative Identity Disorder.” Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology. 2001 Highlights of Changes From DSM-IV to DSM-5. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. (2013).

National Alliance on Mental Illness. Dissociative Disorders.

(2015). Retrieved from www.nami.org.

Slogar, S. (2011). “Dissociative Identity Disorder: Overview and Current Research.” Student Pulse 3(05).

The Berkshire Scholar 31

Liza Jane Branch ~ Advanced Humanities Research

Minimalism and the Position of Women in 20th century Art Introduction Art curators, critics, and viewers appreciate the determined generation of contemporary artists debuting their work in the United States today, regardless of the creators’ gender. If one were to look back at women’s role in the art world, however, she might be perplexed as to why women’s artwork has just recently started to receive the attention it deserves. As Nochlin states in her seminal essay, “Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists”, women weren’t allotted the same opportunities as men of their time, which led to their underrepresentation. Prior to the age of Minimalism, an era of art that marked a grand shift in objectives, women’s art was viewed as having much lower quality than similar work being created by male artists. Although female artists existed in previous eras, it would seem that curators, critics, and audiences didn’t give them the same attention and applause for their work as the men.

As the age of Minimalism approached, artists’ technique started to shift from Abstract Expressionism, a movement pioneered by artists like Jackson Pollock, to a more nuanced idea of breaking art down to its bare minimum in order to express a new type of freedom. Artists in big cultural hubs like New York City and Chicago caught on quickly to the trend and started to specialize in their very own specific style of Minimalism. Donald Judd, Sol Lewitt, and Robert Smithson were pioneers of this new style.

Alongside these men stood a few compelling female artists, including Anne Truitt. This essay investigates Minimalist movement in relation to the status of female artists and their work. While Minimalism can be viewed as yet another example of the long-standing trend of obstructing and undervaluing women’s art, Anne Truitt’s success helped encourage the art community to reevaluate their idea of women in the art world.

32 The Berkshire Scholar

Chapter One: Women in the Arts The 20th century was one of the most documented and metamorphic ages of art. In an attempt to avoid seeming ignorant, I will state a disclaimer. In the 20th century, women created art. This art would sometimes receive attention, but when compared to the exposure of men’s art during this same time, it should appear obvious that women were in many ways shut out from the art world.

One specific piece of evidence of this phenomenon is the lack of critiques performed and published of women’s work.

World-renowned American critic Clement Greenberg serves as a perfect example of this male-centric perspective. Greenberg, infamous for his harsh words and incredibly honest analysis, is particularly famous for his essay on Picasso’s Women with a Fan and Repin’s Cossacks. The lengthy list works reviewed by of Greenberg include well-known artists from all over the world, with a particular focus on American art. In the 1930s and 1940s, he solely reviewed male artists. It could be that Greenberg refused to review or critique art completed by women, but it seems more likely that because there simply wasn’t the same buzz around female artists, the critics consequently elected to overlook their work. During the period of Abstract Expressionism, Greenburg often promoted artists and their specific style or technique they wanted to specialize in, such as Jackson Pollock and his quest to perfect his “drip painting” technique. Amazingly enough, Greenberg’s critical oeuvre lacks mention of any female artists until later in the 1960s, once the tone of the art world had shifted, and Abstract Expressionism gave way to later styles.

Further evidence of the lack of women in the 1960s art world can be found among the overwhelmingly male- dominated catalogs of the Museum of Modern Art. In years following, the numbers did not change and female artists still lacked representation. In the spring of 1960, for example there were five main exhibits, and all five presented work done by males. Although many of the exhibits were curated by women, very little work by female artists was shown. (“1960-1969”).

Having established the fact that women were underrepreThe Berkshire Scholar 33

sented in much of the art scene during the mid 20th century, the question becomes one of casualty. Why were the circumstances this way? The answer is, of course, multifaceted. To understand why this division of men and women in the art world was so stark in the 20th century, it’s important to understand the lack of opportunities female artists had access to as far back as the 17th and 18th centuries.

During the 17th century, it was common for the father of the family to pass down his occupation to one of the sons. Thus, each time a male studied and worked as an artist, it would be odd for the daughter of the family to practice art because the son would automatically follow in his father’s footsteps (Nochlin 9). For a woman to step foot into the classic cycle rarely occurred. This trend eventually died out, but the patrilineal implications behind it remained present in the 20th century.

Furthermore, around the same time period, women lacked the opportunity to experience apprenticeships. In France, the apprenticeship program was the “only key to success” (Nochlin 26) during the early 20th century. Without being involved in the program, it was nearly impossible to become a professional artist; because women were not allowed to have apprenticeships until the late 19th century, they were unable to progress at the same rate as the males of the time did.

Although numerous 20th century advancements such as voting rights and the Equal Pay Act assisted women in their quest to be seen as equal politically and economically, socially the women of the time period were still looked down upon. Many elite colleges didn’t open their doors to women until the late 1960s.

Women’s colleges for the arts, such as the Pennsylvania Academy, did exist, but resources were meager and reinforced the divide between female and male artists. While women were creating art in this time period, they did so without this higher degree of institutional support enjoyed by male artists.

Chapter Two: The Meaning in Minimalism 34 The Berkshire Scholar

The main school of American art at midcentury fell under the umbrella of Abstract Expressionism. Following the reign of Surrealism, a period of art that fit uncannily well with the trauma and expression of postwar America, Abstract Expressionism started in the mid-1940s with artists pioneering like Jackson Pollock and Mark Rothko. Abstract Expressionism had run its course by the early 1960s as artists, critics and audiences had grown tired of the idea of a formless, structureless movement of paintings, sculptures, and drawings. This gap was almost immediately filled with the artists of Minimalism. Starting in 1963, famous revolutionaries such as Donald Judd and Anne Truitt took the art world by storm with their impressive and novel take on simplicity in form.

Reflecting influences of the past and an exciting push for innovation, Minimalism was born. As many critics, art historians, and others have struggled to do in the past, Minimalism is still unable to be defined. The easiest way to capture the essence of the era involves listing and explaining attributes of Minimalism. According to some, the period’s “organizing principles” were “the right angle, the square, and the cube,” while others describe it as “the last of the Modernist styles” (Meyer). Along with these characteristics, most view Minimalism as an ongoing argument or discussion rather than a stagnant definition. When looking at the age of Minimalism objectively, one can understand a good amount just by understanding the simplest definition of the word itself.

“Min-i-mal” derives from the Latin “minimus” meaning smallest.

Minimalist artists strived for successful ways to incorporate previous techniques from artists who had once used an excess of mediums, shapes, and lines and break art down to the bare minimum.

The name of Minimalism manifested itself in the work of these artists and can be marked as a time of techniques that may as well be labeled as the artists themselves: “LeWitt”, “Stella” and “Judd” (Meyer). The art being created reflected a desire to no longer be abstract or figurative but instead simple. Artists wanted to break a square down to its bare form.

Although galleries supported this new rise of Minimalism, skeptics sprouted up among the art communities. Like any other revolutionary shift in the art world, some recognized this work as The Berkshire Scholar 35

innovative and phenomenal while others fell short of understanding. Even before critics like Clement Greenberg were introduced to individual pieces of artwork, an overall skepticism arose from the art world. Critics wondered if Minimalist art involved as much skill as artists claimed. There seemed to be a lack of faith both in the artists creating the artwork and in the artwork itself. Looking at Minimalistic art, it’s obvious that not much legitimate labor was put into the pieces, so it’s imperative for the viewers to come to conclusions about the message behind the work instead. After some time, art enthusiasts who had previously been aesthetically pleased by the chaos and pure mania of Abstract Expressionism started to understand and appreciate the simplicity of new Minimalist work. Critics originally insisted that the artwork was “by definition the handmade product of a subjective self’ (Meyer).

Minimalism continued the ongoing conversation that would still be a topic of debate fifty years later about the quality of the work.

People wondered to themselves, “Couldn’t my four-year old son have completed something like this?” Essentially, just exhibiting the essentials seemed too simple.

Fortunately, these moments of doubt didn’t last long, and soon, Minimalism became the art style of the 1960s. At this time, museums and galleries flooded with incoming exhibits presenting Minimalistic work, and the artists previously mentioned seemed to lead a pack of artists to follow suit with their own personal technique. Conceptually, artists like Judd and Flavin, who were both working towards a common goal of simplifying geometric abstraction, believed strongly in “a common rejection of painting in favor of the production of objects” (Meyer). It almost seemed like a contest: who could break down the shapes the furthest without having them simply exist as lines of a sheet of paper? Paintings, sculptures, and drawings all reflected this aspiration to veer from abstraction and closer to the concept of formalism, in which artists focused on the most basic elements of art like line, color, composition, and texture.

Like any other art community, artists disagreed over each other’s unique and distinct style. The faces of Minimalism ranged in character, style, and background. Among the many pioneers of 36 The Berkshire Scholar

the movement were Donald Judd, Sol LeWitt, and Anne Truitt.

Each of these artists have unique backgrounds that can assist in understanding their passion for art and desire to propel the art world forward with their avant-garde styles. Eventually, all three fmd themselves in the hub of Minimalism -- 1960s New York.

Perhaps the most noteworthy of the three stands Donald Judd, Missouri native, born in 1928. After graduating high school, Judd entered the US Army Corps of Engineers in Korea in 1946 at the start of the Cold War against the Soviet Union. The GI Bill allowed Judd to enroll in some art courses at the Art Students League in New York. He then went on to attend the College of William and Mary, but wasn’t satisfied with either. Judd later enrolled at classes at Columbia University in New York City as he earned a bachelor’s degree in philosophy in 1953. In 1957, he enrolled in Graduate School at Columbia University where he studied Italian Renaissance and Baroque Art. He received his masters degree in Art History in 1962. All the while, Judd had been creating work of his own, mixing different styles of soft and hard lines. His work became better developed once he shifted his technique from a mismatch of current styles to a sharper focus on “line” paintings, as he referred to them, that represented a more minimalistic approach.

Surprisingly, the art world knew Judd as a critic for Art News and even Arts Magazine well before he debuted his work in the Green Gallery in lower Manhattan (Meyer).

Along a similar track as Donald Judd, Sol LeWitt was born in New Britain, Connecticut in 1928. Unlike Judd, LeWitt knew from his young adult years what he wanted to study and ultimately strive for as an adult. LeWitt graduated from public high school and went on to earn a bachelor’s degree in art from Syracuse in 1949. LeWitt then spent time serving the United States in the military in Korea and Japan and eventually, after his return, landed at Cartoonists and Illustrators School in New York City, taking classes to gain further expertise. After working as a graphic designer and then at the Modem Museum of Art with another Minimalist artist, Dann Flavin, LeWitt started to put more focus into his own project of creating abstract reliefs. His first solo show took place in 1965 at the John Daniels Gallery (Meyer).

The Berkshire Scholar 37

Last but not least was Anne Truitt, born in Baltimore in 1921. She completed a psychology degree at Bryn Mawr in 1943.

After moving to Boston, she started to work as a researcher and a nurse. The origin of her career as an artist can be traced back to her first sculpture class in 1944, around which time she also started to write poetry. After following her husband, James Truitt, to Washington D.C, Anne Truitt started to study at the Institute of Contemporary Art. Perhaps her moves to Dallas, New York, and San Francisco, required by her husband’s frequent job relocations during the 1950s, contributed to her altering style (Meyer). Truitt started to move away from clay modeling, stone carvings, and welding-- all techniques she had focused on in the first half of her life-- toward mastering abstract works on paper. Like many other Minimalists, after many years of studying different structures, Truitt started to produce mainly geometric shapes and figures in her work (Meyer).

While Truitt stayed true to the geometric and simplistic aspects of Minimalism, the art world recognized in her a true pioneer of the time period due to her unique technical style. Not only did Anne Truitt act as a prominent trail blazer, helping to introduce the art world to the style of Minimalism; she was also recognized as one of the first female artists to gain, and hold on to, a noteworthy amount of recognition and respect for the work she produced in this time period.

Chapter Three: The Symbolic Anne Truitt There’s no denying Anne Truitt’s powerful presence in the art world during the age of Minimalism. Amidst the many male artists of the movement, Truitt held a position squarely in the middle.

Of course the age of Minimalism, if examined closely, can also be viewed as another epoch suffering from the underrepresentation of female artists. Although women gained rights and started to receive more attention in every aspect of their lives over the course of the 20th century, women continued to be underrepresented in the art world. Anne Truitt acted as the exception and a beaming light of hope for women in the art world.

Primarily, Anne Truitt worked as a nurse. She attended 38 The Berkshire Scholar

college to train as a medical assistant; as her husband worked as a journalist for magazines like Life and Time, she maintained a low profile in the working world. This may sound all too familiar as women in the latter half of the 20th century were just starting to find their place in the workplace. Later in her life, once she had jump-started her artistic career, Truitt began to understand and find the balance between work and family. Truitt commented on finding this balance when she said, “You just have to make up your mind to do it. It has to be valuable enough to you for you to work harder, get up earlier, go to bed later, keep your temper.”

Truitt didn’t see much of a future for herself at the time of her psychology residency at the Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, but she later admitted that her time as a researcher and nurse at night helped her develop empathy for others. Truitt evens goes so far as to mention that she would most likely never have become an artist if not for those jobs, and her experiences there informed her commitment to depicting a wide range of human experience in her art: The more I observed the range of human existence--and I was steeped in pain during those war years when we had combat fatigue patients in the psychiatric laboratory by day, and I had anguished patients under my hands by night -- the less convinced I became that I wished to restrict my own range to the perpetuation of what psychologists would call ‘normal.’

Truitt mentions above that she wanted to be able to veer away from the “normal” toward more extreme perspectives. Even before undertaking her career as an artist, Truitt had learned that, “in the light of what I was reading -- D.H. Lawrence, T. S. Eliot, Dylan Thomas, James Joyce, Virginia Woolf -- I had begun to see that my natural sympathies lay with people who are unusual rather than usual.” Thus her education and her experiences put Truitt in position to strike out in new directions with her art, and Minimalism showed her a possible direction to pursue.

Along with the stylistic changes brought on by Minimalism came a new critical consensus. Clement Greenberg, who had rarely reviewed the artwork of women, had much to say about MinimalThe Berkshire Scholar 39

ism. Greenburg once contextualized Stella, Judd, Truitt and others in this fashion: “Where the Old Masters created an illusion of space into which one could imagine walking, the illusion created by a Modernist is one into which one can look, can travel through, only with the eye” (Gershman). For many contemporary art historians, Anne Truitt’s career is all the more impressive because she survived the acerbic pen of Clement Greenberg (Perreault).

Conclusion Anne Truitt’s successful career during the time of Minimalism acts as both an example of the underrepresentation of women recognized in the 20th century art world and the possibilities for an equitable art space. Truitt, due to her circumstances and determination, gained recognition as one of the key figures in Minimalism, yet she stands as an exception in that few other women artists of the same time period were able to garner that level of attention.

Today, there is still not complete equality. Women’s artwork may sometimes be labeled as “feminist art” without a second glance at the style or technique that may have categorized the work in the first place. With this being said, many female artists have benefitted from the aggression and confidence of women that helped pioneer and prolong the movement of Minimalism in the 1960s. Some contemporary galleries are starting to display their appreciation for women artists by featuring a large majority of female artists in their exhibits. For example, in the latest MoMA show, 9 out of 17 of the artists on display were females (Schjeldahl). In its uniquely tiny way, Minimalism acted as a catalyst in the coexistence of the male and female artist in today’s art world, and Anne Truitt stands as a giant within that movement.

40 The Berkshire Scholar

Bibliography “The Art Story: Clement Greenberg vs Harold Rosenberg.”

TheArtStory.org. Web. 27 Feb. 2015.

Carr, Carolyn K. “Rebels: Painters and Poets of the 1950s.”

National Portrait Gallery. Web. 27 Feb. 2015.

“The Equal Pay Act of 1963.” US Equal Employment Opportunity Commision. Web. 12 Apr. 2015.

“Fine Arts - Best Programs.” US News, 2012. Web. 27 Feb. 2015.

“Frank Stella Biography, Art, and Analysis.” TheArtStory.org.

Web. 26 Feb. 2015.

Frederickson, Kristen & Sarah E. Webb. “Singular Women Writing the Artist.” Questia School. Web. 17 Feb. 2015.

“Mark Rothko Biography.” Bio.com. Web. 26 Feb. 2015.

Meyer, James Sampson. Minimalism: Art and Polemics in the Sixties. New Haven: Yale UP, 200I. Print.

Nochlin, Linda. “Wby Have There Been No Great Women Artists?” Women, Art, and Power: And Other Essays.

New York: Harper & Row, 1988. 1-42. Print.

Paul, Stella. “Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History.” Metropolitan Museum of Art. Web. 11 Feb. 2015.

Perreault, John. “Anne Truitt Vs. Anne Truitt...and Uncle Clem.”

Artsjournal.com. 31 May 2010. Web. 27 Feb. 2015.

Schjeldahl, Peter. “Is There Anything Left to Paint?” The New Yorker. 15 Jan. 2015.

The Berkshire Scholar 41

42 The Berkshire Scholar

AFTERWORD The Berkshire Scholar was selected, edited, and formatted by the members of the Advanced Humanities Research class.

Advanced Humanities Research is a selective upper-level course at Berkshire School that provides students the opportunity to pursue a topic of personal interest in the humanities while they develop their expertise with college-level research. Here are the students and their project titles, along with their readers, from 2015-6: Derrick Burt On Edge: A Social Psychology Analysis of Freestyle Skiing (Jonathan Silverman @ UMASS-Lowell) Noah Faison The Contested Construction of China’s Soft-Power

Profile (Sam Crane @ Williams College) Brooks Hamilton Edward Said’s Orientalism & Herman Hesse’s Siddhartha (Gunther Gottschalk @ UC-Santa Barbara) Annie Hubbard Walton Ford’s Unique Position in the American Art World (Karen Kurczynski @ UMASS-Amherst) Larry Matt Pearl Harbor: Day of Infamy or Locus of Deception?

(Harold Goldberg @ Sewanee) Samantha Reagan “Here We Have Stories, But Never ‘The End’” : Narratives of Rwandan Genocide (Chris Cook @ Pitt.)

Please contact A.J. Kohlhepp (ajkohlhepp@berkshireschool.org) with any questions about Advanced Humanities Research at Berkshire School.

The Berkshire Scholar 43

44 The Berkshire Scholar

“The Berkshire Scholar� is produced, in part, with wind-powered mills and on a solar-powered press.