UNIVERSITY OF ICELAND
Sustainable Cities Environment and Natural Resources Master Program Sustainability and Quality of Live in Urban Planning
Daรฐi Hall - Nancy J. Guarderas - Yannick Rousseau March 02, 2012
Sustainable Cities
Introduction
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The world population is more than 7 billion people and it is estimated to reach 10 billion in 2100. In 2010 for the first time in history cities are more populated than rural areas, carrying an estimated 53% of the total global population, and this proportion it is projected to increase to 75% in 2050. Even though cities occupy less than 2% of the Earth’s surface, they are responsible of approximately 75% of green house gas (GHG) emissions. Urban areas concentrate 80% of economic output and between 60 to 80 % of the global energy consumption (London School of Economics and Deutsche Bank’s Alfred Herrhausen Society, 2011). The high uncertainty on the consequences of Climate Change due to the anthropogenic GHG emissions linked to fossil fuels usage, and the fact that we are running out of resources puts in evidence that measurements toward a sustainable urban model are imperative. The challenging process of changing urban areas from its present unsustainable forms and patterns must include not just changes on the urban forms, transportation systems and water, waste and energy technologies, but also on the values systems and underlying processes of urban governance and planning. A new relationship between the city and its dwellers must be reinforced and enhanced (Kenworthy, 2006).
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Sustainable Cities
Sustainable cities
The Brundtland Commission defined sustainable development as "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." Within this framework, a sustainable city is a city that aims to “improve the quality of life in a city, including ecological, cultural, political, institutional, social and economic components without leaving a burden on the future generation� (URBAN, 21). The Melbourne Principles highlight the development path of cities to sustainability (UNEP, 2002): 1. Provide a long-term vision for cities based on: sustainability; intergenerational, social, economic and political equity; and their individuality 2. Achieve long-term economic and social security. 3. Recognize the intrinsic value of biodiversity and natural ecosystems, and protect and restore them. 4. Enable communities to minimize their ecological footprint 5. Build on the characteristics of ecosystems in the development and nurturing of healthy and sustainable cities. 6. Recognize and build on the distinctive characteristics of cities, including their human and cultural values, history and natural systems. 7. Empower people and foster participation. 8. Expand and enable cooperative networks to work towards a common, sustainable future. 9. Promote sustainable production and consumption, through appropriate use of environmentally sound technologies and effective demand management. 10. Enable continual improvement, based on accountability, transparency and good governance.
Sustainable Cities
Within the framework of these principles, a set of development objectives can be established: a. Promote a compact and mixed-use urban form b. Promote transit use and improve walking and cycling infrastructure c. Promote environmental technologies for water, energy, and waste management d. Promote a network of green areas within the city e. Promote highly liveable cities
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Sustainable Cities
Promote a compact and mixed-use urban form
One of the key issues in the development of sustainable cities is the promotion of a high density, compact, mixed-use urban form. The city's shape and form are critical in determining its sustainability. The urban form refers to the amount of land a city occupies, its shape in relationship with the surrounding landscape, and its population density. In general terms, cities with a compact, mixed-use urban form will tend to have lower rates of automobile usage, higher rates of public transport use, and a much lower impact on surrounding rural areas (Kenworthy, 2006) Many cities in the United States are good examples of cities with low population density, high automobile usage, and high impact of surrounding rural areas through urban sprawl (Condon, 2010). Cities like Washington D.C., Phoenix and Huston, have population densities as low as 9.5 persons per hectare, and car use per capita as high as 13,016 km (Beatley, 2000). An alternative development path is the promotion of a high density, compact, mixed-use urban form. Many European cities are good examples, including Amsterdam, Stockholm and Vienna (Beatley, 2000), with population densities as high as 68.3 persons per hectare, and car use per capita as low as 3,964 km (Beatley, 2000). European cities in general are more compact, with a distinct separation between urban and rural. Cities are walkable, have good public transport systems, and are much less dependent on the use of private cars. As a comparison, the proportion of the population using public transit in Vienna is 31.6%, while in Huston is 1.1%. A more compact, mixed-use urban form is highly correlated to low rates of automobile usage (Kenworthy, 2006). More centralized cities have more support for public transport, stronger rail systems and less parking spaces available in the central area. Higher density cities also have a greater mixing of land uses and shorter travel distances, which
Sustainable Cities
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translates into more walking and cycling (Beatley, 2000). These cities have smaller ecological footprints and substantially lower per capita energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. A mix-use urban form indicates that the urban area has multiple uses in close proximity, including residential, commercial (e.g. supermarkets, bookstores), and services (e.g. schools, hospitals). Historically most human settlements were mixed-use. It was only during the 20th century that zoning regulations were established to separate residential, commercial and industrial areas. In many cities in the United States the resulting residential areas (suburbs) have very low population densities, and the separation from commercial areas translates into long commutes, mostly by car. The promotion of a mix-use urban form implies the modification of zoning laws to allow the construction of low rise residential buildings with street front commercial space. Mix-use areas can be associated to transport options (e.g. rail stations), and can be surrounded by pure residential areas. A fundamental component of the mix-use urban form is the availability of diverse housing types. Zoning regulations in mix-use areas allow variations in the size of land parcels, and within these parcels, different types of housing including single-family houses, townhouses, duplex and condos. Regulations must also ensure the availability of affordable housing for rent and for sale, attracting in this way families of different socio-economic levels (Condon, 2010). Urban form is an important factor defining how a city relates to its environment. A low-density, expanding city will have a high impact on the surrounding rural areas. American cities for example consume land and growth spatially at a much faster rate than population growth (Beatley, 2000). In many cases (e.g. in the northern suburbs of Seattle), new developments encroach on highly productive agricultural land and on national parks and other protected areas.
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Sustainable Cities As a result the capacity of the surrounding areas to provide agricultural products to the city is reduced. On the other hand, a city with a higher-density, compact, mixed-use urban form in which much of the food, materials and water needed for the city are extracted from the nearby rural areas. The proportion of land occupied by cities is much lower in Europe that in the United States, and even after accommodating population growth, European cities are relatively compact. This results in the protection of the natural environment, biodiversity and food-producing areas. Indeed, in many cities in Europe and Asia there is considerable food production in farms within and close to the urban areas (Kenworthy, 2006). Land use patterns and urban form in European cities is in part the result of historical developments (i.e. walled cities where the urban form was established before public automobiles were common), but also the result of very targeted efforts. Cities in the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark and other countries have very strong limitations against the development and growth outside or urbanized areas. Growth is instead channeled within the city urban structure, increasing density. It must be clarified that "high-density" does not refer to large high-rise buildings. Although it is possible that some cities may accommodate high rise buildings in their central districts (i.e. London, Seattle, Vancouver B.C.), in general the most desired type of development is what is known as "high-density, low rise". This development focuses on a human scale and includes dense, low row house-type housing around shared spaces (Beatley, 2000). The estimated required density is about ten dwelling units per acre (Condon, 2010).
Sustainable Cities
Promote transit use and improve walking and cycling infrastructure
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A fundamental issue in the development of sustainable cities is the establishment of a mixed system of transportation that emphasizes mass transit, cycling and walking, while de-emphasizing the use of cars and motorcycles and the construction of freeways. The first element in the transportation system in a sustainable city is an efficient mass transit system. The exact composition of the system can vary, but includes some integrated combination of rail, tram or streetcar, metro and bus (Beatley, 2000). Some European cities have done significative advances in the development of these system and the ridership levels are very high, partially thanks to public subsidies. In Stockholm, for example, seventy percent of trips during peak hours are made by public transit. Many European cities are doing significant investments in the expansion of transit systems, including expanding heavy rail systems, and establishing new light rail systems and high-speed inter-city rail (Beatley, 2000). Zurich is an excellent example of a city that has given priority to public transportation. Trams and buses travel on dedicated lanes. Traffic control systems give trams and buses green lights at intersections. A number of traffic laws minimize the interference of autos on transit movement. The frequency of service is high with an unified prepaid electronic ticket that allows users to access to all of the transport options (Beatley, 2000). The result in Zurich and in other cities is that no place is within a few hundred meters of a station or stop, and there is easy access to nearby settlements and green areas. Buses and streetcars are effective ways to complement walking trips. Streetcars are more energy efficient than diesel buses and that electric trolley buses. The use of electrical vehicles has the advantage that if the electricity used is from a renewable source, carbon emissions can be eliminated from the transit system (Condon, 2010).
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Sustainable Cities Public transit is an element of an integrated strategy that includes urban form and land use decisions and policy. Transit investments must complement and be coordinated with major land use decisions. For example, new growth areas must have good public transit service from the inception. Commercial and institutional developments are promoted in areas adjacent to transit stations (Beatley, 2000). For example the Dutch government strongly promotes the building of facilities like hospitals and government offices in areas close to railway stations that are not easy to reach by car. The second element in the transportation system is the active promotion of the use of the bicycle. Bicycles have obvious advantages: zero emission, zero noise, occupy little road space, are inexpensive, are available to all ages, and provide physical exercise to the users (Beatley, 2000). Many cities in Europe have a high rate of bicycle usage. For example, 40% of workcommutes in Copenhagen during the summer months are by bicycle, and 70% of users keep commuting also during the winter. To reach high bicycle usage rates, cities must do the basic investments necessary to make roads and the urban environment accommodating to bikes, including a system of extensive bicycle trail and separated bicycle lanes, linking all major destinations in the city. Additional infrastructure includes bicycle racks on buses and designated spaces on trains or trans. Bicycle parking stations including in train or metro stations. Traffic laws and regulations are modified to favor the use of bicycles, for example limiting car speed in streets with bike lanes. In addition, public bike programs are also being established with success in some cities, including London and Copenhagen. Finally, strong education programs contribute to the establishment of a positive bicycle culture (Beatley, 2000).
Sustainable Cities
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The third element that must be promoted in sustainable cities is walking as a mode of transportation. In general it is consider that to promote walking, residential areas must be a short walking distance (e.g. 5 minutes) from establishments like grocery stores, coffee shops, book stores, and so on. When most daily commercial needs can be met within walking distance, car usage decreases. Walking is also promoted by the availability of sidewalks, walking streets and paths all of them providing a high quality pedestrian experience. (Condon, 2010) A running theme across all modes of transportation is the enhancement of the experience of transportation. In the case of rail systems, the combined effect of individual transit decisions and design features makes the use of public transport a pleasant event. For example, public art has an important role in stations in the Stockholm transit system (Beatley, 2000). In the case of bicycles, the design of paths and lanes includes not only safety considerations but also comfort ones, like the presence of vegetation to act as wind breakers and shadows or shelter. The final element on the transportation system of a sustainable city is to actively demote the use of the automobiles and motorcycles mainly through three mechanisms: pedestrianization of central business cores, traffic calming, and road pricing (Beatley, 2000). Traffic calming measures include physical structures (e.g. speed bumps) and regulations (i.e. 30 km/h zones, higher parking rates). Car-sharing services and car-free developments are also ways to reduce automobile usage. The design of the street system has a profound influence on the dynamics of car usage (Condon, 2010). Cities with streets systems that maximize connectivity (e.g. regular grids) promote a more efficient use of the automobile, facilitate the access to public transit and promote biking and walking. Cities with streets systems that minimize connectivity (e.g. dendritic roads, gated communities, cul-de-sacs) have the opposite effect (Condon, 2010).
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Sustainable Cities
Promote
Cities consume large quantities of natural capital like water, energy and other resources, and
environmental technologies for water, energy, and waste management
2006). Sustainable cities must reduce the use of resources and decrease their waste outputs,
produce large quantities of waste that needs to be absorbed by the natural systems (Kenworthy, moving toward closed loops in which production and consumption processes are in better balance (Beatley, 2000). In European cities there are many cases in which closed systems utilize waste streams as input for other process, mainly fuel and energy production. Stockholm is the best example. Sewage sludge is converted to fertilizer for food production and is used for the production of biogas. The biogas is then used to fuel public vehicles and a combined heat and power plant (Beatley, 2000). Other power plants are fueled by waste sawdust pellets produced in sawmills. The city is also promoting the use of organic waste to produce biogas and fertilizer. Establishing closed system involves not only the urban area, but also the surrounding rural areas. In Ystad, Sweden, 60% of the fuel used for heating is from energy crops. Promoting composting and recycling is another way to establish closed systems. Many European cities have strong programs to recycle organic wastes. The city of Helsinki requires that all housing blocks provide separate biowaste collection containers or provide onsite composting. In Graz, Germany, organic waste from the city is composted in nearby farms (Beatley, 2000). Recycling of non-organic waste is also promoted in many innovative ways. In the Mikkeli Region, Finland, residents of sparsely populated areas place paper waster in cloth bags that are later collected by the post carrier. Rainwater management is a key issue in sustainable cities. Rainwater can be harvested and stored at a local level to provide a significant proportion of drinking and other needs
Sustainable Cities
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(Kenworthy, 2006). Rainwater collection can occur at the individual dwelling level, but also at the neighbor level. For example in the Morra Park development in Drachten, rainwater is collected in a closed-loop channel system and pumped through wetlands (Beatley, 2000). Rainwater management is also important to minimize the effect of stormwater runoff on nearby aquatic systems (Condon, 2010). The use of pervious materials for pavement and green roofs for buildings reduce runoff and increase filtration to the ground (Condon, 2010). In terms of energy usage, sustainable cities must promote the use of renewable energy sources and energy efficiency and conservation. Renewable energy sources can include solar hot water technologies and photovoltaics, wind energy systems, and biogas (Kenworthy, 2006). In terms of energy efficiency, many European cities cover a large proportion of their heating needs through district heating systems, typically through the combined generation of heat and power (Beatley, 2000), which is highly efficient and low in nitrogen oxides emissions. In many cases combined heat and power plants operate at small scales (even in single blocks), an example of the deployment localized or regional-scale, decentralized environmental technologies (Kenworthy, 2006). The final element is the promotion of “green� buildings and neighborhoods, both in newly designed and constructed development as well as in retrofitting of existing ones. Some characteristics of these developments include high energy conservation standards, low water usage, the use of sustainable building materials, an emphasis on recycling and material reuse, and the incorporation of solar energy in the form of solar panels and photovoltaics (Beatley, 2000).
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Sustainable Cities
Promote a network
Sustainable cities must strive to provide access to green spaces and food security (Kenworthy,
of green areas within the city
planning has provided open spaces, urban agriculture, woodlands and community gardens that
2006). In many cities the development of high density, mixed-used urban form through urban are in close proximity to urban areas and are well served by public transit and walking and cycling paths. In Berlin and Vienna, for example 50% of the land within the city is green space, including 18% of forests (Beatley, 2000). Other examples include Zurich, Stockholm, Helsinki and Freiburg (Kenworthy, 2006). The objective is to join these areas to form a network of interconnected green corridors that bring nature towards the center of the city (Condon, 2010). Nature can be incorporated into the urban framework at smaller scales through the use of rooftop gardens, terraces, green roofs, green walls, and green courtyards. Extensive urban tree planting programs also play an important role. For example, there are over 400.000 tress within the city of Berlin (Beatley, 2000), and many cities have regulations about the required number of tress that must be planted per unit of constructed area.
Sustainable Cities
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Promote highly
Sustainable cities are highly liveable cities in terms of health, employment, income, education,
liveable cities
neighborhood. These cities have high-quality public realm, including transit systems, urban spaces,
housing, leisure activities, accessibility, urban design quality, and sense of community and vibrant streets, and parks. Many European cities are good examples of some of these characteristics, including Zurich, Amsterdam, and Vienna (Beatley, 2000). A public realm that is humane and equitable expresses a public culture, community, equity, and good governance (Kenworthy 2006). The physical structure and urban design of highly liveable cities share common characteristics. These cities are permeable, well connected and with multiple alternative routes. There is high variety in the range of uses for different places in the city, and users can easily interpret. Places in the city have visual appropriateness, richness and personalization, aesthetic properties that produce satisfactory sensory experiences and enjoyment, and increasing the sense of belonging (Kenworthy 2006). Development patterns toward more compact, people-scale, and walkable cities are also associated with building more effective communities, with physical spaces to encourage positive interactions and with creating a much higher quality urban public realm that takes into account dwellers of all ages, genders, and physical ability to create a real sense of place and meaning (Beatley, 2000).
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Sustainable Cities
Cause Loop Diagram (CLD) for Sustainable City
Sustainable Cities
System thinking
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System thinking is a powerful tool that enables users to understand the lcause and effects, both direct and indirect, between variables. Cause and effects are represented as links in Causal Loop Diagrams (CLD). In these, variables and causes point to effects and consequences, which in turn can affect other variables. The polarity on an arrow indicates whether the consequence is positively affected by a change in the cause, i.e. an increase of the cause increases the consequence; or negatively i.e. an increase of the cause decreases the consequence (Haraldsson, 2004). In this section we will focus on analyzing the components of sustainability and translate them into CLDs
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Sustainable Cities
CLD of a
The Melbourne Principles establish clearly a set of components vital for the sustainability of a city.
Sustainable city
From these principles, described in the first section of this report, we can separate factors have a positive effect on the general sustainability (e.g. economical viability, liveable neighborhoods, accessibility, efficient land use, and green networks) from factors that have a negative effect(e.g. pollution and consumption). It is clear that a city must favor the former while limiting the later. A clear pattern can be deduced for land use. Mixed (efficient) land use, specialized (inefficient) land use and green areas are exclusive of each other. If the balance between green areas and mixed land use is profitable for a city, the proportion of land use for specific applications must be limited. The link can be made between land use and proximity: increasing the mixed use of an urban area and limiting the creation of poles of activity (areas specialized in commerce, housing, and leisure) leads to compact, proximity oriented cities (Kenworthy, 2006 ). This frees open spaces in the city, which in return can be turned into efficient components. In the case of green areas, it is easy to find eco-technologies that associate both the benefits of green patches (including scenic, recreational, and protection of ecosystems) with practical use. Bioretention, green roofs, and urban trees, are amongst the best documented. Efficient urban design that increases proximity and density limits the need for transports, while transit (green or not) infrastructures increase the accessibility of a city. Moreover, other elements have to be taken into consideration, for instance the weather conditions or the mobility of individuals. Distances in general cannot always be avoided, if only for visiting friends living in another area. As such, transport infrastructure is not possible and options have to be considered. There are two main types of transports: individual and mass transit.
Sustainable Cities
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The effect of individual transport (i.e. cars and motorcycles) is well documented: GHG emissions, accidents, soil, water and sound pollution are the main negative impacts on the surroundings (Van Vugt, 1995). There is however an element that can counterbalance many of these: urban trees. Trees are well known for their absorption capacities of soil, water and airborne pollutants (to an extend), and can significantly contribute to the reduction of propagation of noises (Dwyer, 1992). The second transportation alternative is a mass transit system. A developed transit infrastructures reduces considerably the needs for private cars, the same way that developed car-friendly infrastructures (parking lots, roads) incites their use, to the loss of public transport systems and efficient land use (Van Vugt, 1995; Rodrigue, 2009). The electricity consumption in cities and the network of cables associated can be a drawback of mass transit system, although new technologies address the later (electrified rails). But what would efficiently reduce the use of motorized transport of any kind? The answer is the willingness to bike and walk, which is directly linked to the weather conditions and the accessibility of the destination (Rodrigue, 2009). Efficient infrastructures (e.g. shelters) can help reduce these inconveniences. The shelter potential of tree cover against wind, rain and sun is also extremely important. Closely linked to the issue on transports is the combined system of consumption-production-waste. Energy production and overwhelming waste quantities are considered by many to be the final limits of our growth (Boulding, 1966). Increased consumptive behaviors (both of goods and energy) have strong links with the increase of waste and pollutants (Leonard, 2007).
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Sustainable Cities All energy production system emits some sort of of pollutants, most particularly airborne, although water pollution is a common issue. Most of the processes used in treating, transporting and recycling of water and waste result in increased consumption of energy, in turn requiring increased energy production and emission of pollutants. Most of the facilities involved in these processes are also land consuming (e.g. landfill, treatment plants). A reduction of consumption of goods, together with increased economy and efficiency in energy production and use (for instance by increasing building efficiency and isolation), as well as proper waste management seem to be the only way to limit the pollution associated with these processes. The last point to address is the one of a liveable city itself. What makes a city enjoyable for both its citizens and visitors? Based on the Melbourne Principles, the keystone for a sustainable, liveable city is its design. Planned cities must integrate the necessities of aestheticism, practicality and efficiency. People want to “feel home”, this is to live in a city in which they share feelings of community identity and safety. This elements influence and are influenced by the components of the urban environment. Leisure, accessibility and culture add to the characteristics and specificities of a neighborhood that make it more liveable for its inhabitants. Public participation is at the same time an element increasing the feeling of belonging to a community and increased by it (Ögmundardóttir, 2012).
Sustainable Cities
Conclusions: CLD
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A general conclusion for sustainability can be drawn from this diagram: efficient land use is a key factor. A compact city, with non specialized neighborhoods, decreases the need for transports and thus pollution. In many cases though distances cannot be avoided, and as such cycling and walking infrastructures, green transports and mass transit systems must be considered and emphasized. Consumption is similarly a key element. It increases waste and functioning costs of a city, and as such should be discouraged. Raising awareness for the limitation in the use of electricity and water resources for instance is an important step toward sustainability (Leonard, 2007). Cities need to be coherent in terms of design and aestheticism in order to increase their efficiency and livability. The need for trees cannot be stressed enough. Their pollution control capacity, combined with aesthetic values and the provided shelter are crucial assets. Moreover, at times where global warming is a key issue in environmental matters, the carbon sequestration capacities of a growing tree cannot be overlooked (UNFCCC, 2008). Bioretention methods and urban trees become extremely valuable to address multiple issues at once.
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Sustainable Cities
Case study: AusturbĂŚr
Part of the historical city centre of Reykjavik, located between the main highway Hringbraut and the sea side. Highly densely populated, mostly on its centre (over 140p/ha), the residents belong to all age groups, although mostly in the labour force range.
Density: From low to high
0-5 6-12 13-16 17-24
25-34 35-66 67-
Sustainable Cities
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Land use is fairly mixed on the northern part of the district, while mostly residential on the southern bounds.
Residential: From low to high Special services and storage: From low to high Offices and commerce: From low to high Industry: From low to high
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Sustainable Cities
Location of tress
Location of grass
Total Green areas: Trees and grass combine
Green areas represents approximately 40 to 50% of the neighbourhood's surface. Unlike other districts, tree cover is fairly high in the southern, residential part, while almost absent north of Laugavegur.
Sustainable Cities
Public transport lines, bus Stops, Accessibility
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Coverage of walking infrastructure
Bus coverage of the area is limited to its outskirts, the centre being totally overlooked. The pathway network is extensive and spread throughout the neighbourhood.
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Sustainable Cities
Services, grocery stores and schools are easily accessible all around the neighbourhood. The main city hospital is located in the southern side.
Playground
Kinder garden
Commerce/ services
Sports facilities
Special school
Grocery stores
High school
Activity home
Sports center
Elementary school
Social services
Sustainable Cities
Case study: Hรกaleiti
The neighborhood covers 999318m2, in a central location of Reykjavik. Limits between under-average-dense residential area (south) and commerce (north) is clear. Population is mostly composed of middle-aged to elderly residents.
From low to high
0-5 6-12 13-16 17-24
25-34 35-66 67-
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Sustainable Cities
As said before, the southern side, where the totality of the population is located, contrasts with the northern one, exclusively commercial and industrial.
Residential: From low to high Special services and storage: From low to high Offices and commerce: From low to high Industry: From low to high
Sustainable Cities
Location of tress
Location of grass
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Total Green areas: Trees and grass combine
Green areas are almost absent of the northern-commercial side, while covering 50% of the residential area. Trees are scarce, mostly separating the neighbourhood from the highway south of it.
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Sustainable Cities
Public transport lines, bus stops, accessibility
Coverage of walking infrastructure
Bus coverage of the neighbourhood is excellent, principally centred on residential parts. Pathways and biking trails are however extremely scarce, focused on the central street.
Sustainable Cities
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Only very limited cultural and sport infrastructures are present, under 5 min. walking-radius for most, but rendered hardly accessible by the lack of walking and biking infrastructures.
Playground
Kinder garden
Commerce/ services
Sports facilities
Special school
Grocery stores
High school
Activity home
Sports center
Elementary school
Social services
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Sustainable Cities
Case study: Breiđholt
The neighbourhood covers 1328585 m2 and is located at the outskirts of Reykjavik. It density is of 65 p/ha, mostly located on the western part of the neighbourhood. The eastern part has lower density (44p/ha), due to lower residential space and increased commercial and service use. The majority part of the population is middle aged to elderly.
From low to high
0-5 6-12 13-16 17-24
25-34 35-66 67-
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Commerce and storage are located almost exclusively on the eastern side, while residential buildings are evenly spread throughout the neighborhood.
Residential: From low to high Special services and storage: From low to high Offices and commerce: From low to high Industry: From low to high
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Sustainable Cities
Location of tress
Location of grass
Total Green areas: Trees and grass combine
We can visually assess a combined vegetation cover of over 60%. Tree cover is however low and limited to the neighborhood boundaries.
Sustainable Cities
Public transport lines, bus stops, accessibility
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Coverage of walking infrastructure
Breiđholt is fairly well connected with the public transport network, with over 95% of its surface within 300 m of a bus stop. The pathway network is extensive and covers the quasi-totality of the neighbourhood. Biking trails are however absent.
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Sustainable Cities Leisure and sport centres, as well as services (schools and kindergarten) are spread evenly across the neighborhood, increasing proximity of its residents to the facilities they need. Grocery stores are similarly close to the residential and easily accessible.
Playground
Kinder garden
Commerce/ services
Sports facilities
Special school
Grocery stores
High school
Activity home
Sports center
Elementary school
Social services
Sustainable Cities
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Suggestion to
Breiđholt and Háaleiti are not fully constructed yet (infrastructures cover 36% and 47% of the
Improvement
extensive urban plan; in order to satisfy the criteria exposed (compact, accessibility, green
total surface area). As such there is still some space for improvement. They both require an spaces, and aestheticism). New buildings should satisfy criteria of aestheticism, resource and energy efficiency and integration in the environment, both environmentally (e.g. green roofs/walls) and in terms of infrastructure (protection from the weather). Pathways and biking infrastructures shall be preferred to roads and parking lots. Breiđholt has the biggest potential, being essentially a residential area with reasonable density. Well equipped in terms of sports infrastructures, schools and others services, it lacks a commercial area satisfying the needs of the residents. Green areas in this neighborhood need to be converted to urban forests and eco-technologies. Háaleiti represents more of challenge, as is already partially set as a commercial area. The proportion of parking lots is too high to be sustainable. Conversion to green areas or mixed use buildings is a must. Population density must be increased, either through new buildings or by converting unused shops to habitations. Both in Breiđholt and Háaleiti tree coverage is low and should be increased. Austurbær cannot be easily modified, as already heavily covered with human infrastructures (80%). The proportion of road is high; there is the possibility of converting some of them to walking/cycling only. As shown on the missing data table, many of the components necessary for the analysis of the quality of life as demonstrated by the CLD are missing. For a further, deeper study of the key
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Sustainable Cities elements of a sustainable quality of life in Reykjavik, these data need to be produced. This might however represent a challenge for qualitative components that are difficult to measure (e.g. aestheticism).
Sustainable Cities
Missing Data
Component of a liveable city (according to CLD)
Sub components
Austurbær No
Háaleiti No
Breiđholt No
Location medical centers/pharmacy
No
No
No
Personal incomes
No
No
No
Taxes
No
No
No
Prices
No
No
No
Municipality/community expenditures
No
No
No
Municipal/communal incomes (other than taxes)
No
No
No
Employment rate
No
No
No
Proportion per job type
No
No
No
Green area
% green areas
Visual
Visual
Visual
Commerce
% tree coverage
Visual
Visual
Visual
Culture
Museums, galleries access and prices Sport facilities Equal access proportion Number of public surveys/debate organized
Yes Yes No No
Yes Yes No No
Yes Yes No No
Economy
Employment
Sense of community
Feeling safety
Neighborhood
Lifespan
Health
Leisure
Data required to measure (non extensive list)
Equity Public participation
Number of strikes/marches
No
No
No
Governance Aesthetic
Proportion happy citizens (with their government) Subjective
No No
No No
No No
Criminality
Criminality levels
No
No
No
Accidents
Car accidents
Visual
Visual
Visual
Services
Number and location of schools, high schools, library
Yes
Yes
Yes
Ease of access
Pathways
Yes
Yes
Yes
Biking infrastructures
No
No
No
Bus stop
Yes
Yes
Yes
Bus frequency
Yes
Yes
Yes
Road coverage
Yes
Yes
Yes
Distances commutation
No
No
No
Parking lots
Yes
Yes
Yes
Types accommodation
Yes
Yes
Yes
Price land
Yes
Yes
Yes
Price rent
No
No
No
Distance to commerce and services
Yes
Yes
Yes
Levels of pollutants in water, soils, air
No
No
No
Housing
Pollution
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Sustainable Cities
References
Beatley, T. (2000). Green Urbanism: Learning from European Cities. Island Press. Washington D.C. 491pp.
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