BIO23 F19-S20 Complete Course Guide

BIO 23 - Anatomy & Physiology I

Fall 2019 Spring 2020 Course Guide & Lab Manual 2019-2020 Biology DepartmentŠ

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Preface to the Current Edition Human Anatomy and Physiology (A&P) is a two-semester course sequence (BIO 23 & BIO 24) offered by the Biological Sciences Department at Bronx Community College (Meister Hall 418).

BIO 23 and BIO 24 are conducted in an integrated lecture-laboratory format for the study of physiological processes, as well as gross and microscopic anatomy. The six hours of class contact hours per week is equally divided between the lecture and laboratory meetings within a 14-week academic semester followed by a final lecture examination in the 15th week of the academic semester.

BIO 23 covers the following topics and systems of the human organism: human structural and functional organization, basic chemistry, cell structure and function, foundations of cell metabolism, histology, the integumentary system, the skeletal system, the muscular system, the nervous system, and the endocrine system.

BIO 24 applies essential concepts from BIO 23 in the study of the following topics and systems of the human organism: cardiovascular system, lymphatic system and immunity, respiratory system, urinary system and fluid and electrolyte balance, digestive system and metabolism, and the reproductive system.

The coordinators of the course are Prof. Abass Abdullahi, Prof. Kyeng Lee, and Prof. Carlos Liachovitzky.

This guide is the product of the collaborative effort of many faculty of the Department of Biological Sciences. It has been mutating since the first edition up to the present. This guide is a continuous work in progress thanks to the input of students and faculty of the department. Dr. Howard Fuld and Dr. Henry Hermo authored the first version in Fall 1988, and many others contributed along its history. Thanks to Dr. Maureen Gannon, who reviewed extensively the first editions; and to Dr. Nichole McDaniel, Dr. Shylaja Akkaraju, and Prof. Carlos Liachovitzky, who contributed widely with the most recent versions.

All images used in this study guide are Copyright ŠMcGraw-Hill Companies Inc. unless specified with a link to their source

BIO 23 Course Guide and Lab Manual Content Human Anatomy and Physiology I and II and CUNY Pathways ............................................................. 7 BIO 23 and BIO24 as CUNY Pathways Gateway Courses into several programs ..................................................7

Student Expected Learning Outcomes ...................................................................................................... 8 General Human Anatomy and Physiology Student Learning Outcomes ..................................................................8 Specific (BIO 23) Student Learning Outcomes ........................................................................................................8

Bio23 Sequence of Topics and Reading Assignments .............................................................................. 9 Lecture Sequence of Topics and Reading Assignments ...........................................................................................9 Lab Sequence of Topics and Reading Assignments ...............................................................................................12

Textbook, Course Guide & Lab Manual, and Learning Resources ........................................................ 15 Textbook .................................................................................................................................................................15 Course Information Guide & Lab Manual ..............................................................................................................15 Other Learning Resources ......................................................................................................................................15

General Info and Policies ........................................................................................................................ 16 BIO23 Grading* .....................................................................................................................................................16 Bronx Community College Grading System ..........................................................................................................17 Attendance ..............................................................................................................................................................17 Registration and prerequisites .................................................................................................................................17 Switching sections ..................................................................................................................................................18 Overtallying ............................................................................................................................................................18 Credit hours and workload ......................................................................................................................................18 Children ..................................................................................................................................................................18 Cell Phones and Other Electronic Devices .............................................................................................................18 Access and Equal Education Opportunity for Students ..........................................................................................18 University Policies on Academic Dishonesty (a.k.a. cheating) ..............................................................................18 Instructor and Student Responsibilities ..................................................................................................................19 Instructor responsibilities ................................................................................................................................................... 19 Student Responsibilities ...................................................................................................................................................... 20

How to Download Lab Manual (Worksheets) ........................................................................................................21 How to Access Blackboard .....................................................................................................................................21 BCC Computer Facilities ........................................................................................................................................22 Printing ...................................................................................................................................................................22 Advisement .............................................................................................................................................................22 Academic Calendars and Schedule of Classes........................................................................................................23 Fall 2019 Calendar ............................................................................................................................................................... 23 Fall 2019 Schedule of Classes .............................................................................................................................................. 24 Spring 2020 Calendar .......................................................................................................................................................... 25 Spring 2020 Schedule of Classes ......................................................................................................................................... 26

Frequently Asked Questions ...................................................................................................................................27

BIO 23 LECTURE TOPICS AND LAB TOPICS AND STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES (THINGS TO KNOW) ............................................................................................................................ 31 1-Introduction To A&P: Body Plan & Organization (Lab Topic) ..........................................................................31 2-Introduction To A&P: Homeostasis (Lecture Topic) ..........................................................................................31 Lecture Study Questions: Homeostasis ............................................................................................................................... 32 2

3-Levels of Organization: The Chemical Level of Organization (Lecture Topic) .................................................32 Lecture Study Questions: The Chemical Level Of Organization .......................................................................................... 34

4-Levels of Organization: The Cellular Level of Organization (Lab and Lecture Topic) ......................................35 Lecture Study Questions Part I: Mechanisms for movement of materials across cell membranes .................................... 36 Lecture Study Questions Part II: Protein synthesis ............................................................................................................. 37 Lecture Study Questions Part III: Introduction to Cellular respiration ................................................................................ 37

5-Levels of Organization: The Tissue Level of Organization (Lab Topic) ............................................................38 6-Support and Movement: Integumentary System (Lab Topic) .............................................................................39 7-Support and Movement: Skeletal System & Articulations (Lab and Lecture Topics) ........................................40 Lecture Study Questions: Skeletal System .......................................................................................................................... 41

8-Support and Movement: Muscular System (Lab and Lecture Topic) .................................................................42 Lecture Study Questions: Muscular System ........................................................................................................................ 43

9-Regulation, Integration, And Control: Nervous System ......................................................................................44 Lecture Study Guide Part I: Neurophysiology, Electrically Excitable Cells .......................................................................... 49 Lecture Study Guide Part II: organization OF Nervous System, Neurophysiology, NEUROTRANSMITTERS ....................... 49 Lecture Study Questions Part III: Spinal Cord AND REFLEXES ............................................................................................. 50 Lecture Study Questions Part IV: Brain ............................................................................................................................... 50 Lecture Study Questions Part V: Autonomic Nervous System ............................................................................................ 51

10-Regulation, Integration, And Control: Special Senses (Lab Topic) ..................................................................51 11-Regulation, Integration, And Control: Endocrine System (Lecture Topic) .......................................................52 Lecture Study Questions: Endocrine System....................................................................................................................... 54

FIRST LECTURE EXAM: SAMPLE EXAM ....................................................................................... 55 Practice Questions...................................................................................................................................................58

Lab 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology .................................................................................... 73 Pre-Lab Activities ...................................................................................................................................................73 A.

Structural hierarchy of life ......................................................................................................................................... 73

Lab Activities..........................................................................................................................................................76 A. B. C. D.

Structural hierarchy of life (45 min) .......................................................................................................................... 76 Body Planes and Directional Terms (20 min) ............................................................................................................. 77 Body Cavities (30 min) ............................................................................................................................................... 78 Serous Membranes (25 min) ..................................................................................................................................... 79

Lab 2: The Microscope and The Cell ..................................................................................................... 80 Pre-Lab Activities ...................................................................................................................................................80 A. B. C.

Cellular Organelles ..................................................................................................................................................... 80 Cell Size ...................................................................................................................................................................... 81 Orientation to the Microscope .................................................................................................................................. 82

Lab Activities..........................................................................................................................................................83 A. B. C. D.

Orientation to the Microscope (15 min) .................................................................................................................... 83 Observing Objects under the Microscope (35 min) ................................................................................................... 83 Preparing a Cheek Cell Smear (30 min) ..................................................................................................................... 85 Cellular Organelles (50 min) ...................................................................................................................................... 86

Lab 3 - The Cell Cycle and Mitosis ........................................................................................................ 88 Pre-Lab Activities ...................................................................................................................................................88 A. B. C.

ORGANIZATION OF GENETIC MATERIAL .................................................................................................................... 88 DNA replication and cell cycle ................................................................................................................................... 89 Chromosomes and Meiosis ....................................................................................................................................... 90

Lab Activities..........................................................................................................................................................91 A.

Organization of genetic material (15 min) ................................................................................................................. 91 3

B. C. D. E.

DNA replication and cell cycle (40 min) ..................................................................................................................... 91 MITOSIS. .................................................................................................................................................................... 92 Chromosomes and Meiosis (30 min) ......................................................................................................................... 93 Cell Division Overview (20 min). ................................................................................................................................ 96

Lab 4 - Diffusion and Osmosis: Introduction to Scientific Method and Lab Report .............................. 97 Pre-Lab Activities ...................................................................................................................................................97 A. SOLUTIONS, GRADIENTS AND DIFFUSION ................................................................................................................. 97 B. Osmosis ........................................................................................................................................................................... 99 C. TONICITY .................................................................................................................................................................... 99

Lab Activity ..........................................................................................................................................................100 A. B. C. D. E.

OSMOSIS THROUGH A DIALYSIS MEMBRANE: A SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENT ............................................................. 100 Lab REPORT GUIDELINES and rubric ........................................................................................................................ 103 OSMOSIS DEMONSTRATION USING POTATO CELLS (15 min).................................................................................. 105 TONICITY (15 min).................................................................................................................................................... 105 extra thinking: .......................................................................................................................................................... 105

Lab 5 - Epithelial Tissues and Glands .................................................................................................. 107 Pre-Lab Activities .................................................................................................................................................107 A. B. C.

Histology .................................................................................................................................................................. 107 Epithelial Tissue ....................................................................................................................................................... 107 Glands ...................................................................................................................................................................... 108

Lab Activities........................................................................................................................................................109 A. A. B. C.

Epithelial Tissue (60 min) ......................................................................................................................................... 109 Intercellular Junctions (15 minutes) ........................................................................................................................ 111 Glands (20 minutes) ................................................................................................................................................. 111 Epithelial Tissue in the Skin and Cutaneous Glands in the Integumentary System (See Chapter 6) (45 minutes) .. 112

Lab 6 - Connective Tissues and Membranes......................................................................................... 114 Pre-Lab Activities .................................................................................................................................................114 Lab Activities........................................................................................................................................................115 A. B. C. D. E.

Comparing Epithelial Tissue with Connective Tissue (15 min) ................................................................................ 115 Location, function and composition of connective tissues types (70 min) ............................................................. 116 Identification of Connective Tissue (10 min). .......................................................................................................... 117 Organs: Body membranes (20 min) ......................................................................................................................... 118 Organs: The Skin (25 min) ........................................................................................................................................ 119

Lab 8 - The Nervous System: Neurons and Spinal Cord ...................................................................... 120 Pre-Lab Activities .................................................................................................................................................120 A. B. C. D. E.

Branches of the Nervous System. ............................................................................................................................ 120 The Neuron .............................................................................................................................................................. 121 The Meninges .......................................................................................................................................................... 122 The Spinal Cord ........................................................................................................................................................ 122 Spinal Nerves ........................................................................................................................................................... 123

Lab Activities........................................................................................................................................................123 A. B. C. D. E.

Branches of the Nervous System (10 min) .............................................................................................................. 123 The Neuron (10 min)................................................................................................................................................ 124 Meninges (15 min) ................................................................................................................................................... 124 The Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves (45 min) ............................................................................................................ 126 Spinal Cord and Reflexes (45 min) ........................................................................................................................... 128

Lab 9 - The Nervous System: The Brain ............................................................................................... 130 4

Pre-Lab Activities .................................................................................................................................................130 A.

The Brain .................................................................................................................................................................. 130

Lab Activities........................................................................................................................................................132 A. B. C. D. E. F.

The Brain .................................................................................................................................................................. 132 The Postcentral Gyrus .............................................................................................................................................. 132 The Meninges .......................................................................................................................................................... 133 Ventricles, Cerebrospinal Fluid, and Blood Brain Barrier ........................................................................................ 134 Gray Matter and White Matter ............................................................................................................................... 134 The Cranial Nerves ................................................................................................................................................... 135

Lab 10 - The Senses .............................................................................................................................. 137 Pre-Lab Activities .................................................................................................................................................137 A. B. C.

Classification of sensory receptors .......................................................................................................................... 137 Structure of the Ear ................................................................................................................................................. 138 Structure of the Eye. ................................................................................................................................................ 138

Lab Activities........................................................................................................................................................139 A. B. C. D. E. F.

Sensory transduction, the receptor potential and sensory adaptation. ................................................................. 139 Structure and Function of the Ear ........................................................................................................................... 140 Physiology of Hearing .............................................................................................................................................. 140 Physiology of equilibrium ........................................................................................................................................ 141 Structure and Function of the Eye. .......................................................................................................................... 142 Accommodation of the lens..................................................................................................................................... 143

Lab 11 - The Skeletal System: Bones ................................................................................................... 145 Pre-Lab Activities .................................................................................................................................................145 A. B. C. D.

Overview of the skeletal system and its functions .................................................................................................. 145 Bone Anatomy and Histology .................................................................................................................................. 145 Axial Skeleton .......................................................................................................................................................... 147 Appendicular Skeleton ............................................................................................................................................. 149

Lab Activities........................................................................................................................................................150 A. B.

Axial Skeleton. ......................................................................................................................................................... 150 Appendicular Skeleton ............................................................................................................................................. 152

Lab 12 - The Skeletal System: Joints .................................................................................................... 155 Pre-Lab Activities .................................................................................................................................................155 A. B. C. D. E.

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................. 155 Classification of Joints .............................................................................................................................................. 155 Structure of a Synovial Joint .................................................................................................................................... 156 Types of Synovial Joints ........................................................................................................................................... 156 Knee (Tibiofemoral) joint ......................................................................................................................................... 156

Lab Activities........................................................................................................................................................157 A. B. C. D. E. F. G.

Classification of Joints. ............................................................................................................................................. 157 Structure of a Synovial Joint .................................................................................................................................... 158 Types of Synovial Joints ........................................................................................................................................... 158 Movements of Synovial Joints (diarthroses)............................................................................................................ 158 Knee (tibiofemoral) joint ......................................................................................................................................... 159 Elbow, Shoulder and Hip Joints ............................................................................................................................... 160 Joint-related conditions ........................................................................................................................................... 160

Lab 13 – The Muscular System ............................................................................................................. 161 Pre-Lab Activities .................................................................................................................................................161 A.

Introduction to muscular system and its functions. ................................................................................................ 161 5

B. C.

Muscle Tissue........................................................................................................................................................... 161 Identification of skeletal muscles ............................................................................................................................ 162

Lab Activities........................................................................................................................................................165 A. B. C. D.

Microscopic Anatomy of Muscle Fibers ................................................................................................................... 165 actions of muscle on joints. ..................................................................................................................................... 165 Identification of skeletal muscles. ........................................................................................................................... 166 Apply your knowledge. ............................................................................................................................................ 168

LABORATORY RULES - ME401/ME402.......................................................................................... 169

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Human Anatomy and Physiology I and II and CUNY Pathways BIO 23 belongs to "Life and Physical Science (C)" of the CUNY Pathways Required Common Core: http://www.bcc.cuny.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/required_july19_17.pdf BIO 23 and BIO 24 belong to "Scientific World (E)" of the CUNY Pathways Flexible Common Core: http://www.bcc.cuny.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/flexible_june2018.pdf

BIO 23 and BIO24 as CUNY Pathways Gateway Courses into several programs Program

Program Info

Director/Coordinator (as of 07/19)

1. Nursing (A.A.S. Degree)

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Dr. Kenya Harris

Notes - Double check with director/coordinator for program updates BIO23 is part of the pre-clinical sequence. BIO23 is a required core course. BIO 23 may be taken twice in order to achieve the required C+.

BIO24 belongs to flexible core BIO23 belongs to required core BIO24 belongs to flexible core

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Professor Charmaine Aleong

3. Nuclear Medicine Technology (A.A.S. Degree) 4. Radiologic Technology (A.A.S. Degree)

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Professor Grace Tursi

BIO23 belongs to required core BIO24 belongs to flexible core

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Professor Iris Cortes

5. Therapeutic Recreation (A.S. Degree)

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Professor Jose Acevedo

6. Exercise Science and Kinesiology (A.S Degree) 7. Medical Office Assistant (A.A.S.)

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Dr. Ulana Lysniak

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Dr. Kwi Park-Kim

BIO23 belongs to required core and is required to be admitted in the program BIO24 belongs to flexible core A minimum grade of C+ in BIO 23 is required Pre-radiologic technology students are allowed two attempts to achieve a C+ in BIO 23 BIO23 belongs to required core BIO24 belongs to flexible core ASK program coordinator about waivers to take these courses BIO23 belongs to the required core BIO24 belongs to the flexible core ASK program coordinator about waivers to take these courses ASK the program coordinator as requirements may change

8. Public Health (A.S)

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Dr. Stacia Reader

7

ASK the program coordinator as requirements may change

Student Expected Learning Outcomes The General Student Learning Outcomes listed below form the unifying foundation for all topics and will be emphasized throughout Human Anatomy and Physiology I (BIO 23) and Human Anatomy and Physiology II (BIO 24). These general learning outcomes are adapted from material copyrighted by the Human Anatomy and Physiology Society (HAPS).

General Human Anatomy and Physiology Student Learning Outcomes 1.

Develop a vocabulary of appropriate terminology to effectively communicate information related to anatomy and physiology.

2.

Recognize the anatomical structures and explain the physiological functions of body systems.

3.

Recognize and explain the principle of homeostasis and the use of feedback loops to control physiological systems in the human body.

4.

Use anatomical knowledge to predict physiological consequences, and use knowledge of function to predict the features of anatomical structures.

5.

Recognize and explain the interrelationships within and between anatomical and physiological systems of the human body.

6.

Synthesize ideas to make a connection between knowledge of anatomy and physiology and realworld situations, including healthy lifestyle decisions and homeostatic imbalances.

7.

Demonstrate laboratory procedures used to examine anatomical structures and evaluate physiological functions of each organ system.

8.

Interpret graphs of anatomical and physiological data.

The Specific Student Learning Outcomes listed below are specially emphasized in Human Anatomy and Physiology I (BIO 23). See more specifics on page 31 of this guide.

Specific (BIO 23) Student Learning Outcomes List, identify, and classify the cellular organic macromolecules, specify the monomers for each, and explain their relevance to human structure and function.

Explain basic cellular functions such as protein synthesis, cellular respiration, DNA replication, and cell division.

List, describe, and differentiate how things enter and leave cells (active and passive methods of transport across membranes) Describe, differentiate and explain how cellular communication works (neuronal and endocrine) Recognize the anatomical structures, explain physiological functions, and recognize and explain the principle of homeostasis applied to the integumentary, nervous, endocrine, muscular and skeletal systems Identify and summarize the steps of the scientific method and recognize their role in the context of a laboratory experiment

8

Bio23 Sequence of Topics and Reading Assignments The reading assignments are given by the selected subtopics under numbered sections in the 7th edition of the textbook (Saladin). "Introduction" refers to the beginning paragraph(s) in each of the indicated sections that many times contain important information.

This syllabus is only intended to serve as a guide. More detailed descriptions of lecture topics and lab topics are available in the BIO 23 Topics and Expected Learning Outcomes (Things To Know, see page 31), and in the lab worksheets.

Your instructor may modify the timing or order of topics according to his or her assessment of class needs. The number of exams and the topics covered may also vary. Your instructor will notify you of any changes in class. It is your responsibility to be there to get accurate information.

Session

Week*

Lecture Sequence of Topics and Reading Assignments Topic**

1

Introduction To A&P: Homeostasis

2

Levels of Organization: The Chemical Level of Organization

3

Levels of Organization: The Chemical Level of Organization

4

Levels of Organization: The Chemical Level of Organization

5

Levels of Organization: The Chemical Level of Organization

6

Lecture Exam #1 (Sessions 1-4)

I

II

III

7 IV 8

Saladin Reading Assignments (7th Edition)

1.5 Human Structure: The Hierarchy of Complexity 1.6 Human Function: Characteristics of Life; Homeostasis and Negative Feedback; Positive Feedback and Rapid Change 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules: The Chemical Elements; Atomic Structure; Isotopes and Radioactivity; Ions, Electrolytes, and Free Radicals; Molecules and Chemical Bonds 2.2 Water and Mixtures: Introduction; Water; Solutions, Colloids, and Suspensions; Acids, Bases, and pH 2.3 Energy and Chemical Reactions: Classes of Chemical Reactions; Metabolism, Oxidation, and Reduction (metabolism only) 2.4 Organic Compounds: Carbon Compounds and Functional Groups; Monomers and Polymers; Carbohydrates; Lipids; Trans Fats and Cardiovascular Health 2.4 Organic Compounds: Proteins; Enzymes and Metabolism; ATP, Other Nucleotides, and Nucleic Acids

3.1 Concepts of Cellular Structure: Development of the Levels of Organization: The Cellular Cell Theory; Basic Components of a Cell Level of Organization 3.2 The Cell Surface: Introduction; The Plasma Membrane 3.3 Membrane Transport: Filtration; Simple Diffusion; Levels of Organization: The Cellular Osmosis; Osmolarity and Tonicity; Carrier-Mediated Level of Organization Transport; Vesicular Transport

9

9 V

4.1 DNA and RNA-The Nucleic Acids: Introduction; DNA Structure and Function; RNA Structure and Function Levels of Organization: The Cellular 4.2 Genes and Their Action: What Is a Gene?; The Level of Organization Genetic Code; Protein Synthesis; Protein Processing and Secretion; Synthesizing Compounds Other than Proteins 4.3 DNA Replication and the Cell Cycle: Introduction; DNA Replication

10 Lecture Exam #2 (Sessions 5, 7-8)

11

Regulation, Integration, And Control: Nervous System

12

Regulation, Integration, And Control: Nervous System

13

Regulation, Integration, And Control: Nervous System

14

Regulation, Integration, And Control: Nervous System

15

Regulation, Integration, And Control: Nervous System

16

Regulation, Integration, And Control: Nervous System

VI

VII

VII I

12.1 Overview of the Nervous System: Introduction 12.2 Properties of Neurons: Universal Properties; Functional Classes; Structure of a Neuron 12.3 Supportive Cells (Neuroglia): Introduction; Types of Neuroglia; Myelin; Unmyelinated Nerve Fibers; Conduction Speed of Nerve Fibers 12.4 Electrophysiology of Neurons: Introduction; Electrical Potentials and Currents; The Resting Membrane Potential; Local Potentials; Action Potentials; The Refractory Period; Signal Conduction in Nerve Fibers 12.5 Synapses: Introduction; The Discovery of Neurotransmitters; Structure of a Chemical Synapse; Neurotransmitters and Related Messengers; Synaptic Transmission 12.6 Neural Integration: Introduction; Postsynaptic Potentials; Summation, Facilitation, and Inhibition; Neural Coding 13.1 The Spinal Cord: Functions 13.3 Somatic Reflexes: Introduction; The Nature of Reflexes; The Muscle Spindle; The Stretch Reflex; The Flexor (Withdrawal) Reflex; The Crossed Extension Reflex; The Tendon Reflex 14.1 Overview of the Brain: Introduction; Major Landmarks; Gray and White Matter 14.5 Integrative Functions of the Brain: Introduction; Cognition; Sensation; Motor Control; Language; Cerebral Lateralization

17 Lecture Exam #3 (Sessions 9, 11-16)

IX 18

Regulation, Integration, And Control: Nervous System

15.1 General Properties of the Autonomic Nervous System: Introduction; Visceral Reflexes; Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System 15.2 Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System: The Sympathetic Division; The Parasympathetic Division 15.3 Autonomic Effects on Target Organs: Dual Innervation

10

X

19 Support and Movement: Skeletal System

20

Support and Movement: Skeletal System

21

Support and Movement: Muscular System

22

Support and Movement: Muscular System

23

Support and Movement: Muscular System

XI

XII

7.1 Tissues and Organs of the Skeletal System: Introduction; Functions of the Skeleton; Bones and Osseous Tissue 7.2 Histology of Osseous Tissue: Bone Cells; The Matrix; Compact Bone; Spongy Bone; Bone Marrow 7.3 Bone Development: Bone Growth and Remodeling 7.4 Physiology of Osseous Tissue: Introduction; Calcium Homeostasis (entire section except calcitriol) 11.1 Types and Characteristics of Muscular Tissue: Universal Characteristics of Muscle; Skeletal Muscle 11.2 Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle: The Muscle Fiber; Myofilaments (omit dystrophin); Striations 11.3 The Nerve-Muscle Relationship: Introduction; Motor Neurons and Motor Units; The Neuromuscular Junction 11.4 Behavior of Skeletal Muscle Fibers: Introduction; Excitation; Excitation-Contraction Coupling; Contraction; Relaxation 11.5 Behavior of Whole Muscles: Threshold, Latent Period, and Twitch; Contraction Strength of Twitches; Isometric and Isotonic Contraction

24 Lecture Exam #4 (Sessions 18-22) Support and Movement: Muscular 25 System and Introduction to Cellular respiration XII I

XI V

XV

26

Regulation, Integration, And Control: Endocrine System

27

Regulation, Integration, And Control: Endocrine System

28

Regulation, Integration, And Control: Endocrine System

26.2 Carbohydrate Metabolism: Introduction; Glucose Catabolism; Glycolysis; Anaerobic Fermentation; Aerobic Respiration; Overview of ATP Production 11.6 Muscle Metabolism: ATP Sources 17.1 Overview of the Endocrine System: Introduction; Comparison of the Nervous and Endocrine Systems 17.2 The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland: Anatomy; Hypothalamic Hormones; Anterior Pituitary Hormones; Posterior Pituitary Hormones; Control of Pituitary Secretion 17.3 Other Endocrine Glands: The Pineal Gland; The Thymus; The Thyroid Gland; The Parathyroid Glands; The Pancreatic Islets: Beta cells 17.4 Hormones and Their Actions: Hormone Chemistry

Cumulative Final Lecture Exam (Sessions 1-28)

11

Session

Week*

Lab Sequence of Topics and Reading Assignments Lab (Topic)***

Introduction to A&P I

1

II

2

III

3

IV

4

(Introduction To A&P: Body Plan & Organization)

The Microscope and The Cell (Levels of Organization: The Cellular Level of Organization)

The Cell Cycle and Mitosis (Levels of Organization: The Cellular Level of Organization)

Membrane Transport (Levels of Organization: The Cellular Level of Organization)

Epithelial Tissues and Glands V

5

(Levels of Organization: The Tissue Level of Organization & Support and Movement: Integumentary System)

Connective Tissues and Membranes VI

6

(Levels of Organization: The Tissue Level of Organization & Support and Movement: Integumentary System)

VII

7

LAB MIDTERM EXAM: LABS 1-6

VII I

8

Neuron and Spinal Cord (Regulation, Integration, And Control: Nervous System)

Saladin Reading Assignments (7th Edition)

A.1 General Anatomical Terminology: Anatomical Position; Anatomical Planes; Directional Terms A.3 Body Cavities and Membranes: The Cranial Cavity and Vertebral Canal; The Thoracic Cavity; The Abdominopelvic Cavity A.4 Organ Systems 3.1 Concepts of Cellular Structure: Cell Shapes and Sizes; Basic Components of a Cell 3.4 The Cell Interior: The Cytoskeleton; Organelles 4.1 DNA and RNA-The Nucleic Acids: Introduction; DNA Structure and Function; Chromatin and Chromosomes 4.2 Genes and Their Action: What Is a Gene; The Genome 4.3 DNA Replication and the Cell Cycle: DNA Replication; The Cell Cycle; Mitosis 4.4 Chromosomes and Heredity: The Karyotype 3.2 The Cell Surface: The Plasma Membrane 3.3 Membrane Transport: Filtration; Simple Diffusion; Osmosis; Osmolarity and Tonicity 5.1 The Study of Tissues: The Primary Tissue Classes; Interpreting Tissue Sections 5.2 Epithelial Tissue: Introduction; Simple Epithelia; Stratified Epithelia 5.5 Cell Junctions, Glands, and Membranes: Cell Junctions; Glands 6.1 The Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue: The Epidermis 6.3 Cutaneous Glands: Sweat Glands; Sebaceous Glands; Ceruminous Glands; Mammary Glands 5.3 Connective Tissue: Overview; Fibrous Connective Tissue; Adipose Tissue; Cartilage; Bone; Blood 5.5 Cell Junctions, Glands, and Membranes: Membranes 6.1 The Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue: Functions of the Skin; The Dermis

12.1 Overview of the Nervous System 12.2 Properties of Neurons: Universal Properties; Functional Classes; Structure of a Neuron

12

IX

X

XI

13.1 The Spinal Cord: Functions; Surface Anatomy; Meninges of the Spinal Cord; Cross-Sectional Anatomy; Spinal Tracts (Introduction only) 13.2 The Spinal Nerves: General Anatomy of Nerves and Ganglia; Spinal Nerves (Introduction and Proximal Branches); Nerve Plexuses (Omit the tables); Cutaneous Innervation and Dermatomes 13.3 Somatic Reflexes: The Nature of Reflexes; The Muscle Spindle (First paragraph only); The Stretch Reflex 14.1 Overview of the Brain: Major Landmarks; Gray and White Matter 14.2 Meninges, Ventricles, Cerebrospinal Fluid, and Blood Supply: Meninges; Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid; Blood Supply and the Brain Barrier The Brain System 9 (Regulation, Integration, And Control: 14.3 The Hindbrain and Midbrain: The Medulla Nervous System) Oblongata; The Pons; The Midbrain; The Cerebellum 14.4 The Forebrain: The Diencephalon; The Cerebrum (Gross Anatomy and The Cerebral White Matter only) 14.6 The Cranial Nerves: Cranial Nerve Classification; An Aid to Memory 16.1 Properties and Types of Sensory Receptors: Introduction; General Properties of Receptors; Classification of Receptors 16.3 The Chemical Senses: Taste; Smell Senses 16.4 Hearing and Equilibrium: Anatomy of the Ear; The 10 (Regulation, Integration, And Control: Physiology of Hearing (Introduction, The Middle Ear, and Special Senses) Stimulation of Cochlear Hair Cells); Equilibrium (Introduction and The Semicircular Ducts) 16.5 Vision: Anatomy of the Eye; Sensory Transduction in the Retina (Introduction only) 7.1 Tissues and Organs of the Skeletal System: Functions of the Skeleton; Bones and Osseous Tissue; General Features of Bones 7.2 Histology of Osseous Tissue: Bone Cells; The Matrix; Compact Bone; Spongy Bone 8.1 Overview of the Skeleton: Introduction; Bones of the Skeletal System; Anatomical Features of Bones; Bones 8.2 The Skull: Introduction; Cranial Bones; Facial Bones 11 (Support and Movement: Skeletal System & 242 • Bones Associated with the Skull Articulations) 8.3 The Vertebral Column and Thoracic Cage: General Features of the Vertebral Column; General Structure of a Vertebra; The Thoracic Cage 8.4 The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb: The Pectoral Girdle; The Upper Limb 257 8.5 The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb: The Pelvic Girdle; The Lower Limb

13

XII

XII I

XI V

(NOTE: The required details on the bones will be not be more than those covered during class.)

9.1 Joints and Their Classification: Introduction; Bony Joints; Fibrous Joints; Cartilaginous Joints 9.2 Synovial Joints: Introduction; General Anatomy; Joints 12 (Support and Movement: Skeletal System & Joints and Lever Systems (Axes of Rotation and Classes Articulations) of Synovial Joints only); Movements of Synovial Joints 9.3 Anatomy of Selected Diarthroses: The Shoulder Joint; The Hip Joint; The Knee Joint 11.1 Types and Characteristics of Muscular Tissue: Universal Characteristics of Muscle; Skeletal Muscle 5.4 Nervous and Muscular Tissues-Excitable Tissues: Muscular Tissue 10.1 The Structural and Functional Organization of Muscles: Introduction; The Functions of Muscles; Connective Tissues and Fascicles; Muscle Attachments; Functional Groups of Muscles; A Learning Strategy 10.2 Muscles of the Head and Neck: Muscles of Facial Expression; Muscles of Chewing and Swallowing; Muscles Acting on the Head 13 The Muscular System (Support and Movement: Muscular System) 10.3 Muscles of the Trunk: Muscles of Respiration; Muscles of the Anterior Abdominal Wall; Muscles of the Back 10.4 Muscles Acting on the Shoulder and Upper Limb: Muscles Acting on the Shoulder; Muscles Acting on the Arm; Muscles Acting on the Forearm 10.5 Muscles Acting on the Hip and Lower Limb: Muscles Acting on the Hip and Femur; Muscles Acting on the Knee and Leg; Muscles Acting on the Foot (NOTE: The required details on the muscles will be not be more than those covered during class.)

14 LAB FINAL EXAM: LABS 8-13

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Textbook, Course Guide & Lab Manual, and Learning Resources Textbook Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function; Kenneth Saladin; McGraw-Hill Publishers, 8th Edition, ISBN 9781259880193 Textbook options at BCC library: 1. Hardcover text version, 2. Loose-leaf version, and 3. E-version with Connect â„¢ http://www.mheducation.com/highered/product/M1259277720.html

Course Information Guide & Lab Manual Human Anatomy & Physiology I - BIO 23 - Course Information Guide and Lab Manual This is published by the Biological Sciences Department as a free resource for BCC students. A PDF can be downloaded from here (http://tiny.cc/B2324CG)

Other Learning Resources Free Online Anatomy Browser Just sign up for free, and login https://www.biodigital.com/ Free Human Anatomy and Physiology Textbook by OpenStax - Use online or download a PDF in your electronic device http://goo.gl/LDlhYN Video Guide to Bio23 Lab Models http://tiny.cc/B23V

Photo Guide to all Bio23 Lab Models http://tiny.cc/B23i

Collection of 100+ Short Videos Matching Textbook Chapters http://tiny.cc/B2324Videos Collection of 200+ Online Animations and Tutorials Bio23: http://tiny.cc/B23AT

15

The BIOLOGY STUDY LAB is in Meister 418 and is stocked with models, slides and microscopes, and computers. Tutors are available, and many of your instructors volunteer to spend time in the study lab to provide extra help. Hours are usually posted during the second week of the semester.

Give feedback to your instructor(s). If there is anything your instructor can do to help you succeed in the course, or to improve the course, please bring it to his or her attention. We value and depend on your constant feedback to make this course the best that it can be for all of our students.

General Info and Policies BIO23 Grading*

LECTURE GRADE 60% of BIO 23 Overall Grade LAB GRADE 40% of BIO 23 Overall Grade

Grade Breakdown Exam 1 Exam 2 Exam 3 Exam 4 Cumulative Final Exam Practical** Midterm Exam Practical Final Exam Quizzes

20% 20% 20% 20% 20% total 100% 30% 30% 40% total 100%

*Your instructor may modify the standard grading. If so, s/he will announce it the first day of classes **Practical means that you will be answering questions based on real specimens and models; your instructor will describe the format in more detail Dropped Exams and Quizzes Lecture: If any one of your in-class exam scores is lower than your final exam score, then the score for the in-class exam will be dropped and the final exam will be counted twice. If your final exam score is lower than all of your other exam scores, then nothing will be dropped and the final will be worth the same as your other exams. Under no circumstances will more than one exam grade be dropped.

Lab: The instructor may drop the two lowest quiz grades. Under no circumstances will the midterm or final practical exam grades be dropped Make-ups Make-up exams will not be given under any circumstances. However, if you know in advance that you must miss an exam, the instructor may allow you to take the exam early.

Extra Credit Extra credit is generally discouraged, but under no circumstances is extra credit to exceed 3% of the grade. Absolutely no extra credit assignments will be given to individual students.

Note: Your lecture and/or lab instructor may make changes to the number and content of assignments and exams, thus the percent distribution of grades may be different from those described above. If so, he or she will describe the grading policy to the class at the beginning of the semester.

16

Bronx Community College Grading System Bronx Community College Grading System Grade

% Equivalent

Achievement Level

Quality Point Weight

A+ A AB+ B BC+ C CD+ D DF

97 - 100 93 - 96.9 90 - 92.9 87 - 89.9 83 - 86.9 80 - 82.9 77 - 79.9 73 - 76.9 70 - 72.9 67 - 69.9 63 - 66.9 60 - 62.9 0 - 59.9

Superior Excellent ––– Above Average Good ––– ––– Average Below Average Below Average Below Average Below Average Failure

4.0 4.0 3.7 3.3 3.0 2.7 2.3 2.0 1.7 1.3 1.0 0.7 0.0

Attendance Bronx Community College currently requires your instructor to take and file attendance records for every class. It is your responsibility to arrive at class on time and to be aware of the calendar of class meetings for your section.

The Department defines excessive absences as unexcused absences of more than 20% of scheduled class time. Students with an excessive absence record will receive an automatic grade of F in the course at your instructor’s discretion. Total scheduled class time includes lab, lecture, and online attendance, as required by the particular course.

Instructors also have the right to mark students absent if they arrive late or leave early from class.

Instructors are not required to grade tests and other forms of assessment of students with an excessive absence record. Instructors are also not required to offer makeup exams for students absent from scheduled exams.

Registration and prerequisites It is expected that students will meet minimum prerequisites (ENG02, RDL02 and MTH 05) as described in the schedule of classes distributed by the Office of the Registrar. If you have little or no previous background in biology or chemistry, it is highly recommended that you first enroll in Medical Terminology (BIO 22), The Human Body (BIO 21), or Chemistry (CHM 02) to strengthen your background. Note: your financial aid may not cover courses that are not listed on your curriculum pattern sheet. If you are enrolled in a program that does not require BIO 21, or 22 or CHM 02, please check with your financial aid officer before registering for the course.

Important! If you are seeking admission to the Nursing (RN) and other programs, you have a maximum of two attempts to achieve a C+ or greater in BIO 23. Please pay attention to the deadline for withdrawing from classes. If you are not making the grade that you need, you may withdraw so that you don’t lose one of your “attempts.”

17

Switching sections Students are not allowed to switch sections. This is not a decision up to your instructor, but a Biology Department policy.

Overtallying The Biology department does not overtally. This is not a decision up to your instructor, but a Biology Department policy. A section is closed once it reaches the maximum numbers of students allowed.

Credit hours and workload This course is worth four credits. It meets 6 hours per week (3 hours of lecture and 3 hours of laboratory).

You should be aware of the challenge that this course will place upon your time and effort and should choose a semester schedule of classes that allows for the demands of the course. If your previous educational background does not include coursework in the sciences (more specifically in the biological sciences), you should arrange your schedule so that you have at least 12 hours a week to devote to this course.

Children College regulations and common courtesy for your classmates prohibit the presence of children in either lecture or laboratory classrooms. Furthermore, children may NOT be left unattended in the common areas outside of classrooms for their own safety. Even if you already have childcare arrangements, you might consider using the referral service offered by the BCC Early Childhood Center (ECC). They will refer you to licensed daycare providers that you can use full time or in an emergency if your regular childcare services fall through. If your child is between 2 years, 9 months and 4 years old, you may enroll him/her in the ECC preschool. Fees are adjusted according to income, but there is usually a waiting list. Lastly, for evening students with school-age children, there is an after-school program in which you can enroll your child (also for a fee). Whatever your choice, please make arrangements (and back-up arrangements) for appropriate childcare prior to class attendance. See info about the Early Childhood Center here: https://www.bcc.cuny.edu/Early-Childhood-Center/

Cell Phones and Other Electronic Devices Common courtesy and appropriate classroom behavior dictate that the use of cell phones (incoming and outgoing) is both rude and inappropriate at any time during class. Your cell phones should be off or on silent mode when you enter the classroom. During exams, these devices MUST be turned off. Some instructors may ask students to leave electronic devices with him/her during exams.

Access and Equal Education Opportunity for Students The mission of Disability Services is to provide access and equal educational opportunity for students with disabilities, enabling them to succeed academically, socially, and professionally. See more here: http://www.bcc.cuny.edu/Disability-Services/, or contact the Disability Services Office (Loew Hall, Room 211, 718.289.5874).

University Policies on Academic Dishonesty (a.k.a. cheating) Academic dishonesty is prohibited at The City University of New York and is punishable by penalties, including failing grades, suspension, and expulsion, as provided here.

The following are some examples of cheating, but by no means is it an exhaustive list: ✓ Copying from another student during an examination or allowing another to copy your work.

Unauthorized collaboration on a take-home assignment or examination 18

✓ Using notes during a closed book examination ✓ Taking an examination for another student or asking or allowing another student to take an examination for you ✓ Changing a graded exam and returning it for more credit ✓ Submitting substantial portions of the same paper to more than one course without consulting with each instructor ✓ Preparing answers or writing notes in a blue book (exam booklet) before an examination ✓ Allowing others to research and write assigned papers or do assigned projects, including use of commercial term paper services ✓ Giving assistance to acts of academic misconduct/dishonesty ✓ Fabricating data (all or in part) ✓ Submitting someone else's work as your own ✓ Unauthorized use during an examination of any electronic devices such as cell phones, palm pilots, computers or other technologies to retrieve or send information.

Instructor and Student Responsibilities Anatomy and physiology are fascinating subjects, but also quite challenging. This outline of instructor and student responsibilities is intended to help you navigate the course and all of its requirements to maximize your success and minimize your frustration.

INSTRUCTOR RESPONSIBILITIES It is the instructor’s responsibility to: 1. Start and end class on time. The instructor should not hold the class significantly beyond the end of class, nor should he or she dismiss class excessively early.

2. Conduct class in a manner that is unbiased and respectful.

3. Present relevant material. The instructor should present the material that is most important for you to learn and understand in your study of A&P. The method (PowerPoint, chalkboard) and style (lecture, skits, worksheets, etc) that your instructor uses is entirely up to him or her.

4. Notify you of changes to the syllabus. The instructor may decide to change the number, timing or coverage of exams, or to otherwise adjust the syllabus. In such cases, the instructor must notify students by making an announcement in class of the change(s). The instructor is not responsible for students who do not hear the announcement because they were either not present or not paying attention.

5. Give and grade exams in a timely fashion. The instructor should notify students when they can expect to receive graded exams. However, the time required to grade exams will vary according to the nature of the exam (scantron, short answer, essay, etc.).

6. Be available during scheduled office hours. The instructor will have scheduled office hour(s) during which he or she is expected to be in his or her office to address student concerns. If these times do not work for you, you may request that your professor schedule an appointment with you at another time.

Your instructor is NOT required to: i. give handouts or provide lecture notes ii. return exams or quizzes for you to keep iii. give review sessions or review sheets

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STUDENT RESPONSIBILITIES We hear over and over again “I failed because I had a bad instructor.” While few would argue that a great instructor makes being in the class more exciting, no instructor is responsible for your failure or your success; both depend on the amount and quality of work you put into the course. Ultimately, your performance in this and any class is your responsibility—it is squarely on your own shoulders. To that end, it is your responsibility to: 1. Prepare. Read the material for lecture and for laboratory at least once before you come to class. Use lab and lecture handouts to focus your reading on the most important topics. Observe the various diagrams, figures and tables and correlate each to the text. Take notes while you read. Write any questions that you think of in the margins or in your notebook.

2. Be present. Attend every class session and be there on time. Many instructors begin class by taking attendance. If you are late for this, it is your responsibility to notify the instructor after class that you were present. If you miss class time, it is your responsibility to get the material that you missed from your classmates; you should also make sure that you ask if there were any important announcements. If you miss an entire class, you should—at a minimum—arrange to copy notes from a classmate. You may also arrange to sit in on another instructor’s lecture with permission from that instructor.

3. Pay attention. Lecturing will take place in both the lecture and laboratory classrooms. Listen carefully. Take clear notes in phrase form (don’t try to write complete sentences). Consider using a tape recorder to tape lectures (ask your instructor for permission first). Keep at it; taking good notes is a skill that you will get better at over time.

4. Respect others in the class. If you’re talking, texting, giggling or snoring, it’s harder for everyone else in the class to pay attention. It’s also harder for the instructor to keep the flow of explanation.

If you must come to class late (or need to leave early), choose a seat that causes the least disruption to the class.

5. Know important dates. Do not rely on your instructor to remind you of upcoming exams and important deadlines. Knowing these dates is your responsibility. You should know the dates of your exams, deadlines for other assignments, drop deadlines, and any class dates that have been rescheduled on a non-scheduled day (i.e. Friday classes being give on a Tuesday).

6. Keep track of your grades. Record your grades in this handout. Calculate your average every couple of weeks to see how you’re doing. Ask your instructor if you aren’t sure. If your grade comes as a surprise to you at the end of the semester, it’s your fault.

7. Work hard outside of class. This is perhaps the most important factor relating to your success in the class. As much as possible, minimize other time commitments in your life. Keep in mind that for a 3-hour lecture, instructors spend (on average) 6-9 hours outside of class preparing—and they already know the material. How much time should you spend? Consider doing some or all of the following, but rest assured that if you do nothing outside of class, you will have wasted a semester of A&P. a. Within 24 hours of class, review or rewrite your notes being sure to fill in any missing information and correct any misspelled words. As you re-write your notes, pay attention to when something is confusing. Write your question(s) in your notes and leave space to answer it later when you come back to your notes. Then make sure that you either look in your book, or on the internet, or ask your instructor. b. Watch the videos and animations that are on the CD that comes with your textbook. These often help to illustrate some of the more complicated concepts in the course. Look for websites online that explain the topics that were covered in class. Sometimes hearing or seeing something explained another way will help you remember it.

20

c. Form study groups. Numerous studies have shown that we learn best by explaining concepts to someone else. These same studies frequently show improvements of 20% or more on grade averages for students that learn in groups. Don’t be embarrassed to form a group because you think you’re weak, and don’t think that you won’t benefit from group study because you’re a strong student. Groups help everyone. d. Quiz yourself. Quiz your classmates. Use study questions from the lecture guides, use online and CD quizzes, copy diagrams with the labels covered up, answer questions from the back of the book. The more active you are, the better your brain will learn it. Don’t just re-read your notes. e. Play to your strengths. Figure out your learning styles or preferences (see page 14). Try to incorporate those preferences into how you study. Try various ways of exposing yourself to the information. Consider using a tape recorder to record lectures or make study sheets or flash cards to take out every time you’re sitting still for more than a few minutes (like on the train or bus).

8. Do your own work. While it certainly helps to study with others, relying on someone else’s notes won’t help you much at all—even if the notes are from your instructor. Your brain learns by doing.

9. Don’t fall behind. Don’t wait to get started until week 2 or 3 just because it doesn’t seem like a lot of material at first. If something is unclear, ask a question. If you’re struggling, don’t be embarrassed—ask for help early. If you wait too long, it may be too late. You should talk to your instructor if you’re having a very hard time, but you can also try the following: a. Learning Resource Center is located on the first floor of Sage Hall (behind Meister Hall). It has videos and animations for all of the major concepts covered in A&P. Some tutoring is also available. b. Biology Study Lab is in Meister 418 and is stocked with models, slides and microscopes, and computers.

Tutors are available, and many of your instructors volunteer to spend time in the study lab to provide extra help. Hours are usually posted during the second week of the semester.

10. Give feedback to your instructor(s). If there is anything your instructor can do to help you succeed in the course, or to improve the course, please bring it to his or her attention. We value and depend on your constant feedback to make this course the best that it can be for all of our students.

How to Download Lab Manual (Worksheets) You have been provided with the course information booklet, the first two lecture topic outlines, and first two lab worksheets in this package. Download the rest of the course material from: Human Anatomy and Physiology Website: http://tiny.cc/B2324CG Electronic Reserves at the BCC Library website. Electronic course reserves are password restricted. You will need to select your course from a drop down menu and then enter your library ID/Barcode number (this number is located on the back of your ID card under the words Library ID and begins with 22094.........)

How to Access Blackboard 1. Go to BCC website: http://www.bcc.cuny.edu/ > Click on Quick Links > Select Blackboard 2. Once you log in, select your course from the My Courses box on the left Contact the Technology Service Center (Help Desk) if you have any problems accessing CUNY portal or Blackboard: Mon-Fri 8:00am-7:00pm@ Roscoe Brown [RB], Room 308; 718.289.5970; tsc@bcc.cuny.edu

21

BCC Computer Facilities Academic Computing provides 14 computer labs located throughout the campus, which are equipped with networked microcomputers. All of the labs have Internet access. The computer labs are located in CP 320, CO 602/603, LH 320, ME 224, 225, 302, 318, 320, G01, G02, G16, G17, NH 23 and NH101.

Updated computer lab schedules can be found at http://www.bcc.cuny.edu/services/computer-labs/

Printing If you are printing PowerPoint slides you can do it fitting 4 or 6 slides per page. Ask at the computer facilities for assistance. Save trees! And carry less weight.

Advisement •

•

Martell (Meister Hall, room 323, 718289-5966, Diana.Martell@bcc.cuny.edu)

Visit the Academic Success Center.

The ASC is committed to promoting and delivering consistent high-quality academic advising designed to help students achieve excellence in their academic and professional goals. Sage Hall, room 20; 718-289-5401, academic.advisement@bcc.cuny.edu

•

Meet Your Academic Success Coach.

Academic Success Coaches will be working closely with faculty advisors to ensure that you are successful in your academic journey. The Biology Department Success Coach is Diana

- 22 -

Use Starfish. Starfish is an online platform that brings together students, faculty and advisors with a common goal of supporting student success. Starfish includes an early alert system where faculty can raise awareness about the challenges that students may be facing in their classes early enough in the semester. Look for its link in the BCC website. Learn more about Starfish here: https://bcccuny.digication.com/starfish/Home

Academic Calendars and Schedule of Classes FALL 2019 CALENDAR Students wishing to withdraw from any course in which they are registered may do so at any time prior to November 5. Check for updates of the College Calendar at http://www.bcc.cuny.edu/academics/academic-calendar/. If you are pre-nursing or pre-radiology, you should keep this date in mind so that you don’t lose one of your two “attempts.”

Dates 08/26/2019

Days Monday

08/27/2019 09/02/2019

Tuesday Monday

09/05/2019 09/09/2019 09/16/2019

Thursday Monday Monday

09/17/2019 09/30/201910/01/2019 10/08/201910/09/2019 10/14/2019 10/16/2019 11/05/2019 11/28/201912/01/2019 12/13/2019 12/14/201912/20/2019 12/20/2019 12/24/201912/25/2019 12/27/2019

Tuesday Monday-Tuesday

Description Last day to file ePermit request Last day to drop for 100% tuition refund Classes begin College Closed Last day to add a course Last day to drop for 75% tuition refund Classes follow Monday schedule Last day to drop for 50% tuition refund Last day to drop for 25% tuition refund Last day to Change or Declare a Major/Minor to be effective Fall Census date First day to withdraw from a course with a grade of W No classes scheduled

Tuesday-Wednesday

No classes scheduled

Monday Wednesday Tuesday Thursday-Sunday

College Closed Classes follow Monday schedule Last day to withdraw from a course with a grade of W College Closed

Friday Saturday-Friday

Reading Day Final Examinations

Friday Tuesday-Wednesday

End of Term College Closed

Friday

Final Grade Submission Deadline*

Lecture Final Exams are scheduled from December 14th until December 20th. Check for updates of the Final Examination Schedule at http://www.bcc.cuny.edu/services/registrar/final-exam-schedule/. As the actual exam times are not scheduled until a couple of weeks before they happen, please do not make travel plans that conflict with any part of the final exam week.

Lab midterms and lab finals occur during the regularly scheduled lab period (7th week and 14th week, respectively), regardless of whether they occur during the college’s scheduled midterm week. There is no “midterm exam” for lecture. Your midterm grade is simply the weighted average of your grades thus far in the semester. Final exams during final exam week are for lecture only.

23

FALL 2019 SCHEDULE OF CLASSES

See Syllabus for the Topic of the Week.

WEEK

If you have classes on MONDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

If you have classes on TUESDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

If you have classes on WEDNESDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

If you have classes on THURSDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

If you have classes on FRIDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

If you have classes on SATURDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

1

Thu, 9/5

Tue, 8/27

Wed, 8/28

Thu, 8/29 (then skip one week)

Fri, 8/30

Sat, 8/31

2

Mon, 9/9

Tue, 9/3

Wed, 9/4

Thu, 9/12

Fri, 9/6

Sat, 9/7

3

Mon, 9/16

Tue, 9/10

Wed, 9/11

Thu, 9/19

Fri, 9/13

Sat, 9/14

Tue, 9/17

Wed, 9/18

Thu, 9/26

Fri, 9/20

Sat, 9/21

Thu, 10/3

Fri, 9/27

Sat, 9/28

Thu, 10/10

Fri, 10/4

Sat, 10/5

Thu, 10/17 LAB MIDTERM

Fri, 10/11 LAB MIDTERM

Sat, 10/12 LAB MIDTERM

4

5

Mon, 9/23 (then skip one week) Mon, 10/7 (then skip one week)

Tue, 9/24 (then skip two weeks)

Wed, 9/25

6

Wed, 10/16

Tue, 10/15

7

Mon, 10/21 LAB MIDTERM

Tue, 10/22 LAB MIDTERM

Wed, 10/2 (then skip two weeks) Wed, 10/23 LAB MIDTERM

8

Mon, 10/28

Tue, 10/29

Wed, 10/30

Thu, 10/24

Fri, 10/18

Sat, 10/19

9

Mon, 11/4

Tue, 11/5

Wed, 11/6

Thu, 10/31

Fri, 10/25

Sat, 10/26

10

Mon, 11/11

Tue, 11/12

Wed, 11/13

Thu, 11/7

Fri, 11/1

Sat, 11/2

11

Mon, 11/18

Tue, 11/19

Wed, 11/20

Thu, 11/14

Fri, 11/8

Sat, 11/9

12

Mon, 11/25

Tue, 11/26

Wed, 11/27

Thu, 11/21 (then skip one week)

Fri, 11/15

Sat, 11/16

Fri, 11/22 (then skip one week) Fri, 12/6 LAB FINAL

Sat, 11/23 (then skip one week) Sat, 12/7 LAB FINAL

13

Mon, 12/2

Tue, 12/3

Wed, 12/4

Thu, 12/5

14

Mon, 12/9 LAB FINAL

Tue, 12/10 LAB FINAL

Wed, 12/11 LAB FINAL

Thu, 12/12 LAB FINAL

24

SPRING 2020 CALENDAR Students wishing to withdraw from any course in which they are registered may do so at any time prior to April 1. Check for updates of the College Calendar at http://www.bcc.cuny.edu/academics/academiccalendar/. If you are pre-nursing or pre-radiology, you should keep this date in mind so that you don’t lose one of your two “attempts.”

Dates 01/26/2020

Days Sunday

01/27/2020

Monday

02/02/2020

Sunday

02/09/2020 02/12/2020 02/16/2020

Sunday Wednesday Sunday

02/17/2020

Monday

04/01/2020 04/07/2020 04/08/202004/16/2020 05/15/2020 05/16/202005/22/2020 05/22/2020 05/25/2020 05/28/2020

Wednesday Tuesday Wednesday-Thursday

Description Last day to drop for 100% tuition refund Last day to file ePermit request Start of Spring Term Classes Begin Last day to add a course Last day to drop for 75% tuition refund Last day to drop for 50% tuition refund College Closed Last day to drop for 25% tuition refund Last day to Change or Declare a Major/Minor to be effective Spring Census date College Closed Grade of W is assigned to students who officially withdraw from a course Last day to withdraw from course with a grade of W Classes follow Wednesday schedule Spring Recess

Friday Saturday-Friday

Reading Day Final Examinations

Friday Monday Thursday

End of Spring Term College Closed Final Grade Submission Deadline

Lecture Final Exams are scheduled from May 16 until May 22. Check for updates of the Final Examination Schedule at http://www.bcc.cuny.edu/services/registrar/final-exam-schedule/. As the actual exam times are not scheduled until approximately mid-way through the semester, please do not make travel plans that conflict with any part of the final exam week.

Lab midterms and lab finals occur during the regularly scheduled lab period (7th week and 14th week, respectively), regardless of whether they occur during the college’s scheduled midterm week. There is no “midterm exam” for lecture. Your midterm grade is simply the weighted average of your grades thus far in the semester. Final exams during final exam week are for lecture only.

25

SPRING 2020 SCHEDULE OF CLASSES See Syllabus for the Topic of the Week.

If you have classes on MONDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

If you have classes on TUESDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

If you have classes on WEDNESDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

If you have classes on THURSDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

If you have classes on FRIDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

If you have classes on SATURDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

Mon, 1/27

Tue, 1/28

Wed, 1/29

Thu, 1/30

Fri, 1/31

Sat, 2/1

Thu, 2/6

Fri, 2/7

Sat, 2/8

WEEK

1 2

Mon, 2/3

Tue, 2/4

Wed, 2/5 (then skip one week)

3

Mon, 2/10 (then skip one week)

Tue, 2/11

Wed, 2/19

Thu, 2/13

Fri, 2/14

Sat, 2/15

4

Mon, 2/24

Tue, 2/18

Wed, 2/26

Thu, 2/20

Fri, 2/21

Sat, 2/22

5

Mon, 3/2

Tue, 2/25

Wed, 3/4

Thu, 2/27

Fri, 2/28

Sat, 2/29

6

Mon, 3/9

Tue, 3/3

Wed, 3/11

Thu, 3/5

Fri, 3/6

Sat, 3/7

7

Mon, 3/16 LAB MIDTERM

Tue, 3/10 LAB MIDTERM

Wed, 3/18 LAB MIDTERM

Thu, 3/12 LAB MIDTERM

Fri, 3/13 LAB MIDTERM

Sat, 3/14 LAB MIDTERM

8

Mon, 3/23

Tue, 3/17

Wed, 3/25

Thu, 3/19

Fri, 3/20

Sat, 3/21

9

Mon, 3/30

Tue, 3/24

Wed, 4/1

Thu, 3/26

Fri, 3/27

Sat, 3/28

10

Mon, 4/6 (then skip one week)

Tue, 3/31 (then skip two weeks)

Tue, 4/7 (then skip one week)

Thu, 4/2 (then skip two weeks)

Fri, 4/3 (then skip one week)

Sat, 4/4 (then skip one week)

11

Mon, 4/20

Tue, 4/21

Wed, 4/22

Thu, 4/23

Fri, 4/17

Sat, 4/18

12

Mon, 4/27

Tue, 4/28

Wed, 4/29 (then skip one weeks)

Thu, 4/30

Fri, 4/24

Sat, 4/25

13

Mon, 5/4

Tue, 5/5

Wed, 5/6

Thu, 5/7

Fri, 5/1

Sat, 5/2

14

Mon, 5/11 LAB FINAL

Tue, 5/12 LAB FINAL

Wed, 5/13 LAB FINAL

Thu, 5/14 LAB FINAL

Fri, 5/8 LAB FINAL

Sat, 5/9 LAB FINAL

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Frequently Asked Questions PREREQUISITES

is less expensive and easier to handle than the hard copy.

Q: What are the Bio23 prerequisites?

A: ENG02, RDL02 and MTH 05. We also highly recommend that you take BIO21; BIO22, and/or CHM02 before taking Bio23 if you haven’t taken any Biology course before. Double check you financial aid situation first.

Q: Is there an online version of the textbook?

A: Yes. Go to http://www.coursesmart.com/0077676653 to rent ebook. It allows you to search, highlight, copy/paste, print, etc. The subscription lasts one year. See the website above for more info.

Q: What are the Bio24 prerequisites?

A: Bio23. We also highly recommend taking Bio24 only if you have C+ or higher grade in Bio23.

Q: Is the textbook available at the library?

Yes. There are a few textbooks available at the library on reserve.

Also, you can obtain the first three chapters and the atlas through electronic reserves at http://tiny.cc/eRatBCC

Q: Can I take both Bio23 and Bio24 together?

A: No. COURSE MATERIAL AND LAB MANUAL

GRADES Q: Where can I get the Course Guide and Lab Manual from?

A: (1) Download it from Electronic Reserves at the BCC Library Website http://tiny.cc/eRatBCC OR (2) Download it from the A&P online course companion http://tiny.cc/B2324CG

Q: How do I calculate my overall grade?

A: You can calculate your grade using the formula below. The formula uses a 0-100 grade scale.

Double check with your instructor about minor changes in his/her lab grade breakdown. Adjust the formula to your instructor grading breakdown.

Overall Grade = Lab Grade x 0.4 + Lecture Grade x 0.6 Lecture Grade = (E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 + Final) / 5 Note that final exam will count twice by replacing the lowest/absent lecture exam grade.

Lab Grade = Midterm x 0.30 + Final x 0.30 + Quizzes x 0.40

TEXTBOOK Q: Can I use an older version of Saladin 8th Edition?

A: Yes. Just be aware that when your instructor refers to pages or figures in the 8th edition, they might differ from yours.

See BCC Grading system http://tiny.cc/BCCGrading

Q: Can I use a different textbook (other author’s)?

A: Yes, but double check with your instructor. There is a free textbook available at http://tiny.cc/OpenETxtbook

at

Q: Why no one told me about my grade until the end of the semester?

A: Because it is your responsibility to keep track of your grades. You should ask your instructor for clarification at the BEGINNING of the semester, not at the end, when it might be too late to plan for changes. See how to calculate your grade above.

Q: Where can I purchase the textbook?

A: The hardcopy of the textbook is available at the BCC bookstore, and at many online stores. The BCC bookstore also has a lose-leaf version, which

Q: What is the passing grade?

27

A: Like most courses at BCC, the passing grade is 60 (D-). HOWEVER, many programs at BCC (e.g.

Nursing, Radiology, and Nuclear Medicine) require a C+ or higher to be accepted into the program.

exam and failing the course will receive an automatic grade of F in the course.

Q: How do I get a W in the course?

A: To receive a grade of W students must officially withdraw from class between the 3rd and 10th week, by filing an online withdrawal form (via CUNYFirst). Neither the Department nor your instructor can assign or change your grade to a W.

Q: I don't want a C grade or lower, can the professor give me an F? A: No. The professor cannot manipulate your grade. You will only get an F in the course if your grades average below 60. A very low grade in the lecture final exam will very likely bring your grade average to an F.

ATTENDANCE/LATENESS Q: Is attendance mandatory?

A: Yes. Students with an excessive absence record will receive an automatic F in the course. The Department defines excessive absence as having missed more than three scheduled classes.

Q: I got my Midterm Grade‌can I still get a C+?!

A: Here is a rule of thumb: If your Midterm Grade is 70, then you need to get AT LEAST 84 in ALL the remaining assignments (Lecture Exam 3, Lecture Exam 4, Lecture Final, Lab Quizzes, Lab Final and any other assignment your instructor gives you). Doable, but you need to significantly increase the amount of time you spend studying and reviewing in an effective way.

If your Midterm Grade is 65, then you need to get AT LEAST 89 in ALL the remaining assignments (Lecture Exam 3, Lecture Exam 4, Lecture Final, Lab Quizzes, Lab Final and any other assignment).

Highly unlikely to happen. Almost no one makes it If your Midterm Grade is 60, then you need to get AT LEAST 94 in ALL the remaining assignments (Lecture Exam 3, Lecture Exam 4, Lecture Final, Lab Quizzes, Lab Final and any other assignment).

Almost impossible

Q: What about lateness?

A: Instructors have the right to mark students absent if (1) students arrive 15 or more minutes late on three occasions, and/or (2) students leave 15 or more minutes early before the class ends.

LAB MIDTERM and LAB FINAL Q: When is the lab midterm/lab final?

A: You can find the dates on the calendar in the handout given to you the first week of classes, in the A&P Bulletin Board on the 4th floor of Meister Hall, and in the A&P website. Lab Midterm is the 7th week of classes, and lab final the 14th.

Q: If I missed a lab, can I go to another section taught by another professor to make it up?

A: This is up to your instructor. It also depends on availability of space on other lab section, and the willingness of other instructor to let you sit in her/his lab. Consult with you instructor.

Q: Can I get an incomplete (INC) in the course?

A: An INC grade is only assigned to students who miss the course final exam AND are otherwise passing the course AND have an excused absence approved by the instructor from the course final exam. Students have until the 10th week of the following semester to resolve the INC grade.

Q: Can I drop the lab midterm or the lab final?

A: No

Q: How did I end up with an F in the course!!!?

A: You fail the course if you have an average below 60. In addition to students who academically fail the course (1) Students who attend at least two class periods but unofficially stop attending will receive an automatic grade of F in the course, or (2) Students who are absent from any course final

Q: Can I make up the lab midterm or the lab final?

A: No. Consult your professor in case of an emergency. You’ll need to document the reason of your absence.

LECTURE FINAL EXAM 28

A: Because this is the Bio23/24 policy, which might or might not coincide with other courses/departments policies.

Q: Is the lecture final exam cumulative?

A: Yes. This means that the final covers ALL the topics seen during the entire semester (i.e. first class to last class).

SWITCHING SECTIONS

Q: I have to travel during finals; can I make up the final?

A: No. The week of finals is posted in the CUNY academic calendar website (http://www.cuny.edu/academics/calendars.html) more than one year in advance. You should be able to plan well in advance. Consult your professor in case of an emergency. You’ll need to document the reason of your absence.

Q: Can I switch sections?

A: No

Q: Can I make up the lecture final exam?

A: No. Only in the case of a well-documented emergency you might qualify for an incomplete grade (INC). An INC grade is only assigned to students who miss the course final exam AND are otherwise passing the course AND have an instructor approved excused absence from the course final exam. Students have until the 11th week of the following semester to resolve and INC grade. Consult with you instructor.

Q: Are instructors required to provide handouts?

A: No. It is up to each instructor’s criterion, style, and pedagogic philosophy.

Q: Can I drop the lecture final exam?

A: No

Q: Is it better to take Anatomy and Physiology during the summer or during the regular academic semester?

A: This depends on your schedule and the amount of time you have to designate for study and review.

You should be aware that the summer course moves at a faster pace as opposed to the fall/spring course, so you must be certain that your schedule will allow you adequate time to prepare.

Additionally, you should speak with a Biology professor to determine which will work best for you.

You can think it his way: Fall/Spring sessions are like a full-time job. Summer sessions are like a fulltime job with plenty of overtime, think summer equals two full time jobs.

Q: Why not?

A: Because this is a Biological Sciences Department policy.

HANDOUTS AND RETURNED EXAMS AND QUIZZES

Q: Are instructors required to give exams back?

A: No. It is up to each instructor’s criterion, style, and pedagogic philosophy.

SUMMER SESSION SESSIONS

LECTURE EXAM MAKEUPS Q: Can I make up the lecture exam?

A: No. If you know in advance you will be missing an exam, tell your professor. (S)he might allow you to take it in advance. Consult with you instructor.

EXTRA CREDIT Q: Can I do an extra credit assignment to raise my grade?

A: No. There are no extra credit assignments in Bio23/Bio24.

Q: My other professor in other department let me do extra credit assignments, why can’t I do it in Bio23/24?

vs.

FALL/SPRING

STUDYING FOR A&P Q: How much should I study to get a C+ in the course?

29

A: This is a hard one to answer. There is no onsize-fits-all rule. However, just as a guideline you can use this rule of thumb: You need to study at least 18 hours a week. More if you have no science background and don’t feel comfortable with A&P, less if you really like A&P and have some background in the sciences. See under “Student Responsibilities” in the Study Guide and Lab Manual for a more comprehensive advice.

Q: What should I do if I feel overwhelmed by the workload of A&P? A: Speak to your professor immediately if you begin to feel that the workload is overwhelming. In some cases, time management and alterations to your schedule may be necessary to free up enough time for the course work.

Q: Where can I get help?

A: Talk to your professor and go to your professor’s office hours. You can also go to see the tutors at the Biology Study Lab (ME418). The Study Lab counts with tutors that can help you. The Study Lab has CD-Roms with tutorials, computers with internet access, and many of the models and slides you use in the lab component of the courses.

Study Lab hours are posted on the doors of the 4th floor rooms. The study lab opens after the second week of classes.

Q: Is understanding the scientific/medical terminology necessary to do well in the course?

A: Absolutely! Mastery of vocabulary and terminology will provide you with greater understanding of the material you read and are exposed to in class lectures. You can reference the glossary and the lexicon in the back of the textbook or utilize additional resources, such as a medical dictionary or an online encyclopedia, to learn the terminology.

Q: Can I use outside sources to supplement the A&P required textbook?

A: Yes. Just be sure that the outside resources, including websites, are credible and have correct information (e.g. usually dot edu sites). If you are not certain, just ask your instructor. Also, focus on just a couple of resources (e.g. a textbook, a website you find helpful, and your notes). If you diversify a lot you will lose focus and get easily overwhelmed.

Q: What about help with technical problems?

A: Check the Technology Service Center (ex-Help Desk) 718.289.5970; Roscoe Brown [RB], Room 308; http://tiny.cc/TSCatBCC Q: I have a question not answered above, where do I go for help?

A: Ask you professor. If (s)he doesn’t know, (s)he can find out for you, or direct you to where to look for the answer.

HELP!

30

BIO 23 LECTURE TOPICS AND LAB TOPICS AND STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES (THINGS TO KNOW) BIO 23 student learning outcomes is a derivative work from material copyrighted by the Human Anatomy and Physiology Society (HAPS)

1-Introduction To A&P: Body Plan & Organization (Lab Topic) 1. Describe a person in anatomical position.

Anatomical position

2. Describe how to use the terms right and left in anatomical reference.

1. Identify the various planes in which a body might be dissected.

Body planes & sections 2. Describe the appearance of a body presented along various planes.

Body cavities & regions

1. Describe the location of the body cavities and identify the major organs found in each cavity.

1. List and define the major directional terms used in anatomy.

Directional terms

Basic terminology

Levels of organization

Survey of body systems

2. Describe the location of body structures, using appropriate directional terminology.

1. Define the terms anatomy and physiology.

2. Give specific examples to show the interrelationship between anatomy and physiology.

1. Describe, in order from simplest to most complex, the major levels of organization in the human organism.

2. Give an example of each level of organization.

1. List the organ systems of the human body and their major components.

2. Describe the major functions of each organ system.

2-Introduction To A&P: Homeostasis (Lecture Topic) Definition

1. Define homeostasis 1. List the components of a feedback loop and explain the function of each.

General types of homeostatic mechanisms

2. Compare and contrast positive and negative feedback in terms of the relationship between stimulus and response.

3. Explain why negative feedback is the most commonly used mechanism to maintain homeostasis in the body.

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1. Provide an example of a negative feedback loop that utilizes the nervous system to relay information. Describe the specific organs, structures, cells or molecules (receptors, neurons, CNS structures, effectors, neurotransmitters) included in the feedback loop.

Examples of homeostatic mechanisms

2. Provide an example of a negative feedback loop that utilizes the endocrine system to relay information. Describe the specific cells or molecules (production cells, hormones, target cells) included in the feedback loop.

3. Provide an example of a positive feedback loop in the body. Describe the specific structures (organs, cells or molecules) included in the feedback loop.

LECTURE STUDY QUESTIONS: HOMEOSTASIS 1. List the hierarchical levels that we learned about in class. Define the terms (i.e. what is a “tissue”?). Come up with at least two examples of each level.

2. Which hierarchical levels do living and non-living things have in common?

3. Which hierarchical levels are unique to living things?

4. Which level is considered the most basic unit of life? What does that mean?

5. List the characteristics of life. Give a brief definition of each characteristic.

6. Do the characteristics of life refer to individuals or populations? Explain.

7. Can a person evolve?

8. If an organism can’t produce offspring, is it still alive?

9. Apply each of the characteristics to something non-living (like a car or computer). Is it organized? Does it develop? Explain why even if some of the characteristics apply to the object you’ve chosen, it still isn’t alive.

10. What is homeostasis? What does it mean (in your own words)?

11. What is negative feedback? What does the “negative” refer to? Is negative feedback bad?

12. Give an example of negative feedback in human biology (something other than body temperature). Give an example of negative feedback which is NOT biological (like heating your apartment).

13. What is positive feedback? What does the “positive” refer to? Is positive feedback always good?

14. Give an example of positive feedback in human biology. Give an example of positive feedback which is NOT biological.

15. What things should you look for in an example to determine whether you are seeing negative or positive feedback?

What features allow you to tell them apart?

16. Draw a graph of negative feedback.

Draw a graph of positive feedback.

17. Which type of feedback is essential for homeostasis?

18. Give some examples of things in your body that are maintained by homeostasis.

19. List the hierarchical levels that we learned about in class. Define the terms (i.e. what is a “tissue”?). Come up with at least two examples of each level.

3-Levels of Organization: The Chemical Level of Organization (Lecture Topic) 1. With respect to the structure of an atom: - 32 -

a. Describe the charge, mass, and relative location of electrons, protons and neutrons. b. Relate the number of electrons in an electron shell to an atom’s chemical stability and its ability to form chemical bonds c. Explain how ions are produced by changing the number of specific subatomic particles.

Atoms & molecules

c. Define isotope and explain how isotopes are different from each other d. Distinguish among the terms atomic number, mass number and atomic weight.

2. Compare and contrast the terms ions, electrolytes, free radicals, isotopes and radioisotopes 3. Compare and contrast the terms atoms, molecules, elements, and compounds.

Chemical bonding

Inorganic compounds & solutions

With respect to non-polar covalent, polar covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds: a. List each type of bond in order by relative strength. b. Explain the mechanism of each type of bond. c. Provide biologically significant examples of each.

1. Discuss the physiologically important properties of water.

2. Distinguish among the terms solution, solute, solvent, colloid, suspension, and emulsion.

3. Define the term salt and give examples of physiological significance.

4. Define the terms pH, acid, base, and buffer and give examples of physiological significance.

5. State acidic, neutral, and alkaline pH values.

1. Differentiate between substrate and product, and define chemical equation 2. Define metabolism, synthesis (anabolic), decomposition (catabolic), and exchange reactions

Chemical Reactions

3. Differentiate between reversible reactions and irreversible reactions 4. Explain dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions

Organic compounds

5. Explain the relationship between monomers and polymers 1. Define the term organic molecule.

2. Explain the relationship between monomers and polymers.

3. Define and give examples of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions.

4. With respect to carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids: a. Identify the monomers and polymers. b. Compare and contrast general molecular structure. c. Provide specific examples. d. Identify dietary sources. e. Discuss physiological and structural roles in the human body.

- 33 -

5. Describe the four levels of protein structure and discuss the importance of protein shape for protein function.

6. Demonstrate factors that affect enzyme activity, including denaturation, and interpret graphs showing the effects of various factors on the rate of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.

Energy transfer using ATP

Describe the generalized reversible reaction for release of energy from ATP and explain the role of ATP in the cell.

LECTURE STUDY QUESTIONS: THE CHEMICAL LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION 1. How are subatomic particles related to 14. Draw H+. What subatomic particle(s) atoms and molecules? is it made of?

2. Create a table to compare each of the 15. What has to happen to Cl in order for it subatomic particles in terms of mass, to become Cl-? charge, and location in the atom.

16. Make a table comparing the four types 3. What is the “atomic number”? What of bonding that you learned about information does it give us? Can two (ionic, non-polar covalent, polar different elements have the same covalent, and hydrogen). Compare atomic number? them in terms of how electrons are 4. What is the “atomic mass”? What shared, the electrical property of the information does it give us? Can two resulting molecule (charged, partially different elements have the same charged, neutral), and draw an atomic mass? example of each.

5. Draw each of the following atoms 17. What makes water such an excellent using the planetary model: H, C, Na, solvent?

O, Cl. You will need to use the 18. What does the structural formula for periodic table to determine the number water (H2O) tell us? of each subatomic particle that you’ll 19. If we write the structural formula for need to use. water like this: H-O-H, what do the 6. Which subatomic particle is lines between the letters represent? responsible for chemical bonding with 20. What does the structural formula for other atoms? I an atom has 6 electrons glucose (C6H12O6) tell us? in its valence shell, how many bonds 21. What is pH? can it form?

22. If a solution has a pH of 9.3, is it an 7. What is an isotope? acid or a base? Does it have a high 8. Which subatomic particle is concentration of H+ or a low responsible for creating isotopes? concentration?

9. Carbon normally has an atomic mass 23. If you add an acid to a beaker of water, of 12, yet one isotope of carbon (C14) will the pH go up or down? What will has an atomic mass of 14. What is the happen to the concentration of H+? difference between them?

24. Of the types of chemical bonds that we 10. What is a radioisotope? discussed, which do you think would 11. What is an ion? be most strongly disrupted by a pH 12. What has to happen to Na in order for imbalance? Why? it to become Na+?

25. What is a buffer? Why are buffers 13. What has to happen to H in order for it important? to become H+?

26. What kinds of things act as buffers in our bodies?

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27. Given the reaction: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O, what are the reactants?

What are the products?

28. Give an example of each of the following kinds of reactions: synthesis, decomposition, exchange, reversible.

29. Explain the law of mass action.

30. Given the reaction: CO2 + H2O → H2CO3, what are the reactants and the products? What would happen to the reaction direction if you added more CO2 and H2O? What would happen if you added more H2CO3?

31. What is an organic molecule? What element is used as the backbone of organic molecules?

32. What are functional groups? Draw and label each of the functional groups that we covered and describe any special chemical properties that they have.

33. What are the four types of organic molecules? Make a table where you list the monomer names, polymer names, functions, and examples of each type of organic molecule.

34. Draw an example of each type of organic molecule. Circle the

functional groups that you see. Below each drawing, describe things about the organic molecule that would help you identify it (types of elements used, ratios, unique shapes, etc).

35. How do monomers become polymers?

What is the name of the chemical reaction? What molecule is produced?

36. How do polymers become monomers?

What is the name of the chemical reaction?

37. How are the following terms related? synthesis, decomposition, anabolism, catabolism, metabolism, dehydration synthesis, hydrolysis 38. What are the four levels of protein structure? What kind of bond or chemical attraction forms each level?

Which of these do you expect to be the most strongly affected by pH imbalance?

39. What are enzymes? What are they usually made of? What is their role in the cell?

40. What is ATP? What kind of molecule is it? What is its role in the cell?

4-Levels of Organization: The Cellular Level of Organization (Lab and Lecture Topic) Intracellular organization of nucleus & cytoplasm Membrane structure & function Mechanisms for movement of materials across cell membranes

1. Identify the three main parts of a cell, and list the general functions of each.

2. Explain how cytoplasm and cytosol are different.

1. Describe how lipids are distributed in a cell membrane, and explain their functions.

2. Describe how carbohydrates are distributed in a cell membrane, and explain their functions.

3. Describe how proteins are distributed in a cell membrane, and explain their functions.

1. With respect to the following membrane transport processes – simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, active transport, exocytosis, endocytosis, phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptormediated endocytosis & filtration a. State the type of material moving in each process. b. Describe the mechanism by which movement of material occurs in each process.

- 35 -

Organelles

Protein synthesis

Introduction to Cellular respiration

Somatic cell division

c. Discuss the energy requirements and, if applicable, the sources of energy for each process. d. Give examples of each process in the human body.

2. Describe the effects of hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic conditions on cells.

3. Demonstrate various cell transport processes and, given appropriate information, predict the outcomes of these demonstrations.

1. Define the term organelle.

2. For each different type of organelle associated with human cells: a. Identify the organelle. b. Describe the structure of the organelle. c. Describe the function of the organelle 1. Define the terms genetic code, transcription and translation.

2. Explain how and why RNA is synthesized.

3. Explain the roles of tRNA, mRNA, and rRNA in protein synthesis.

4. Explain the steps by which a cell builds proteins using the DNA code 5. Discuss why protein synthesis is an important process 1. Define the term cellular respiration.

2. With respect to glycolysis, the Krebs (citric acid or TCA) cycle, and the electron transport chain: compare and contrast energy input, efficiency of energy production, oxygen use, byproducts and cellular location.

1. Referring to a generalized cell cycle, including interphase and the stages of mitosis: a. Describe the events that take place in each stage. b. Identify cells that are in each stage. c. State the functional significance of each stage.

2. Distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis.

3. Describe DNA replication.

4. Analyze the interrelationships among chromatin, chromosomes and chromatids.

5. Give examples of cell types in the body that divide by mitosis and examples of circumstances in the body that require mitotic cell division.

1. Describe the overall process of meiosis.

Reproductive cell division

2. Compare and contrast the processes of mitosis and meiosis in terms of number of daughter cells produced, and number of chromosomes each produced cells carries; and the type of cells resulting from each type of division.

3. Give examples of cell types in the body that divide by meiosis and examples of circumstances in the body that require meiotic cell division.

LECTURE STUDY QUESTIONS PART I: MECHANISMS FOR MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS ACROSS CELL MEMBRANES 1. What is diffusion? What is osmosis?

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2. What happens to a cell if you put it in a concentrated sugar solution? What if you put it in water? Describe the tonicity of the solutions (hyper, hypo, iso).

3. What does it mean to travel down a concentration gradient? What about up?

4. How are direct and indirect active transport different? How are they similar?

5. What kind of transport is associated with a channel? A pump? A transporter? No protein at all?

6. Explain the difference between active and passive transport.

7. Give an example of a molecule which diffuses across the membrane without any help.

8. What is exocytosis? endocytosis? pinocytosis? phagocytosis? Draw a sketch of how these processes work.

9. Describe how the resting membrane potential is formed. Is it really resting?

10. What is an electrochemical gradient?

How is it different from a chemical gradient?

11. What protein generates the resting membrane potential?

12. What is the cell theory? What are its postulates

LECTURE STUDY QUESTIONS PART II: PROTEIN SYNTHESIS 1. What enzyme catalyzes DNA directly to the ribosome for replication? RNA transcription? translation?

2. When does DNA replication occur?

8. What is complementary base pairing?

What’s its purpose?

9. What is translation?

3. Draw a nucleotide. Now draw some 10. Where in the cell does it take place? more…show how they all fit together.

11. If a protein has 17 amino acids, how Which parts of the nucleotide form the many nucleotides were in the mRNA? backbone of the DNA double-helix?

If there are 936 nucleotides, how many How are complementary strands held amino acids can be formed? together?

12. Explain the relationship between: 4. What are the three main differences triplet, codon, anti-codon, amino acid. between RNA and DNA? Which one 13. Does the cell make all biological do you think is more stable? molecules (sugars, lipids, etc.) by 5. What is transcription? translation? If not, then how does the 6. Where in the cell does it take place? cell make the other kinds of 7. Why don’t we make protein directly molecules? from DNA? Why doesn’t DNA go LECTURE STUDY QUESTIONS PART III: INTRODUCTION TO CELLULAR RESPIRATION 1. What is the overall purpose of cellular 4. If fermentation doesn’t produce ATP, respiration? why does it exist?

2. Draw and describe the pathways that a 5. Which part of the pathway provides cell would utilize if there were plenty the most energy? of oxygen available. Which molecules 6. What would happen if the electron go in? out? transport chain suddenly didn’t work 3. Draw and describe the pathways that a anymore? cell would utilize if there were no 7. What would happen if glycolysis oxygen available. Which molecules go didn’t work anymore? in? out?

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8. Where in the cell does each pathway take place?

9. How would a cell without mitochondria produce energy?

10. What exactly is ATP? What happens when it is hydrolyzed? How is it made?

11. What is NAD? FAD? What purpose do they serve?

5-Levels of Organization: The Tissue Level of Organization (Lab Topic) 1. Define the term histology.

Overview of histology & tissue types 2. List the four major tissue types.

Microscopic anatomy, location, & functional roles of epithelial tissue

Microscopic anatomy, location, & functional roles of connective tissue

Microscopic anatomy, location, & functional roles of muscular tissue

Microscopic anatomy, location, & functional roles of nervous tissue Membranes (mucous, serous, cutaneous & synovial)

3. Contrast the general features of the four major tissue types.

1. Classify the different types of epithelial tissues based on distinguishing structural characteristics.

2. Describe locations in the body where each type of epithelial tissue can be found.

3. Describe the functions of each type of epithelial tissue in the human body and correlate function with structure for each tissue type.

4. Identify the different types of epithelial tissue using proper microscope technique.

1. Classify the different types of connective tissues based on distinguishing structural characteristics 2. Describe locations in the body where each type of connective tissue can be found.

3. Describe functions of each type of connective tissue in the human body and correlate function with structure for each tissue type.

4. Compare and contrast the roles of individual cell types and fiber types within connective tissue.

5. Identify the different types of connective tissue using proper microscope technique.

1. Classify the different types of muscle tissues based on distinguishing structural characteristics and location in the body.

2. Describe functions of each type of muscle tissue in the human body and correlate function with structure for each tissue type.

3. Identify the different types of muscle tissue using proper microscope technique.

1. Describe locations in the body where nervous tissue can be found.

2. Describe the structure and function of neurons and neuroglial cells in nervous tissue and correlate function with structure for the different types of neuroglial cells.

1. Describe the structure and function of mucous, serous, cutaneous & synovial membranes.

- 38 -

Glands (exocrine vs. endocrine)

2. Describe locations in the body where each type of membrane can be found.

1. Distinguish between exocrine and endocrine glands, structurally and functionally.

2. Identify example locations in the body of exocrine and endocrine glands.

6-Support and Movement: Integumentary System (Lab Topic) General functions of the skin & the subcutaneous layer

1. Describe the general functions of the skin.

2. Describe the general functions of the subcutaneous layer (also known as the hypodermis or superficial fascia).

1. With respect to the epidermis: a. Identify and describe the tissue type making up the epidermis. b. Identify and describe the layers of the epidermis, indicating which are found in thin skin and which are found in thick skin.

Gross & microscopic anatomy of skin

c. Correlate the structure of thick and thin skin with the locations in the body where each are found.

2. Identify and describe the dermis and its layers, including the tissue types making up each dermal layer.

3. Identify and describe the subcutaneous tissue, including the tissue type making up subcutaneous tissue.

4. With respect to skin color: a. Describe the role of melanin.

1. With respect to the epidermis: a. Describe the functions of the epidermis. b.

Explain how each of the following cell types and substances, contributes to the functions of the epidermis: stem cells of stratum basale, keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, Merkel cells and discs, keratin, and extracellular lipids.

Roles of specific tissue layers of skin & the subcutaneous layer

c.

Explain why the histology of the epidermis is well suited for its functions.

2. With respect to the dermis: a. Describe the overall structure and functions of the dermis.

3. With respect to the subcutaneous layer: a. Describe the functions of the subcutaneous layer.

1. With respect to the following - sweat glands (eccrine and apocrine), - 39 -

Anatomy & functional roles of accessory structures

sebaceous glands, hair (follicle and arrector pili muscle), and sensory receptors: a. Identify each structure b. Describe the location of each structure in the body c. Describe the anatomy of each structure d. Describe the anatomy and function of each structure

Application of homeostatic mechanisms

1. Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the integumentary system responds to maintain homeostasis in the body.

2. Explain how the integumentary system relates to other body systems to maintain homeostasis.

7-Support and Movement: Skeletal System & Articulations (Lab and Lecture Topics) General functions of bone & the skeletal system

Structural components – microscopic anatomy

Structural components – gross anatomy Physiology of embryonic bone formation (ossification, osteogenesis)

Physiology of bone growth, repair, & remodeling

Organization of the skeletal system

Describe the major functions of the skeletal system.

1. List and describe the cellular and extracellular components of bone tissue.

2. Identify the internal structural components of compact bone and spongy bone.

3. Identify the types of cartilage tissues found in the skeletal system and explain the functions of each.

4. Explain the roles of dense regular and dense irregular connective tissue in the skeletal system.

1. Identify the structural components of a long bone, with emphasis on region of longitudinal growth.

2. Explain the functions of those structural components in the context of a whole bone 1. Explain the roles osteogenic cells play in the formation of bone tissue.

2. Compare and contrast intramembranous and endochondral (intracartilagenous) bone formation 1. Compare and contrast the function of osteoblasts and osteoclasts during bone growth, repair, and remodeling.

2. Explain the hormonal regulation of skeleton growth.

3. Explain the roles of calcitonin, parathyroid hormone and calcitriol in bone remodeling and blood calcium regulation.

4. Contrast the remodeling processes of a child (birth to adolescence) and an adult (middle to old age).

Define the two major divisions of the skeletal system (axial and appendicular) and list the general bone structures contained within each.

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Gross anatomy of bones

Classification, structure, & function of joints (articulations)

Application of homeostatic mechanisms Predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states & disorders

1. Identify the types of bones based on shape and composition (compact vs. spongy), and relate the shapes of bones to their functions.

2. Identify the individual bones and their location within the body.

3. Identify bone markings (spines, processes, foramina, etc.) and describe their function (e.g., point of articulation, muscle tendon attachment, ligament attachment, passageway for nerves and vessels).

4. Compare and contrast the skull of a fetus/infant with the skull of an adult.

5. Compare and contrast the adult male and female skeletons.

1. With respect to classification of joints: a. Describe the functional classification, based on degree of movement allowed - synarthrotic, amphiarthrotic, and diarthrotic – and provide examples of each type. b. Describe the anatomical classification, based on structure - fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial – and provide examples of each type. c. Explain how the functional and anatomical classifications are related.

2. Identify the structural components of the synovial joint, including accessory structures like bursae, tendon sheaths, and ligaments.

3. Describe and demonstrate the generalized movements of synovial joints.

4. For each of the six structural types of synovial joints: a. Describe the anatomical features of that structural type. b. Describe locations in the body where each structural type can be found. c. Predict the kinds of movements that each structural type will allow.

1. Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the skeletal system and articulations respond to maintain homeostasis in the body.

2. Explain how the skeletal system and articulations relate to other body systems to maintain homeostasis.

1. Predict factors or situations affecting the skeletal system and articulations that could disrupt homeostasis.

2. Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the skeletal system and articulations could not maintain homeostasis.

LECTURE STUDY QUESTIONS: SKELETAL SYSTEM 1. List and describe 4 major functions of label it. What purpose do the threadthe skeletal system. like structures connecting osteocytes 2. If you were going to donate bone serve? marrow to a patient with leukemia, 4. What is the name of the cell type that would you donate red, yellow or secretes a protein matrix and then gelatinous? Why? helps to mineralize it?

3. In what type of bone would you expect 5. What is a “matrix”? What does it to find osteons? Where do you find mean to “mineralize”? that type of bone? Draw an osteon and - 41 -

6. What type of cell dissolves bone?

How does it do it? How does calcium get into the blood?

7. Why is calcium so important in your body? Why is phosphate important in your body?

8. If your body was dangerously low in calcium, and you took a calcium pill, would it go to the bones, or stay in the blood? Why? 9. Which hormones increase blood calcium? Which hormones decrease blood calcium?

10. Which hormones and cells would become active if you were

hypocalcemic? if you were hypercalcemic?

11. What kind of feedback is used to maintain blood calcium levels? Draw a negative feedback loop to show how it works (yes, I know this is difficult…try it anyway).

12. What is meant by the term “bone remodeling”?

13. What do osteoporosis and rickets have in common? Which hormones and cells need to be activated to cure them?

14. What is ectopic ossification?

8-Support and Movement: Muscular System (Lab and Lecture Topic) General functions of muscle tissue Identification, general location, & comparative characteristics of skeletal, smooth, & cardiac muscle tissue

Detailed gross & microscopic anatomy of skeletal muscle

Physiology of skeletal muscle contraction

Describe the major functions of muscle tissue.

1. Identify skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle.

2. Describe the structure, location in the body and function of skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle.

3. Compare and contrast the characteristics of skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle 1. Describe the organization of muscle tissue from cell to whole muscle to groups of muscles 2. Name the connective tissue layers that surround each cell, fascicle, muscle, and group of muscles and indicate the specific type of connective tissue that composes all of these layers.

3. Describe a skeletal muscle fiber including the transverse (T) tubules, sarcoplasmic reticulum and myofibrils.

4. Explain the organization of a myofibril.

5. Name, and describe the function of, each of the contractile, regulatory, and structural protein components of a sarcomere.

6. Describe the anatomy of the neuromuscular junction.

7. List the anatomical and metabolic characteristics of fast, slow, and intermediate muscle fibers.

1. Explain the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction.

2. Describe the sequence of events involved in the contraction cycle of skeletal muscle.

3. Explain how an electrical signal from the nervous system arrives at the neuromuscular junction.

4. Describe, in order, the events that occur at the neuromuscular junction that elicit an action potential in the muscle fiber.

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Skeletal muscle metabolism

Principles & types of whole muscle contraction

Nomenclature of skeletal muscles Location & function of the major skeletal muscles Group actions of skeletal muscles Application of homeostatic mechanisms Predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states & disorders

5. Explain what is meant by the expression "excitation-contraction coupling".

1. List the sources of energy stored in a typical muscle fiber.

2. Describe the mechanisms that muscle fibers use to obtain ATP for muscle contraction.

3. Explain the factors that contribute to muscle fatigue.

4. Summarize the events that occur during the recovery period of muscle contraction.

5. Compare and contrast the metabolism of skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle.

1. Interpret a myogram of a twitch contraction with respect to the duration of the latent, contraction and relaxation periods and describe the events that occur in each period.

2. Define the terms tension and contraction, with respect to muscles.

3. Define the term motor unit.

4. With respect to the mechanisms by which muscles generate variable amounts of tension: a. Interpret a myogram or graph of tension vs. stimulus frequency and explain the physiological basis for the phenomena of treppe, summation and tetanus. b. Interpret a myogram or graph of tension vs. stimulus intensity and explain the physiological basis for the phenomenon of recruitment. c. Interpret a graph of the length-tension relationship and discuss the anatomical basis for that relationship.

5. Demonstrate isotonic (concentric and eccentric) and isometric contraction and interpret graphs of tension vs. time and muscle length vs. time for each type of contraction.

Explain how the name of a muscle can help identify its action, appearance, or location.

Identify the origin, insertion and action of the major skeletal muscles and demonstrate these muscle actions.

1. Define the terms prime mover (or agonist), antagonist, synergist and fixator.

2. For a given movement, differentiate specific muscles that function as prime mover, antagonist, synergist or fixator.

1. Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the muscular system responds to maintain homeostasis in the body 2. Explain how the muscular system relates to other body systems to maintain homeostasis 1. Predict factors or situations affecting the muscular system that could disrupt homeostasis.

2. Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the muscular system could not maintain homeostasis.

LECTURE STUDY QUESTIONS: MUSCULAR SYSTEM 1. What does it mean to say that a muscle 2. List and describe the five is voluntary? Involuntary? characteristics of all muscle cells.

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3. What is the relationship between muscle fibers, myofibrils, and filaments?

4. Why does a muscle fiber have multiple nuclei?

5. What are the three filaments, and what proteins are they made of?

6. What is the purpose of troponin and tropomyosin? Which one has the calcium binding site?

7. What is a motor unit? Where would you expect to find a larger motor unit—in your hand or in your calf muscle?

8. Draw a picture of a neuromuscular junction. Describe the steps associated with a nerve signal getting across the synapse to the muscle (excitation).

9. What is the difference between a voltage-gated channel and a ligandgated channel? Give specific examples of each.

10. What is the main role played by the sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle contraction?

11. What two free-floating molecules are absolutely needed to power muscle contraction?

12. Describe the process of contraction (the steps that the myosin head goes through to pull the thin filament).

13. Draw a sarcomere from memory and label its parts.

14. How does the action potential quickly get from the outside of the muscle fiber to the inside of the cell?

15. Discuss rigor mortis. How does it occur?

16. How do cholinesterase inhibitors work? What do they do to muscle contraction?

17. How does curare work? What does it do to muscle contraction?

18. Explain why you shouldn’t lift something heavy with your back bent (length-tension relationship).

19. What is a twitch? Explain what is happening during the latent period of a twitch.

20. What variables affect the strength of contraction? Explain how each factor affects strength.

21. What causes contraction strength to increase as you increase the frequency of stimulation? What is this called?

22. Describe the mechanisms for providing energy to the skeletal muscle cell during exercise (immediate, shortterm, etc.). If someone is going to exercise for an extended period of time, how will their muscles produce ATP? 23. What causes muscle fatigue? Explain the role of positive feedback in fatigue.

24. What is oxygen debt? Why do we breathe heavily after exercising?

25. What are the anatomical differences between fast and slow twitch fibers?

What makes each type of fiber ideally suited for its role (endurance versus speed)?

26. What is myasthenia gravis? Why are cholinesterase inhibitors used as a treatment?

9-Regulation, Integration, And Control: Nervous System General functions of the nervous system Organization of the nervous system from both anatomical & functional perspectives

Describe the major functions of the nervous system 1. Describe the nervous system as a control system identifying nervous system elements that are sensory receptors, the afferent pathway, control centers, the efferent pathway, and effector organs.

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Gross & microscopic anatomy of nervous tissue

Neurophysiology, including mechanism of resting membrane potential, production of action potentials, & impulse transmission

2. Differentiate between the somatic and autonomic divisions of the nervous system.

1. List the parts of the nervous system that constitute the central nervous system (CNS) and those that constitute the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

2. With respect to the three structural types of neurons (unipolar, bipolar & multipolar): a. Identify each type of neuron. b. Identify soma (cell body), axon, and dendrites. c. State which parts of each type of neuron receive information, which parts integrate information, and which parts conduct the output signal of the neuron.

3. With respect to glial cells found in the CNS: a. List four types of CNS glial cells b. Describe functions for each of those cells. c. Explain how the anatomy of each CNS glial cell supports its function.

4. With respect to glial cells found in the PNS: a. List two types of PNS glial cells b. Describe functions for each of those cells. c. Explain how the anatomy of each PNS glial cell supports its function.

5. Define the term nerve.

6. Differentiate between a nerve and a CNS tract.

1. Define permeability.

2. Explain how ion channels affect neuron selective permeability.

3. Contrast the relative concentrations of sodium, potassium and chloride ions inside and outside of a cell.

4. Differentiate between a concentration gradient and an electrical potential.

6. With respect to ion channels: a. Differentiate between passive and active ion channels. b. Explain how passive ion channels cause development of the resting membrane potential in neurons. c. Differentiate between voltage-gated and chemically-gated ion channels. d. Describe the voltage-gated ion channels that are essential for development of the action potential.

7. Discuss the sequence of events that must occur for an action potential to be generated.

8. Describe the role of the sodium-potassium exchange pump in maintaining the resting membrane potential and making continued action potentials possible.

9. Define threshold.

10. Discuss the role of positive feedback in generation of the action potential.

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Neurotransmitters & their roles in synaptic transmission

11. Interpret a graph showing the voltage vs. time relationship of an action potential, and relate the terms depolarize, repolarize, and hyperpolarize to the events of an action potential.

12. With respect to the refractory periods: a. Define absolute and relative refractory periods. b. Explain the physiological basis of the absolute and relative refractory periods. c. Discuss the consequence of a neuron having an absolute refractory period.

13. With respect to impulse conduction: a. Describe how local circuit currents cause impulse conduction in an unmyelinated axon. b. Explain how axon diameter and myelination affect conduction velocity. c. Describe saltatory conduction.

1. Identify the presynaptic and postsynaptic cells at a synapse.

2. List the structures that comprise a chemical synapse.

3. Describe the synaptic (axon) terminal.

4. Restate the steps that lead from the action potential arriving in the synaptic terminal to the release of neurotransmitter from synaptic vesicles.

5. Discuss the relationship between a neurotransmitter and its receptor.

6. Explain how the receptors for neurotransmitters are related to chemically-gated ion channels.

7. Describe the events of synaptic transmission in proper chronological order.

8. Define excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) and inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) and interpret graphs showing the voltage vs. time relationship of an EPSP and an IPSP. 9. Explain temporal and spatial summation of synaptic potentials.

10. Explain how movement of sodium ions alone, or movement of both sodium and potassium ions, across the postsynaptic cell membrane can excite a neuron.

11. Explain how movement of potassium or chloride ions across the postsynaptic cell membrane can inhibit a neuron.

12. Compare and contrast synaptic (local) potentials with action potentials.

13. Give an example of how a single neurotransmitter may be excitatory at one synapse and inhibitory at another.

14. List the most common excitatory neurotransmitter(s) in the CNS and the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter(s) in the CNS. 15. Compare and contrast chemical and electrical synapses.

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1. Describe exteroceptors, interoceptors and proprioceptors in terms of the general location of each in the body and the origin of the stimuli that each receives.

Sensory receptors & their roles

Protective roles of the cranial bones, meninges, & cerebrospinal fluid

Structure & function of cranial nerves Anatomy of the spinal cord & spinal nerves

2. Describe each of the following types of receptors, indicating what sensation it detects and giving an example of where it can be found in the body: pain receptors (nociceptors), temperature receptors, mechanoreceptors (including proprioceptors and barorceptors/pressoreceptors), chemoreceptors, and photoreceptors.

3. Explain the generator potential that occurs when receptors for general senses are stimulated.

4. Describe the relationship between neurons and receptors for general senses.

5. Explain the phenomenon of adaptation.

6. Compare and contrast receptors for the special senses with receptors for general sensation.

1. Correlate functions with each major area of the adult brain.

2. Describe the orientation of the brain relative to bones of the skull.

3. Identify the five lobes of the cerebral cortex and describe how the motor and sensory functions of the cerebrum are distributed among the lobes.

4. Explain why the primary somatosensory cortex and primary motor cortex are relevant clinically.

5. Discuss the concept of cerebral hemispheric specialization and the role of the corpus callosum in connecting the two halves of the cerebrum.

6. Describe the location and functions of the limbic system.

7. Describe the parts of the brain involved in storage of long term memory and discuss possible mechanisms of memory consolidation.

8. Describe the location and functions of the reticular activating system.

1. Describe how the bones of the skull protect the brain.

2. Identify the meninges and describe their functional relationship to the brain and cranial bones.

3. Describe the functions of cerebrospinal fluid, as well as the details of its production, its circulation within the central nervous system, and its ultimate reabsorption into the bloodstream.

4. Describe the structural basis for, and the importance of the blood brain barrier.

1. List the cranial nerves by name and number.

2. Describe the specific functions of each of the cranial nerves and classify each as sensory, motor or mixed 1. Describe the gross anatomy of the spinal cord and spinal nerves and specify their location relative to the anatomy of the skeletal system.

2. Identify the anatomical features seen in a cross sectional view of the spinal cord

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Reflexes & their roles in nervous system function

Physiology of sensory & motor pathways in the brain & spinal cord

Functions of the autonomic nervous system

3. Contrast the relative position of gray matter and white matter in the spinal cord with the corresponding arrangement of gray and white matter in the brain.

4. Identify the dorsal root ganglia, dorsal and ventral roots, and spinal nerves.

5. Discuss how the structures root, nerve, plexus, tract and ganglion relate to one another.

6. List the four spinal nerve plexuses and give examples of nerves that emerge from each.

7. Distinguish between ascending and descending tracts in the spinal cord.

8. Describe the concept of dermatomes and explain why they are clinically significant.

1. Define the term reflex.

2. Describe reflex responses in terms of the major structural and functional components of a reflex arc.

3. Distinguish between each of the following pairs of reflexes: somatic vs. visceral reflexes, monosynaptic vs. polysynaptic reflexes, and ipsilateral vs. contralateral reflexes.

4. Describe a stretch reflex, a flexor (withdrawal) reflex, and a crossedextensor reflex, and name all components of each reflex arc.

5. Demonstrate a stretch reflex (e.g., patellar or plantar) 1. Describe the locations and functions of the first-, second- and thirdorder neurons in a sensory pathway.

2. Describe the locations and functions of the upper and lower motor neurons in a motor pathway.

3. Explain how decussation occurs in sensory and motor pathways & predict how decussation impacts the correlation of brain damage and symptoms in stroke patients.

1. Discuss the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system and the general physiological roles of each.

2. Briefly contrast the anatomy of the parasympathetic and sympathetic systems, including central nervous system outflow locations, and ganglionic and effector neurotransmitters.

3. Describe examples of specific effectors dually innervated by the two branches of the autonomic nervous system and explain how each branch influences function in a given effector.

4. Describe examples of effectors innervated by only the sympathetic branch or the parasympathetic branch of the nervous system and explain how that branch by itself influences function in a given effector.

5. Describe visceral reflex arcs components.

6. Briefly differentiate between cholinergic and adrenergic nerve fibers and discuss the physiological interactions of transmitters released by these neurons with specific cholinergic and adrenergic receptor subtypes.

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Comparisons of somatic & autonomic nervous systems Application of homeostatic mechanisms Predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states & disorders

7. Describe major parasympathetic and/or sympathetic physiological effects on target organs.

1. Distinguish between the effectors of the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

1. Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the nervous system responds to maintain homeostasis in the body.

2. Explain how the nervous system relates to other body systems to maintain homeostasis 1. Predict factors or situations affecting the nervous system that could disrupt homeostasis.

2. Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the nervous system could not maintain homeostasis

LECTURE STUDY GUIDE PART I: NEUROPHYSIOLOGY, ELECTRICALLY EXCITABLE CELLS 1. What cells are electrically excitable?

2. What two membrane proteins are responsible for generating the resting membrane potential? How do they do it?

3. Which ions are the most important for generating the resting membrane potential?

4. What are the main cations in the ICF? And in the ECF? 5. What are the main anions in the ICF? And in the ECF? 6. What is the distribution of charge across the membrane when it is at its RMP? Is the inside of the cell positive or negative in relation to the outside of the cell?

7. What does it mean to say that a battery is polarized? What is the voltage of a AAA battery?

8. What does it mean to say that the cell membrane is “polarized�? What is the

average voltage across the cell membrane?

9. How does the RMP change when Na+ flows into the cell?

10. What is depolarization? What can cause a depolarization of the membrane?

11. What is repolarizarion?

12. What is hyperpolarization? What can cause hyperpolarization of the membrane?

13. What is a local potential? What causes a local potential? How is it different from the resting membrane potential?

14. What is an action potential? What causes an action potential?

15. Do all local potentials lead to action potentials? If not, which ones do?

16. Compare and contract local and action potentials.

LECTURE STUDY GUIDE PART II: ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM, NEUROPHYSIOLOGY, NEUROTRANSMITTERS 1. What is the main difference between signals to the CNS or away from the the CNS and the PNS? What are the CNS. What are they called? branches?

3. Efferent nerves that control actions in 2. The PNS is divided into two branches the internal organs belong to which depending on whether a neuron carries branch of the nervous system? If these nerves cause your heart to beat faster, - 49 -

what subdivision to they belong to?

What if the nerves tell your stomach to digest? Describe the primary actions of both subdivisions.

4. List and describe the three characteristics that all neurons share.

5. Draw a neuron and label the following parts: cell body, dendrites, axon, myelin sheath, Nodes of Ranvier, vesicles.

6. What is the difference between a dendrite and an axon?

7. What is the difference between a Schwann cell and an oligodendrocyte?

8. Where do you find astrocytes? Name three important things that they do in the nervous system.

9. What are some of the major differences between a local potential and an action potential? Think about where they occur, what triggers them, how big they can be and so on‌ 10. Which type of potential (local or action) is linked closely with positive feedback? Explain.

11. What is a threshold?

12. What is the importance of the refractory period of a nerve axon?

13. What is the myelin sheath? How is it made? How does it impact the speed of nerve conduction? What else can do the same thing for nerve conduction speed?

14. What is a synapse?

15. What are the major groups of neurotransmitters?

16. What is the difference between adrenergic and cholinergic receptors?

Where is each one found (sympathetic/para)?

17. When and how does the synaptic transmission stop?

18. What ions are involved with an EPSP and what ions with an EPSP? 19. Explain the two types of summation.

20. Where memory is physically located in the brain?

LECTURE STUDY QUESTIONS PART III: SPINAL CORD AND REFLEXES 1. What are the principal functions of the 4. What does it mean to say that a nerve spinal cord? is contra-lateral? ipsilateral?

2. What makes the white matter white?

5. What are four characteristics of What is the gray matter made of? reflexes? What are the components of 3. What are ascending and descending a reflex arc? tracts?

6. What different kinds of reflexes do we have in our bodies?

LECTURE STUDY QUESTIONS PART IV: BRAIN 1. What are the main structures in the brain? What are their main functions?

2. What are the names of the three meninges that surround the spinal cord and brain? Where in the layers do you find CSF? Epidural space? What is the function of the CSF? 3. What is the blood-brain barrier? How does it work and why is it important?

4. What are the four lobes of the cerebrum?

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5. What is the function of the primary motor area in the precentral gyrus?

6. What is the difference between a primary area and an association area?

7. What tasks are associated with each of the lobes of the cerebrum? What happens to a person’s behavior when the lobe is injured?

8. What does an EEG show?

9. What are the different types of sleep and their associated wave patterns?

Where do most dreams occur? What

part of sleep is the most important (we can’t live or stay sane without it)?

10. What parts of the brain are responsible for memory and emotion? How is emotion important in memory?

11. What is it called when someone loses the ability to speak because of damage to the language centers of the brain?

What are the language centers and what do they do?

12. What is cerebral lateralization? Is it the same for everyone?

13. Which cranial nerves are mixed?

What does it mean that they are mixed? What’s so special about the vagus nerve? Which branch of the ANS is it in?

LECTURE STUDY QUESTIONS PART V: AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM 1. Describe a reflex in the somatic glands, gastric and intestinal glands, nervous system. Describe a reflex in lung muscle, heart-arterioles, cardiac the autonomic nervous system. How muscle, urinary bladder and sex are they different? How are they the organs. same?

6. What is the difference between 2. How are sympathetic and adrenergic and cholinergic receptors? parasympathetic different?

Where is each one found 3. Why does a sympathetic response last (sympathetic/para)? so much longer than a parasympathetic 7. Where do you find nicotinic receptors? response?

Where do you find muscarinic 4. Explain how dual innervation helps to receptors? When do they stimulate the control many organs in the ANS. Are postsynaptic cell? When do they all organs dually innervated? If not, inhibit? Draw them how else can they be controlled?

8. Where do -blockers work?

5. Describe the antagonistic effects of the 9. What happens if acetycholinesterase is sympathetic and parasympathetic inhibited? divisions in the function of: salivary

10-Regulation, Integration, And Control: Special Senses (Lab Topic) Gross & microscopic anatomy of the eye

Identify the accessory eye structures, the tunics, the optical components and the neural components of the eye.

1. Describe the functions of the accessory structures of the eye.

Roles of specific tissues of the eye in vision

Select one of these two:

Olfactory receptors &

2. Trace the path of light as it passes through the eye to the retina and the path of nerve impulses from the retina to various parts of the brain.

3.

6.

8.

1.

2.

Describe the structure of the retina and the cells that compose it.

Compare and contrast the function of rods and cones in vision.

Relate changes in the anatomy of the eye to changes in vision.

Identify the location of olfactory receptors.

Explain how odorants activate olfactory receptors.

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their role in smell Gustatory receptors & their role in taste General gross & microscopic anatomy of the hearing & accessory structures of the ear

Roles of specific tissues of the ear in hearing

Roles of the accessory structures

3. Describe the path of nerve impulses from the olfactory receptors to various parts of the brain.

1. Identify the location and structure of taste buds.

2. Explain how dissolved chemicals activate gustatory receptors.

3. Describe the path of nerve impulses from the gustatory receptors to various parts of the brain.

4. Describe the five primary taste sensations.

Identify the hearing structures of the outer, middle and inner ear.

1. Describe how the various structures of the outer, middle and inner ear function in hearing.

2. Describe the sound conduction pathway from the auricle to the fluids of the inner ear and the path of nerve impulses from the spiral organ to various parts of the brain.

3. Explain how the structures of the ear enable differentiation of pitch and loudness of sounds.

1. Describe the functions of the ceruminous glands.

2. Describe the role of the auditory tube in drainage and equalization of pressure in the middle ear.

1. Distinguish between static and dynamic equilibrium.

Role of the ear in equilibrium

Application of homeostatic mechanisms Predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states & disorders

2. Describe the structure of the maculae and their function in static equilibrium.

3. Describe the structure of the crista ampullaris and its function in dynamic equilibrium.

1. Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the special sense organs respond to maintain homeostasis in the body.

2. Explain how the special sense organs relate to other body organs and systems to maintain homeostasis.

1. Predict factors or situations affecting the special sense organs that could disrupt homeostasis.

2. Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the special sense organs could not maintain homeostasis.

11-Regulation, Integration, And Control: Endocrine System (Lecture Topic) General functions of the endocrine system

1. Describe the major functions of the endocrine system.

2. Define the terms hormone, endocrine gland, endocrine tissue (organ), and target cell.

3. Compare and contrast how the nervous and endocrine systems control body function, with emphasis on the mechanisms by which the controlling signals are transferred through the body and the time course of the response(s) and action(s).

1. List the major chemical classes of hormones found in the human body.

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Chemical classification of hormones & mechanism of hormone actions at receptors.

Control of hormone secretion Control by the hypothalamus & pituitary gland

Identity, source, secretory control, & functional roles of the major hormones produced by the body

Paracrines & autocrines (Local hormones) Application of homeostatic mechanisms

2. Describe how each class is transported in the blood.

3. Compare and contrast the types of receptors (cell membrane or intracellular) that each class binds to.

4. Compare and contrast the mechanism of response that each class elicits (i.e., change in gene expression or change in an intracellular pathway via phosphorylation mechanism) and relate the response mechanism to the biochemical nature of the hormone molecule.

1. List and describe several types of stimuli that control production and secretion of hormones.

2. Describe the roles of negative and positive feedback in controlling hormone release 1. Describe the locations of and the anatomical relationships between the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary glands.

2. Define the terms releasing hormone, inhibiting hormone and tropic hormone.

3. Explain the role of the hypothalamus in the release of anterior pituitary hormones.

4. Explain the role of the hypothalamus in the production and release of posterior pituitary hormones.

Use the hormones below (grouped by organs) to perform outcomes a through d: Pituitary: growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, prolactin, adrenocorticotropic hormone, oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone (or vasopressin) Thyroid gland: thyroxine, triiodothyronine, calcitonin Parathyroid gland: parathyroid hormone Adrenal gland: glucocorticoids (cortisol), mineralocorticoids (aldosterone), gonadocorticoids, epinephrine, norepinephrine Testis: testosterone, inhibin Ovary: estrogen, progesterone, inhibin Pancreas: insulin, glucagon Also: Kidney: calcitriol (Vitamin D) a. Describe the stimulus for release of the hormone b. Identify the gland or endocrine tissue/organ and the cells within that gland/tissue/organ that produce the hormone. c. Name the target tissue or cells for the hormone and describe the effect(s) of the hormone on the target tissue or cells. d. Predict the larger effect that fluctuations in the hormone level will have on conditions (variables) within the body.

1. Define the terms paracrine and autocrine, and differentiate from other hormones 1. Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the endocrine organs respond to maintain homeostasis in the body 2. Explain how the endocrine organs relate to other body organs and systems to maintain homeostasis.

1. Predict factors or situations affecting the endocrine organs that could disrupt homeostasis.

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Predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states & disorders

2. Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the various endocrine organs could not maintain homeostasis.

LECTURE STUDY QUESTIONS: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 1. What are several ways that cells can 8. What is the difference between type I communicate with each other? and type II diabetes mellitus? Which 2. What distinguishes a target cell from one is on the rise in our society today? other cells?

Why? 3. What are the two different types of 9. What are two mechanisms that can hormones (chemically speaking)? cause endocrine imbalances?

How are their receptors different?

10. Draw and describe the negative 4. Describe the pathway and outcomes feedback loop for thyroid hormone and for hormones which bind intracellular the pituitary and hypothalamus. Show receptors and those which use surface or write out the pathway that you receptors. would see in response to low thyroid 5. Describe any two hormones secreted hormone. Then show what happens by the hypothalamus. What is the after the level of thyroid hormone rises target cell? What does the target cell above the normal level. do? Continue the pathway until you 11. Where is insulin made? What cells? reach the end.

12. Why is it that hormones don’t always 6. Name hormones secreted by the pineal affect all of the cell in the body? gland, thymus, thyroid, parathyroid, 13. What does it mean to say that a and adrenal glands, and the pancreas hormone receptor is specific? and gonads. What do these hormones saturated? do?

14. What is the effect of growth hormone 7. What are the two types of diabetes? hypersecretion?

How are they different?

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FIRST LECTURE EXAM: SAMPLE EXAM ___“Stem cells� in your body divide then mature into specialized cells (like liver or brain). ___Scientists still argue about whether or not viruses are alive because while they display some of the characteristics of life, they lack this one. ___The cardiovascular system transports oxygen and nutrients, and the muscular system allows movement. ___Blood is maintained approximately at pH 7.4

Refer to this list of life processes: a) b) c) d) e)

Homeostasis Differentiation Organization Cellular Composition Responsiveness

Demonstrate your understanding of these processes by selecting the answer that best fits each of the following examples. All answers will be used only once. ___When you get food poisoning, you vomit to eliminate the harmful bacteria and its toxins.

1) Based on the structural hierarchy of life, which of the following would you expect to find the most of in the universe? a) water molecules b) blood cells c) electrons d) rats 2) Which of the following lists BEST illustrates the idea of increasing levels of complexity? a) cells, tissues, organelles, organs, systems b) tissues, cells, organs, organelles, systems c) organs, organelles, systems, cells, tissues d) organelles, cells, tissues, organs, systems e) cells, organs, tissues, organelles, systems 3) The first electron shell of an atom can hold a maximum of____electrons. a) one b) two c) four d) eight e) sixteen 4) The atomic number for an atom is assigned based on the number of: a) neutrons b) protons and electrons c) protons and neutrons d) protons 5) The formula H2O means: a) this atom contains two hydrogen molecules and one oxygen molecule b) this atom contains one hydrogen molecule and two oxygen molecules

- 55 -

6)

7)

8)

9)

c) this molecule contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom d) this molecule contains one hydrogen atom and two oxygen atoms e) none of the previous choices are correct The subatomic particles responsible for the chemical bonding between atoms are: a) protons b) neutrons c) electrons d) ions Based on the number of electrons in the valence (or outer shell) how many bonds can the element below form with other atoms? a) 2 b) 3 5p c) 4 7n d) 5 The atomic mass of an atom is the: a) combined weight of neutrons and protons b) combined weight of positive and negative charges c) combined weight of neutrons and electrons d) number of neutrons Draw the atomic structure (protons, electrons and neutrons) of the element below. How many bonds will it be able to form?

14

X 24.0276

a) a base. b) a buffer. c) an acid. d) a neutral solution.

17) Put the following in order from smallest to largest.

(1) amino group (2) electron (3) dipeptide (4) oxygen atom (5) protein with 50 amino acids (6) amino acid a) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 b) 2, 4, 1, 6, 3, 5 c) 2, 1, 4, 3, 6, 5 d) 4, 2, 6, 1, 5, 3 18) A monomer is related to a polymer like a) a brick is related to a wall. b) a molecule is related to a macromolecule. c) a cell is related to a tissue. d) all of the above are true.

19) In the graph to the below, which solution is the best buffer? a) A b) B pH Changes in Response to Adding Acid c) C 14 13 d) D 12 11 20) In the 10 9 graph to 8 7 the 6 5 right, 4 3 which 2 1 buffer is 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 best for # Drops of Acid Added to Solution keeping things at a neutral pH? a) A b) B c) C d) D 21) This functional group is: a) a phosphate group b) a fatty acid c) an amino group d) a carboxyl group 22) This functional group is: a) a phosphate group b) a fatty acid c) an amino group

56

pH

10) This type of weak bond is found between water molecules and is also important for the structure of large molecules like proteins and DNA. a) polar covalent b) nonpolar covalent c) hydrogen d) ionic nonpolar 11) NEGATIVE ions form when: a) there is a gain of electrons b) there is a loss of electrons c) there is a loss of protons d) there is a loss of neutrons 12) An IONIC bond is: a) an example of a chemical bond which will produce organic molecules b) formed when there is a transfer of electrons from one atom to another c) formed when there is a sharing of electrons between two or more atoms d) an example of a chemical bond which forms chains of carbon atoms e) none of the previous choices are correct 13) Electrolytes are substances that: a) form covalent bonds with water b) ionize when dissolved in water c) cannot conduct electricity when in solution d) are not found in the human body in any appreciable amounts 14) The LOWER the pH number: a) the greater the hydrogen ion concentration will be b) the more alkaline the solution will be c) the greater the hydroxyl ion concentration will be d) the more basic the solution will be e) the more likely H+ will equal OH15) If you dissolved HCl in water, what would happen? a) There would be less H+, and the pH would be acidic. b) There would be less H+, and the pH would be basic. c) There would be more H+, and the pH would be acidic. d) There would be more H+, and the pH would be basic.

16) A solution that resists changes in pH when acid or base is added to it is called:

A B C D

d) a carboxyl group 23) This monomer is a _____. a) nucleotide b) sugar c) fatty acid d) amino acid 24) This monomer is a ____ and forms polymers such as _____. a) glucose; triglycerides b) amino group; proteins c) sugar; glycogen d) nucleic acid; DNA 25) This monomer forms polymers called ________. a) proteins. b) glycogen c) phospholipids d) DNA 26) A decomposition reaction can be symbolized by one of the following: a) A + B → C + D b) A + B → AB c) AB → A + B d) C + D → AB 27) If the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms in a molecule is 2:1 it is likely that the compound is a(an): a) amino acid b) fatty acid c) nucleotide d) monosaccharide 28) Anabolic metabolism includes: a) constructive processes by which substances are synthesized b) all processes occurring in a cell needed to maintain life c) destructive processes by which substances are decomposed d) the production of ATP in the process of cellular respiration

29) Which of the following chemical formulae would BEST represent a molecule of a carbohydrate? a) C3H8O5 b) C12H24O12 c) C15H26O12 d) C3H7O2N e) none of the previous choices would represent a carbohydrate 30) Protein molecules whose function is to speed up the rate of metabolic reactions in cells are: a) carbohydrates b) vitamins c) electrolytes d) enzymes e) alkali 31) Which of the following words includes in its meaning ALL of the others? a) metabolism b) hydrolysis c) anabolism d) digestion e) synthesis 32) The most common organic compounds found in cells are: a) carbohydrates, fats, and proteins b) carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen c) lipids, water, and carbon dioxide d) carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus e) water, fats, and proteins 33) The high energy compound needed to perform the work of the cell is: a) a protein molecule b) adenosine triphosphate c) glucose d) a carbohydrate molecule e) a monosaccharide 34) Which of the following is not an example of an organic compound? a) oxygen b) lipids c) nucleic acids d) enzymes

57

a. 12 neutrons, 13 protons and 13 electrons b. 13 neutrons, 12 protons and 12 electrons c. 12 neutrons, 13 protons and 12 electrons d. 13 neutrons, 12 protons and 13 electrons

Practice Questions Hierarchy, Homeostasis & Atomic Structure (I) 1.

Which of the following lists the structural hierarchy of life from the smallest to the largest level? a. cell, organelle, organ, tissue, organ system, organism b. cell, tissue, organelle, organ, organ system, organism c. organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism d. tissue, organelle, cell, organ, organ system, organism

5.

Pick the correct statement about atoms: a. if you change the number of neutrons, then you have a different element b. if you change the number of electrons, then you create a new isotope of the same atom c. atoms are electrically neutral because the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons d. atoms are electrically neutral because the number of protons is equal to the number of neutrons 6.

There are three main isotopes of the atom Carbon. Carbon isotopes will: a. differ in the number of electrons b. differ in their number of protons c. differ in their number of neutros d. all of the previous choices are correct 7.

A subatomic particle with negligible (very little) mass and a charge of minus 1 is called a(n): a. Electron b. Proton c. Neutron d. Nucleus 8.

Suppose an oxygen atom has 8 protons and 9 neutrons. How many electrons does it have? a. 1 b. 8 c. 9 d. 17

2.

The diagram above show a homeostatic mechanism called: a. negative feedback b. negative amplification c. positive feedback d. positive amplification 3.

The atomic mass of an atom is the: a. total number of protons b. total number of protons and electrons c. total number of protons and neutrons d. total number of protons, neutrons and electrons 4.

If the atomic number of an element is 12 and its atomic mass is 25, you could conclude that this element has: 9.

58

In the picture above, what is the stimulus?

a. blood pressure b. heart rate c. glossopharyngeal nerve d. vagus nerve 10.

In the picture above, what is(are) the effector(s)? a. the brain b. the heart c. the blood vessels d. the vagus nerve

5.

Pick the incorrect statement about atoms: a. atoms are electrically neutral because the number of protons is equal to the number of neutrons b. the second energy level (or electron shell) of an atom can hold up to 8 electrons c. if you change the number of protons, then you essentially change the atom d. if you change the number of neutrons, then you create a new isotope of the atom

Hierarchy, Homeostasis & Atomic Structure (II) 1.

Which of the following is in the correct hierarchical order (smallest to largest)? a. atom, tissue, cell, macromolecule, organ, organism b. atom, organelle, molecule, tissue, macromolecule, organ c. proton, atom, molecule, organelle, cell, system d. proton, molecule, atom, cell, tissue, organism

6.

There are three main isotopes of the atom Carbon. Carbon isotopes will: a. differ in their number of electrons b. differ in their number of protons c. differ in their number of neutrons d. all of the previous choices are correct 7.

A subatomic particle with a mass of 1 atomic unit and a charge of 0 is called a(n): a. electron b. proton c. neutron d. nucleus 8.

How many electrons would an atom of Magnesium (atomic number = 12, atomic mass = 24) have in its second energy level (shell)? a. 2 b. 8 c. 12 d. 24

2.

The diagram above demonstrates: a. hierarchy b. homeostatic equilibrium c. negative feedback d. positive feedback 3.

The weight of an atom is concentrated (found) in the: a. inner electron shell b. second electron shell c. neutrons d. nucleus 4.

The atomic number of sodium is 11 and the atomic mass of sodium is 23. Therefore, you could conclude that: a. sodium has 11 neutrons and 23 protons b. sodium has 23 neutrons and 11 protons c. sodium has 11 neutrons and 12 protons d. sodium has 12 neutrons and 11 protons

59

9.

As shown in the figure above, if blood glucose levels rise as a result of a meal, which of the following represents a homeostatic response? a. the blood glucose concentration will level off at its new value b. the blood glucose concentration will eventually return to its original value c. the blood glucose concentration will continue to rise until illness results d. the blood glucose concentration will drop below normal levels

b. gains or loses an electron c. gains or loses a proton d. gains or loses a neutron 4.

K+

c.

5.

Lithium chloride (LiCl) is a substance that is held together by: (Hint: Atomic No. Li = 3; Atomic No. Cl = 17) a. polar covalent bonds b. non polar covalent bonds c. ionic bonds d. hydrogen bonds

10.

If you eat jelly donuts for breakfast and insulin is not secreted into the blood what would most likely happen? (Hint - use information provided in the figure above) a. blood glucose level will decrease and the liver will make less glycogen b. blood glucose levels will decrease and the liver will make more glycogen c. blood glucose levels will increase and the liver will make less glycogen d. blood glucose levels will increase and the liver will make more glycogen

6.

All of the following statements about the structure of water are true EXCEPT: a. Water is a type of polar covalent molecule b. Polar covalent bonds are found within the water molecule c. Hydrogen bonds are found between water molecules d. The oxygen part of the water molecule carries a partial (small) positive charge

Ionic, Covalent & Hydrogen Bonding (I) 1.

The chemical reactivity of atoms is mainly determined by: a. the mass of the atom b. the number of neutrons c. the total number of electrons they possess d. the number of electrons in the outermost (or valence) shell

7.

Potassium chloride consists of potassium ions (K+) and chloride ions (Cl-) in a crystal.

If potassium chloride is placed in water, which of the following DOES NOT happen? a. K+ ions are attracted to the oxygen atoms in the water molecules b. Cl- ions are attracted to the hydrogen atoms in the water molecules c. KCl dissociates into hydrophilic ions in water d. KCl forms a hydrophobic complex in water

2.

Polar covalent bonds are formed when: a. atoms share electrons equally b. electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another c. a pair of electrons are shared unequally by two atoms d. two or more atoms lose electrons at the same time 3.

Which of the following is an ion? a. NaCl b. Na d. O2

8.

The atomic number of Nitrogen is 7 and its atomic weight (mass) is 14. How many covalent bonds would Nitrogen be expected to form to obtain stability? a. 7 b. 14 c. 5 d. 3

An ion is formed when an atom a. forms a covalent bond with another

atom 60

9.

All chemicals that can resist changes in solution pH when either acids or bases are added are called: a. sugars b. buffers c. proteins d. isomers e. molecules

4.

Non-polar covalent bonds are formed when: a. electrons in the molecule are completely transferred from one atom to another b. electrons in the molecule are completely transferred from one ion to another c. pairs of electrons are unequally shared between atoms in the molecule d. pairs of electrons are equally shared between atoms in the molecule

10.

The increasing acidic indicated in the figure below is associated with: a. a decrease in the H+ concentration and an increase in the pH b. an increase in the H+ concentration and a decrease in the pH c. a decrease in the H+ concentration and a decrease in the pH d. an increase in the H+ concentration and an increase in the pH

5.

Calcium chloride (CaCl2) crystals are held together by ionic bonds and consist of Ca++ and Cl- ions. Ca++ is: a. a cation that has two less electrons than a Ca atom b. an anion that has two less electrons than a Ca atom c. a cation that has two more protons than a Ca atom d. an anion that has two more protons than a Ca atom 6.

The formula “H2O� means: a. This atom contains two hydrogen molecules and one oxygen molecule. b. This atom contains one hydrogen molecule and two oxygen molecules. c. This molecule contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. d. This molecule contains one hydrogen atom and two oxygen atoms

Ionic, Covalent & Hydrogen Bonding (II) 1.

Which of the following is an ion? a. MgCl2 b. Ca c. Cld. CO2

2.

How many valence electrons are there in an atom with an atomic number of 20 and an atomic weight (mass) of 35? a. 2 b. 20 c. 35 d. none of the previous choices are correct

7.

The single lines shown joining the H atoms to the N or C in the molecule shown above show: a. single ionic bonds, formed by transferring electrons from one atom to another b. single covalent bonds, formed by sharing one pair of electrons between the atoms c. single hydrogen bonds, formed by transferring electrons from one atom to another

3.

An atom with an atomic number of 10 would most likely: a. react with other atoms to form molecules by hydrogen bonding b. react with other atoms to form molecules by covalent bonding c. react with other atoms to form molecules by ionic bonding d. none of the above, this atom would be non-reactive

d. all of the above

61

8.

The atomic number of Oxygen is 8 and its atomic weight (mass) is 16. How many covalent bonds would Oxygen be expected to form to obtain stability? a. 1 b. 2 c. 8 d. 16

a. hydrogen d. oxygen

b. nitrogen

c. carbon

3.

Which of the following is an inorganic molecule? a. C6H12O6NS b. C6H12O6 c. CH3(CH2)14COOH d.

Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 4.

In an hydrolysis (decomposition) reaction_____ a. a water molecule is split when a covalent bond between two monomers is formed b. a water molecule is split when a covalent bond joining two monomers is broken c. a water molecule splits when a covalent bond between two polymers is formed d. a water molecule has nothing to do with the reaction

Questions 9 & 10: Use the figure below to help figure out the answer 9.

Complete the blanks. A solution was made by placing many of the same molecules in unbuffered water. The molecules completely dissociated in the water to give many H+ ions.

These molecules would be a type of strong _______ and ________ the pH. a. acid, increase b. acid, decrease c. base, increase d. base, decrease

5.

The -OH functional group is called a(n) ____ group a. amino b. carboxyl c. hydroxyl d. oxyaldehyde

10.

What would happen to the pH if a large amount of buffer was added to a solution with a starting pH of 6.0? a. the pH would increase b. the pH would decrease c. the pH could increase or decrease d. the pH would not change because buffers do not change pH

6.

True or False: If found in body fluids, the substances shown above can be called organic ions.

Organic vs. Inorganic, Functional Groups, Monomers & Polymers, Metabolism (I)

7.

The chemical reaction shown below is an example of a ____ reaction

1.

In a living organism, the class of chemical reactions where smaller molecules are joined to make larger molecules is called: a. catabolism b. anabolism c. metabolism d. homeostasis

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6H2O

→

a. decomposition (catabolic) b. synthesis (anabolic) c. exchange

2.

Which of the following elements is often found in organic molecules, but rarely in inorganic molecules?

62

6CO2 +

d. reversible

a. a water molecule is split when a covalent bond between two monomers is formed b. a water molecule is formed when a covalent bond between two monomers is formed c. a water molecule is split when an ionic bond between two monomers is formed d. a water molecule is formed when an ionic bond between two monomers is formed

8.

Which of the following molecules ARE NOT formed by the reaction shown above? a. proteins b. starch c. fatty acids d. nucleic acids

4.

_________is/are functional group(s) a. amine b. carboxyl c. hydroxyl d. all of these

5.

An -NH2 functional group is called a(n) _____ group: a. amine b. carboxyl c. hydroxyl d. phosphate

9.

Which of the following molecules is considered a monomer? a. water b. amino acid c. polysaccharide d. nucleic acid

6.

Which functional group gives organic molecules the properties of an acid? a. -OH b. -COOH c. -NH2 d. -CH3

10.

Inside most cells, the energy required for many cell functions is provided by a molecule called: a. ADP b. hemoglobin c. ATP d. oxygen

7.

Which functional groups are common to all amino acids and proteins? a. -NH2 & -OH b. -NH2 & -COOH c. -CH3 & -COOH d. -CH3 & -OH

Organic vs. Inorganic, Functional Groups, Monomers & Polymers, Metabolism (II) 1.

Organic molecules always contain the elements__________ a. hydrogen and nitrogen b. oxygen and nitrogen c. hydrogen and carbon d. oxygen and hydrogen 2.

Which of the following molecules is NOT organic? a. C6H12O6 b. CH3(CH2)14COOH c. Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 d. C6H12O6NS 3.

In a dehydration (condensation) synthesis reaction_____ 63

d. NaOH + HCl→

NaCl + H2O

BIOMOLECULES (I) 1. The monomer below is a type of __________ . a. monosaccharide b. amino acid c. phospholipid d. nucleotide

2. The monomer on the right is a(n) __________ and forms polymers called __________. a.

Monosaccharide, polysaccharides b. Amino acid; proteins c. nucleotide; nucleic acids d. fatty acid; triglyceride Use the picture above to help answer the questions below, as needed

3. The monomer below is a(n) __________ and forms short polymers called __________. a. amino acid, proteins b. amino acid, peptides c. fatty acid, proteins

8.

In the reaction shown in (a) above the protein molecule shown is a type of: a. polymer b. monomer c. inorganic compound d. all of these

d. fatty acid, peptides

9.

A process called hydrolysis is needed in order for which of the reactions shown above a. amino acids to proteins only b. glycogen to glucose only c. both a and b require hydrolysis to occur d. neither a nor b require hydrolysis to occur

4. The secondary structure of a protein is held together by: a. R- group interactions b. hydrogen-bonds c. peptide bonds d. ionic bonds

10.

Which of the reactions below could be classified as a type of catabolic (decomposition) reaction? a. HCl → H+ + Clb. C6H12O6 + 6O2→ 6CO2 + 6H2O c. 3 amino acids → tripeptide + 3 H2O

5. Catabolism (decomposition) of glycogen would result in an increase in the level of: a. amino acids b. fatty acids c. monosaccharides d. inorganic compounds 64

Biomolecules (II) 6. The characteristic that all lipids have in common is: a. they are all made up of fatty acids and glycerol b. they all contain nitrogen c. none of them is very high in energy content d. none of them dissolves in water

Questions 1-3 Refer to the figure below: B

A

A

C

D

B

1. of:

The molecule labeled B above is a type a. monosaccharide b. amino acid c. fatty acid d. nucleotide

7.

In the picture above, the whole molecule (A+B) is called a: a. triglyceride b. phospholipids c. steroid d. complex sugar

2. of:

The molecule labeled D above is a type a. monosaccharide b. amino acid c. fatty acid d. nucleotide

8.

In the picture above, the part labeled A is said to be a: a. hydrophobic nonpolar (uncharged) phosphate group b. hydrophilic polar (charged) phosphate group c. hydrophobic polar (charged) phosphate group d. hydrophilic nonpolar (uncharged) phosphate group

3.

The monomer that joins to form proteins is identified by the letter: a. A b. B c. C d. D 4.

The primary structure of a protein refers to: a. the sequence of amino acids in the peptide chain b. the number of alpha helices and beta pleated sheets in the peptide chain c. the number of hydrogen bonds in the peptide chain d. all of the above

9.

In the picture above, the part labeled B shows types of: a. amino acid chains b. fatty acid molecules c. triglycerides d. glycerol

5.

10.

Steve noticed that his friend Jon had gained a little weight during the holidays. He commented, “Storing up some ________ for the winter, I see�. a. polysaccharides b. triglycerides c. nucleotides d. steroids

Enzymes are: a. types of steroids b. biological catalysts c. product specific d. all of the above

6.

The four main catergories of macromolecules in a cell are a. proteins, DNA, RNA and steroids b. proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids 65

c. nucleic acids, carbohydrates, monosaccharides, and proteins d. RNA, DNA, proteins, and carbohydrates

3. Different plasma membrane proteins do all of the following except_______ work as receptors synthesize Mrna work as enzymes work as cell adhesion molecules

A

4. What statement is the most accurate? hydrophobic tails of phospholipids are facing the exterior of the membrane hydrophilic tails of phospholipids are facing the exterior of the membrane hydrophobic heads of phospholipids are facing the exterior of the membrane hydrophilic heads of phospholipids are facing the exterior of the membrane

B

7.

True or False: The part of the molecule labeled B in the picture above is said to be hydrophobic.

8.

True or False: The molecule shown above is also a commonly found stored in adipose (fat) cells around the body.

9.

The molecule that acts as an energy store and is found mostly in skeletal muscle and the liver is called: a. glycogen b. triglyceride c. starch d. myoglobin

5. Diffusion is_______________ the net movement of water from a place of lower water concentration to a place of higher water concentration the net movement of water from a place of higher solute concentration to a place of lower solute concentration the net movement of particles down their concentration gradient the net movement of particles against (up) their concentration gradient

10.

The macromolecules that perform most cell functions are types of: a. carbohydrates b. nucleic acids c. proteins d. all of the above are about equal

6.

Which of the following statements is true? a. in general, larger molecules diffuse faster than smaller molecules. b. in general, higher temperatures increase the speed of diffusion. c. decreasing the concentration gradient increases the speed of diffusion d. increasing the energy supply in a cell would increase the speed of diffusion

CELL MEMBRANE (I) 1. Which of the following statements about the cell (plasma) membrane is false? it defines cell boundaries it controls interactions with other cells not all cells have a cell membrane it controls passage of materials in and out of cell

7. Which of the following factors does not affect the diffusion rate? a. temperature b. membrane thickness c. concentration gradient d. availability of energy

2. ___________ is/are found in the hydrophobic part of the plasma membrane nucleotides amino acids cholesterol monosaccharides 66

8. Rebecca mixed some sugar with water. Which of the following statements is the most accurate? sugar is the solute water is the solvent the mixture of sugar and water forms a solution all of them are accurate

a. peripheral proteins b. Nucleotides c. Cholesterol d. Transmembrane proteins

9. During diffusion a substance always moves from: a. outside a cell to inside a cell b. inside a cell to outside a cell c. from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration d. from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration

A B C

10. The movement of small nonpolar lipid molecules down their concentration gradient across the phospholipid part of the cell membrane occurs by a process called: diffusion osmosis filtration active transport

D

4. Which of the following statements is true?

(Use the figure above to answer) D shows a carbohydrate C shows a transmembrane protein A shows a glycoprotein B shows the hydrophobic portion of the bilayer 5. Which of the following statements is true?

(Use the figure above as a reference) Carbohydrates are facing the intracellular fluid Cholesterol can be found both inside the bilayer and on its surface Transmembrane proteins are in contact with both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions of the membrane The intracellular and extracellular face of the membrane look the same

CELL MEMBRANE (II) 1.

Which of the following statements is false? a. The cell membrane separates the extracellular fluid from the intracellular fluid b. The cell membrane is mostly made of carbohydrates c. The cell membrane is found in all living cells d. The cell membrane regulates inflow and out flow from the cell

6. What statement is true? (‌Make a drawing for help) a. hydrophobic tails of phospholipids are facing the exterior of the membrane b. hydrophilic tails of phospholipids are facing the exterior of the membrane c. hydrophobic heads of phospholipids are facing the exterior of the membrane d. hydrophilic heads of phospholipids are facing the exterior of the membrane

2.

The cell membrane is mainly made of: a. lipids and proteins b. cellulose and proteins c. cellulose d. lipids only 3. ___________ is/are found on the hydrophilic side of the plasma membrane 67

7. Diffusion: a. requires energy c. uses ATP

2. Diffusion: a. requires energy c. uses ATP

b. is a passive process d. is an active process

8.

Diffusion is_______________ a. an active process where particles move down their concentration gradient b. an active process where particles move against (up) their concentration gradient c. a passive process where particles move down their concentration gradient d. a passive process where particles move against (up) their concentration gradient

b. is a passive process d. is an active process

3. A cell placed in a hypertonic solution will: a. lose water b. gain water c. neither lose nor gain water d. both gain and lose water equally 4. The figure below shows_____ a. active transport b. simple diffusion c. facilitated diffusion d. transport by a channel

9.

Which of the following statements is true? a. Lower temperatures increase the speed of diffusion. b. In general, larger molecules diffuse faster than smaller molecules. c. Plasma membranes are mainly made of a type of steroid molecule d. A selectively permeable membrane will allow some, but not all, molecules to pass through it from one side to the other.

5. Which of the following would decrease the diffusion rate across a membrane? a. increasing the temperature b. increasing the membrane thickness c. increasing the membrane surface area d. increasing the concentration gradient

10.

The cell (plasma) membrane is important because it: a. is selectively permeable b. separates the intracellular and extracellular contents c. acts as a site for cell to cell recognition d. all of the previous choices are correct CELL TRANSPORT (I) Which of the following statements is true?

(Use the figure below and assume a semipermeable membrane between A & B) a. Side A is hypotonic compared to side B b. Side B is isotonic compared to side A c. Water would move by osmosis from side A to side B d. None of the above are true

6. Refer to the picture above. Which of the following statements is true? a. The cell shown in A is in a hypertonic solution b. There is a net flow of water into the cell shown in A c. The cell shown in C is in an isotonic solution d. There is a net flow of water into the cell shown in B 7. When a cell is placed in distilled (i.e. pure) water; the intracellular fluid would be ______ compared to the external environment.

68

a. hypertonic c. isotonic

b. hypotonic d. gin & tonic

a. pinocytosis b. phagocytosis c. receptor-mediated endocytosis d. all of these

8. Which of the following statements is false? a. oxygen can cross cell membranes by simple diffusion b. a polar amino acid can cross the membrane by facilitated diffusion c. a small non polar molecule can cross the membrane by simple diffusion d. a small monosaccharide can cross the membrane through ion channels

3.

Solution A has a lower concentration of impermeable solutes compared to solution B. Which of the following statements is correct? a. Solution A is hypertonic to solution B b. Solution A is hypotonic to solution B c. Solution B is hypotonic to solution A d. Solution B is isotonic to solution A

9. __________does not require energy. a. transport of K+ against its concentration gradient b. transport of glucose up its concentration gradient c. transport of Cl- down its concentration gradient d. endocytosis

4.

The movement of water molecules down their concentration gradient across a selectively permeable membrane is called_______ (Select the most accurate option) a. Diffusion b. Osmosis c. Active transport d. Equilibrium 5.

Small lipid molecules (e.g. steroid hormones) can cross the plasma membrane by _____________. a. facilitated diffusion through a channel protein b. facilitated diffusion by a carrier protein c. simple diffusion d. receptor-mediated endocytosis

10. ________ is/are an example(s) of active transport. a. transport of Na+ down its concentration gradient b. transport of proline (amino acid) from where it is in a high concentration to where it is in a low concentration c. transport of Ca+ against its concentration gradient d. all of the above

6. Transport of ________ across a cell membrane requires (needs) energy. a. K+ against its concentration gradient b. glucose down its concentration gradient c. Cl- down its concentration gradient d. all of these

CELL MEMBRANE-TRANSPORT (II) 1.

Active transport: a. is a process that requires ATP b. moves substances from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration c. involves specific proteins that move different substances d. all of the previous choices are correct

7. A cell (e.g. red blood cell) placed in a hypotonic solution would most likely ___ (You may want to make a drawing to help you find the answer) a. burst b. shrink c. stay the same size d. any of the previous choices could happen 8. Which of the following transport processes would NOT require ATP? a. moving glucose from where it is in a low concentration to where it is in a high concentration

2.

Which of the following is(are) BULK transport process(es) where vesicles are being formed at the cell membrane and taken into the cell?

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b. moving Cl- ions down their concentration gradient into a cell c. phagocytosis of a bacterium into macrophages d. transporting Ca2+ ions against their concentration gradient

b. sodium potassium pumps and potassium leak channels c. sodium and potassium leak channels d. ligand-gated and voltage-gated sodium channels 4. Which of the following is the explanation for repolarization of an excited membrane? a. Na+ moves into the cell b. Na+ moves out of the cell c. K+ moves into the cell d. K+ moves out of the cell

9.

Osmosis is the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane: a. from areas of high solute to low solute concentration b. from areas of low solute concentration to high solute concentration c. that is an active process occurring in any direction d. that is an active process occurring only in one direction

5. The term depolarization means: a. The membrane potential has just reached threshold b. The membrane potential has become more negative c. The membrane potential is moving above the action potential d. The membrane potential is moving above the resting potential

10. The active transport of molecules across a plasma membrane requires energy. Movement of sodium ions up their concentration gradient requires energy in the form of ATP. a. both of these statements are true b. the first statement is true, the second statement is false c. both of these statements are false d. the first statement is false, the second statement is true

6.

The approximate resting potential of many neurons is about: a. 0 mV b. +70 mV c. –70 mV d. + 35 mV e. –35 mV 7. In what way does the inside of a resting neuron differ from the external environment?

The interior is: a. negatively charged and contains more Na+ b. positively charged and contains more Na+ c. negatively charged and contains less Na+ d. positively charged and contains less Na+

ELECTRICALLY EXCITABLE CELLS (I) 1. All of the following are examples of electrically excitable cells EXCEPT: a. skeletal muscle fiber (cell) b. epithelial cell in the skin c. cardiac muscle fiber (cell) d. neuron 2. Information between electrically excitable cells is usually transmitted via: a. chemical messengers b. voltage changes c. resting membrane potentials d. action potentials

8. Upon stimulation of a skeletal muscle cell, a depolarizing change occurs that is usually caused by: a. calcium ions leaving the cell b. sodium ions leaving the cell c. potassium ions leaving the cell d. none of the previous choices are correct

3. The resting membrane potential is mainly due to: a. ligand-gated sodium channels and potassium leak channels 70

d. sodium is high inside of cells and potassium is high outside of cells

Activity 9

Labeling Exercise

4.

The repolarization phase of an action potential is mostly caused by opening: a. voltage-gated Na+-channels b. voltage-gated K+-channels c. ligand-gated Na+-channels d. ligand-gated K+-channels

y x

5.

During the resting membrane potential: a. the inside of the membrane is more negative than the outside b. Na+ diffuses out of the cell via leak channels c. K+ diffuses into the cell via leak channels d. all of the above are true

9. The part labeled “x” is called: (a) axon hillock (b) node of Ranvier (c) dendrite (d) soma 10. The part labeled “y” is called: (a) axon hillock (b) node of Ranvier (c) dendrite (d) soma

6.

Local potentials are usually caused by the opening of: a. ligand-gated channels b. voltage-gated channels c. leak channels d. sodium-potassium pumps

ELECTRICALLY EXCITABLE CELLS (I) 1. _________________ is an example of an electrically excitable cell: a. red blood cell b. epithelial cell lining the digestive tract c. mature bone cell d. cardiac muscle cell

7.

The following are characteristics of the local potential EXCEPT: a. the signal loses strength as it moves away from the point of origin b. it can only travel short distances c. it occurs on an all-or-none basis d. many small stimuli can sum up to a local potential of increased magnitude

2.

Which of the following normally causes a cell to depolarize? a. opening Na+-channels b. opening K+-channels c. closing Na+ channels d. closing K+-channels

8.

The term hyperpolarization means that: a. The membrane potential is above zero b. The membrane potential is moving towards zero c. The membrane potential is below the RMP d. The membrane potential is exactly at zero

3.

What are the normal levels of sodium and potassium ions in body fluids? a. both sodium and potassium are high outside of cells b. both sodium and potassium are high inside of cells c. sodium is high outside of cells and potassium is high inside of cells

9. Considering that the threshold voltage is 55mV, the local potentials shown would: a. trigger an action potential of decreased magnitude b. not trigger an action potential 71

c. trigger an action potential of regular magnitude d. trigger an action potential of increased magnitude

Na+ ions rush INTO the cell bringing positive charges INTO the cell The membrane depolarizes (the membrane potential moves towards zero)

-30mV -40mV

K+ ions move DOWN their concentration gradient from inside to OUTSIDE the cell taking positive charges OUT of the cell.

-50mV -60mV

Ligand-gated Na+ channels open The membrane repolarizes (the membrane potential moves away from zero)

10. Arrange the following events (that occur during the establishment of the local potential) in the correct order:

The correct order is: a. 1,5,4,6,7,2,3 b. 1,6,3,4,2,5,7 c. 1,4,3,5,6,7,2 d. 5,4,6,7,1,2,3

Chemical messenger binds to ligand-gated Na+ channels The change in voltage triggers the opening of voltage-gated K+ channels

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Lab 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology  identify the major body cavities, the structures that separate them from other cavities, and the organs that they contain [Lab activities C1-4]  identify the serous membranes and the organs that they surround [Lab activities D1-3]  describe the structure of a serous membrane and relate that to its function [Lab activities D3-4]  identify body cavities, major systems and organs on models of the human body and human torso [Pre-lab activities A3-4; lab activities C2-3]

Objectives Checklist - After completion of this lab you should be able to:  describe the structural hierarchical levels and predict differences in complexity and abundance of things at different hierarchical levels [Pre-lab activities A1-2; lab activities A1-7]  describe the general function of each organ system and identify their major organs [Pre-lab activities A3-4]  identify the various planes in which a body might be dissected [Lab activity B1]  use directional terms to describe the relationship between different structures in the body [Lab activities B2-3]

Pre-Lab Activities A. STRUCTURAL HIERARCHY OF LIFE 1. Fill in the blank spaces in the table below.

Hierarchical Level Multicellular Organism

Definition

Examples

Multiple organs with a common purpose Organ Tissue A collection of cytoplasm and various cellular organelles; the most basic unit of life (i.e. the lowest hierarchical level capable of being alive on its own) Organelle A collection of molecules with repeating subunits (this means they can get very large) Molecules

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Atoms Anything which occupies space and has mass

2. Circle the correct response in the sentences below. When we say that something is “complex” we usually mean that it is difficult to understand. However, in biology, “complex” means that something is composed of many interconnected parts. Therefore, atoms are (more/less) complex than molecules and organisms are (more/less) complex than cells.

3. Fill in the tables below with the functions of each of the body systems and match major organs with their pointers

Organ System Major Organs (match with the lines in the illustrations above) Major function of the System

Skin, nails, and hair

Bones and cartilage

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Muscles and tendons

Brain, spinal cord, and nerves

Organ System Major Organs (match with the lines in the illustrations above) Major function of the System

Pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas, adrenal glands, ovaries, and testes

Heart and blood vessels

Spleen, lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, and thymus

Nasal passage, trachea, and lungs

Stomach, liver, Kidneys and gall bladder, large urinary bladder intestine, and small intestine

Testes, epididymis, penis, and glands

Ovaries, uterus, vagina, mammary glands, and other glands

Organ System Major Organs (match with the lines in the illustrations above) Major function of the System

Art by OpenStax College – CC-BY

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Lab Activities A. STRUCTURAL HIERARCHY OF LIFE (45 MIN) 1. Concept maps are very effective ways to organize new information. This helps your brain to see how information is connected which means that you will remember it better. Fill in the one below with the levels of hierarchy. Later, after learning about the characteristics of life in lecture, return to this concept map and add the new pieces of information. You can always create these on your own to help you study, too.

ORGANISM S

organelle s

are made up of

like the

which contain many

which are made up of multiple

like the

which are made up of multiple

which are

which are made up of multiple

digestive

populations of cells with like functions

which are the smallest units of

which are made up of such as which are made up of which are made up of

which are made up of such as

2. Which of the levels is the most complex?

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such as

3. Which is the least complex?

4. Do things become more or less complex as you move from matter to organism? Why is this?

5. Circle the correct response in the following sentences.

There will always be (more/fewer) atoms than molecules because every molecule must be made of more than one atom. Conversely, there will always be (more/fewer) macromolecules than molecules for the same reason. In general, the higher something is on the hierarchical scale (like organisms), the (more/less) abundant it is. Things that are lower on the hierarchical scale (like particles of matter) tend to be (more/less) abundant. Why is this?

6. Which would you expect to find more of in the universe? Atoms or organs? Why?

7. Use what you know about the hierarchy of life to place all of the following in order according to their abundance in the universe (most to least abundant). Each of the items must get a unique number (1 through 12). You might start by identifying the hierarchical level that each of the items below belongs to.

Giraffes Carbon Hearts Cardiovascular Systems

Electrons Mitochondria Nervous Systems Humans

Water DNA White Blood Cells Stomachs

B. BODY PLANES AND DIRECTIONAL TERMS (20 MIN) 1. Identify sagittal plane, frontal (coronal) plane, and transverse (horizontal) plane on the figure below.

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2. Match the Directional Terms on the left with their meaning on the right Directional Term Meaning Anterior or ventral • …describes a position above or higher than another part of the body proper Posterior or dorsal • …describes a position below or lower than another part of the body proper Inferior or caudal • … describes a position in an organ or body part that is nearer to its point of attachment Superior or cranial • …describes the front or direction toward the front of the body Lateral • … describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the body Medial • … describes a position farther from the surface of the body Distal • …describes the back or direction toward the back of the body.

Proximal • …describes a position closer to the surface of the body Superficial • … describes a position in an organ or body part that is farther from its point of attachment Deep • …describes the side or direction toward the side of the body

3. Fill in the blanks using the directional terms above. Use the synonyms above to help you (first think of which synonym makes sense, then translate it into the correct anatomical term). a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

The nose is _____________________ to the mouth but _______________ to the ears.

The back of the knee would be considered ______________to the kneecap.

The upper arm is _________________ or _______________ to the elbow.

The lungs are ________________ to the heart and the heart is ________________ to the lungs.

The thoracic cavity is _________________ to the diaphragm.

Muscles are ____________ to the skin but ____________ to the bones.

The large intestine is _____________ to the small intestine (hint: where does food go first).

The intestines are ____________________ to the kidneys.

C. BODY CAVITIES (30 MIN) 1. What is a body cavity?

2. Label the following figures using the terms provided in the text box

Dorsal body cavity Cranial cavity Vertebral cavity Ventral body cavity Thoracic cavity Superior mediastinum Pleural cavity Pericardial cavity (within inferior mediastinum) Abdominal cavity Pelvic cavity Abdominopelvic cavity Diaphragm [This is not a cavity!]

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3. Complete the following table: Body Cavity

Organs found within this cavity

Vertebral Cranial Pelvic Thoracic Abdominal

4. What is the name of the muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities?

C-BY

D. SEROUS MEMBRANES (25 MIN) 1. Label the figures below using the terms provided in the box.

Lungs visceral pleura pericardial cavity

Heart visceral pericardium pleural cavity

Diaphragm parietal pleura parietal pericardium

2. The peritoneum is another serous membrane. Where is it located? What is its purpose?

3. What is a serous membrane? What general purpose(s) does it serve?

4. If you take two pieces of rubber or plastic and try to move them in opposite directions, they will usually bind or catch—the movement won’t be smooth. However, if you put a small amount of water or oil between the two pieces, they will move past one another very smoothly.

How is this like a serous membrane?

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Lab 2: The Microscope and The Cell Objectives Checklist After completion of this lab, you should be able to:  identify the major organelles found in animal cells and describe their functions [Pre-lab activities A1-3; lab activities D1-2]  based on the functional attributes of a cell, predict the organelle(s) that would be most prominent [Lab activity D3]  identify and operate the important features of a microscope to focus on a specimen [Lab activities A1-3]

 define magnification, field of view, and working distance and explain how they affect observation of a specimen [Lab activities B1-4]  prepare a cheek cell smear for microscopic examination and identify the nucleus, nuclear membrane, cell membrane and cytoplasm [Lab activity C]

Pre-Lab Activities A. CELLULAR ORGANELLES 1. Label the figure of the cell using the terms in the box below.

cytoplasm (cytosol) Golgi complex lysosome microtubules (cytoskeleton) microvilli mitochondria nuclear membrane nucleus plasma membrane ribosome rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) secretory vesicle smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

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2. Complete the following table by describing the major functions of each organelle.

Organelle smooth ER

Major Function(s)

rough ER nucleus cytoskeleton ribosome Golgi complex mitochondria plasma membrane lysosome peroxisome

3. What does the term cytosol mean? How is it different from cytoplasm?

B. CELL SIZE One meter (m) contains 1000 millimeters (mm). One mm contains 1000 micrometers (µm). One µm contains 1000 nanometers (nm). To convert something from mm to µm, you multiply by 1000. To convert from µm to mm, you do the opposite (divide by 1000). Convert the following: 1. How many micrometers are there in a meter? (hint: convert from m to mm, then from mm to µm) 2. If an object is 3 mm long, how many micrometers is it?

3. An object is 1276 µm long. How many mm is it?

4. An object is 0.03 mm wide. How wide is it in µm?

5. What is the (average) size of an animal cell? (look it up in your textbook…humans belong to the animal kingdom) 6. How many animal cells would fit inside one mm? (you’ll need to convert units to answer this)

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7. What are organelles? What unit (m, mm, µm, nm) should we use to measure them?

C. ORIENTATION TO THE MICROSCOPE 1. Label the figure of the microscope using the terms provided in the box below. Use the reference image below to find the parts.

Illumination  light source (bulb)  light power switch  light adjuster (for intensity of light emitted from bulb)  iris diaphragm (for amount of light reaching specimen)  iris diaphragm lever  substage condenser (focuses light on specimen) Magnification of Image  Ocular (eyepiece)  revolving nosepiece  Objectives Manipulation of Specimen  mechanical stage  specimen holder (clip)  mechanical stage adjustment (x- and y-axes) Focus  coarse adjustment knob  fine adjustment knob Reference Image

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Lab Activities IMPORTANT Always grasp the scope arm firmly with one hand and support the base with the other hand as you draw it from the cabinet. Always carry the instrument in an upright position; if tilted, you may lose a piece.

A. ORIENTATION TO THE MICROSCOPE (15 MIN) 1. Bring a microscope to your desk. Your instructor will then go through all of the following parts of the microscope with the class.

2. Review the parts of the microscope that you labeled before coming to lab (check your pre-lab activity). Complete the following table as you locate the parts again—this time paying close attention to what each part does.

Microscope Part light source

Located?

What does this part do? Use your own words

light intensity adjuster iris diaphragm adjuster substage condenser ocular (nosepiece) revolving nosepiece Objectives specimen holder (clip) mechanical stage adjustment coarse adjustment knob fine adjustment knob B. OBSERVING OBJECTS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE (35 MIN) 1. Manipulating objects in the field of view. Your instructor will give you a slide with the letter “e” on it. If there aren’t enough slides to go around, you may work with a partner. Bring the slide back to your desk and then follow the instructions below to observe it. a. Using the knob, turn on the light to the brightest setting. Open the iris diaphragm using the lever. You should see a bright light coming through the glass portion of the substage condenser (without looking through the oculars). b. Turn the objective wheel so that the 4X objective is in place. Make sure that you hear a click.

If at any point in the future you don’t see a completely round circle of light when you look through the ocular, it’s probably because the objective isn’t clicked in place. c. Turn the coarse focus wheel until the stage moves far enough away from the 4X objective that you have room to get the slide into place. d. Secure the slide properly on the mechanical stage. The slide should lie flat on the stage, and should be secured at one end by the slide clip. The clip will “pinch” the slide in place from the side. The slide should not go under the clip.

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e. Without looking into the oculars, use the stage manipulation wheels (two vertical wheels on the right side of the microscope directly below the stage) to move the stage assembly until the letter “e” is centered over the light beam. f. Use the coarse focus wheel to raise the stage until it automatically stops. g. Now look through the oculars and use the lever for the iris diaphragm (not the power dial) to reduce the light until it is comfortable, but as bright as you can take it. If the light is still too bright, you can turn the light intensity down by using the knob. h. With your eyes still at the oculars, use the coarse focus wheel to slowly lower the stage until the image comes into view. Keep moving past the image, back and forth until you get the best focus that you can with the coarse knob. i. Sharpen the focus with the fine focus wheel. You should see the letter “e” in the center (or near the center) of the field of view. j. What do you observe when you look at the letter “e” on the slide as compared to the image that you see when you look through the ocular? ________________________________________ ______________________________________________ _____________________________ k. Keep your eyes at the ocular, then use the stage manipulation wheel to move the slide to the left and then to the right. Next, move it up and down. What do you observe when you look at the letter “e” on the stage as compared to the image in view with the microscope? ____________ ______________________________________________ _____________________________ 2. Magnification and the field of view. The magnification of a compound microscope is achieved in two stages. First, the object is magnified by the power of the objective. This image is projected upward through the body tube portion where it is subjected to a second magnification by the power of the ocular. To calculate total magnification, multiply the power of the ocular by the power of the objective (e.g., a 10X ocular and a 10X objective produces a total magnification of 100X). a. Center the portion of the specimen that you wish to observe in the field of view and make sure that it is in the best focus you can get it. If you don’t do this, you may lose the specimen and have to start over at the 4X objective. b. Do NOT move the stage down. The microscope is designed to move from one objective to the next without moving the stage. Rotate the nose wheel until the next highest objective (10X) “clicks” into place. c. Look through the oculars. A fine focus adjustment might be needed to once again see the letter “e”. You can turn it several times in one direction, if nothing starts to become clear, then turn it several times back, then several times more. d. Adjust the lighting so once again you have a comfortable field of view. How does the letter “e” now appear when using this objective? How much of it do you see? _____________________ _____________________________________ _______________________________________ e. Why do you think you have to make the light brighter? _____________________ __________ _________________________ _______________________________________ ___________ f. Now repeat the steps above to move to the highest power objective (40X). If at any point you can no longer see the specimen in the field of view, simply return to the 4X objective and start over. What do you notice about the distance between the objective and the slide when you’re using the 4X objective compared to the 40X objective? ____________________________ This is called the working distance and if you ever get lost on a slide at high power when you try to focus…check this distance. Chances are that you’ve got the specimen too far away from the objective.

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3. Depth of focus. With the letter “e” in view under the highest power, focus precisely on the print. a. Using the fine adjustment, change the focus until you can clearly see the fibers of the paper.

Are the fibers brought sharply into focus when you move the stage up or down? ___________ Is the print above or below the level of the paper on your slide? ______________ b. Now return to the lowest power objective and focus on the letter “e” again. Can you see the same detail of depth now? _______This is called the depth of focus, and it’s always greater at high magnification.

4. Based on what you know about how the microscope operates, answer the following questions. a. What would be the total magnification with the ocular at 10X and the objective set at 4X? b. What would be the total magnification if you changed the objective to 10X? c. What would be the total magnification if you changed the objective to 40X? d. The field of view is the area viewed within the microscope (the circle). While the circle technically stays the same size, the amount of the specimen that fits inside it changes as magnification changes. We say that the field of view gets smaller as magnification increases.

For example, the field of view with a 40X objective is (larger/smaller) than the field of view with a 10X objective. The result is that at high magnification, you see (more/less) detail, but you see (more/less) of the object. e. A 4X objective has a (larger/smaller) working distance than a 10X objective.

C. PREPARING A CHEEK CELL SMEAR (30 MIN) a. b. c. d. e.

Obtain a clean glass slide and cover glass.

Place a drop of methylene blue on the slide.

Using the toothpick, gently scrape the inside of your cheek Circle the tip of the toothpick in the methylene blue Gently lower the cover glass onto the dye preparation one side at a time (your instructor will demonstrate this technique). f. Observe under the microscope starting with the 4X objective with reduced light intensity. Once you find a cluster of cheek cells, move to the 10X then 40X objective for high power examination. g. Draw several individual cells from your cheek smear in the field of views below. Label them using the following terms: nucleus, cytoplasm, and cell membrane.

___x

___x

h. Dispose of the slide and toothpick in the biohazard (orange) bag.

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D. CELLULAR ORGANELLES (50 MIN) 1. Go back to the pre-lab activity where you labeled the organelles of a cell. Now find each of these on models and charts in the laboratory. You will be tested on diagrams as well as models, so make sure you can identify the organelles on all of them.

2. Many cells have specializations in their plasma membranes that are essential to their function.

Fill in the table below by drawing and describing each specialization and giving an example of a cell where it is found.

Specialization

Size

Sketch

Purpose

cilia

flagellum

microvilli

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Example (found in the body)

3. The following scenarios describe cells that are engaged in a particular task. For each scenario, choose the organelle that is most responsible for the described activity and justify your choice.

Scenario Organelle When you suffer from a cold, plasma B cells in your bloodstream are rapidly synthesizing and secreting antibodies, (specialized proteins with the ability to target the virus).

Abe is an alcoholic. His liver cells are constantly detoxifying the alcohol that he consumes.

A sperm cell needs a lot of energy to power its rapid movement.

An osteoclast is a special type of bone cell whose function is to breakdown bone, a process known as osteolysis.

Certain white blood cells such as neutrophils kill bacteria by producing hydrogen peroxide.

When a pathogen is detected outside of the bloodstream, white blood cells squeeze between the cells of the blood vessel wall, requiring them to completely reshape themselves.

In order to trap particles of debris and prevent them from getting deep into the lungs, cells along the respiratory tract synthesize mucus (a glycoprotein, a protein with carbohydrates).

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Justification

Lab 3 - The Cell Cycle and Mitosis Objectives Checklist- After completion of this lab, you should be able to:  organize the genetic components of the cell in increasing levels of hierarchy [Pre-lab activity A1-2; lab activity A1]  define and distinguish between the following terms: chromatin, chromosome, and sister chromatids; gene and genome [Pre-lab activities A4-5; lab activities A1-2]  describe DNA replication [Pre-lab activity B1; lab activities B4-8]  describe the events that take place in each stage of the cell cycle, including interphase and the stages of mitosis [Pre-lab activities B2-5; lab activities B9-11]

 identify cells that are in each stage of the cell cycle [Lab activities B9-11]  explain what the purpose of mitosis is [Lab activity B1-3]  distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis [Pre-lab activities B5]  define and distinguish between the following terms: homologous pairs; karyotype; sex chromosomes and autosomes; haploid and diploid; germ cells and somatic cells [Pre-lab activity C1; lab activity C1-4  describe and compare the stages of meiosis and mitosis [Pre-lab activity C2; Lab activity C5]

Pre-Lab Activities A. ORGANIZATION OF GENETIC MATERIAL 1. Identify the DNA structures listed in the text box Deoxyribose phosphate adenine guanine cytosine thymine hydrogen bond nucleotide

2. Identify the chromatin structures listed in the text box Chromatin chromosome DNA double helix nucleosome nucleotide 30 nm fiber 300 nm fiber

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3. Where genetic material is normally found in the cell?

4. Match the terms on the left with their definitions on the right Chromatin • condensed version of chromatin Chromosome • one of a pair of identical chromatids, formed during DNA replication Sister chromatid • substance consisting of DNA and associated proteins Centromere • entire complement of an organism’s DNA (includes all the genes in all the chromosomes) Gene • region of attachment for two sister chromatids Genome • segment of DNA that provides the genetic information necessary to build a protein 5. Match the letters with the following structures of the chromosome: centromere, chromatin, and chromatid A. __________________ B. __________________ C. __________________ B. DNA REPLICATION AND CELL CYCLE 1. What does DNA replication mean?

2. What is a “cell cycle”?

3. What is mitosis?

4. Label the cell cycle below with the terms in the box.

Anaphase Cytokinesis first gap phase (G1) Interphase Metaphase

Telophase second gap phase (G2) Prophase synthesis (S) phase Mitosis

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5. Fill in the following table with the events that occur during each stage of the cell cycle Stages

Events

G1 S G2 Prophase Metaphase Mitosis

Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis

C. CHROMOSOMES AND MEIOSIS 1. Match the term on the left with its definition on the right Karyotype

•

Homologous chromosomes

•

Sex chromosomes

•

Autosomes

•

Haploid

•

Diploid

•

Germ cell Somatic cell

• •

set of one paternal chromosome and one maternal chromosome. The chromosomes look alike (same shape and size) and have the same genes in the same locations all along their length type of chromosome that participates in sex determination type of chromosome that does not directly participate in sex determination sorting of chromosome showing number and appearance of each chromosome in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell (during metaphase) condition marked by the presence of a double complement of genetic material (two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from each of two parents) condition marked by the presence of a single copy of genetic material (one sets of chromosomes) all cells of the body excluding sperm cells and eggs cell that gives rise to the gametes (e.g. sperm cells and eggs)

2. What is meiosis?

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Lab Activities A. ORGANIZATION OF GENETIC MATERIAL (15 MIN) 1. Arrange the following levels of organization in order of increasing complexity or size (Use 1 for the smallest up to 6 for the largest).

Carbon

chromosome gene

genome

nitrogenous nucleotide base

2. Fill in the blanks using the following terms (terms may be used more than once): chromosome, chromosomes, nucleus, and chromatin.

DNA is found in the _________ of cells, and it complexes with proteins to form a fine filamentous material called ___________. Chromatin occurs in most cells in the human body as 46 long filaments called _____________.

We use the term __________ to refer to a single entity, whereas we use the term _________ to refer to DNA complexed with proteins. _________ are made of _________.

B. DNA REPLICATION AND CELL CYCLE (40 MIN) 1. What is the purpose of mitosis?

2. At any given moment in time, which phase of the cell cycle are most of the cells in your body in: interphase or mitosis?

3. Which type of cell divides more frequently, a skin cell or a neuron? Why is this so?

4. What happens in the S phase that is essential for mitosis to occur?

5. How many chromatids does a chromosome have before DNA replication?

6. How many after?

7. Observe the chromosomes in the cells on the right. What happened from one cell to the other?

8. Has the number of chromosomes changed?

9. What about chromatids?

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10. What is the relationship between the figure shown below and the figure in the previous question?

C. MITOSIS. 1. In the following exercise, you’ll be demonstrating mitosis using pop-it bead strings. a. Your instructor will give your group one set of pop-it bead strings (See illustration on the left; 2 colors: 2 long and 2 short in each color). b. Take one long and one short string of each color (See illustration on the right). This represents the chromosomes in the cell during Interphase. Put the remainder aside for the moment. c. Arrange the chromosomes into homologous pairs (same-sized).

Why can’t the cell start mitosis yet? ______________________________________ d. Take two short chromosomes of the same color and allow them to be attracted by the magnets at the middle of each string (See illustration on the right). This represents a duplicated chromosome and each pop-it bead string represents a sister chromatid. The chromatids are joined at the centromere. Do the same with the other strings. e. Once all of the strings are doubled, you’re ready to start mitosis (Prophase). f. Line up the chromosomes in a row along the mid-line or the equator of the “cell” (Metaphase). g. Drag the chromatids away from each other (Anaphase). h. Separate the chromatids completely (Telophase and Cytokinesis). i. You should now have two daughter cells—each with two long chromosomes and two short chromosomes. They should be exactly alike. Each of these cells will continue to replicate its DNA and divide by mitosis. j. Do this activity at least one more time until you have the feel for the events, and the order in which they unfold.

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2. Observe the different stages of mitosis and interphase using microscope slides and models.

Complete the following table by describing the events associated with each stage. Then make a representative sketch of each stage to help you remember.

Stage What’s happening to What’s happening to Sketch the chromosomes? rest of the organelles?

Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

3. Identify each of the following stages of mitosis.

______________

______________

______________

______________

D. CHROMOSOMES AND MEIOSIS (30 MIN) 1. Fill in the blanks using the following terms, which may be used more than once: chromosomes, homologous, sister chromatids, homologous chromosomes.

The figure below shows (two/four) _____ chromosomes, arranged in (two/four) _____ pairs of ____________ chromosomes.

Homologous chromosomes are pairs of ___________ that have the same size, the same shape, and the same kind of genetic content. There are (two/four) ____ pairs of ____________________ shown below.

Each chromosome has (two/four) ____ _____________.

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2. Observe the figure to the right and answer the following questions. a. What is this arrangement of chromosome called?

b. What is the total number of chromosomes?

c. What is the total number of homologous pairs of chromosomes?

d. What is the total number of chromatids?

e. Is this the karyotype of a female or a male?

3. The total chromosome number in a human cell is often referred to as 2n = 46. a. What is n? b. What does 2n mean?

4. Label the diagram with the terms in the box. Then answer the questions. homologous pair Chromosome Chromatid Centromere Centrioles a. What is the total number of chromosomes in the figure?

Art by http://www.edupic.net/cells.htm

b. What is the total number of homologous pairs in the figure? c. What is the total number of chromatids in the figure? d. Is the cell haploid or diploid? e. What is the difference between a haploid cell and a diploid cell? Make sure you discuss your answer in terms of homologous chromosomes.

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f. How many chromosomes are normally found in human cells? g. How many homologous pairs are normally found in human cells? h. How many chromatids would you expect to find in human cells (assume the DNA replication has taken place?

5. Meiosis (15 min) While mitosis is the most common type of cell division in the body—used for new growth, cell repair, and replacement of worn-out cells—there is another type of cell division that is equally important. In fact, without it we wouldn’t be able to reproduce. This type of cell division is called meiosis and it only occurs in the gonads for the production of gametes (sperm and eggs).

In meiosis, one cell produces four daughter cells, each with half the normal number of chromosomes. This is important because if the chromosome number weren’t cut in half, then fertilization would result in a cell with 92 chromosomes instead of 46. You’ll be studying this process in much greater detail when you get to BIO 24, but it helps to have the big picture now. a. What is the purpose of meiosis?

b. Use the pop-it bead strings to mimic the stages of meiosis c. Fill out the table below comparing mitosis and meiosis CHARACTERISTIC Is the parent cell haploid or diploid?

How many daughter cells are formed?

Are the daughter cells are haploid or diploid?

Where in the body does this type of division occur (everywhere/gonads)?

What type of cell results from this division (somatic or gamete)?

MITOSIS

MEIOSIS

d. If a parent cell containing 30 chromosomes underwent mitosis, how many chromosomes would each daughter cell have? How many daughter cells would there be? e. If a parent cell containing 30 chromosomes underwent meiosis, how many chromosomes would each daughter cell have? How many daughter cells would there be?

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E. CELL DIVISION OVERVIEW (20 MIN).

1. Match the following descriptions with the term that best fits. You may use some terms more than once. _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____

this process occurs in somatic cells and results in two daughter cells this process occurs in reproductive cells and results in four daughter cells this structure holds chromatids together at the center this structure contains genetic material packaged for dividing cells this term refers to genetic material that is loosely packed during interphase a cell that contains “2n” chromosomes a cell that contains “n” chromosomes this structure anchors spindle fibers two of these make up a replicated chromosome the number of daughter cells that result from mitosis phase during which chromosomes are arranged along the equatorial plane chromosome number (-ploidy) at the beginning of mitosis chromosome number at the end of mitosis phase during which chromatids move towards the opposite poles phase during which genetic material is in the form of chromatin phase during which chromatin condenses to form chromosomes phase during which the nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear process by which the cytoplasm splits to form daughter cells this term refers to two matched chromosomes that belong to a pair

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A) B) C) D) E) F) G) H) I) J) K) L) M) N) O) P) Q)

2 anaphase centriole centromere chromatids chromatin chromosome cytokinesis diploid haploid homologous interphase meiosis metaphase mitosis prophase telophase

Lab 4 - Diffusion and Osmosis: Introduction to Scientific Method and Lab Report Objectives Checklist - After completion of this lab, you should be able to:  Define solute, solvent, solution, diffusion, and osmosis and apply the concepts to predict water diffusion in different conditions [Pre-lab activity A and C]  Define and apply the concept of concentration gradient [Pre-lab activity A]  Explain what semi-permeable means [Prelab activity A]  Predict the effects of factors such as molecular size, concentration difference, medium, temperature, membrane surface, and membrane thickness on the rate of diffusion [Pre-lab activity A]  Distinguish between passive and active transport in terms of energy requirements and concentration gradients [Pre-lab activity A]  Define tonicity, hypotonic, hypertonic, and isotonic in terms of solute concentration [Pre-lab activity C, Lab Activity D]

 Predict the response of cells exposed to hyper-, hypo-, and isotonic environments [Pre-lab activity C, Lab Activity D]  Define crenation and lysis [Pre-lab activity C, Lab Activity D]  Identify and summarize the steps of the Scientific method (observation, hypothesis, prediction, data collection, conclusion) [Lab Activity A]  Recognize each step of the scientific method in the context of a dialysis membrane experiment [Lab Activity A]  Summarize experimental data on a chart and interpret experimental data form a chart in the context of the dialysis membrane experiment [Lab Activity A]  Write a report following the guidelines and rubric provided by your instructor [Lab Activity B]

Pre-Lab Activities A. SOLUTIONS, GRADIENTS AND DIFFUSION 1. Define solution, solute and solvent.

Solution: Solute: Solvent: 2. What is a concentration gradient?

3. What is diffusion?

4. List the factors that affect the rate (i.e. speed) of diffusion: 5. Add to the list the factor affect the rate (i.e. speed) of diffusion through a membrane.

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6. Use your answers from questions 4 and 5 and predict where (e.g. scenario A or scenario B in the table below) diffusion will be faster. Circle your prediction in the table, and explain your answer.

Scenarios A

B

glucose (C6H12O6)

oxygen (O2)

concentration difference (gradient) is low

concentration difference (gradient) is high

diffusion medium is oil

diffusion medium is water

28º C

37º C

membrane thickness is 2 μm

membrane thickness is 10 μm

cell membrane is smooth (less surface area)

cell membrane has microvilli (more surface area)

Explain your answer:

7. Draw an arrow from high concentration to low concentration for each solute in the figure to the right. Each arrow that you draw represents a concentration gradient (a difference in concentration of a solute).

Extracellular Fluid: 5 mM K+ 142 mM Na+ 100 mM Cl4 mM PO4-

Intracellular Fluid: 140 mM K+ 10 mM Na+ 4 mM Cl75 mM PO4-

8. Is energy needed to move the solute in this direction? Justify your answer.

Image Source: http://www.edupic.net/cells.htm

9. What is the difference between a passive process and an active process?

10. What would it take in order for a solute to move from low concentration to high concentration (against its concentration gradient)?

11. Concentration gradients can be different sizes (more or less steep). Which solute in the figure above has the steepest concentration gradient? Which one the least steep? (Hint: for a given solute, divide the high concentration value by the low concentration value. The ratio gives you the steepness of the gradient) 12. Based on your answer to the previous question, which solute (Na+, K+, Cl-, or PO4-) would diffuse faster? Which on slower?

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13. What does it mean that the plasma membrane is selectively permeable or semi-permeable?

B. OSMOSIS 1. What is osmosis?

2. The diagram on the right represents a container that is separated into two compartments by a semi-permeable membrane (dotted line). This membrane is permeable to water but nothing else. Label the diagram to reflect that we are filling the chamber on the left with 10% NaCl (10gr. of NaCl in 100 mL of water) and the chamber on the right with pure water 3. Which chamber will have the highest concentration of salt?

4. Can salt cross this membrane?

5. Which chamber will have the highest concentration of water?

6. Can water cross this membrane?

7. Which direction will the water want to go? Draw an arrow to indicate the direction.

8. Circle the correct responses. Osmosis is the diffusion of (solute/solvent) from an area of (high/low) concentration of water to an area of (high/low) concentration of water. One easy way to predict the direction that water will flow is to say that water will always move to where the (most/fewest) solutes are.

C. TONICITY 1. Fill in the blanks using the following terms: isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic: If a solution causes a cell to shrink, we say that it is ______ (many solutes in the solution). If it causes a cell to swell, we say that the solution is ______ (not enough solutes in the solution). If the cell doesn’t change size, then we say that the solution is ______(same solute concentration inside and outside of the cell). Label each of the cells in the figure above accordingly.

2. The figures below are images of red blood cells that have been exposed to iso- hyper- and hypo-tonic solutions. a. Label the images according to the kind of solution they must be in (iso- hyper- or hypo-tonic) b. Draw arrows into/out of the cells to show the net direction that water moved.

Image Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Osmotic_pressure_on_blood_cells_diagram.svg

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c. Define lysis and crenation:

d. Fill in the blanks using the following terms: lyse, crenate. When cells swell and burst we say they ______, whereas when they shrink we say they ______.

Lab Activity A. OSMOSIS THROUGH A DIALYSIS MEMBRANE: A SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENT Cells transport solutes in and out across their membranes in order to adjust to their surroundings and maintain the homeostasis necessary for life. Cells use different methods of transport, depending on the nature of the substance transported. This experiment provides an easy way to study diffusion of water and solutes through a semi-permeable membrane. Remember that osmosis refers to the net diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane. The observations of this experiment may be applied to the study of transport mechanisms in living cells.

A scientific experiment follows the scientific method, and can be defined* as a structured and active process used to test a hypothesis. In an experiment, the scientist has some form of control over the variables at work in the system under study. Typically some variable is deliberately changed by the experimenter and other variables are monitored to see if they change as a result.

The scientific experiment follows the basic steps of the scientific method: I. Observation of a phenomenon in nature → II Stating hypothesis/es→ III Making predictions → IV Doing experiments/collecting data → V Drawing conclusions.

I. OBSERVATION (i.e. phenomenon you observe in nature) Red blood cells placed in distilled (pure) water swell II. HYPOTHESIS (i.e. provisional supposition in accordance with known facts, a.k.a.”educated guess”) Having different concentration of solutes across a semi-permeable membrane affects the net movement of water and solutes across the membrane III. PREDICTION/S (i.e. action of predicting future events, forecasting based on the hypothesis) Make predictions using the following question as a guideline. You need to first check the experiment materials needed and procedure below: i. How will the net direction of water diffusion be? Justify your answer ii. How will the net direction of syrup diffusion be? Justify your answer 100

iii. How will the net direction of methylene blue diffusion be? Justify your answer iv. Would the bag gain weight, lose weight, or stay the same? Justify your answers (The tricky part in here is that water molecules are much smaller and more abundant –that the solutes. Then, water determines weight gain/loss) IV. EXPERIMENT Materials needed • •

• • • • •

Dialysis tubing, approximately 12 cm long -the dialysis tubing was created from a natural source of cellulose. It allows the passage of particles up to 14,000 molecular weight standards (i.e. grs/mol).

Corn Syrup/methylene blue solution -corn syrup is made of glucose and a mixture of various other types of sugar derived from corn starch, all of which have molecular weights of up to few hundreds molecular weight standards. Methylene blue molecular weight is 319.85 molecular weight standards.

500 mL beaker Distilled water (molecular weight 18) Gram scale Paper towels to dry the tubing Plastic pipettes to fill in the tubing with the solution

Procedure i. Tie one end of a dialysis tubing ii. Fill a dialysis bag halfway with the Corn Syrup/methylene blue solution provided, and then tie the open end to seal the bag. iii. Dry –if wet- the bag, weigh it, and record the weight iv. Place the bag in a beaker of distilled water v. At 15-minute intervals (up to 60 minutes), remove the dialysis bag, blotted dry, and weigh it. vi. Record your measurement in the table on the following page 1. What does the dialysis bag represent?

2. Which are the solutes used in this experiment?

3. What is the importance of knowing the molecular weights of the solutes?

4. Was the dialysis bag placed in an isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic solution? Justify your answer.

Results The table below contains sample results. Your instructor may ask you to use these, or to use the ones that you record in class. Either way, you will need to plot the results on the graphs below.

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Weight of bag (g) 5.8 6.4 6.6 6.7 6.7

Rate of Osmosis (calculation) N/A (wt at 15 min -wt at 0 min) / 15 (wt at 30 min –wt at 15 min) / 15 (wt at 45 min –wt at 30 min) /15 (wt at 60 min –wt at 45 min) /15

Rate of Osmosis (g/min) N/A 0.4 0.13 0.006 0

Rate of Osmosis (g/min)

Weight of Dialysis Bag (g)

Time (min) 0 15 30 45 60

Time (min)

Time (min)

i. What would be the most appropriate title for the chart on the LEFT? ii. What is the label for the x-axis? iii. What is the label for the y-axis? iv. What are the units used in the x-axis? Complete the graph including the actual units used. v. What are the units used in the y-axis? Complete the graph including the actual units used.

V. CONCLUSIONS and interpretation of results 1. What happens when a dialysis bag is placed in a hypotonic environment? Answer considering the behavior of water, and all the solutes 2. Why the bag stops gaining weight at some point?

3. What would happen when a red blood cell is placed in a hypotonic environment?

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4. What characteristics should fluid used for rehydration have? Use hyper-/hypo-/isotonic in your response.

5. Interpreting charts obtained from experiments similar to the previous one (15 min) The following charts were obtained from two experiments with a similar setup to the experiment described above in 2. The axes and units are the same as in Chart A above (x-axes: Time (min), y-axes: Weight of Dialysis Bag (g)) i. Graph1 summarizes experimental data obtained when placing a dialysis bag in an (hypo/hyper-/iso-) environment. ii. Graph 2 summarizes experimental data obtained when placing a dialysis bag in an (hypo/hyper-/iso-) environment.

B.

LAB REPORT GUIDELINES AND RUBRIC

All labs must have the following sections: Title, Introduction section, Materials and methods section, Results section, Conclusion section, and References cited section Your instructor will use the criteria shown in the rubric below to evaluate your report.

Use the rubric as you work on your report.

Criteria Concept

Context

Introduction Section Content

Excelling Demonstrates a clear understanding of the concept Demonstrates a clear understanding of why this question is important in the field of biology.

Content knowledge is accurate, and relevant; provides appropriate background for the

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Proficient Demonstrates an understanding of the concept Demonstrates an understanding of why the questions is important in the field of biology Content knowledge is mostly accurate, relevant; provides appropriate background by

Emerging Demonstrates poor understanding of the concept.

Demonstrates poor understanding of why the question is important in the field of biology Content knowledge has many inaccuracies and or is out of context; does not provide sufficient background and/or does not define key terms

Hypothesis Statement

Materials and Methods

Methods

Appropriate control is present; Explanation of experimental setup is clear and complete

Data Collection

Data collection is appropriately paced, is accurate, and follows proper laboratory technique.

Data Presentation

Data are summarized in a logical format.

Graph axes are appropriately labeled including units, and correctly scaled.

Data Interpretation

Demonstrates clear conceptual understanding; Correctly applies the concept to the experimental results.

Conclusion

Conclusion is clear and free of logical errors.

Conclusion: Logical Reasoning

A logical chain of reasoning from hypothesis to data interpretation to conclusions is clearly explained

Results

Conclusion

reader by defining all key terms Both hypotheses are clearly stated

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defining most key terms Only one hypothesis is clearly stated Control is not explained fully; Explanation of experimental setup is unclear Data collection is appropriately paced, is accurate, and follows proper laboratory technique most of the time.

Data are summarized in a somewhat logical format.

Graph axes are labeled but is missing units or is inappropriately scaled.

Demonstrates conceptual understanding Applies the concept to the experimental results with only minor errors or omissions.

Conclusion is mostly clear and has only minor logical errors.

A logical chain of reasoning from hypothesis to data interpretation to conclusions is apparent.

Both hypotheses are not clearly stated Control is missing; Explanation of experimental set up is unclear and/or incomplete Data collection is not adequately paced, is inaccurate, and does not follow proper laboratory technique.

Data presentation has many logical errors and graphs contain many errors and omissions.

Demonstrates poor understanding; Fails to apply concept to the experimental results.

Conclusion is unclear and major logical errors.

A logical chain of reasoning is not apparent.

C. OSMOSIS DEMONSTRATION USING POTATO CELLS (15 MIN) Procedure • Take two strips of potato of approximately the same size and place each in its own test tube as shown on the right.

• To one tube (A), add distilled water, and to the other (B), a solution of NaCl. • After 1 hour, remove the potato strips from the solutions and observe for changes in shape or consistency. i. Which tube contains a hypertonic solution? How do you know? ii. Which of the potato strips became limp? Why did this happen? iii. Which of the potato strips has gained water? Why did this happen?

D. TONICITY (15 MIN) Tonicity is the ability of a solution to affect the size (volume) of a cell. For this to happen, the cell must be permeable to water. Water can cross the cell membrane by using special channels called aquaporins. If a cell membrane has lots of aquaporin channels, and the channels are open, then water can move freely. The figures below represent red blood cells in various solutions. Inside each cell, there is a certain concentration of a solute. Outside of each cell is a certain concentration of a solute. i. Draw an arrow into and/or out of each cell to show the direction of water movement.

0.9% wt/vol

0.9% wt/vol

_________________

0.1% wt/vol

5% wt/vol

0.9% wt/vol

_________________

0.9% wt/vol

_________________

ii. Underneath each cell, write what you think will happen to the cell. Will it get bigger (swell)? Will it get smaller (shrink)? Or will it stay the same?

E.

EXTRA THINKING: 1. Drinking too much water can lead to a condition known as water intoxication and to a related problem resulting from the dilution of sodium in the body, hyponatremia. Water

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intoxication is most likely to be seen in infants less than six months of age and sometimes in athletes. A baby can get water intoxication as a result of drinking several bottles of water a day or from drinking infant formula that has been diluted too much. (Source: http://altmedicine.allinfo-about.com/features/waterintox.html ) What happens to cells when there is too much water around them?

2. A white blood cell called a macrophage encounters an invading bacterium in the tissue.

The bacterium is too large to pass through its cell membrane, but the macrophage is able to ingest it anyway. i. Name the process by which this bacterium is taken into the cell. ii. Name the organelle where the bacterium will be destroyed. iii. Name the process by which the wastes produced from this destruction is expelled by the cell.

3. Small molecules are passing from inside the cell across the membrane to the extracellular fluid. The cell expends no energy, nor are there any special channels involved. The rate of movement is rapid for a while and then slows to a steady rate. A. Name the process that brings about this movement of molecules across the cell membrane B. Why has the rate of movement across the membrane changed from rapid to steady?

4. While training over the long, hot summer, pickle juice was the Philadelphia Eagles' first line of defense against heat cramps. Since then, other NFL and college teams have picked up on the power of the pickle. (Source: http://www.webmd.com/content/article/17/1676_51817.htm How does pickle juice prevent dehydration? Hint: think about osmosis‌where will water go?

5. Why is it that sailors cannot drink seawater to survive if they run out of drinking water? (hint: seawater is hypertonic to body fluids) 6. Why is salty water (pickle juice) OK for the athletes but dangerous for the sailor with no more drinking water?

7. The concentration of Na+ ions in the cell is too high, so the cell must use energy to lower the internal concentration back to normal levels (since normally the Na+ concentration is much higher outside the cell than in). Name the type of transport involved in getting Na+ out of the cell. Explain how this type of transport differs from simple diffusion.

8. Sarah is diagnosed with diabetes. She has the following symptoms: polyuria (excessive volume of urine) and polydypsia (excessive thirst). A classic symptom of diabetes is high levels of sugar in the urine. Where will water in her body want to go? How does this explain Sarah’s polyuria? Why is Sarah thirsty?

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Lab 5 - Epithelial Tissues and Glands Objectives Checklist - After completion of this lab, you should be able to:  list the four major tissue types, and  describe and distinguish between contrast the general features of the four endocrine and exocrine glands [Pre-lab major tissue types [Pre-lab activity 3] activities 6, 7; lab activity C1]  identify epithelial tissues under the  identify example locations in the body microscope and name them according of exocrine and endocrine glands [Lab to shape and arrangement [Pre-lab activity C1] activity 4; lab activities A1-A4, A6]  identify and describe the tissue type and  describe the functions of each type of zones making up the epidermis of the epithelial tissue in the human body and skin Pre-lab activity 8; lab activities correlate function with structure for D1, D4] each tissue type [Pre-lab activity 3; lab  describe the overall function of cells activity A4] making up the epidermis of the skin  describe locations in the body where [Lab activities D2, D3] each type of epithelial tissue can be  describe the overall function of found [Lab activity A4] exocrine glands found in the skin Lab  describe the function and location of the activity D1] junctions that hold cells together [Lab activity B1]

Pre-Lab Activities A. HISTOLOGY 1. What is histology?

2. What is a tissue? What is the difference between a tissue and an organ?

3. List the four major tissues found in the body and give a general description of the role each plays in our bodies.

Tissue Name

Role(s) in the body:

B. EPITHELIAL TISSUE 1. Fill in the blanks using the terms that describe epithelial cell shape and arrangement in the box below. simple pseudo-stratified ciliated cuboidal transitional

squamous

stratified

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columnar

a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i.

cells can change shape allowing tissue to stretch and recoil: ________________ cells are flat, like floor tiles: ________________ cells are arranged in a single layer: ________________ cells are arranged in multiple layers: ________________ all cells are attached to the basement membrane: ________________ but appear to be in multiple layers: ________________ cells are shaped like dice: ________________ cells are elongated (rectangular) : ________________ cells possess hair-like projections: ________________

2. Identify the figures using the terms in the box

Squamous cell Cuboidal cell Columnar cell Simple epithelium Stratified epithelium Pseudostratified epithelium

C. GLANDS 1. What is a gland? What are the two types of glands?

2. How are they different?

3. Label the figure of the skin (Chapter 6) using the terms in the box below.

Epidermis Dermis Stratum basale Stratum corneum Sebaceous gland Merocrine sweat Apocrine sweat (sudoriferous) (sudoriferous) gland gland

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Lab Activities A. EPITHELIAL TISSUE (60 MIN) 1. Label each of the diagrams below with the correct terminology. Remember that each type of epithelium (except transitional) will have one name that describes the shape of the cell, and one name that describes the number of layers. If it has cilia, then the tissue will apical have three names. surface

basement membrane

2. Now return to the images above and draw a line where the basement membrane is. See the first image for an example.

3. Next, label the apical surface of each type of epithelium. The apical surface is the one that faces the “outside” or is not physically attached to another tissue type (connective).

Again, refer to the first image for an example.

4. Now you’re ready to see the epithelial tissues on the microscope. Observe each of the types listed in the next table (slide numbers are listed) and sketch what you see. It is important that you make your sketches the best that you can; this is how you help your brain remember. Label the basement membrane of your sketch. Remember, tissues can be cut in lots of ways; sometimes it won’t look like the pretty picture that you have in

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your book—look for patterns, not perfection. Use your textbook to fill in the rest of the table (locations where the tissue is found in the body & functions).

Type & Location simple squamous epithelium slide #: 2 (frog skin), 39 (capillary)

Functions

location: stratified squamous epithelium slide #: 6 (nonkeratinized), 17 (keratinized, skin), 18 (pigmented skin) location: simple cuboidal epithelium slide #: 3(kidney), 35 (liver), 42 (kidney) location: stratified cuboidal epithelium slide #: 17/18 (skin—sweat glands in dermis) location: simple columnar epithelium slide #: 4, 32 (intestine), 33 (colon) location: pseudostratified columnar epithelium slide #: 5 (trachea) location: transitional epithelium slide #: 7 location:

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Sketch

5. Why do epithelial tissues look different among themselves (and from other connective, muscular and nervous cellular types) even when they all possess the same genetic information? (Think differentiation)

6. If you have enough time, work in pairs or groups and test one another to see if you can identify the tissues on the slides. You will have to identify these on your exam. If you want more practice outside of lab, go to http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/histology_mh/start_histology.html or any other human anatomy and physiology website online. Just make sure to look at the same slides we saw in the lab.

A. INTERCELLULAR JUNCTIONS (15 MINUTES) 1. The connections that hold epithelial cells together (and other cells, such as cardiac muscle cells) are called intercellular junctions. Use your textbook to answer the following questions. a. What are tight junctions? What is their function? Give at least one example of their location.

b. What are desmosomes? What is their function? Give at least one example of their location.

c. What are gap junctions? What is their function? Give at least one example of their location.

B. GLANDS (20 MINUTES) 1. Most epithelial tissues that are involved in secretion secrete substances that are used locally. However, some epithelial tissues become specialized to secrete substances that will be used elsewhere in the body or that will be eliminated from the body. Use your textbook to answer the following questions. a. What are these special epithelial structures called? b. There are two types: endocrine and exocrine. What is the difference?

c. Give several examples of each, and the substances that they secrete.

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d. Where in the body would you find a gland like the one shown on the figure (See section on Glands, Chapter 5)? Based on the characteristics of endocrine glands vs. exocrine glands, how would you label this one?

C. EPITHELIAL TISSUE IN THE SKIN AND CUTANEOUS GLANDS IN THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM (SEE CHAPTER 6) (45 MINUTES) 1. Use the terms in the box to fill in the gaps Epidermis

Skin

Nails

Ceruminous

Dermis

Hair

Merocrine sweat (sudoriferous)

Apocrine sweat (sudoriferous) Sebaceous

Hypodermis Cutaneous Glands

Mammary

Dead keratinized cells

The integumentary system consists of the _______, and its accessory organs ( ____________________, _______________, and _______________ ). The skin has two major layers:___________________ & ___________________. The subcutaneous region of the skin is called ____________________. _____________________ glands are the most common cutaneous glands. They cool the body, and they also work and a mini-excretory organs. _____________________glands are scent glands that respond to sexual stimulation and stress. _____________________glands produce the oily secretion (sebum) that helps to keep the skin smooth and hydrated. _____________________glands secretion mixes with sebum and dead cells to form earwax in the ear canal. _____________________glands develop within the female breast during pregnancy and lactation.

Hairs and nails are similar in composition to the stratum corneum of the epidermis (see below).

They are composed mostly of _____________________.

2. The epidermis is a stratified squamous epithelium (keratinized), which is composed of five zones. The deepest zone is the stratum basale, which is a single layer of cells composed of stem cells, keratinocytes, and scattered among them there are melanocytes and tactile cells. Use your textbook to answer the following questions. a. What is the function of stem cells?

b. What is the function of keratinocytes?

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c. What is the function of tactile cells?

d. What is the function of melanocytes?

e. What makes dark skin and pale skin different?

f. Is there a link between quantity of melanin and skin cancer? Why?

g. The most superficial zone of the epidermis is the stratum corneum, which consists of many layers of dead keratinized cells. What is the function of the stratum corneum?

3. Identify epidermis and dermis and find the structures in the box below on the skin models.

Stratum corneum Merocrine sweat (sudoriferous)

Stratum basale Apocrine sweat (sudoriferous)

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Sebaceous Gland

Lab 6 - Connective Tissues and Membranes Objectives Checklist. After completion of this lab, you should be able to:  describe the composition of a fibrous  compare and contrast epithelial connective tissue [Pre-lab activities tissue with connective tissue [Lab 1,2; lab activities B1-3] activities A1]  identify connective tissues under the  describe locations in the body where microscope [Lab activities B1, C1, mucous, serous, cutaneous & F] synovial membranes can be found [Pre-lab activity 3; lab activity D1]  describe the functions of each type of connective tissue in the human body  describe the function of mucous, and correlate function with structure serous, and cutaneous membranes for each tissue type [Lab activities [Lab activity D2] A1, B1, B3, B5]  discuss how characteristics of  describe locations in the body where epithelial tissue, connective tissue each type of connective tissue can be and glands in the skin are associated found [Lab activities B1] with functions of the skin [Lab activity E1]

Pre-Lab Activities 1. Tissues are composed of cells and a matrix (extracellular material). The matrix is composed of fibers and ground substance (or, generally speaking, extracellular fluid, interstitial fluid, or tissue fluid). What cells are commonly found in (fibrous) connective tissues?

2. What are the three types of protein fibers found in (fibrous) connective tissues?

3. How is the consistency of ground substance in (fibrous) connective tissues (e.g. fluid, gelatinous, rubbery, or stony)?

4. Identify and label cells, ground substance, and fibers in these two examples of fibrous connective tissues (Note: You will see more types of connective tissues during the lab containing different densities of fibers and different types of ground substance)

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

Areolar Connective Tissue

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5. What is a membrane? What are different kinds of internal and external membranes in the body?

6. Label the figure of the skin using the terms in the box below (Tables 5.4, 5.5, and 5.6, and chapter 6 will be helpful to find the answers).

Epidermis Dermis Hypodermis Areolar Connective Tissue Dense Irregular Connective Tissue Adipose Tissue

Lab Activities A. COMPARING EPITHELIAL TISSUE WITH CONNECTIVE TISSUE (15 MIN) 1. Complete the following table that compares the main characteristics of epithelial and connective tissues.

Epithelial Tissue Connective Tissue Arrangement of Cells (closely packed/scattered) Matrix (extracellular material) (extensive/limited; and fluid/ gelatinous/ rubbery/stony) General Function(s)

General Locations

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B. LOCATION, FUNCTION AND COMPOSITION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES TYPES (70 MIN) 1. Fill out the table, and then answer the questions that follow. For the composition column, write the cell types (fibroblast, RBC, chondrocyte, osteocyte, adipocyte, etc), a general description of the fibers (dense/sparse, organized/messy) and then a general description of the ground substance (hard, gelatinous, fluid, rubbery).

Category Types Sketch Composition Functions Location(s)

Loose

Areolar slide #8 Reticular slide #41

Dense

Fibrous

Adipose slide #9 Dense Regular slide #10/11 Dense Irregular slide #17

Fluid

Cartilage Bone

Supportive

Hyaline slide #5 Fibrocartilage slide #13 Elastic Cartilage slide #12 Spongy slide #15 Compact slide #14 Blood slide #38

cells: fibers: gr subst: cells: fibers: gr subst: cells: fibers: gr subst: cells: fibers: gr subst: cells: fibers: gr subst: cells: fibers: gr subst: cells: fibers: gr subst: cells: fibers: gr subst: cells: fibers: gr subst: cells: fibers: gr subst: cells: fibers: gr subst:

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2. Draw and compare the arrangement of collagen in areolar, dense regular, and dense irregular connective tissue.

Areolar

Dense regular

Dense Irregular

3. How does the arrangement of the fibers you draw in the previous question relate to the function of the tissue?

4. How are cartilage and bone similar? How are they different?

Bone and Cartilage Similarity:

Difference:

5. What functions or attributes does blood have that makes it unique (different from the other connective tissues)?

C. IDENTIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE (10 MIN).

1. Label each of the images below. Indicate the type of connective tissue and label the cells and/or fibers that you see.

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D. ORGANS: BODY MEMBRANES (20 MIN) We can classify body membranes into internal membranes and external membranes. Internal membranes are serous membranes –such as the ones we mentioned during the first lab: pericardium, peritoneum, pleura-, mucous membranes-such as the ones we saw last week: the linings of the respiratory tract and alimentary canal-, and synovial membranes –which we will discuss when we get to joints toward the end of the semester. The only external membrane we have is the cutaneous membrane, or skin.

1. Label the three figures below using the terms in the box.

Mucous membrane Serous membrane Cutaneous membrane Simple squamous epithelium Stratified squamous epithelium (keratinized) Pseudostratified (ciliated) epithelium Areolar tissue Dense irregular connective tissue Adipose tissue Serous fluid Mucous coat Fibroblasts

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2. Briefly discuss the function of serous, mucous and cutaneous membranes Type of Membrane Function Serous: Mucous: Cutaneous:

E. ORGANS: THE SKIN (25 MIN) The skin has the following functions: a. Resistance to trauma, infections and other barrier functions b. Sensation c. Thermoregulation d. Vitamin D synthesis 1. Discuss –for each one of the four functions listed above- how they are associated with the cells and properties of epithelial and connective tissues in the skin (See last week’s lab for more info).

Function Discussion: Resistance to trauma, infections and other barrier functions Sensation Thermoregulation Vitamin D synthesis

2. If you have enough time, work in pairs or groups and test one another to see if you can identify the tissues on the slides. You will have to identify these on your exam. If you want more practice outside of lab, go to http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/histology_mh/start_histology.html or any other human anatomy and physiology website online. Just make sure to look at the same slides we saw in the lab.

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Lab 8 - The Nervous System: Neurons and Spinal Cord Objectives Checklist - After completing this lab, you should be able:  to identify major structures of a generalized neuron and specify the functions of eachclassify the nervous system and distinguish between somatic and autonomic, central and peripheral, motor and sensory [Pre-lab activity A; lab activity A]  classify neurons according to their function [Pre-lab activity B3; lab activity B3]  identify anatomical features of a typical motor neuron[Pre-lab activities B1-2; lab activities B1-2]  identify the meninges of the CNS and state their general function [Pre-lab activities C1-2; lab activities C1-5]  describe the gross anatomy of the spinal cord and spinal nerves and specify their location relative to the anatomy of the



  

skeletal system [Pre-lab activities D1-3, E; lab activities D1-3] identify the anatomical features and functions of the structures seen in a cross sectional view of the spinal cord, in the dorsal root ganglia, in the dorsal and ventral roots, and in spinal nerves [Pre-lab activities D1-3; lab activities D5-6, D8-11] distinguish between ascending and descending tracts in the spinal cord [Lab activities D7, D11] describe the concept of dermatomes and explain why they are clinically significant [Lab activity D4] describe reflex responses in terms of the major structural and functional components of a reflex arc using the patellar reflex as an example [Lab activities E1-4]

Pre-Lab Activities A. BRANCHES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Neurons are classified in two main ways: anatomically and functionally. When neurons are classified anatomically, it means that they are classified according to where they are located (central or peripheral). When neurons are classified functionally, it means that they are classified according to what kind of signal or information they conduct (sensory, motor) and whether the neuron operates under voluntary control or not (somatic/voluntary or visceral/autonomic). Fill in the flow chart below showing the anatomical divisions of the nervous system. See pre-lab activity B3 for a functional classification. Use your textbook to help.

Central Nervous System

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B. THE NEURON 1. The following roots and suffixes are used to name the various structures of the neuron.

Match each root or suffix with its meaning: Dendrite → • Body Axon → • peel (covering) Soma → • axis (line) Lemma → • branch (like that of a tree) 2. Structure of a multipolar neuron. Label the following figure with the terms in the box below.

Soma Nucleus axon hillock (trigger zone) Dendrites Axon (or nerve fiber) Schwann cell myelin sheath Internodes Node of Ranvier Synaptic knob Neurilemma Axoplasm 3. Functional classes of neurons. Label the following figure on the right with the terms in the box below Interneuron (association) neuron Motor (efferent) neuron Sensory (afferent) neuron Peripheral Nervous System Central Nervous System

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C. THE MENINGES 1. Label the figure on the right with the terms in the box. arachnoid spinal cord mater dura mater pia mater cerebrospinal epidural fluid (CSF) space/fluid 2. The meninges (from the Greek word for membrane) cover the spinal cord and brain. Their names come from the following roots. Match each root with its meaning.

Pia → • spider Arachne → • mother/protector Dura → • delicate Mater → • tough 3. What is the function of the meninges?

D. THE SPINAL CORD 1. Label the figure below using the terms in the box.

cauda equine thoracic spinal nerves sacral spinal nerves cervical spinal verves lumbar spinal nerves 2. Some of the terms relating to the spinal cord come from the following roots. Match each root with its meaning.

Cauda → Equis → Plexus → Cervical → Thoracic → Sacral → Lumbar → Brachial →

• • • • • • • •

near the loins arm thorax/ribcage neck tail braid/network horse sacrum

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3. Where does the spinal cord end? Relate it to anatomical landmarks like the ribcage.

E. SPINAL NERVES 1. Label the figure below using the terms in the box.

Spinal cord White matter Gray matter Spinal nerve Posterior root Posterior root ganglion Anterior Root Myelinated nerve fiber Unmyelinated nerve fiber Blood vessels

Lab Activities A. BRANCHES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM (10 MIN) 1. Based on the descriptions below, classify the neuron by placing a mark in the appropriate column(s).

Anatomical Functional Classification Classification Description CNS to PNS/ sensory / motor somatic/ PNS to CNS / autonomic inter-neuron signal traveling from the heart to the brain with information about heart rate signal traveling from the eye to the brain with visual information signal traveling from the brain to the stomach signals from the urinary bladder integrated in the spinal cord signals traveling from the spinal cord to skeletal muscles in the forearm

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B. THE NEURON (10 MIN) 1. Use the models to find the structures that you labeled in pre-lab activities B2, D, and E. Remember you will be tested using models!

2. Observe nervous tissue using textbook figures and microscope slide # 20, and complete the table.

Sketch of observed slide

Functions Glial Cells:

Neurons:

3. Identify the part of the neuron being described by placing a mark in the appropriate column(s).

Description receives incoming signals

Axon

Soma

Dendrite

receives and integrates incoming signals main nutritional and metabolic region of a neuron conducts action potentials may be myelinated is never myelinated may have branches neurons usually have a single extension of this kind neurons often have many extensions of this kind C. MENINGES (15 MIN) 1. Find the structures you labeled in the pre-lab activity C on the models of the spinal cord and -if your instructor directs you to do so- on dissected specimens 2. What is the fluid or space outside of the dura mater called?

3. What is the name of the fluid found between the pia mater and the arachnoid mater?

What purpose does it serve?

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4. The figure on the right shows a diagrammatic representation of a longitudinal sagittal section through the spinal column and associated tissues. Label the figure using the terms in the table.

Ventral

Spinal Cord Pia mater Arachnoid mater Cerebrospinal fluid in subarachnoid space Dura mater Epidural space Vertebral bones Vertebral ligaments Epidural injection

5. What is the purpose of epidural anesthesia?

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Dorsal

D. THE SPINAL CORD AND SPINAL NERVES (45 MIN) 1. Find the structures you labeled in the pre-lab activity on the models of the spinal cord and (if your instructor directs you to do so) on dissected specimens 2. The spinal nerves emerging from certain parts of the cord form plexuses. There are four, and they are the cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral plexuses. On the figure on the right draw in each of the four plexuses.

3. What is a plexus? What purpose do they serve?

4. The diagram below shows a dermatome (literally means to cut the skin) that shows which regions of the skin are innervated by particular spinal nerves. This map is used to help determine where spinal cord injuries are located, or where anesthesia needs to be administered. Each segment is labeled according to the region of the spine that it originates from (Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, and Sacral) and the number of the vertebra (1, 2, etc.). Look at the diagram and answer the following questions.

a.

Which part of the spinal cord gives rise to nerves that supply the lower limbs?

b.

Which part of the spinal cord gives rise to nerves that supply the upper limbs?

c.

A patient is brought into the emergency room after a motorcycle accident. He has no sensation his lower body, and on the medial surface of his arms. Where do you expect his spinal cord is injured?

d.

A patient with a severe compound fracture of the femur (thigh bone) requires major surgery, but for reasons beyond your control, the patient cannot receive general anesthesia. You have to administer epidural anesthesia so that it blocks pain in the legs. Where do you give the shot?

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5. Label the following figure using only the terms listed below. Then identify the same structures in the model and under the microscope. spinal cord spinal nerve dorsal root of spinal nerve ventral root of spinal nerve dorsal horn lateral horn ventral horn 6. What are neurons doing in the grey matter of the spinal cord (conducting impulses along axons / receiving sensory input / forming synapses / something else)?

7. What do all neurons traveling in ascending or descending tracts have in common?

8. What type of impulse is carried by the dorsal root of the spinal nerve?

9. What type of impulse is carried by the ventral root of the spinal nerve?

10. What neuronal structure is found in the dorsal root ganglion? Can you identify this structure/s on the figure on the right?

11. Fill in the blanks of the following sentences.

An impulse arriving from a somatic sensory neuron would go through the _____________ root and enter the spinal cord through the _______________ horn. This part of the spinal cord is made up of ___________ matter which is where neurons connect with one another otherwise known as _________________. From that point, another neuron would travel to the brainstem through a/an _______________ tract in the white matter of the spinal cord.

White matter gets its color from the presence of _________________ on the axons there.

A motor impulse coming from the brain would be traveling in a/an _______________ tract through the ____________ matter and would exit the spinal cord through the _____________ horn which connects with the _______________ root before merging with the remainder of the spinal nerve.

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E. SPINAL CORD AND REFLEXES (45 MIN) 1. Reflex impulses use the same neurons as other impulses, but they have a few unique features (listed below). For each characteristic, explain what it means and give an example.

Characteristic Involuntary

Definition and Example

Stereotyped Quick Stimulated 2. Label the reflex arc in the figure below with the terms in the box.

sensory/afferent neuron motor/efferent neuron interneuron/association neuron central nervous system

effector dendrites axons peripheral nervous system

3. Sometimes reflexes are described as “bypassing the brain.” What does that mean? If it bypasses the brain, how do we know that we’ve been hurt?

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4. Somatic Reflex: The patellar reflex. a. Ask your lab partner to sit on the edge of a table with his or her legs relaxed and hanging freely. Use the hammer to tap lightly at your partner's leg just below the kneecap (patella) at the patellar tendon. Switch places and repeat. This is also called the knee-jerk reflex because the knee jerks with the extension of the leg. b. Fill in the blanks or circle the correct response.

The patellar reflex is initiated by tapping on the patellar tendon which causes the ______________________ (muscle) to stretch. This is sensed by receptors in the muscle that then send the impulse through a(n) ______________________ (inter | motor | sensory) neuron. The impulse travels to the ______________________ (brain | spinal cord) where the neuron synapses with a ______________________ (inter | motor | sensory) neuron, The impulse then travels along this neuron, back to the muscle which then ______________________ (relaxes | contracts) causing the lower leg to jerk (or kick). The patellar reflex arc involves ______________________ (one | two | three) synapse(s). This is a ______________________ (spinal | cranial) reflex, and is also ______________________ (somatic | autonomic).

5. Autonomic reflex: pupillary reflex (OPTIONAL ACTIVITY). a. Hold a ruler horizontally just below your partner’s eye, resting it on the cheekbone and measure the diameter of both pupils (in mm). Record the numbers here: left pupil _______ right pupil _______. b. Your instructor will turn off the classroom lights for a moment (leave the door open so that you have some light). Measure your partner’s pupils in the dark. c. Record the numbers here: left pupil _______ right pupil _______. d. Have your partner sit with his or her back to the light coming through the door. Then ask your partner to hold a hand vertically (to one side of the nose) so that when you shine light in one eye, it won’t get into the other eye. Next, use a flashlight to shine light into your partner’s left eye. What happens? e. Measure the diameter of the left pupil and record the number here: _______. While still directing light at the left eye, observe the right pupil. What happened? f. Measure the diameter of the right pupil and record the number here: _______. Turn off the flashlight and wait for your instructor to turn the lights back on. Now watch your partner’s pupils when your instructor turns the light back on. What happens?

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Lab 9 - The Nervous System: The Brain Objectives Checklist. After completing this lab, you should be able to:  describe the surface anatomy of the brain  identify the ventricles [Lab activity D2] [Pre-lab activity 1; lab activity 1]  describe the location and function of  identify the major areas of the adult CSF [Lab activities D3-6] brain and specify the functions of each  explain the importance of the blood [Pre-lab activities 1,3; lab activity A1] brain barrier system [Lab activities D7 identify the five lobes of the cerebrum, 8] map the functions of each, and apply this  describe the location and function of information to clinical situations [Pregray matter and white matter of the brain lab activities 4, 5; lab activity A1-2] [Lab activities E1-3]  describe the function of precentral gyrus  list the 12 cranial nerves and specify if and postcentral gyrus [Pre-lab activity 5; they are sensory, motor, or both [Lab lab activity B1] activities F3-5]  describe the meninges of the brain [Prelab activity 6; lab activities C1-2]

Pre-Lab Activities A. THE BRAIN 1. Label the figure below using the terms in the box. corpus callosum Cerebrum Cerebellum Pons Thalamus Hypothalamus epithalamus (pineal gland) pituitary gland Midbrain medulla oblongata Gyri and sulci (sing. gyrus and sulcus) 2. Some of the terms relating to the brain come from the following roots and prefixes. Match each with its meaning.

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Callous Thalamus Medulla hypoCorpus Oblong Cere

• • • • • • •

low, below somewhat long head inner-chamber filling or interior body hardened

3. Fill in the table below with a general description of the function of each of the parts of the brain.

Brain Structure Medulla oblongata

Function

Pons Midbrain Cerebellum Hypothalamus Thalamus Pineal gland Corpus callosum

4. Label the figure below with the terms in the box. frontal lobe parietal lobe temporal lobe occipital lobe Insula central sulcus pre-central gyrus post-central gyrus

5. Fill in the table below with the general functions of each part of the cerebrum.

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Part occipital lobe

Functions

temporal lobe parietal lobe frontal lobe Insula pre-central gyrus post-central gyrus 6. The meninges (from the Greek word for membrane) cover the spinal cord and brain. Their names come from the following roots. Match each root with its meaning, and label the meninges Pia Arachne Dura Mater

• • • •

Spider Mother/protector Delicate Tough

Lab Activities A. THE BRAIN 1. Find the structures that you labeled in Pre-Lab activities on models of the brain and -if your instructor directs you to do so- on dissected sheep brains.

2. When a blood clot becomes lodged in a small blood vessel in the brain, it prevents blood and oxygen from reaching the surrounding brain tissue, and that tissue dies. This is called a stroke.

Strokes can happen in any part of the brain; and the symptoms and severity of the stroke depend on which region of the brain is affected. Below is a list of symptoms suffered by different stroke victims. Use the tables you completed in the prelab to help you diagnose the region of the cerebral cortex damaged based on the symptoms described. a. b. c. d. e. f.

Disruption of judgment and social behavior including loss of inhibitions ____________ Loss of ability to comprehend written and spoken language ____________ Loss of motor ability on one side of the body ____________ Loss of sensation on one side of the body ____________ Loss of speech (comprehension of written and spoken language is intact) ____________ Loss of vision _______________________

B. THE POSTCENTRAL GYRUS The density and distribution of tactile receptors varies from one part of your body to another. This has a direct effect on your ability to localize touch. Areas with a higher density of receptors should allow you to pinpoint touch more accurately than areas with fewer tactile receptors.

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1. Follow the directions below (source: http://northonline.sccd.ctc.edu/plortz/mystery/lab4touch&reflexes.htm ) a. With your eyes closed, have your lab partner touch the palm of your hand with a pen. The touch should be gentle enough not to hurt, but firm enough to leave a small mark. b. Keeping your eyes closed, try to place the eraser end of a pencil or the tip of the pen on the spot touched by your lab partner. Once you think you’ve found it, hold it there. c. Have your lab partner measure the difference in distance between the two spots. Record the distance in the table below. d. Repeat the steps two more times. Average the results. e. Repeat the experiment on the back of the hand, a fingertip, the ventral surface of the forearm, and the back of the neck. Record and average the results.

Body Region palm of hand

1st Trial

Distance Between Touch Spot and Guess 2nd Trial 3rd Trial

Average

back of hand fingertip forearm back of neck 2. Did the distances get smaller by the third trial? In other words, did you get better at pinpointing the spot touched?

3. Which area was the most sensitive?

4. What reason can you give for the difference in sensitivity between the fingertip and the back of the neck? Why is one area more sensitive than the other?

5. How is this experiment related with the primary somatosensory cortex (postcentral gyrus) and the “sensory homunculus” (See “Sensation” in the textbook: Ch. 14 pp. 540-542)?

C. THE MENINGES 1. Trepanation is a form of surgery in which a hole is drilled into the skull which exposes the dura mater. Evidence of trepanation has been found in prehistoric human remains, and cave paintings indicate that people believed the practice would cure epileptic seizures, migraines, and mental disorders. Perhaps more interestingly, people who had this surgery performed on them often lived a normal lifespan. How is this possible?

2. What is meningitis? How is it potentially life-threatening?

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D. VENTRICLES, CEREBROSPINAL FLUID, AND BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER 1. What is a ventricle?

2. Identify and label the lateral (first and second) ventricles, third ventricle, and fourth ventricle in the figure on the right 3. What is the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)? What is its function?

4. Where is CSF found in the body (Hint: use your knowledge about ventricles and meninges to answer this question)?

5. Shade with pencil the spaces filled in by CSF on the figure on the right.

6. How does the condition known as hydrocephalus (“water in the brain�) relates with the CSF?

7. What is the blood brain barrier (BBB) system? Why is it important?

8. Which of the following cannot normally permeate through the BBB? Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, glucose, bacteria, protozoa (unicellular organisms), fungi, caffeine, large size toxins, anesthetics, and alcohol.

E. GRAY MATTER AND WHITE MATTER 1. Where in the brain is gray matter found? What is its function?

2. Where in the brain is white matter found? What is its function?

3. Identify gray matter and white matter in the figures below

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F. THE CRANIAL NERVES 1. Some of the terms relating to the brain come from the following roots and prefixes. Match each with its meaning. Some have already been matched for you.

F __ __ J __ __ D __ K __ __ __

Glossa Audere Olfactory Cochlea hypoVestibule Pharynx Tri Trochlea oculus/ophthalmos Abduct vagus

A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J. K. L.

wandering like a “vagabond” to move “away” or take “away” low, below throat eye tongue small chamber to hear pertaining to smell snail like structure small pulley three

2. Using the previous table to help you, match each of the cranial nerves below with their description. nerve with three branches nerve that many branches that wander nerve carrying sensory impulses of smell nerve carrying sensory impulses of hearing and balance nerve carrying sensory impulses of hearing nerve carrying sensory impulses of vision nerve that supplies the tongue and throat - 135 -

• • • • • • •

olfactory nerve hypoglossal vagus trigeminal oculomotor abducens vestibulocochlear nerve

nerve that supplies the muscles below the tongue nerve that carries motor impulses to eye muscles nerves that move the eyes laterally

• • •

ophthalmic branch auditory nerve glossopharyngeal nerve

3. The figure on the right shows the ventral or inferior surface of the brain when the cranial verves that attach there. Complete labeling the diagram using the terms in the box. spinal cord Cerebellum Pons medulla oblongata frontal lobe olfactory nerve I optic nerve II trigeminal nerve V vagus X

4. While it is not necessary to memorize all of the cranial nerves, you should have some sense of what each one does. Fill in the table below with a general description of each cranial nerve and the type of information that it carries according to the examples. To help you remember both the names and the type of information carried by each cranial nerve, the table also has two mnemonics listed.

Cranial Nerve I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII

Olfactory Optic Oculomotor Trochlear Trigeminal Abducens Facial Vestibulocochlear Glossopharyngeal Vagus Accessory Hypoglossal

Mnemonic for Cranial Nerve Names Oh Oh Oh To Touch And Feel Very Good Velvet Ah Heaven

Description smell eye movement

Mnemonic for Cranial Nerve Types Some Say Money Matters But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter More

Type of information carried sensory

both

motor

5. When you looked at the reflexes during last week’s lab (patellar and papillary), which one was a spinal reflex and which was a cranial reflex? Which cranial nerves were involved?

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Lab 10 - The Senses Objectives Checklist - After completion of this lab, you should be able to:  Define sensory receptor and receptive field  explain the physiology of hearing [Lab [Pre-lab activities A1-2] activity C]  classify receptors based on their modality  explain the physiology of dynamic and and distribution [Pre-lab activities A3-6] static equilibrium using simple demonstrations [Lab activity D]  explain sensory transduction and sensory adaptation using taste and olfaction as  identify parts of the eye and specify the examples [Lab activities A1-4] functions of each [Pre-lab activity C; lab activities E1-3]  identify parts of the ear and specify the functions of each [Pre-lab activity B; lab  explain accommodation of the eye and activities B1-3] vision problems that occur when this ability is impaired [Lab activity F1-3]

Pre-Lab Activities A. CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORY RECEPTORS 1. What is a sensory receptor?

2. What does it mean that a neuron has a large “receptive field”?

3. What four kinds of information sensory receptors transmit to the brain?

4. What are general (somatosensory, or somesthetic) senses? List the general senses

5. What are special senses? List the special senses

6. Sensory receptors are classified by their modality (i.e. the type of stimulus to which they respond).

Complete the following table: Type of receptor Modality Examples (what it responds to…)

Chemoreceptor Thermoreceptor Mechanoreceptor Photoreceptor Nociceptor - 137 -

B. STRUCTURE OF THE EAR 1. Label the following figure using the terms in the box.

Auricle vestibulocochlear nerve tympanic membrane tympanic cavity extermal auditory canal Cochlea auditory tube cochlear nerve vestibular nerve vestibule semicircular canals round window auditory ossicles incus, malleus, & stapes lobule outer ear middle ear inner ear C. STRUCTURE OF THE EYE. 1. Label the following figure using the terms in the box. ciliary body suspensory ligament Iris Cornea Pupil Lens Choroid Sclera Retina optic nerve vitreous body posterior chamber anterior chamber optic disc (blind spot) aqueous humor fovea centralis

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Lab Activities A. SENSORY TRANSDUCTION, THE RECEPTOR POTENTIAL AND SENSORY ADAPTATION. 1. What is sensory transduction?

2. What does the term receptor potential mean? Which type of potential is it most similar to: resting membrane potential, local potential, or action potential?

3. The figure to the right shows a taste pore (found in the taste buds on your tongue). Use the figure to help you put the sensory transduction events below in the proper order. These events will follow the same pattern in every case of sensory transduction—the only difference will be what the sensory receptor binds to. ____ Synaptic vesicles within the taste cells release a neurotransmitter ____ A local potential is created in the sensory nerve ____ Sweet substance dissolves in saliva and floods the taste pore ____ The neurotransmitter binds to ligand-gated channels in the sensory nerve ____ Sweet substance binds to receptors in the taste cell ____ Action potentials travel along the sensory neuron towards the CNS ____ A receptor potential is created in the taste cell 4. Sensory Adaptation You will need a container filled with a strong scent, like a perfume bottle.

You may do this in the lab, or you may try this at home. a. Close one of your nostrils with your index finger and hold an opened odor vial under your open nostril. b. Take in the scent and keep doing this until you cannot smell anything. c. Now open your other nostril, with the open vial still close to your nose. d. What do you observe? e. How can you explain what happened? f. Why is it that we are unaware of our own body odors? g. Do nociceptors (pain receptors) adapt faster than olfactory receptors? Why or why not?

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B. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE EAR 1. Identify each of the structures that you labeled in Pre-Lab activity B1 on models in the lab. Remember that you’ll be tested using models!

2. The following paragraph summarizes the structure and function of the ear. Fill in the blanks.

The ear is composed of three anatomical regions: the outer ear, middle ear, and the inner ear. The outer ear is made up of __________________ and ____________________.

The ____________________ is the junction between the outer ear and middle ear. The middle ear includes ___________________ cavity, _________________ (malleus, incus, and stapes), and ____________________ tube. A _________________ window connects the middle ear to the inner ear.

The inner ear contains the __________________ canals that are involved in dynamic equilibrium, the _____________________ that is involved with static equilibrium, and the __________________ that is responsible for hearing.

3. Match each structure in the box with its function (or description). ___ hearing (receptors for hearing are located here) ___ concentrates sound waves ___ conducts sound waves to the tympanum ___ carries equilibrium signals to the brain ___ amplifies sound waves ___ static equilibrium ___ conducts sound waves to the inner ear ___ dynamic equilibrium (position of the body; rotation) ___ equalizes pressure in the tympanic cavity; meeting point of ear, nose, throat. ___ conduct and amplify sound waves to the oval window ___ middle ear cavity ___ carries auditory signals to the brain C. PHYSIOLOGY OF HEARING 1. Where in the inner ear would you find the structure shown in the figure to the right?

2. What is its function?

3. What type of receptor is this?

4. A glass shatters near you. Describe the pathway of sound waves from the auricle to the auditory (vestibulocochlear) nerve by placing in the following events in order.

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A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J. K. L.

Auricle auditory ossicles oval window semicircular canals tympanic membrane external auditory canal auditory tube (eustachian tube) tympanic cavity cochlea vestibule cochlear nerve vestibular nerve

____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

amplified sound waves arrive at the cochlea auditory impulses are carried to the CNS via the vestibulocochlear nerve basilar membrane vibrates according to the frequency of the sound cochlear nerve fibers become stimulated and action potentials are created deflection of hair cells results in sensory transduction (receptor potential is created) hair cells release neurotransmitters which bind to sensory neurons (cochlear) hair cells touch the tectorial membrane and bend sound waves are amplified by the tympanic membrane sound waves are conducted and amplified by the auditory ossicles sound waves are conducted to the inner ear via the round window sound waves travel down the external auditory tube the sound waves are picked up by the auricle

5. Which of the structures discussed above is vulnerable to damage by very loud music or noise?

D. PHYSIOLOGY OF EQUILIBRIUM 1. Static Equilibrium and Romberg Test. You will need a piece of chalk for this activity. You will need to work in pairs. a. Have your lab partner stand with his or her back to the blackboard. b. Draw parallel lines along each side of your partner’s torso. Wait for two minutes as your lab partner stands erect, with eyes open and staring straight ahead. c. Measure any side to side movement (in cm) away from lines drawn (record data in the table on the below). d. Now have your partner stands erect, with eyes closed, for two minutes. e. Measure any side to side movement (in cm) away from lines drawn. Record your observations in the table: Eyes Open Closed

Side to side movement [cm]

f. Answer the following questions.

1. Is there difference between the two situations?

Why?

2. How is vision equilibrium?

important

in

maintaining

3. What is the connection between the activity that you just performed and the figure to the right?

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2. Dynamic equilibrium. a. Stand at the blackboard and walk toward the back of the lab by placing one foot in front of the other.

Keep your eyes open and look straight ahead. b. Have your partner measure the distance walked while still maintaining a straight line with the eyes open and looking straight ahead:__________ c. Repeat the procedure now with your eyes closed. d. Have your partner measure the distance walked while still maintaining a straight line with the eyes closed: __________ e. Answer the following questions.

1. How do you explain the difference between the two trials?

2. Based on what you have learned about dynamic equilibrium can you explain motion sickness while traveling on the road? How can this be helped?

3. What is the relationship between the exercise that you just performed and the Semicircular canals shown in the figure to the right?

E. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE EYE. 1. Identify each of the structures that you labeled in Pre-Lab activity C1 on models in the lab.

Remember that you’ll be tested using models!

2. The following paragraph summarizes the structure and function of the eye. Complete the summary by filling in the blanks.

The eye is made up of two main components: the tunics and the optical components There are three tunics that form the wall of Lab10the eyeball: the fibrous layer, the vascular layer, and the internal layer. The fibrous layer is made up of the ________________, which is protective and the________________ that admits light rays. The vascular layer consists of the _______________ that is supplied with blood vessels, _______________ that changes the shape of the lens, and ________________ that controls the diameter of the pupil. The internal layer contains neuronal components of the eye. It consists of the _____________, which is the photoreceptive layer and the ___________________ that carries visual impulses to the brain. The optical components are the________________ that admits light rays, __________ that focuses the light rays, and the ________________and _________________ humors that refract the light rays.

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3. Match each structure in the box with its function (or description).

A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J. K.

___ photoreceptive layer (contains rods and cones) ___ changes shape of the lens (accommodation) ___ carries visual impulses to the brain ___ focuses light rays ___ protective layer that admits light rays ___ nutritive layer (supplied with blood vessels) ___ opaque protective layer ___ controls the pupil (is a smooth muscle) ___ has the greatest concentration of cones ___ admits light rays ___ refraction of light rays

Pupil iris lens cornea choroid sclera retina fovea centralis optic nerve vitreous humor ciliary muscle body

and

F. ACCOMMODATION OF THE LENS 1. The lens changes its shape (accommodation) according to the distance of the object. The figures to the right show how the lens accommodates in response to a distant and nearby object. Examine the figure then answer the questions that follow. What happens to the shape of the lens in each case?

2. What is the name of the muscle that allows the lens to accommodate?

3. The eyeball moves by the action of three pairs of extrinsic muscle. Name them in the figure below.

4. The focal plane is where the image is captured in the eye. Look at the figure below then answer the questions that follow.

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5. How do the focal planes differ between the emmetropic (normal), myopic (nearsighted), and hyperopic (farsighted) eyes?

6. How does contemporary life affect the accommodation of the lens and therefore our vision? Think about the types of things that we do now that our evolutionary ancestors did not.

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Lab 11 - The Skeletal System: Bones Objectives Checklist - After completing this lab, you should be able to:  describe the general functions of the skeletal  describe function and location of paranasal system and list the organs of the system [Presinuses and their relationship with sinusitis lab activities A1-2] [Lab activities A2, A3]  differentiate among the four types of bones  explain the function of sutures and based on shape and function [Pre-lab activity fontanels [Lab activities A4-5] B1]  describe the differences in structure and  identify the general features of a long bone function of the three types of vertebrae, and [Pre-lab activity B2] abnormal curvatures of the vertebral column [Lab activities A8-11]  describe the histology of compact bone [Prelab activity B3]  differentiate between the pectoral girdle and pelvic girdle and the bones that  identify selected bones of the axial and comprise them [Lab activities B1-2] appendicular skeleton [Pre-lab activities C16, D1-2; lab activities A1, A8, A12, B2]  differentiate between male and female pelvic girdles and explain the importance  identify and explain the functions of selected of the differences [Lab activities B4-5] bone markings [Lab activities A6, B3]

Pre-Lab Activities A. OVERVIEW OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM AND ITS FUNCTIONS 1. Fill in the blanks: The skeletal system is composed of bones, ______________, and ______________. The skeleton is divided in two anatomical regions: the _______________ skeleton, forming the central supporting axis of the body, and the ___________________ skeleton, which is composed of limbs and girdles. The appendicular skeleton has ______ (#) bones, whereas the axial skeleton has _________ (#). All together, the typical adult skeleton has ________ (#) bones.

2. Complete the table below with the six functions of the skeletal system and their descriptions.

Function Description or Example of Function 1 support hold the body in a particular shape, serve as attachment points for muscles 2 3 4 5 6

B. BONE ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY 1. Types of Bones Bones are classified according to their shape. Each shape is associated with certain functions. For instance, long bones are used as levers to produce movement; flat bones are used to protect organs or as sites for muscle attachment. Identify the types of bones below (flat, long, short, irregular).

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2. Gross anatomy of a long bone. Label the figure below with the terms in the box.

Diaphysis Epiphysis Compact bone Spongy bone Medullary (marrow) cavity Red bone marrow Yellow bone marrow Epiphyseal line Articular cartilage Endosteum Periosteum Nutrient foramen 3. Histology of bone Fill in the following blanks to describe the histology of bone. Osseous tissue is a subtype of _________________ tissue, which is characterized by an extensive extracellular matrix. Bone cells start off as _________________ which secrete the components of the matrix and then become trapped inside.

Once they are trapped inside, we call them ______________ and the spaces where they are located are called lacunae.

The matrix, itself, is made of a hard, inorganic component (mainly_______________________ ), and an organic component (mainly fibers of the protein ______________ ). Bone tissue is arranged in one of two ways: some bone is dense and hard and referred to as ____________ bone, while some has numerous spaces and a sponge-like appearance, thus is called spongy bone. The image below shows a _________________, which is the structural unit of compact bone.

4. Label the diagram below with the terms in the box. central canal canaliculi lacunae lamella

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5. What structures go throughout the central canal in living osseous tissues?

6. What would you find in the lacuna if the bone was alive? And in the canaliculi?

C. AXIAL SKELETON The axial skeleton is divided into five parts: the skull, hyoid bone, ossicles, vertebral column, and the thoracic cage.

1. Label all the bones in the skulls below.

Cranial Bones Facial Bones Frontal Temporal Maxilla Lacrimal Parietal Sphenoid Mandible Palatine Occipital Ethmoid Zygomatic Vomer Nasal

2. Label the following sutures in the figure above: lamboid, saggital, coronal.

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3. What is the name of the bone shown in the figure below? Why would forensic pathologists look for a fracture in this bone?

4. What is the general name of the six bones found in the middle ear?

5. Identify the following structures in the figure below. cervical vertebrae thoracic vertebrae lumbar vertebrae sacrum coccyx atlas (C1) axis (C2) C5 C7 T1 T6 T12 L1 L3 L5 S1 S5

6. Label and find in the skeleton the bones of the thoracic cage. true ribs (1-7) false ribs (8-12) floating ribs (11-12) sternum xiphoid process Manubrium clavicle (appendicular skeleton) scapula (appendicular skeleton) 148

D. APPENDICULAR SKELETON 1. The pectoral girdle and the upper limb. Label the figure below with the terms in the box. pectoral girdle (circle it in the figure) Clavicle Scapula Humerus Radius Ulna carpal bones metacarpal bones (I to V) phalanges (proximal, middle, and distal)

2. The pelvic girdle and lower limb. Label the figures below with the terms in the box. pelvic girdle (circle it in the figure) ox coxae (ilium, ischium, and pubis) Femur Tibia Fibula Patella tarsal bones metatarsal bones (I to V) phalanges (proximal, middle, and distal)

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Lab Activities A. AXIAL SKELETON. 1. The skull. Your instructor will give each group a skull. Some skulls are real (look for chipped bones) while others are plastic models. Make sure you look at both types. Identify the following structures (same ones you already labeled).

Cranial Bones Facial Bones frontal temporal maxilla lacrimal parietal sphenoid mandible palatine occipital ethmoid zygomatic vomer nasal 2. What does the term “paranasal� mean? Where are the paranasal sinuses located?

3. What is a sinus? What is its function? What is sinusitis?

4. What is a suture? Find the coronal, sagittal, squamous, and lamboid sutures on the skull.

5. What are fontanels? What is their function? Find fontanels on the fetal skull model.

6. Bone surfaces have a variety of bumps, depressions, canals, pores, depressions and projections.

Most of these, called markings, serve as attachment for muscles, or allow nerves or vessels to go through the bone. Find the following examples of bone markings in the skull bones, and describe their function in the table below.

Bone Marking a process is any bony prominence

a condyle is a rounded knob a foramen is a hole (usually round) through a bone a meatus is an opening into a

Example mastoid process find it on the temporal bone zygomatic process find it on the temporal bone temporal process find it on the zygomatic bone alveolar process find it on the mandible and maxilla occipital condyle find it on the occipital bone optic foramen find it on the sphenoid bone foramen magnum find it on the occipital bone external acoustic (auditory) meatus find it on the temporal bone 150

Function

canal which is a tunnel other markings with significant functions

auditory canal find it on the temporal bone sella turcica find it on the sphenoid bone nasal conchae find them on the ethmoid bone cribiform plate find it on the ethmoid bone

7. The vertebral column. Your instructor will give each group a box of disarticulated (not attached) bones. Start by examining the vertebra. You should compare your bones to the articulated (put together) skeleton at the front of the lab to make sure that you are identifying them properly.

8. Identify the vertebrae below as cervical, thoracic or lumbar. Find one of each type in your box.

9. Compare vertebrae from each region by completing the table below.

cervical vertebra

thoracic vertebra

lumbar vertebra

Body compare shapes Process compare shapes and orientation Foramen compare shapes

10. Which type of vertebra has a larger body? Why?

11. A facet is a bone marking. It is a smooth, flat and slightly concave or convex surface where the vertebra joins other bone. Which of these three vertebrae has more than usual facets and processes? Why? Find a facet in a vertebra

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12. What goes through the vertebral foramen?

13. What goes through the transverse foramen in a cervical vertebra?

14. There are two cervical vertebrae that are different form the rest. Which ones are they? How are they different and why?

15. What is the purpose of the vertebral column?

16. Abnormal spine curvatures can result from a diversity of causes (e.g. poor posture, weakness of the muscles of the spine, congenital defects, disease, and even from pregnancy). a. Identify each of the three abnormal spine curvatures shown below: scoliosis, kyphosis, and lordosis. b. Below each, describe at least one potential cause of the abnormal curvature.

17. The Thoracic Cage. Find the following bones (you already labeled them) in the articulated skeleton and in your box of disarticulated bones. true ribs false ribs

floating ribs sternum

xiphoid process manubrium

clavicle scapula

18. What is the purpose of the thoracic cage?

19. What distinguishes true ribs from false ribs?

B. APPENDICULAR SKELETON 1. Fill in the blanks of the following sentences. The appendicular skeleton “hangs� from the axial skeleton. The bones of this division of the skeleton are divided into the _____________ girdle and the upper limb, and the ___________ girdle and the lower limb.

2. Identify the following bones (you already labeled them) in the articulated skeleton and in the disarticulated skeleton.

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pectoral girdle Clavicle Scapula Humerus Radius

Ulna Carpals Metacarpals phalanges (proximal, middle, and distal; hands & feet)

pelvic girdle femur tibia ox coxae (ilium, ischium, and pubis)

Fibula Patella Tarsals metatarsals

3. Find the following examples of bone markings in the bones of the appendicular skeleton, and describe their function in the table below.

Bone Marking a crest is a narrow ridge

Example Iliac crest find it on the ilium

Function

a spine is a sharp, narrow process

Iliac spines find it on the ilium

a head is the prominent expanded end of a bone

Head of the femur

a neck is a constriction in a bone an epicondyle is a projection superior to a condyle

Anatomical (and surgical) neck of the humerus

a trochanter is a very large process

Greater and lesser trochanters find them on the femur

a malleolus is a process with a hammerhead shape Other markings

Lateral malleolus --find it on the fibula-- and medial malleolus --find it on the tibia.

Head of the humerus

Medial and lateral epicondyles of the femur Medial and lateral epicondyles of the humerus

Olecranon process find it on the ulna Acetabulum find it on the ox coxae Glenoid cavity, and acromion and coracoids processes find them on the scapula

4. Archeologists are able to identify skeletal remains by looking at certain features of the pelvic girdle. Examine the figure below, then fill in the table that follows to identify the differences between the male and female pelvis.

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Structural Feature

Male

Female

subpubic angle coccyx pelvic inlet pelvic outlet obturator foramen 5. What explains the differences between the male and female pelvis? Why is this important?

6. How are the design of the pelvis and fontanels related to one another?

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Lab 12 - The Skeletal System: Joints Objectives Checklist - After completing this lab, you should be able to:  define joint and classify joints according to their structure and function [Pre-lab activities A1-2]  identify joints based on their structure and function [Lab activities A1-2]  describe and identify the structures of a simple synovial joint [Pre-lab activity B1; lab activity B1-2]  differentiate among the different types of synovial joints, and enumerate where they are found in the human body [Pre-lab activity C; lab activity C]

 describe and demonstrate the movements of synovial joints [Lab activity D]  identify the structures of the tibiofemoral (knee) joint, and describe the function of menisci, cruciate ligaments, and collateral ligaments [Pre-lab activities D, lab activity E1-5]  identify the structures stabilizing elbow, shoulder, and hip joints [Lab activity F]  describe the most common joint related problems [Lab activity G]

Pre-Lab Activities A. INTRODUCTION Fill in the blanks of the following sentences to describe the study of joints. A joint (or _________________) connects a _____________ with another _______________, a ________________, or a tooth. The science that studies joints is called__________________, whereas the study of musculoskeletal movements is called____________________.

B. CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS Joints can be classified according to their structure (i.e. how adjacent bones are bound to each other) or their function (i.e. how much the joint moves).

1. Fill in the table below with the structural classification of joints (e.g. osseous tissue, collagen, cartilage, membrane with slippery fluid).

Type of Joint bony fibrous

Bones bound together by

cartilaginous synovial 2. Fill in the table below by describing the functional classification of joints (e.g. freely movable, slightly movable, little or no movement).

Type of Joint synarthrosis

Mobility at the Joint

amphiarthrosis diarthrosis

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C. STRUCTURE OF A SYNOVIAL JOINT 1. Label the figure on the right with the terms in the box.

Ligament articular cartilage joint (articular) capsule fibrous capsule synovial membrane cavity containing synovial fluid D. TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS 1. Fill in the table with the six types of synovial joints Synovial Joint

Name

Location(s) in the Body

Axes of Rotation (describe the movement)

E. KNEE (TIBIOFEMORAL) JOINT 1. Label the figure of the knee joint below with the terms in the box.

Femur Fibula Tibia lateral condyle of the femur

anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) lateral (fibular) collateral ligament medial condyle of the femur 156

medial (femoral) collateral ligament patellar ligament (cut) medial and latelar menisci articular cartilages

Lab Activities A. CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS. 1. Give the anatomical or structural classification of the following joints. Observe the joints on the articulated skeleton to help you determine the classification. Use pre-lab activity A1 as a reference Joint Structural Classification (fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial) knee joint pubic symphysis inter-vertebral disc Sutures hip joint joint between tooth and jaw sternoclavicular joint shoulder joint elbow joint 2. Give the functional classification of the following joints. Use pre-lab activity A2as a reference Joint Functional Classification (movement) (synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, diarthrosis) hip joint coronal suture inter-vertebral disk shoulder joint lambdoidal suture sterno-costal joint elbow joint pubic symphysis knee joint

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B. STRUCTURE OF A SYNOVIAL JOINT 1. Identify the structures below on the models of synovial joints (knee, elbow, shoulder, hip, etc) in the lab. ligament joint (articular) capsule synovial membrane cavity containing synovial articular cartilage fibrous capsule fluid 2. Imagine that you fill a balloon partially with water, then tie it and place it on top of your closed fist. Then place your other fist on top of the balloon so that your fists get very close, but the water in the balloon keeps them separated. Now move (rotate) your fists.

3. How would the presence of a water-filled space affect the friction between your two fists? (increase/decrease/no change) 4. What synovial joint structure does the water filled balloon best represent?

5. What synovial joint structure does the latex of the balloon represent?

6. What synovial joint fluid does the water inside the balloon represent?

7. Give at least five examples of synovial joints in the human body

C. TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS 1. Use the articulated skeleton to observe structure and movement of the six types joints shown in the table you completed in pre-lab activity C. D. MOVEMENTS OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS (DIARTHROSES) 1. Team with a classmate and demonstrate the movements of the synovial joints as you read their description from the textbook. Demonstrate and describe.

Demonstrated?

Type of Description of Movement ď ?

Movement flexion extension Hyperextensio n adduction abduction rotation circumduction supination pronation elevation depression 158

protraction retraction 2. Identify the movements of synovial joints in the figures below.

E. KNEE (TIBIOFEMORAL) JOINT 1. Identify the structures below (you already labeled them in the pre-lab activity) on the model of the knee. femur

articular cartilages

fibula

medial meniscus

tibia

lateral meniscus anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)

lateral condyle of the femur medial condyle of the femur

2. What is the function of the menisci?

3. What is the function of the collateral ligaments?

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posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) lateral (fibular) collateral ligament patellar ligament (cut) medial (femoral) collateral ligament

4. What is the function of the cruciate ligaments?

5. Which are the most common knee joint injuries? How are they produced?

F. ELBOW, SHOULDER AND HIP JOINTS 1. Identify the following joints and their structures on the models. Place a check by each structure after you have identified it on the model. elbow  ulna  humerus  olecranon process  coronoid process  ligaments  humerus  scapula  glenoid cavity  coracoid process  acromion process shoulder ligaments hip  acetabulum  head of femur  iliofemoral ligament  ischiofemoral ligament 2. Fill in the blanks below with elbow, knee, hip or shoulder. ________________ This is the least stable joint ________________ This is a hinge joint between the ulna and the humerus ________________ Ligaments are loose to allow maximum range of movement ________________ Largest and most complex joint ________________ Anterior and posterior Cruciate ligaments stabilize this joint ________________ The lateral and medial meniscus act as shock absorbers ________________ Humeroscapular joint ________________ Humeroulnar joint ________________ Coxal joint ________________ Tibiofemoral joint ________________ Patellofemoral joint G. JOINT-RELATED CONDITIONS 1. Match each joint problem with its description _______ Sprain _______ Strain _______ Dislocation (luxation) _______ Bursitis _______ Torn cartilage (meniscus tear) _______ Osteoarthritis (OA) _______ Arthritis _______ Herniated disc _______ Tendinitis

A. Inflammation caused by aging and wear and tear of a joint; most common type of arthritis B. Bulging or broken intervertebral disc C. Inflammation, irritation, and swelling of a tendon D. Tearing of the fibers of a tendon or a muscle E. Displacement of bones in a joint F. Inflammation of one or more bursae of synovial fluid G. Inflammation of a joint H. Rupturing of fibrocartilage strip in the knee joint I. Tearing of the fibers of a ligament

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Lab 13 – The Muscular System Objectives Checklist - After completing this lab, you should be able to:  describe the general functions of the  define, explain, and apply the terms origin, muscular system and the general insertion, and belly [Lab activities B3-4] characteristics of muscle tissue [Pre-lab  explain the role of agonists, antagonists, activities A2-3] fixators, and synergists in joint movement  distinguish between the three types of and stability [Lab activities B2-3, B5-6] muscle tissue based on appearance,  identify the muscles of the face, trunk and location, and control [Pre-lab activity limbs and specify movements for which B; lab activity A1] they are responsible [Pre-lab activities C18; lab activities D1-8]

Pre-Lab Activities A. INTRODUCTION TO MUSCULAR SYSTEM AND ITS FUNCTIONS. 1. Fill in the blank The organs of the muscular system are __________________ that carry out the main functions of this organ system and __________________ that connect muscles to bones.

2. The functions of the muscles are:

3. Below are five general characteristics of muscle cells. Describe each characteristic in your own words. excitable (or responsive) conductive extensible contractile elastic cells B. MUSCLE TISSUE Fill in the table below comparing the three types of muscular tissues.

Name of type of muscular tissue Cell shape (short/long/branched…)

Striated?

(Y/N) 161

Number of nuclei (single/multi) Location in the body Function Control (voluntary/involuntary) C. IDENTIFICATION OF SKELETAL MUSCLES Find the muscles listed below in the figures in the textbook and label the figures shown below.

1. Muscles of facial expression and mastication Frontalis Occipitalis zygomaticus major orbicularis oris orbicularis oculi Masseter temporalis

2. Muscles of the neck sternocleidomastoid Trapezius

3. Muscles of normal respiration Intercostals diaphragm

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4. Muscles of the abdominal wall and torso rectus abdominus external oblique internal oblique transverse abdominal pectoralis major serratus anterior deltoid 5. Muscles of the back and shoulder trapezius latissimus dorsi deltoid erector spinae pectoralis major latissimus dorsi deltoid 6. Muscles of the arm biceps brachii short & long heads triceps brachii long, lateral, medial heads brachialis Brachioradialis

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7. Muscles of the hip and thigh gluteus maximus

tensor fascia latae adductor longus Gracilis quadriceps (rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, and vastus medialis) Sartorius biceps femoris anterior view

Semitendinosus

posterior view

semimembranosus 8. Muscles of the lower leg tibialis anterior Gastrocnemius

anterior view

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posterior view

Lab Activities A. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF MUSCLE FIBERS 1. Look at slide #19 (has all three muscle types) under the microscope. Use your textbook and pre-lab activity to help you identify the muscle types and structures you labeled in the pre-lab activity.

B. ACTIONS OF MUSCLE ON JOINTS. 1. Define the terms below. Then label each part on the biceps brachii on the image to the right. a. origin: b. insertion: c. belly: 1. The movement produced by a muscle is called its action. For example, the action of the biceps brachii is to flex the elbow. The movement of a joint is usually associated with the combined action of more than one muscle.

We define each of the muscle involved in the movement of a joint according to their role. Define or describe each of the following roles, in general: a. prime mover (agonist) b. antagonist c. synergist d. fixator 2. Now apply the terms to an actual joint. Keep in mind that the role that a muscle plays depends on the movement (e.g. flexion or extension) that the joint is making. The following questions all refer to flexion of the elbow joint. a. Identify each of the muscles in the diagram: 1: 2: 3: b. What is the origin of muscle #3? c. What is the insertion of muscle #3? d. Which muscle is the agonist (flexion of the elbow)? e. Which muscle is the synergist? f. Which muscle is the antagonist? g. Which muscle(s) serve as fixators (not shown here)? h. Which bones form the elbow joint? i. What type of joint is this?______-arthrosis

1 2 3

3. How would the above terms change if we were talking about extension of the elbow joint?

4. The brachialis and the triceps brachii represent an antagonistic pair. What does that mean?

5. Which antagonistic pair controls flexion and extension of the knee joint?

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C. IDENTIFICATION OF SKELETAL MUSCLES. 1. Find the muscles below (that you labeled in Pre-Lab Activity B) on models (i.e. torso model, arm model, and leg model). Identify and contract the muscles on your own body, and describe in your own words the kind of movement (action) each one produces to help you remember. Answer the questions that follow each section. a. Muscles of facial expression and mastication: Check mark the muscles you have identified on the models, and then select the right options in the paragraph below.

The temporalis muscle is (deep/superficial) to the Muscle Name temporal bone. The frontalis is (deep/superficial) to Frontalis Orbicularis oculi the frontal bone.

Occipitalis Masseter b.

Muscles of the neck: Check mark the Zygomaticus major Temporalis muscles you have identified on the models Orbicularis oris Muscle Name sternocleidomastoid Trapezius c. Muscles of normal respiration: Check mark the muscles you have identified on the models, and then select the right options in the paragraph below.

Muscle Name Intercostals

Contraction of the diaphragm (increases/decreases) the volume of the thoracic cage

diaphragm d. Muscles of the abdominal wall and torso: Check mark the muscles you have identified on the models, and then select the right options in the paragraph below.

Muscle Name pectoralis major rectus abdominis external abdominal serratus anterior oblique internal abdominal deltoid oblique transverse abdominal

The external oblique is (superficial/deep) to the internal oblique. The rectus abdominis is (medial/lateral) to the external oblique. The rectus abdominis (extends/flexes) the torso.

e. Muscles of the back and shoulder: Check mark the muscles you have identified on the models, and then select the right options in the paragraph below.

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Muscle Name trapezius

The erector spinae is (antagonistic/synergistic) to abdominal muscles. The pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi (abduct/adduct) the arm.

The deltoid latissimus dorsi pectoralis major (abducts/adducts) the arm.

The pectoralis major and the latissimus dorsi are deltoid (antagonistic/synergistic) to the deltoid.

Name the bones: The pectoralis major originates at the _____________, the deltoid originates at the __________________, and the latissimus dorsi originates at the _________________. The three muscles insert on the ___________________. erector spinae

f. Muscles of the arm: Check mark the muscles you have identified on the models, and then select the right options in the paragraph below.

The action of the brachialis is to (extend/flex) the elbow. It originates at (bone) ______________, and it is inserts at (bone) _______________. The action of the triceps brachii is to (extend/flex) the elbow. It originates at (bone) ______________, and it is inserts at (bone) _______________. The brachialis and triceps brachii are (antagonistic/synergistic) to one another. The brachialis and biceps brachii are (antagonistic/synergistic) to one another.

Muscle Name biceps brachii brachialis short & long heads triceps brachii long, lateral, medial Brachioradialis heads

g. Muscles of the hip and thigh: Check mark the muscles you have identified on the models, and then select the right options in the paragraph below.

The action of the gluteus medius is to (abduct/adduct) the thigh. It originates at Sartorius (bone) _____________________ and inserts gluteus medius biceps femoris at (bone)___________________.

The action of the gracilis is to (abduct/adduct) the tensor fascia latae semitendinosus thigh.

It originates at (bone) adductor longus semimembranosus _____________________ and inserts at quadriceps (rectus femoris, (bone) ___________________. The gluteus gracilis vastus lateralis, and vastus medius and gracilis are medialis) (antagonistic/synergistic) to one another.

The action of the rectus femoris is to (extend/flex) the knee. It originates at (bone) _________________ and inserts at (bone) ___________________. The action of the biceps femoris is to (extend/flex) the knee. It originates at (bone) _____________________ and inserts at (bone)___________________. The rectus femoris and biceps femoris are (antagonistic/synergistic) to one another.

Muscle Name gluteus maximus

h. Muscles of the lower leg: Check mark the muscles you have identified on the models, and then select the right options in the paragraph below.

Muscle Name tibialis anterior

The tibialis anterior (flexes/extends) the ankle joint whereas the gastrocnemius (flexes/extends) it.

gastrocnemius

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D. APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE. Label the muscles indicated in the diagram below.

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LABORATORY RULES - ME401/ME402 Read the rules & sign the agreement below, and hand in to your lab instructor Laboratory Safety: Lab safety is everyone’s responsibility.

1. Be familiar with the exercises and experiments that you will be doing before coming to laboratory.

This will increase your understanding, enjoyment, and safety during the laboratory.

2. Know your own allergies and be aware of the potential allergens (e.g. penicillin, pollen, latex) that might be present in the laboratory. Take the necessary precautions to prevent allergic reactions.

3. Know where the shower, eyewash bath, and fire extinguisher are and how and when to use them.

4. Do not put backpacks, bags, and other personal items on the lab bench. Keep them out of the way under the bench.

5. Follow all protocols (instructions for experimental procedures) carefully. Varying the order could be dangerous.

6. Approach all chemicals with caution. Do not taste or inhale (smell) chemicals. Avoid getting chemicals on your skin. We may use strong acids and bases that can cause chemical burns. We may use chemicals that have been linked to causing cancer (carcinogens).

7. Wash your hands before and after each laboratory session. Good hygiene is important in limiting the spread of disease. Hand-washing will also get rid of any chemical residues you might have inadvertently been exposed to.

8. No food or drink in the laboratory, including water. If you are thirsty or hungry, leave the classroom.

9. Smoking is prohibited in all public buildings in New York City, including this one.

10. Report accidents and breakages or any equipment that is malfunctioning to your professor. Do not attempt to clean up any spills or breakages yourself. Tell your professor.

11. Long hair and flowing clothing can be dangerous in the laboratory because they can get caught.

Open-toed shoes or sandals are not to be worn in the lab because chemicals might spill directly on your skin. You may bring an old shirt to class to wear over you clothing.

12. Do not wear contact lenses in the lab. Lenses may absorb fumes and cause permanent damage.

13. Never remove chemicals, equipment, or parts of models from the laboratory. Anyone caught doing so is subject to disciplinary action.

14. Leave the lab in the same or better condition than when you entered. Put all microscopes back properly. Clean lab benches. Return all materials to the cart. Wash any glassware, slides, trays that you have used. Dispose of specimens in appropriate containers.

CUT OVER THE DOTTED LINE AND HAND IN TO YOUR LAB INSTRUCTOR - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- --I have read the above material and I understand and agree to comply with the laboratory rules. I understand that I may be removed from the lab if I do not comply.

Biology ____ Section ________ Instructor _____________________________________________ Name (print) ________________________________________________ Date ________________ Signature ______________________________________________ 169