BIO24 F19-S20 Complete Course Guide by Human Anatomy

BIO 24 - Anatomy & Physiology II

Fall 2019 Spring 2020 Course Guide & Lab Manual 2019-2020 Biology Department

http://tiny.cc/B2324CG 0

Preface to the Current Edition Human Anatomy and Physiology (A&P) is a two-semester course sequence (BIO 23 & BIO 24) offered by the Biological Sciences Department at Bronx Community College (Meister Hall 418). BIO 23 and BIO 24 are conducted in an integrated lecture-laboratory format for the study of physiological processes, as well as gross and microscopic anatomy. The six hours of class contact hours per week is equally divided between the lecture and laboratory meetings within a 14-week academic semester followed by a final lecture examination in the 15th week of the academic semester. BIO 23 covers the following topics and systems of the human organism: human structural and functional organization, basic chemistry, cell structure and function, foundations of cell metabolism, histology, the integumentary system, the skeletal system, the muscular system, the nervous system, and the endocrine system.

BIO 24 applies essential concepts from BIO 23 in the study of the following topics and systems of the human organism: cardiovascular system, lymphatic system and immunity, respiratory system, urinary system and fluid and electrolyte balance, digestive system and metabolism, and the reproductive system.

The coordinators of the course are Prof. Abass Abdullahi, Prof. Kyeng Lee, and Prof. Carlos Liachovitzky.

This guide is the product of the collaborative effort of many faculty of the Department of Biological Sciences. It has been mutating since the first edition up to the present. This guide is a continuous work in progress thanks to the input of students and faculty of the department. Dr. Howard Fuld and Dr. Henry Hermo authored the first version in Fall 1988, and many others contributed along its history. Thanks to Dr. Maureen Gannon, who reviewed extensively the first editions; and to Dr. Nichole McDaniel, Dr. Shylaja Akkaraju, and Prof. Carlos Liachovitzky, who contributed widely with the most recent versions. All images used in this study guide are Copyright ÂŠMcGraw-Hill Companies Inc. unless specified with a link to their source

BIO 24 Course Guide and Lab Manual Table of Contents Human Anatomy and Physiology I and II and CUNY Pathways ............................................................. 6 BIO 23 and BIO24 as CUNY Pathways Gateway Courses into several programs ..................................................6

Student Expected Learning Outcomes ...................................................................................................... 7 General Human Anatomy and Physiology Student Learning Outcomes ..................................................................7 Specific (BIO 24) Student Learning Outcomes ........................................................................................................7

Bio24 Sequence of Topics and Reading Assignments .............................................................................. 8 Lecture Sequence of Topics and Reading Assignments ...........................................................................................8 Lab Sequence of Topics and Chapter Assignments ................................................................................................11

Textbook, Course Material & Lab Manual, and Learning Resources ..................................................... 12 Textbook .................................................................................................................................................................12 Course Information Booklet & Lab Manual ...........................................................................................................12 Other Learning Resources ......................................................................................................................................12

General Info and Policies ........................................................................................................................ 13 BIO24 Grading* .....................................................................................................................................................13 Bronx Community College Grading System ..........................................................................................................14 Attendance ..............................................................................................................................................................14 Registration and prerequisites .................................................................................................................................14 Switching sections ..................................................................................................................................................14 Overtallying ............................................................................................................................................................14 Credit hours and workload ......................................................................................................................................15 Children ..................................................................................................................................................................15 Cell Phones and Other Electronic Devices .............................................................................................................15 Access and Equal Education Opportunity for Students ..........................................................................................15 University Policies on Academic Dishonesty (a.k.a. cheating) ..............................................................................15 Instructor and Student Responsibilities ..................................................................................................................16 Instructor responsibilities ................................................................................................................................................... 16 Student Responsibilities ...................................................................................................................................................... 16

How to Download Lab Manual (Worksheets) ........................................................................................................18 How to Access Blackboard .....................................................................................................................................18 BCC Computer Facilities ........................................................................................................................................19 Printing ...................................................................................................................................................................19 Advisement .............................................................................................................................................................19 Academic Calendars and Schedule of Classes........................................................................................................20 Fall 2019 Calendar ............................................................................................................................................................... 20 Fall 2019 Schedule of Classes .............................................................................................................................................. 21 Spring 2020 Calendar .......................................................................................................................................................... 22 Spring 2020 Schedule of Classes ......................................................................................................................................... 23

Frequently Asked Questions ................................................................................................................... 24 BIO 24 LECTURE TOPICS AND LAB TOPICS AND STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES (THINGS TO KNOW) ........................................................................................................................ - 28 1-Fluids and Transport: Cardiovascular System (Lab and Lecture Topic) ........................................................ - 28 Lecture Study Questions – Part I: Heart ..........................................................................................................................- 34 Lecture Study Questions – Part II: Blood Vessels ............................................................................................................- 36 Lecture Study Questions – Part III: Blood ........................................................................................................................- 37 -

2-Fluids and Transport: Lymphatic System & Immunity (Lecture Topic) ........................................................ - 38 Lecture Study Questions: Lymphatic System & Immunity ..............................................................................................- 40 -

3-Energy, Maintenance, and Environmental Exchange: Respiratory System (Lab and Lecture Topic) ........... - 42 Lecture Study Questions: Respiratory System ................................................................................................................- 45 -

4-Energy, Maintenance, And Environmental Exchange: Urinary System (Lab and Lecture Topic) ................ - 47 Lecture Study Questions: Urinary System .......................................................................................................................- 49 -

5-Energy, Maintenance, And Environmental Exchange: Fluid/Electrolytes & Acid/Base Balance (Lecture Topic) ........................................................................................................................................................................... - 50 Lecture Study Questions: Fluid/Electrolytes & Acid/Base Balance .................................................................................- 52 -

6-Energy, Maintenance, And Environmental Exchange: Digestive System and Metabolism (Lab and Lecture Topics) ............................................................................................................................................................... - 52 Lecture Study Questions: Digestive System and Metabolism .........................................................................................- 56 -

7-Energy, Maintenance, And Environmental Exchange: Digestive System and Nutrition (Lab and Lecture Topics) ............................................................................................................................................................... - 57 Lecture Study Questions: Nutrition .................................................................................................................................- 60 -

8-Reproduction and Development: Reproductive System (Lab and Lecture Topics ........................................ - 60 Lecture Study Questions: Reproductive System .............................................................................................................- 62 -

Lab 1: The Circulatory System: Heart Anatomy and Blood Flow ..................................................... - 41 Pre-Lab Activities .............................................................................................................................................. - 41 A.

Heart Anatomy ......................................................................................................................................................- 41 -

Lab Activities..................................................................................................................................................... - 42 A. B. C. D. E.

Heart Anatomy ......................................................................................................................................................- 42 Histology of the Myocardium (20 min) ..................................................................................................................- 42 Heart Anatomy (30 min) ........................................................................................................................................- 43 Circulatory Circuits (30 min) ..................................................................................................................................- 44 Pathway of blood (45 min) ....................................................................................................................................- 45 -

Lab 2 - The Circulatory System: Blood Vessels ................................................................................. - 47 Pre-Lab Activities .............................................................................................................................................. - 47 A. B. C.

Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries ..............................................................................................................................- 47 Circulatory Routes .................................................................................................................................................- 47 Identification of Major Vessels ..............................................................................................................................- 48 -

Lab Activities..................................................................................................................................................... - 51 A. B. C. D. E.

Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries (30 min) ................................................................................................................- 51 Identification of Major Vessels (45 min) ................................................................................................................- 52 Vessels Applied (30 min). .......................................................................................................................................- 53 Hepatic Portal System (15 min) .............................................................................................................................- 54 Pulse and Heart Sounds (30 min) ..........................................................................................................................- 55 -

Lab 3 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Cardiovascular Physiology: Electrocardiography, Pulse and Blood Pressure ....................... - 56 Pre-Lab Activities .............................................................................................................................................. - 56 A. B.

Electrocardiography and The Cardiac Cycle ..........................................................................................................- 56 Blood Pressure and Pulse ......................................................................................................................................- 57 -

Lab Activities..................................................................................................................................................... - 58 A. B. C.

Heart, ECG, and Pulse Lesson (60 min) ..................................................................................................................- 58 Blood Pressure Lesson (90 min) .............................................................................................................................- 62 Optional: The Cardiac Cycle ...................................................................................................................................- 68 -

Lab 4 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The Circulatory System: Blood Analysis and Typing ........................................................... - 69 Pre-Lab Activities .............................................................................................................................................. - 69 A. B. C. D.

Composition Of Whole Blood ................................................................................................................................- 69 Characteristics Of Formed Elements .....................................................................................................................- 70 Types Of White Blood Cells ....................................................................................................................................- 70 Blood Antigens And Antibodies .............................................................................................................................- 71 -

Lab Activities..................................................................................................................................................... - 71 A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H.

Components of Plasma (15 min) ...........................................................................................................................- 71 General Properties Of Blood ..................................................................................................................................- 72 Differentiating Between Types Of White Blood Cells (30 Min) .............................................................................- 72 Analyze An Abnormal Complete Blood Count (CBC; 15 Min) ................................................................................- 73 Blood Antigens And Antibodies (15 Min) ..............................................................................................................- 74 Mock blood test (30 min) ......................................................................................................................................- 74 Blood antibodies (10 min) .....................................................................................................................................- 76 Blood Transfusions (20 min) ..................................................................................................................................- 76 3

Erythroblastosis Fetalis Or Hemolytic Disease Of The Newborn (HDN; 15 Min) ...................................................- 77 -

Lab 5 – The Respiratory System: Respiratory Anatomy .................................................................... - 79 Pre-Lab Activities .............................................................................................................................................. - 79 A.

Anatomical Structures ...........................................................................................................................................- 79 -

Lab Activities..................................................................................................................................................... - 82 A. B. C. D.

Anatomical Structures and Functions ....................................................................................................................- 82 Respiratory Histology.............................................................................................................................................- 83 Stages of Respiration .............................................................................................................................................- 83 Connecting the respiratory and circulatory systems. ............................................................................................- 83 -

Lab 6 – The Respiratory System: Spirometry ..................................................................................... - 85 Pre-Lab Activities .............................................................................................................................................. - 85 A. B.

Ventilation .............................................................................................................................................................- 85 Respiratory Volumes and Capacities .....................................................................................................................- 86 -

Lab Activities..................................................................................................................................................... - 88 A. Lung Volumes Lesson.............................................................................................................................................- 88 B. Respiratory Disease Patterns ....................................................................................................................................- 101 -

Lab 8: The Urinary System: Urinary Anatomy and Physiology ...................................................... - 102 Pre-Lab Activities ............................................................................................................................................ - 102 A. B.

Organs of the Urinary System ..............................................................................................................................- 102 Anatomy of the Kidney ........................................................................................................................................- 103 -

Lab Activities................................................................................................................................................... - 105 A. B. C. D.

Anatomy ..............................................................................................................................................................- 105 The Nephron ........................................................................................................................................................- 106 Renal Transport Processes ...................................................................................................................................- 107 From Filtrate to Urine ..........................................................................................................................................- 108 -

Lab 9 – The Digestive System: Anatomy and Processes of the Digestive System ........................... - 110 Pre-Lab Activities ............................................................................................................................................ - 110 A. B. C. D.

Processes of the Digestive System.......................................................................................................................- 110 Anatomy of the Digestive System ........................................................................................................................- 111 The Histology of the Digestive Tract: ...................................................................................................................- 113 Digestive system review ......................................................................................................................................- 114 -

Lab Activities................................................................................................................................................... - 114 A. B.

Anatomy and Processes of the Digestive System ................................................................................................- 114 The Histology of the Digestive Tract ....................................................................................................................- 117 -

Lab 10 – The Digestive System: Digestion and Enzymatic Activity ................................................ - 119 Pre-Lab Activities ............................................................................................................................................ - 119 A. Macromolecules........................................................................................................................................................- 119 B. Enzymes ....................................................................................................................................................................- 119 -

Lab Activities................................................................................................................................................... - 120 A. B. C. D.

The Effect of Various Factors on the Rate of an Enzyme Reaction ......................................................................- 120 Analyzing Factors that Affect Enzyme Reaction Rates.........................................................................................- 123 Starch digestion ...................................................................................................................................................- 124 Digestion of foodstuff ..........................................................................................................................................- 126 -

Lab 11 - The Reproductive System: Male and Female Reproductive Anatomy.............................. - 127 Pre-Lab Activities ............................................................................................................................................ - 127 A. B.

Male Reproductive Anatomy ...............................................................................................................................- 127 Female Reproductive Anatomy ...........................................................................................................................- 129 -

Lab Activities................................................................................................................................................... - 130 A. B. C.

Male Reproductive Anatomy and Physiology ......................................................................................................- 130 Female Reproductive Anatomy ...........................................................................................................................- 132 Microscopic Anatomy ..........................................................................................................................................- 133 -

Lab 12 – The Reproductive System: Gametogenesis ........................................................................ - 134 Pre-Lab Activities ............................................................................................................................................ - 134 A.

Orientation ..........................................................................................................................................................- 134 4

B. C. D. E.

Mitosis .................................................................................................................................................................- 134 Meiosis .................................................................................................................................................................- 135 Spermatogenesis and Spermiogenesis ................................................................................................................- 135 Oogenesis and Ovulation .....................................................................................................................................- 136 -

Lab Activities................................................................................................................................................... - 136 A. B. C. D. E. F.

Meiosis. ................................................................................................................................................................- 136 Mitosis .................................................................................................................................................................- 137 Comparing Meiosis and Mitosis. .........................................................................................................................- 138 Spermatogenesis and Spermiogenesis. ...............................................................................................................- 138 Oogenesis and Ovulation .....................................................................................................................................- 139 Comparing Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis. .....................................................................................................- 139 -

Lab 13 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The Reproductive System: Human Development .............................................................. - 140 Pre-Lab Activities ............................................................................................................................................ - 140 A. B. C. D.

Fertilization ..........................................................................................................................................................- 140 Cleavage...............................................................................................................................................................- 140 The Placenta and Embryonic Membranes ...........................................................................................................- 141 Fetal Circulation ...................................................................................................................................................- 141 -

Lab Activities................................................................................................................................................... - 142 A. B. C. D. E.

Fertilization ..........................................................................................................................................................- 142 Cleavage...............................................................................................................................................................- 143 Implantation ........................................................................................................................................................- 143 The Placenta and Embryonic Membranes ...........................................................................................................- 143 Fetal Circulation ...................................................................................................................................................- 144 -

LABORATORY RULES - ME401/ME402...................................................................................... - 146 -

Human Anatomy and Physiology I and II and CUNY Pathways BIO 23 belongs to "Life and Physical Science (C)" of the CUNY Pathways Required Common Core: http://www.bcc.cuny.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/required_july19_17.pdf BIO 23 and BIO 24 belong to "Scientific World (E)" of the CUNY Pathways Flexible Common Core: http://www.bcc.cuny.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/flexible_june2018.pdf

BIO 23 and BIO24 as CUNY Pathways Gateway Courses into several programs Program

Program Info

Director/Coordinator (as of 07/19)

Notes - Double check with director/coordinator for program updates

Nursing (A.A.S. Degree)

http://tiny.cc/0h3faz

Dr. Kenya Harris

BIO23 is part of the pre-clinical sequence. BIO23 is a required core course. BIO 23 may be taken twice in order to achieve the required C+. BIO24 belongs to flexible core

Dietetics and Nutrition (A.S. Degree)

http://tiny.cc/5n3faz

Professor Charmaine Aleong

BIO23 belongs to required core BIO24 belongs to flexible core

Nuclear Medicine Technology (A.A.S. Degree)

http://tiny.cc/ys3faz

Professor Grace Tursi

BIO23 belongs to required core BIO24 belongs to flexible core

4. Radiologic Technology (A.A.S. Degree)

http://tiny.cc/hv3faz

Professor Iris Cortes

5. Therapeutic Recreation (A.S. Degree)

http://tiny.cc/1x3faz

Professor Jose Acevedo

6. Exercise

http://tiny.cc/753faz

Dr. Ulana Lysniak

BIO23 belongs to required core and is required to be admitted in the program BIO24 belongs to flexible core A minimum grade of C+ in BIO 23 is required Pre-radiologic technology students are allowed two attempts to achieve a C+ in BIO 23 BIO23 belongs to required core BIO24 belongs to flexible core ASK program coordinator about waivers to take these courses BIO23 belongs to the required core BIO24 belongs to the flexible core ASK program coordinator about waivers to take these courses

7. Medical Office Assistant (A.A.S.)

http://tiny.cc/v93faz

Dr. Kwi Park-Kim

ASK the program coordinator as requirements may change

8. Public Health (A.S)

http://tiny.cc/vb4faz

Dr. Stacia Reader

ASK the program coordinator as requirements may change

Science and Kinesiology (A.S Degree)

Student Expected Learning Outcomes The General Student Learning Outcomes listed below form the unifying foundation for all topics and will be emphasized throughout Human Anatomy and Physiology I (BIO 23) and Human Anatomy and Physiology II (BIO 24). These general learning outcomes are adapted from material copyrighted by the Human Anatomy and Physiology Society (HAPS).

General Human Anatomy and Physiology Student Learning Outcomes 1. Develop a vocabulary of appropriate terminology to effectively communicate information related to anatomy and physiology. 2. Recognize the anatomical structures and explain the physiological functions of body systems. 3. Recognize and explain the principle of homeostasis and the use of feedback loops to control physiological systems in the human body. 4. Use anatomical knowledge to predict physiological consequences, and use knowledge of function to predict the features of anatomical structures. 5. Recognize and explain the interrelationships within and between anatomical and physiological systems of the human body. 6. Synthesize ideas to make a connection between knowledge of anatomy and physiology and realworld situations, including healthy lifestyle decisions and homeostatic imbalances. 7. Demonstrate laboratory procedures used to examine anatomical structures and evaluate physiological functions of each organ system. 8. Interpret graphs of anatomical and physiological data. The Specific Student Learning Outcomes listed below are specially emphasized in Human Anatomy and Physiology II (BIO 24). See more specifics on page -- of this guide.

Specific (BIO 24) Student Learning Outcomes 1. Recognize the anatomical structures, explain physiological functions, and recognize and explain the principle of homeostasis applied to circulatory, lymphatic, and immune systems 2. Recognize the anatomical structures, explain physiological functions, and recognize and explain the principle of homeostasis applied to the respiratory system 3. Recognize the anatomical structures, explain physiological functions, and recognize and explain the principle of homeostasis applied to the urinary system 4. Recognize the anatomical structures, explain physiological functions, and recognize and explain the principle of homeostasis applied to the digestive system 5. Recognize the anatomical structures, explain physiological functions, and recognize and explain the principle of homeostasis applied to the reproductive system 6. Identify and summarize the steps of the scientific method and recognize their role in the context of a laboratory experiment 7

Bio24 Sequence of Topics and Reading Assignments The reading assignments are given by the selected subtopics under numbered sections in the 7th edition of the textbook. "Introduction" refers to the beginning paragraph(s) in each of the indicated sections that many times contain important information.

Session

Week*

Lecture Sequence of Topics and Reading Assignments

Topic**

Fluids and Transport: Cardiovascular System | Heart (CH. 19)

Fluids and Transport: Cardiovascular System | Vessels (CH.20)

Fluids and Transport: Cardiovascular System | Blood (CH. 18)

LECTURE EXAM 1

Heart and Blood Vessels

Fluids and Transport: Lymphatic System & Immunity (CH. 21)

21.1 The Lymphatic System: Introduction; Lymph and the Lymphatic Vessels; Lymphatic Cells; Lymphatic Tissues; Lymphatic Organs 21.2 Nonspecific Resistance: Introduction; External Barriers; Leukocytes and Macrophages; Antimicrobial Proteins; Natural Killer Cells; Fever; Inflammation

III

Saladin Reading Assignments (7th Edition)

18.1 Introduction: Functions of the Circulatory System 19.1 Overview of the Cardiovascular System: Introduction; The Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits; Position, Size, and Shape of the Heart; The Pericardium 19.2 Gross Anatomy of the Heart: The Heart Wall; The Chambers; The Valves; Blood Flow Through the Chambers; The Coronary Circulation (Optional) 19.3 Cardiac Muscle and the Cardiac Conduction System: Introduction; Structure of Cardiac Muscle; The Conduction System 19.4 Electrical and Contractile Activity of the Heart: Introduction; The Cardiac Rhythm; Pacemaker Physiology; Impulse Conduction to the Myocardium; Electrical Behavior of the Myocardium; The Electrocardiogram (EKG) 19.5 Blood Flow, Heart Sounds, and the Cardiac Cycle: Introduction; Principles of Pressure and Flow; Heart Sounds; Phases of the Cardiac Cycle; Overview of Volume Changes 19.6 Cardiac Output: Introduction; Heart Rate; Stroke Volume 20.1 General Anatomy of the Blood Vessels: Introduction; The Vessel Wall; Arteries; Capillaries; Veins; Circulatory Routes 20.2 Blood Pressure, Resistance, and Flow: Introduction; Blood Pressure; Peripheral Resistance 20.3 Capillary Exchange: Introduction; Diffusion; Transcytosis; Filtration and Reabsorption 18.1 Introduction: Functions of the Circulatory System; Components and General Properties of Blood; Blood Plasma; Blood Viscosity and Osmolarity; How Blood Is Produced 18.2 Erythrocytes: Introduction; Form and Function; Hemoglobin; The Erythrocyte Life History; Erythrocyte Disorders 18.4 Leukocytes: Form and Function; The Leukocyte Life History; Leukocyte Disorders 18.5 Platelets and Hemostasis - The Control of Bleeding: Introduction; Platelet Form and Function; Hemostasis; The Fate of Blood Clots

Fluids and Transport: Lymphatic System & Immunity (CH. 21)

21.3 General Aspects of Adaptive Immunity: Introduction; Forms of Immunity; Antigens; Lymphocytes; Antigen-Presenting Cells 21.4 Cellular Immunity: Introduction; Recognition; Attack; Memory 21.5 Humoral Immunity: Introduction; Recognition; Attack; Memory

Energy, Maintenance, and Environmental Exchange: Respiratory System (CH. 22)

22.1 Anatomy of the Respiratory System: Introduction 22.2 Pulmonary Ventilation: Introduction; The Respiratory Muscles; Neural Control of Breathing

LECTURE EXAM 2

Blood and Lymphatic System

VII 14

15 VIII 16

Energy, Maintenance, and Environmental Exchange: Respiratory System (CH. 22) Energy, Maintenance, and Environmental Exchange: Respiratory System (CH. 22) Energy, Maintenance, And Environmental Exchange: Urinary System (CH. 23) Energy, Maintenance, And Environmental Exchange: Urinary System (CH. 23)

22.2 Pulmonary Ventilation: Pressure, Resistance, and Airflow; Alveolar Ventilation 22.3 Gas Exchange and Transport: Composition of Air; Alveolar Gas Exchange; Gas Transport; Systemic Gas Exchange; Alveolar Gas Exchange Revisited; Adjustment to the Metabolic Needs of Individual Tissues 23.1 Functions of the Urinary System: Introduction; Functions of the Kidneys; Nitrogenous Wastes; Excretion 23.2 Anatomy of the Kidney: Position and Associated Structures; Gross Anatomy; The Nephron 23.3 Urine Formation I: Glomerular Filtration: Introduction; The Filtration Membrane; Filtration Pressure; Glomerular Filtration Rate; Regulation of Glomerular Filtration

Energy, Maintenance, And Environmental Exchange: Urinary System (CH. 23)

23.4 Urine Formation II: Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion: Introduction; The Proximal Convoluted Tubule; The Nephron Loop; The Distal Convoluted Tubule and Collecting Duct 23.5 Urine Formation III: Water Conservation: Introduction; The Collecting Duct; Control of Water Loss; The Countercurrent Multiplier; The Countercurrent Exchange System

Energy, Maintenance, And Environmental Exchange: Fluid/Electrolytes & Acid/Base Balance (CH. 24)

24.3 Acid-Base Balance: Introduction; Acids, Bases, and Buffers; Respiratory Control of pH; Renal Control of pH; Disorders of AcidBase Balance; Compensation for Acid-Base Imbalances

LECTURE EXAM 3

Respiratory and Urinary Systems, and Acid Base Balance

Energy, Maintenance, And Environmental Exchange: Digestive System and Metabolism (CH. 25)

25.1 General Anatomy and Digestive Processes: Digestive Function; General Anatomy 25.3 The Stomach: Introduction; Gross Anatomy; Innervation and Circulation; Microscopic Anatomy; Gastric Secretions (Omit chemical messengers.); Digestion and Absorption; Protection of the Stomach 25.4 The Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas: Introduction; The Gallbladder and Bile; The Pancreas 25.5 The Small Intestine: Introduction; Gross Anatomy; Microscopic Anatomy; Intestinal Secretion; 25.6 Chemical Digestion and Absorption: Introduction; Carbohydrates; Proteins; Lipids; Nucleic Acids; Water 25.7 The Large Intestine: Introduction; Gross Anatomy; Microscopic Anatomy; Absorption and Motility; Defecation

Energy, Maintenance, And Environmental Exchange: Digestive System and Nutrition (CH. 26) Energy, Maintenance, And Environmental Exchange: Digestive System and Nutrition (CH. 26)

26.1 Nutrition: Calories; Nutrients; Carbohydrates; Lipids; Proteins; Minerals and Vitamins 26.2 Carbohydrate Metabolism: Introduction; Glucose Catabolism

LECTURE EXAM 4

Digestion and Nutrition

Reproduction and Development: Reproductive System (CH. 27)

27.1 Sexual Reproduction and Development: The Two Sexes; Overview of the Reproductive System; Chromosomal Sex Determination 27.3 Puberty and Climacteric: Introduction; Endocrine Control of Puberty

Reproduction and Development: Reproductive System (CH. 28)

28.3 Oogenesis and the Sexual Cycle: Introduction; Oogenesis; Folliculogenesis; The Sexual Cycle

Reproduction and Development: Reproductive System (CH. 28)

28.5 Pregnancy and Childbirth: Introduction; Prenatal Development; Hormones of Pregnancy (Omit HCS and Other Hormones.)

Cumulative Lecture Final Exam

Sessions 1-28

23 XII 24

25 XIII

XIV

26.3 Lipid and Protein Metabolism: Lipids; Proteins 26.4 Metabolic States and Metabolic Rate: Introduction; Metabolic Rate

Lab Topic

The Circulatory System: Heart Anatomy & Blood Flow (CH.19) Fluids and Transport: Cardiovascular System

The Circulatory System: Blood Vessels (CH. 20) Fluids and Transport: Cardiovascular System

III

The Circulatory System: Cardiovascular Physiology: Blood Pressure and Electrocardiography (CH. 19, and CH. 20) Fluids and Transport: Cardiovascular System

The Circulatory System: Blood Analysis and Typing (CH. 18, and CH. 21) Fluids and Transport: Cardiovascular System

The Respiratory System: Respiratory Anatomy and Histology (CH. 22) Energy, Maintenance, and Environmental Exchange: Respiratory System

The Respiratory System: Spirometry (CH. 22) Energy, Maintenance, and Environmental Exchange: Respiratory System

VII

LAB MIDTERM EXAM: LABS 1-6

VIII

The Urinary System: Urinary Anatomy and Physiology (CH. 23) Energy, Maintenance, And Environmental Exchange: Urinary System

The Digestive System : Anatomy and Processes of the Digestive System (CH. 25) Energy, Maintenance, And Environmental Exchange: Digestive System

The Digestive System: Digestion and Enzyme Activity (CH. 25) Energy, Maintenance, And Environmental Exchange: Digestive System

The Reproductive System: Male and Female Reproductive Anatomy & Histology (CH. 27, and CH. 28) Reproduction and Development: Reproductive System

XII

The Reproductive System: Gametogenesis (CH. 27, and CH. 28) Reproduction and Development: Reproductive System

XIII

The Reproductive System: Human Development (CH. 29) Reproduction and Development: Reproductive System

XIV

LAB FINAL EXAM: LABS 8-13

Week*

Session

Lab Sequence of Topics and Chapter Assignments

Textbook, Course Material & Lab Manual, and Learning Resources Textbook Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function; Kenneth Saladin; McGraw-Hill Publishers, 8th Edition, ISBN 9781259880193 Textbook options at BCC library: 1. Hardcover text version, 2. Loose-leaf version, and 3. E-version with Connect â&#x201E;¢ http://www.mheducation.com/highered/product/M1259277720.html

Course Information Booklet & Lab Manual Human Anatomy & Physiology I - BIO 24 - Course Information Booklet and Lab Manual This is published by the Biological Sciences Department as a free resource for BCC students. A PDF can be downloaded from here (http://tiny.cc/B2324CG)

Other Learning Resources Free Online Anatomy Browser Just sign up for free, and login https://www.biodigital.com/ Free Human Anatomy and Physiology Textbook by OpenStax - Use online or download a PDF in your electronic device http://goo.gl/LDlhYN Video Guide to Bio24 Lab Models http://tiny.cc/B24V

Collection of 100+ Short Videos Matching Textbook Chapters http://tiny.cc/B2324Videos Collection of 200+ Online Animations and Tutorials Bio24: http://tiny.cc/B24AT

The BIOLOGY STUDY LAB is in Meister 418 and is stocked with models, slides and microscopes, and CD-ROMs. Tutors are available, and many of your instructors volunteer to spend time in the study lab to provide extra help. Hours are usually posted during the second week of the semester. Give feedback to your instructor(s). If there is anything your instructor can do to help you succeed in the course, or to improve the course, please bring it to his or her attention. We value and depend on your constant feedback to make this course the best that it can be for all of our students.

General Info and Policies BIO24 Grading*

LECTURE GRADE 60% of BIO 24 Overall Grade LAB GRADE 40% of BIO 24 Overall Grade

Grade Breakdown Exam 1 Exam 2 Exam 3 Exam 4 Cumulative Final Exam Practical** Midterm Exam Practical Final Exam Quizzes

20% 20% 20% 20% 20% total 100% 30% 30% 40% total 100%

*Your instructor may modify the standard grading. If so, s/he will announce it the first day of classes **Practical means that you will be answering questions based on real specimens and models; your instructor will describe the format in more detail Dropped Exams and Quizzes Lecture: If any one of your in-class exam scores is lower than your final exam score, then the score for the in-class exam will be dropped and the final exam will be counted twice. If your final exam score is lower than all of your other exam scores, then nothing will be dropped and the final will be worth the same as your other exams. Under no circumstances will more than one exam grade be dropped. Lab: The instructor may drop the two lowest quiz grades. Under no circumstances will the midterm or final practical exam grades be dropped Make-ups Make-up exams WILL NOT be given under any circumstances. However, if you know in advance that you must miss an exam, the instructor may allow you to take the exam early. Extra Credit Extra credit is generally discouraged, but under no circumstances is extra credit to exceed 3% of the grade. Absolutely no extra credit assignments will be given to individual students. Note: Your lecture and/or lab instructor may make changes to the number and content of assignments and exams, thus the percent distribution of grades may be different from those described above. If so, he or she will describe the grading policy to the class at the beginning of the semester.

Bronx Community College Grading System Bronx Community College Grading System Grade

% Equivalent

Achievement Level

Quality Point Weight

A+ A AB+ B BC+ C CD+ D DF

97 - 100 93 - 96.9 90 - 92.9 87 - 89.9 83 - 86.9 80 - 82.9 77 - 79.9 73 - 76.9 70 - 72.9 67 - 69.9 63 - 66.9 60 - 62.9 0 - 59.9

Superior Excellent ––– Above Average Good ––– ––– Average Below Average Below Average Below Average Below Average Failure

4.0 4.0 3.7 3.3 3.0 2.7 2.3 2.0 1.7 1.3 1.0 0.7 0.0

Attendance Bronx Community College currently requires your instructor to take and file attendance records for every class. It is your responsibility to arrive at class on time and to be aware of the calendar of class meetings for your section. The Department defines an excessive absence record as unexcused absences of more than 20% of scheduled class time. Students with an excessive absence record will receive an automatic grade of F in the course at your instructor’s discretion. Total scheduled class time includes lab, lecture, and online attendance, as required by the particular course. Instructors also have the right to mark students absent if they arrive late or leave early from class. Instructors are not required to grade tests and other forms of assessment of students with an excessive absence record. Instructors are also not required to offer makeup exams for students absent from scheduled exams.

Registration and prerequisites It is expected that students will meet minimum prerequisites (BIO 23) as described in the schedule of classes distributed by the Office of the Registrar. At least a C+ grade in BIO23 is recommended.

Switching sections Students are not allowed to switch sections. This is not a decision up to your instructor, but a Biology Department policy.

Overtallying The Biology department does not overtally. This is not a decision up to your instructor, but a Biology Department policy. A section is closed once it reaches the maximum numbers of students allowed.

Credit hours and workload This course is worth four credits. It meets 6 hours per week (3 hours of lecture and 3 hours of laboratory). You should be aware of the challenge that this course will place upon your time and effort and should choose a semester schedule of classes that allows for the demands of the course. If your previous educational background does not include coursework in the sciences (more specifically in the biological sciences), you should arrange your schedule so that you have at least 12 hours a week to devote to this course.

Children College regulations and common courtesy for your classmates prohibit the presence of children in either lecture or laboratory classrooms. Furthermore, children may NOT be left unattended in the common areas outside of classrooms for their own safety. Even if you already have childcare arrangements, you might consider using the referral service offered by the BCC Early Childhood Center (ECC). They will refer you to licensed daycare providers that you can use full time or in an emergency if your regular childcare services fall through. If your child is between 2 years, 9 months and 4 years old, you may enroll him/her in the ECC preschool. Fees are adjusted according to income, but there is usually a waiting list. Lastly, for evening students with school-age children, there is an after-school program in which you can enroll your child (also for a fee). Whatever your choice, please make arrangements (and back-up arrangements) for appropriate childcare prior to class attendance. See info about the Early Childhood Center here: https://www.bcc.cuny.edu/Early-Childhood-Center/

Cell Phones and Other Electronic Devices Common courtesy and appropriate classroom behavior dictate that the use of cell phones (incoming and outgoing) is both rude and inappropriate at any time during class. Your cell phones should be off or on silent mode when you enter the classroom. During exams, these devices MUST be turned off. No exceptions.

Access and Equal Education Opportunity for Students The mission of Disability Services is to provide access and equal educational opportunity for students with disabilities, enabling them to succeed academically, socially, and professionally. See more here: http://www.bcc.cuny.edu/Disability-Services/, or contact the Disability Services Office (Loew Hall, Room 211, 718.289.5874).

University Policies on Academic Dishonesty (a.k.a. cheating) Academic dishonesty is prohibited at The City University of New York and is punishable by penalties, including failing grades, suspension, and expulsion, as provided here. The following are some examples of cheating, but by no means is it an exhaustive list: ✓ Copying from another student during an examination or allowing another to copy your work. Unauthorized collaboration on a take-home assignment or examination ✓ Using notes during a closed book examination ✓ Taking an examination for another student or asking or allowing another student to take an examination for you ✓ Changing a graded exam and returning it for more credit ✓ Submitting substantial portions of the same paper to more than one course without consulting with each instructor 15

✓ Preparing answers or writing notes in a blue book (exam booklet) before an examination ✓ Allowing others to research and write assigned papers or do assigned projects, including use of commercial term paper services ✓ Giving assistance to acts of academic misconduct/dishonesty ✓ Fabricating data (all or in part) ✓ Submitting someone else's work as your own ✓ Unauthorized use during an examination of any electronic devices such as cell phones, palm pilots, computers or other technologies to retrieve or send information.

Instructor and Student Responsibilities Anatomy and physiology are fascinating subjects, but also quite challenging. This outline of instructor and student responsibilities is intended to help you navigate the course and all of its requirements to maximize your success and minimize your frustration. hour(s) during which he or she is expected to be in his or her office to address student concerns. If these times do not work for you, you may request that your professor schedule an appointment with you at another time.

Instructor responsibilities It is the instructor’s responsibility to: 1. Start and end class on time. The instructor should not hold the class significantly beyond the end of class, nor should he or she dismiss class excessively early. 2. Conduct class in a manner that is unbiased and respectful. 3. Present relevant material. The instructor should present the material that is most important for you to learn and understand in your study of A&P. The method (PowerPoint, chalkboard) and style (lecture, skits, worksheets, etc) that your instructor uses is entirely up to him or her. 4. Notify you of changes to the syllabus. The instructor may decide to change the number, timing or coverage of exams, or to otherwise adjust the syllabus. In such cases, the instructor must notify students by making an announcement in class of the change(s). The instructor is not responsible for students who do not hear the announcement because they were either not present or not paying attention. 5. Give and grade exams in a timely fashion. The instructor should notify students when they can expect to receive graded exams. However, the time required to grade exams will vary according to the nature of the exam (scantron, short answer, essay, etc.). 6. Be available during scheduled office hours. The instructor will have scheduled office

Your instructor is NOT required to: i. give handouts or provide lecture notes ii. return exams or quizzes for you to keep iii. give review sessions or review sheets Student Responsibilities We hear over and over again “I failed because I had a bad instructor.” While few would argue that a great instructor makes being in the class more exciting, no instructor is responsible for your failure or your success; both depend on the amount and quality of work you put into the course. Ultimately, your performance in this and any class is your responsibility—it is squarely on your own shoulders. To that end, it is your responsibility to: 1. Prepare. Read the material for lecture and for laboratory at least once before you come to class. Use lab and lecture handouts to focus your reading on the most important topics. Observe the various diagrams, figures and tables and correlate each to the text. Take notes while you read. Write any questions that you think of in the margins or in your notebook. 2. Be present. Attend every class session and be there on time. Many instructors begin 16

class by taking attendance. If you are late for this, it is your responsibility to notify the instructor after class that you were present. If you miss class time, it is your responsibility to get the material that you missed from your classmates; you should also make sure that you ask if there were any important announcements. If you miss an entire class, you should—at a minimum—arrange to copy notes from a classmate. You may also arrange to sit in on another instructor’s lecture with permission from that instructor. Pay attention. Lecturing will take place in both the lecture and laboratory classrooms. Listen carefully. Take clear notes in phrase form (don’t try to write complete sentences). Consider using a tape recorder to tape lectures (ask your instructor for permission first). Keep at it; taking good notes is a skill that you will get better at over time. Respect others in the class. If you’re talking, texting, giggling or snoring, it’s harder for everyone else in the class to pay attention. It’s also harder for the instructor to keep the flow of explanation. If you must come to class late (or need to leave early), choose a seat that causes the least disruption to the class. Know important dates. Do not rely on your instructor to remind you of upcoming exams and important deadlines. Knowing these dates is your responsibility. You should know the dates of your exams, deadlines for other assignments, drop deadlines, and any class dates that have been rescheduled on a non-scheduled day (i.e. Friday classes being give on a Tuesday). Keep track of your grades. Record your grades in this handout. Calculate your average every couple of weeks to see how you’re doing. Ask your instructor if you aren’t sure. If your grade comes as a surprise to you at the end of the semester, it’s your fault. Work hard outside of class. This is perhaps the most important factor relating to your

success in the class. As much as possible, minimize other time commitments in your life. Keep in mind that for a 3-hour lecture, instructors spend (on average) 6-9 hours outside of class preparing—and they already know the material. How much time should you spend? Consider doing some or all of the following, but rest assured that if you do nothing outside of class, you will have wasted a semester of A&P. a. Within 24 hours of class, review or rewrite your notes being sure to fill in any missing information and correct any misspelled words. As you re-write your notes, pay attention to when something is confusing. Write your question(s) in your notes and leave space to answer it later when you come back to your notes. Then make sure that you either look in your book, or on the internet, or ask your instructor. b. Watch the videos and animations that are on the CD that comes with your textbook. These often help to illustrate some of the more complicated concepts in the course. Look for websites online that explain the topics that were covered in class. Sometimes hearing or seeing something explained another way will help you remember it. c. Form study groups. Numerous studies have shown that we learn best by explaining concepts to someone else. These same studies frequently show improvements of 20% or more on grade averages for students that learn in groups. Don’t be embarrassed to form a group because you think you’re weak, and don’t think that you won’t benefit from group study because you’re a strong student. Groups help everyone. d. Quiz yourself. Quiz your classmates. Use study questions from the lecture guides, use online and CD quizzes, copy diagrams with the labels covered up, answer questions from the back of the book. The more active you are, the better your brain will learn it. Don’t just re-read your notes. 17

e. Play to your strengths. Figure out your learning styles or preferences (see page 14). Try to incorporate those preferences into how you study. Try various ways of exposing yourself to the information. Consider using a tape recorder to record lectures or make study sheets or flash cards to take out every time you’re sitting still for more than a few minutes (like on the train or bus). 8. Do your own work. While it certainly helps to study with others, relying on someone else’s notes won’t help you much at all— even if the notes are from your instructor. Your brain learns by doing. 9. Don’t fall behind. Don’t wait to get started until week 2 or 3 just because it doesn’t seem like a lot of material at first. If something is unclear, ask a question. If you’re struggling, don’t be embarrassed— ask for help early. If you wait too long, it

may be too late. You should talk to your instructor if you’re having a very hard time, but you can also try the following: a. Learning Resource Center is located on the first floor of Sage Hall (behind Meister Hall). It has videos and CD-ROMs for all of the major concepts covered in A&P. Some tutoring is also available. b. Biology Study Lab is in Meister 418 and is stocked with models, slides and microscopes, and computers. Tutors are available, and many of your instructors volunteer to spend time in the study lab to provide extra help. Hours are usually posted during the second week of the semester. 10. Give feedback to your instructor(s). If there is anything your instructor can do to help you succeed in the course, or to improve the course, please bring it to his or her attention. We value and depend on your constant feedback to make this course the best that it can be for all of our students.

How to Download Lab Manual (Worksheets) You have been provided with the course information booklet, the first two lecture topic outlines, and first two lab worksheets in this package. Download the rest of the course material from: Human Anatomy and Physiology Website: http://tiny.cc/B2324CG Electronic Reserves at the BCC Library website. Electronic course reserves are password restricted. You will need to select your course from a drop down menu and then enter your library ID/Barcode number (this number is located on the back of your ID card under the words Library ID and begins with 22094.........)

How to Access Blackboard 1. Go to BCC website: http://www.bcc.cuny.edu/ > Click on Quick Links > Select Blackboard 2. Once you log in, select your course from the My Courses box on the left Contact the Technology Service Center (Help Desk) if you have any problems accessing CUNY portal or Blackboard: Mon-Fri 8:00am-7:00pm@ Roscoe Brown [RB], Room 308; 718.289.5970; tsc@bcc.cuny.edu

BCC Computer Facilities Academic Computing provides 15 computer labs located throughout the campus, which are equipped with networked microcomputers. All of the labs have Internet access. The computer labs are located in SA 202, ME 201 , ME 224 , ME 302 , ME 318 , ME 320 , ME 328, ME G16 and CO 602/603, BA 107 and ME 329. Updated computer lab schedules can be found at http://www.bcc.cuny.edu/services/computer-labs/

Printing If you are printing PowerPoint slides you can do it fitting 4 or 6 slides per page. Ask at the computer facilities for assistance. Save trees! And carry less weight.

Advisement •

•

Martell (Meister Hall, room 323, 718289-5966, Diana.Martell@bcc.cuny.edu)

Visit the Academic Success Center. The ASC is committed to promoting and delivering consistent high-quality academic advising designed to help students achieve excellence in their academic and professional goals. Sage Hall, room 20; 718-289-5401, academic.advisement@bcc.cuny.edu

•

Meet Your Academic Success Coach. Academic Success Coaches will be working closely with faculty advisors to ensure that you are successful in your academic journey. The Biology Department Success Coach is Diana

- 19 -

Use Starfish. Starfish is an online platform that brings together students, faculty and advisors with a common goal of supporting student success. Starfish includes an early alert system where faculty can raise awareness about the challenges that students may be facing in their classes early enough in the semester. Look for its link in the BCC website. Learn more about Starfish here: https://bcccuny.digication.com/starfish/Home

Academic Calendars and Schedule of Classes Fall 2019 Calendar Students wishing to withdraw from any course in which they are registered may do so at any time prior to November 5. Check for updates of the College Calendar at http://www.bcc.cuny.edu/academics/academic-calendar/. If you are pre-nursing or pre-radiology, you should keep this date in mind so that you don’t lose one of your two “attempts.” Dates 08/26/2019

Days Monday

08/27/2019 09/02/2019

Tuesday Monday

09/05/2019 09/09/2019 09/16/2019

Thursday Monday Monday

09/17/2019 09/30/201910/01/2019 10/08/201910/09/2019 10/14/2019 10/16/2019 11/05/2019 11/28/201912/01/2019 12/13/2019 12/14/201912/20/2019 12/20/2019 12/24/201912/25/2019 12/27/2019

Tuesday Monday-Tuesday

Description Last day to file ePermit request Last day to drop for 100% tuition refund Classes begin College Closed Last day to add a course Last day to drop for 75% tuition refund Classes follow Monday schedule Last day to drop for 50% tuition refund Last day to drop for 25% tuition refund Last day to Change or Declare a Major/Minor to be effective Fall First day to withdraw from a course with a grade of W No classes scheduled

Tuesday-Wednesday

No classes scheduled

Monday Wednesday Tuesday Thursday-Sunday

College Closed Classes follow Monday schedule Last day to withdraw from a course with a grade of W College Closed

Friday Saturday-Friday

Reading Day Final Examinations

Friday Tuesday-Wednesday

End of Term College Closed

Friday

Final Grade Submission Deadline*

Lecture Final Exams are scheduled from December 14th until December 20th. Check for updates of the Final Examination Schedule at http://www.bcc.cuny.edu/services/registrar/final-exam-schedule/. As the actual exam times are not scheduled until a couple of weeks before they happen, please do not make travel plans that conflict with any part of the final exam week. Lab midterms and lab finals occur during the regularly scheduled lab period (7th week and 14th week, respectively), regardless of whether they occur during the college’s scheduled midterm week. There is no “midterm exam” for lecture. Your midterm grade is simply the weighted average of your grades thus far in the semester. Final exams during final exam week are for lecture only. 20

Fall 2019 Schedule of Classes

See Syllabus for the Topic of the Week. WEEK

If you have classes on MONDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

If you have classes on TUESDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

If you have classes on WEDNESDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

If you have classes on THURSDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

If you have classes on FRIDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

If you have classes on SATURDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

Thu, 9/5

Tue, 8/27

Wed, 8/28

Thu, 8/29 (then skip one week)

Fri, 8/30

Sat, 8/31

Mon, 9/9

Tue, 9/3

Wed, 9/4

Thu, 9/12

Fri, 9/6

Sat, 9/7

Mon, 9/16

Tue, 9/10

Wed, 9/11

Thu, 9/19

Fri, 9/13

Sat, 9/14

Tue, 9/17

Wed, 9/18

Thu, 9/26

Fri, 9/20

Sat, 9/21

Thu, 10/3

Fri, 9/27

Sat, 9/28

Thu, 10/10

Fri, 10/4

Sat, 10/5

Thu, 10/17 LAB MIDTERM

Fri, 10/11 LAB MIDTERM

Sat, 10/12 LAB MIDTERM

Mon, 9/23 (then skip one week) Mon, 10/7 (then skip one week)

Tue, 9/24 (then skip two weeks)

Wed, 9/25

Wed, 10/16

Tue, 10/15

Mon, 10/21 LAB MIDTERM

Tue, 10/22 LAB MIDTERM

Wed, 10/2 (then skip two weeks) Wed, 10/23 LAB MIDTERM

Mon, 10/28

Tue, 10/29

Wed, 10/30

Thu, 10/24

Fri, 10/18

Sat, 10/19

Mon, 11/4

Tue, 11/5

Wed, 11/6

Thu, 10/31

Fri, 10/25

Sat, 10/26

Mon, 11/11

Tue, 11/12

Wed, 11/13

Thu, 11/7

Fri, 11/1

Sat, 11/2

Mon, 11/18

Tue, 11/19

Wed, 11/20

Thu, 11/14

Fri, 11/8

Sat, 11/9

Mon, 11/25

Tue, 11/26

Wed, 11/27

Thu, 11/21 (then skip one week)

Fri, 11/15

Sat, 11/16

Fri, 11/22 (then skip one week) Fri, 12/6 LAB FINAL

Sat, 11/23 (then skip one week) Sat, 12/7 LAB FINAL

Mon, 12/2

Tue, 12/3

Wed, 12/4

Thu, 12/5

Mon, 12/9 LAB FINAL

Tue, 12/10 LAB FINAL

Wed, 12/11 LAB FINAL

Thu, 12/12 LAB FINAL

Spring 2020 Calendar Students wishing to withdraw from any course in which they are registered may do so at any time prior to April 1. Check for updates of the College Calendar at http://www.bcc.cuny.edu/academics/academiccalendar/. If you are pre-nursing or pre-radiology, you should keep this date in mind so that you don’t lose one of your two “attempts.” Dates 01/26/2020

Days Sunday

01/27/2020

Monday

02/02/2020

Sunday

02/09/2020 02/12/2020 02/16/2020

Sunday Wednesday Sunday

02/17/2020

Monday

04/01/2020 04/07/2020 04/08/202004/16/2020 05/15/2020 05/16/202005/22/2020 05/22/2020 05/25/2020 05/28/2020

Wednesday Tuesday Wednesday-Thursday

Description Last day to drop for 100% tuition refund Last day to file ePermit request Start of Spring Term Classes Begin Last day to add a course Last day to drop for 75% tuition refund Last day to drop for 50% tuition refund College Closed Last day to drop for 25% tuition refund Last day to Change or Declare a Major/Minor to be effective Spring Census date College Closed Grade of W is assigned to students who officially withdraw from a course Last day to withdraw from course with a grade of W Classes follow Wednesday schedule Spring Recess

Friday Saturday-Friday

Reading Day Final Examinations

Friday Monday Thursday

End of Spring Term College Closed Final Grade Submission Deadline

Lecture Final Exams are scheduled from May 16 until May 22. Check for updates of the Final Examination Schedule at http://www.bcc.cuny.edu/services/registrar/final-exam-schedule/. As the actual exam times are not scheduled until approximately mid-way through the semester, please do not make travel plans that conflict with any part of the final exam week. Lab midterms and lab finals occur during the regularly scheduled lab period (7th week and 14th week, respectively), regardless of whether they occur during the college’s scheduled midterm week. There is no “midterm exam” for lecture. Your midterm grade is simply the weighted average of your grades thus far in the semester. Final exams during final exam week are for lecture only.

Spring 2020 Schedule of Classes See Syllabus for the Topic of the Week.

If you have classes on MONDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

If you have classes on TUESDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

If you have classes on WEDNESDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

If you have classes on THURSDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

If you have classes on FRIDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

If you have classes on SATURDAY then you’ll meet the following days:

Mon, 1/27

Tue, 1/28

Wed, 1/29

Thu, 1/30

Fri, 1/31

Sat, 2/1

Thu, 2/6

Fri, 2/7

Sat, 2/8

WEEK

1 2

Mon, 2/3

Tue, 2/4

Wed, 2/5 (then skip one week)

Mon, 2/10 (then skip one week)

Tue, 2/11

Wed, 2/19

Thu, 2/13

Fri, 2/14

Sat, 2/15

Mon, 2/24

Tue, 2/18

Wed, 2/26

Thu, 2/20

Fri, 2/21

Sat, 2/22

Mon, 3/2

Tue, 2/25

Wed, 3/4

Thu, 2/27

Fri, 2/28

Sat, 2/29

Mon, 3/9

Tue, 3/3

Wed, 3/11

Thu, 3/5

Fri, 3/6

Sat, 3/7

Mon, 3/16 LAB MIDTERM

Tue, 3/10 LAB MIDTERM

Wed, 3/18 LAB MIDTERM

Thu, 3/12 LAB MIDTERM

Fri, 3/13 LAB MIDTERM

Sat, 3/14 LAB MIDTERM

Mon, 3/23

Tue, 3/17

Wed, 3/25

Thu, 3/19

Fri, 3/20

Sat, 3/21

Mon, 3/30

Tue, 3/24

Wed, 4/1

Thu, 3/26

Fri, 3/27

Sat, 3/28

Mon, 4/6 (then skip one week)

Tue, 3/31 (then skip two weeks)

Tue, 4/7 (then skip one week)

Thu, 4/2 (then skip two weeks)

Fri, 4/3 (then skip one week)

Sat, 4/4 (then skip one week)

Mon, 4/20

Tue, 4/21

Wed, 4/22

Thu, 4/23

Fri, 4/17

Sat, 4/18

Mon, 4/27

Tue, 4/28

Wed, 4/29 (then skip one weeks)

Thu, 4/30

Fri, 4/24

Sat, 4/25

Mon, 5/4

Tue, 5/5

Wed, 5/6

Thu, 5/7

Fri, 5/1

Sat, 5/2

Mon, 5/11 LAB FINAL

Tue, 5/12 LAB FINAL

Wed, 5/13 LAB FINAL

Thu, 5/14 LAB FINAL

Fri, 5/8 LAB FINAL

Sat, 5/9 LAB FINAL

Frequently Asked Questions PREREQUISITES

is less expensive and easier to handle than the hard copy.

Q: What are the Bio23 prerequisites? A: ENG02, RDL02 and MTH 05. We also highly recommend that you take BIO21; BIO22, and/or CHM02 before taking Bio23 if you havenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t taken any Biology course before. Double check you financial aid situation first.

Q: Is there an online version of the textbook? A: Yes. Go to http://www.coursesmart.com/0077676653 to rent ebook. It allows you to search, highlight, copy/paste, print, etc. The subscription lasts one year. See the website above for more info.

Q: What are the Bio24 prerequisites? A: Bio23. We also highly recommend taking Bio24 only if you have C+ or higher grade in Bio23.

Q: Is the textbook available at the library? Yes. There are a few textbooks available at the library on reserve. Also, you can obtain the first three chapters and the atlas through electronic reserves at http://tiny.cc/eRatBCC

Q: Can I take both Bio23 and Bio24 together? A: No. COURSE MATERIAL AND LAB MANUAL

GRADES Q: Where can I get the Course Guide and Lab Manual from? A: (1) Download it from Electronic Reserves at the BCC Library Website http://tiny.cc/eRatBCC OR (2) Download it from the A&P online course companion http://tiny.cc/B2324CG

Q: How do I calculate my overall grade? A: You can calculate your grade using the formula below. The formula uses a 0-100 grade scale. Double check with your instructor about minor changes in his/her lab grade breakdown. Adjust the formula to your instructor grading breakdown. Overall Grade = Lab Grade x 0.4 + Lecture Grade x 0.6 Lecture Grade = (E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 + Final) / 5 Note that final exam will count twice by replacing the lowest/absent lecture exam grade. Lab Grade = Midterm x 0.30 + Final x 0.30 + Quizzes x 0.40

TEXTBOOK Q: Can I use an older version of Saladin 7th Edition? A: Yes. Just be aware that when your instructor refers to pages or figures in the 7th edition, they might differ from yours.

See BCC Grading system http://tiny.cc/BCCGrading

Q: Can I use a different textbook (other authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s)? A: Yes, but double check with your instructor. There is a free textbook available at http://tiny.cc/OpenETxtbook

Q: Why no one told me about my grade until the end of the semester? A: Because it is your responsibility to keep track of your grades. You should ask your instructor for clarification at the BEGINNING of the semester, not at the end, when it might be too late to plan for changes. See how to calculate your grade above.

Q: Where can I purchase the textbook? A: The hardcopy of the textbook is available at the BCC bookstore, and at many online stores. The BCC bookstore also has a lose-leaf version, which

Q: What is the passing grade? 24

A: Like most courses at BCC, the passing grade is 60 (D-). HOWEVER, many programs at BCC (e.g. Nursing, Radiology, and Nuclear Medicine) require a C+ or higher to be accepted into the program.

exam and failing the course will receive an automatic grade of F in the course. Q: How do I get a W in the course? A: To receive a grade of W students must officially withdraw from class between the 3rd and 10th week, by filing an online withdrawal form (via CUNYFirst). Neither the Department nor your instructor can assign or change your grade to a W.

Q: I don't want a C grade or lower, can the professor give me an F? A: No. The professor cannot manipulate your grade. You will only get an F in the course if your grades average below 60. A very low grade in the lecture final exam will very likely bring your grade average to an F.

ATTENDANCE/LATENESS Q: Is attendance mandatory? A: Yes. Students with an excessive absence record will receive an automatic F in the course. The Department defines excessive absence as having missed more than three scheduled classes.

Q: I got my Midterm Gradeâ&#x20AC;Ścan I still get a C+?! A: Here is a rule of thumb: If your Midterm Grade is 70, then you need to get AT LEAST 84 in ALL the remaining assignments (Lecture Exam 3, Lecture Exam 4, Lecture Final, Lab Quizzes, Lab Final and any other assignment your instructor gives you). Doable, but you need to significantly increase the amount of time you spend studying and reviewing in an effective way. If your Midterm Grade is 65, then you need to get AT LEAST 89 in ALL the remaining assignments (Lecture Exam 3, Lecture Exam 4, Lecture Final, Lab Quizzes, Lab Final and any other assignment). Highly unlikely to happen. Almost no one makes it If your Midterm Grade is 60, then you need to get AT LEAST 94 in ALL the remaining assignments (Lecture Exam 3, Lecture Exam 4, Lecture Final, Lab Quizzes, Lab Final and any other assignment). Almost impossible

Q: What about lateness? A: Instructors have the right to mark students absent if (1) students arrive 15 or more minutes late on three occasions, and/or (2) students leave 15 or more minutes early before the class ends. LAB MIDTERM and LAB FINAL Q: When is the lab midterm/lab final? A: You can find the dates on the calendar in the handout given to you the first week of classes, in the A&P Bulletin Board on the 4th floor of Meister Hall, and in the A&P website. Lab Midterm is the 7th week of classes, and lab final the 14th. Q: If I missed a lab, can I go to another section taught by another professor to make it up? A: This is up to your instructor. It also depends on availability of space on other lab section, and the willingness of other instructor to let you sit in her/his lab. Consult with you instructor.

Q: Can I get an incomplete (INC) in the course? A: An INC grade is only assigned to students who miss the course final exam AND are otherwise passing the course AND have an excused absence approved by the instructor from the course final exam. Students have until the 10th week of the following semester to resolve the INC grade.

Q: Can I drop the lab midterm or the lab final? A: No

Q: How did I end up with an F in the course!!!? A: You fail the course if you have an average below 60. In addition to students who academically fail the course (1) Students who attend at least two class periods but unofficially stop attending will receive an automatic grade of F in the course, or (2) Students who are absent from any course final

Q: Can I make up the lab midterm or the lab final? A: No. Consult your professor in case of an emergency. Youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll need to document the reason of your absence. LECTURE FINAL EXAM 25

A: Because this is the Bio23/24 policy, which might or might not coincide with other courses/departments policies.

Q: Is the lecture final exam cumulative? A: Yes. This means that the final covers ALL the topics seen during the entire semester (i.e. first class to last class).

SWITCHING SECTIONS

Q: I have to travel during finals; can I make up the final? A: No. The week of finals is posted in the CUNY academic calendar website (http://www.cuny.edu/academics/calendars.html) more than one year in advance. You should be able to plan well in advance. Consult your professor in case of an emergency. You’ll need to document the reason of your absence.

Q: Can I switch sections? A: No

Q: Can I make up the lecture final exam? A: No. Only in the case of a well documented emergency you might qualify for an incomplete grade (INC). An INC grade is only assigned to students who miss the course final exam AND are otherwise passing the course AND have an instructor approved excused absence from the course final exam. Students have until the 11th week of the following semester to resolve and INC grade. Consult with you instructor.

Q: Are instructors required to provide handouts? A: No. It is up to each instructor’s criterion, style, and pedagogic philosophy.

Q: Can I drop the lecture final exam? A: No

Q: Is it better to take Anatomy and Physiology during the summer or during the regular academic semester? A: This depends on your schedule and the amount of time you have to designate for study and review. You should be aware that the summer course moves at a faster pace as opposed to the fall/spring course, so you must be certain that your schedule will allow you adequate time to prepare. Additionally, you should speak with a Biology professor to determine which will work best for you. You can think it his way: Fall/Spring sessions are like a full time job. Summer sessions are like a full time job with plenty of overtime, think summer equals two full time jobs.

Q: Why not? A: Because this is a Biological Sciences Department policy. HANDOUTS AND RETURNED EXAMS AND QUIZZES

Q: Are instructors required to give exams back? A: No. It is up to each instructor’s criterion, style, and pedagogic philosophy. SUMMER SESSION SESSIONS

LECTURE EXAM MAKEUPS Q: Can I make up the lecture exam? A: No. If you know in advance you will be missing an exam, tell your professor. (S)he might allow you to take it in advance. Consult with you instructor. EXTRA CREDIT Q: Can I do an extra credit assignment to raise my grade? A: No. There are no extra credit assignments in Bio23/Bio24. Q: My other professor in the other department let me do extra credit assignments, why can’t I do it in Bio23/24?

vs.

FALL/SPRING

STUDYING FOR A&P Q: How much should I study to get a C+ in the course? 26

A: This is a hard one to answer. There is no onsize-fits-all rule. However, just as a guideline you can use this rule of thumb: You need to study at least 18 hours a week. More if you have no science background and don’t feel comfortable with A&P, less if you really like A&P and have some background in the sciences. See under “Student Responsibilities” in the Study Guide and Lab Manual for a more comprehensive advice.

Q: What should I do if I feel overwhelmed by the workload of A&P? A: Speak to your professor immediately if you begin to feel that the workload is overwhelming. In some cases, time management and alterations to your schedule may be necessary to free up enough time for the course work. Q: Where can I get help? A: Talk to your professor and go to your professor’s office hours. You can also go to see the tutors at the Biology Study Lab (ME418). The Study Lab counts with tutors that can help you. The Study Lab has CD-Roms with tutorials, computers with internet access, and many of the models and slides you use in the lab component of the courses. Study Lab hours are posted on the doors of the 4th floor rooms. The study lab opens after the second week of classes.

Q: Is understanding the scientific/medical terminology necessary to do well in the course? A: Absolutely! Mastery of vocabulary and terminology will provide you with greater understanding of the material you read and are exposed to in class lectures. You can reference the glossary and the lexicon in the back of the textbook or utilize additional resources, such as a medical dictionary or an online encyclopedia, to learn the terminology. Q: Can I use outside sources to supplement the A&P required textbook? A: Yes. Just be sure that the outside resources, including websites, are credible and have correct information (e.g. usually dot edu sites). If you are not certain, just ask your instructor. Also, focus on just a couple of resources (e.g. a textbook, a website you find helpful, and your notes). If you diversify a lot you will lose focus and get easily overwhelmed.

Q: What about help with technical problems? A: Check the Technology Service Center (ex-Help Desk) 718.289.5970; Roscoe Brown [RB], Room 308; http://tiny.cc/TSCatBCC Q: I have a question not answered above, where do I go for help? A: Ask you professor. If (s)he doesn’t know, (s)he can find out for you, or direct you to where to look for the answer.

HELP!

BIO 24 LECTURE TOPICS AND LAB TOPICS AND STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES (THINGS TO KNOW) BIO 24 student learning outcomes is a derivative work from material copyrighted by the Human Anatomy and Physiology Society (HAPS)

1-Fluids and Transport: Cardiovascular System (Lab and Lecture Topic) General functions of the cardiovascular system

Describe the major functions of the cardiovascular system.

Composition of blood plasma

Describe the overall composition of plasma, including the major types of plasma proteins, their functions and where in the body they are produced. 1. With respect to the structure and numbers of formed elements in blood: a. Identify microscopically each of the following: erythrocytes (red blood cells or RBCs), the five types of leukocytes (white blood cells or WBCs), and thrombocytes (platelets). b. Compare and contrast the morphological features of erythrocytes and the five types of leukocytes. c. State the normal ranges for erythrocyte counts and hematocrit (both male and female), total leukocyte count, and platelet count.

Identify microscopic anatomy, numbers, formation, & functional roles of the formed elements of blood

d. List the five types of leukocytes in order of their relative prevalence in normal blood and classify each type as granulocyte or agranulocyte. e. Explain how platelets differ structurally from the other formed elements of the blood. 2. With respect to development of formed elements: a. Describe the location of hematopoiesis and the significance of the pluripotent stem cell (hemocytoblast). b. Explain the basic process of erythropoiesis, the significance of the reticulocyte, and regulation through erythropoietin. c. Discuss the difference in leukopoiesis of granulocytes and agranulocytes. d. Discuss the role of the megakaryocyte in the formation of platelets. 3. With respect to the functional roles of formed elements: a. State the function of red blood cells. b. Discuss the structure and function of breakdown products.

hemoglobin, as well as its

c. Describe functions for each of the five major types of leukocytes as well as the two major subtypes of lymphocytes (T and B).

- 28 -

d. State the function of platelets. 1. Distinguish between the terms hemostasis and coagulation. 2. With respect to the phases of hemostasis: a. Describe the vascular phase including the role of endothelial cells. b. Describe the role of platelets and the steps involved in the formation of the platelet plug. Hemostasis, including coagulation of blood

c. Describe the basic steps involved in the formation of the insoluble fibrin clot. d. Differentiate between the intrinsic and extrinsic clotting mechanisms. 3. Explain how the positive feedback loops in the platelet and coagulation phases promote hemostasis. 4. Explain the role of calcium ions and vitamin K in blood clotting. 5. Discuss the process of fibrinolysis, including the roles of plasminogen, tissue plasminogen activator and plasmin. 6. Explain the mechanisms of action and give examples of procoagulants, anticoagulants and fibrinolytic drugs. 1. Explain the role of surface antigens on RBCs in determining blood groups. 2. List the type of antigen and the type of antibodies present in each ABO blood type.

ABO & Rh blood grouping

3. Describe how the presence or absence of Rh antigen results in blood being classified as positive or negative. 4. Distinguish between the development of anti-Rh antibodies and the development of anti-A and anti-B antibodies. 5. Predict which blood types are compatible and what happens when the incorrect ABO or Rh blood type is transfused. 6. State which blood type is considered the universal donor and which blood type is considered the universal recipient, and explain why. 1. Describe the position of the heart in the thoracic cavity.

Gross & microscopic anatomy of the heart

2. On the external heart identify the location of the four chambers as well as the coronary sulcus, anterior interventricular sulcus and posterior interventricular sulcus. 3. Identify and describe the function of the primary internal structures of the heart, including chambers, septa, valves, papillary muscles, chordae tendineae, and venous and arterial openings. 4. Compare and contrast the structure and function of the atrioventricular and the semilunar valves.

- 29 -

5. Describe the layers of the pericardium and the location of the pericardial cavity. 6. Identify myocardium and describe its histological structure, including the significance of intercalated discs. 7. Discuss the structure and significance of the endocardium. 8. Identify the right and left coronary arteries and their branches, the cardiac veins, and the coronary sinus. 1. List the phases of the cardiac muscle action potential and explain the ion movements that occur in each phase. Physiology of cardiac muscle contraction

2. Contrast the way action potentials are generated in cardiac pacemaker cells, in cardiac contractile cells and in skeletal muscle cells. 3. Explain the significance of the plateau phase in the action potential of a cardiac contractile cell. 4. Compare and contrast cardiac muscle contraction and skeletal muscle contraction. 5. Compare and contrast the role of nerves in the depolarization of cardiac pacemaker cells, ventricular contractile cells, and skeletal muscle cells. 1. Identify the major blood vessels entering and leaving the heart and classify them as either an artery or a vein and as containing either oxygenrich or oxygen-poor blood.

Blood flow through the heart

2. Describe blood flow through the heart naming all chambers and valves passed. 3. Explain the major factors that aid in movement of blood through the heart and produce one-way flow. 4. Explain how the heart is a double pump and why this is significant. 1. With respect to the conduction system of the heart: a. List the parts of the conduction system and explain how the system functions.

Conduction system of the heart & the electrocardiogram

b. Define automaticity and explain why the SA node normally paces the heart. c. Explain how the cardiac conduction system produces efficient pumping of blood. d. Describe the role of the autonomic nervous system in the regulation of cardiac function. 2. With respect to the electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG): a. Identify the waveforms in a normal EKG. b. Relate the waveforms to atrial and ventricular depolarization and repolarization and to the activity of the conduction system.

- 30 -

1. Define cardiac cycle, systole, and diastole. 2. Describe the phases of the cardiac cycle including ventricular filling, isovolumetric contraction, ventricular ejection, and isovolumetric relaxation. 3. Relate the EKG waveforms to the normal mechanical events of the cardiac cycle. 4. Explain how atrial systole is related to ventricular filling. Cardiac cycle

5. Relate the opening and closing of specific heart valves in each phase of the cardiac cycle to pressure changes in the heart chambers. 6. Relate the heart sounds to the events of the cardiac cycle. 7. Define systolic and diastolic blood pressure and interpret a graph of aortic pressure versus time during the cardiac cycle. 8. Compare and contrast pressure and volume changes of the left and right ventricles during one cardiac cycle. 9. Given the heart rate, calculate the length of one cardiac cycle. 1. With respect to cardiac output (CO): a. Define cardiac output, and state its units of measurement. b. Calculate cardiac output, given stroke volume and heart rate.

Regulation of cardiac output, stroke volume, & heart rate

c. Predict how changes in heart rate (HR) and/or stroke volume (SV) will affect cardiac output. d. Discuss the concept of cardiac reserve. 2. With respect to stroke volume (SV): a. Define end diastolic volume (EDV) and end systolic volume (ESV) and calculate stroke volume (SV) given values for EDV & ESV. b. Define venous return, preload and afterload, and explain the factors that affect them as well as how each of them affects EDV, ESV and SV. c. Explain the significance of the Frank-Starling Law of the heart. d. Discuss the influence of positive and negative inotropic agents on SV. 3. With respect to HR: a. Discuss the influence of positive and negative chronotropic agents on HR. b. Explain the relationship between changes in HR and changes in filling time and EDV.

- 31 -

1. Compare and contrast the structure of arteries and veins and arterioles and venules. 2. With respect to arteries and veins: a. List the types of arteries and veins. b. Correlate the anatomical structure of each type of blood vessel with its function. c. Define vasoconstriction, vasodilation, and venoconstriction. Anatomy & functional roles of the different types of blood vessels

3. Describe the role of arterioles in regulating tissue blood flow and systemic arterial blood pressure. 4. With respect to capillaries: a. Explain how the composition of capillary walls differs from that of other blood vessels. a. List types of capillaries and state where in the body each type is found. b. Correlate the anatomical structure of capillaries with their functions. 5. Describe the location and function of the venous reserve. 6. Define anastomosis and explain the significance of anastomoses, such as the Circle of Willis 7. Identify the major arteries and veins. 1. With respect to the systemic and pulmonary circuits:

Pattern of blood circulation throughout the body, including systemic, pulmonary, coronary, hepatic portal, & fetal circulations

a. Describe the systemic and pulmonary circuits and discuss the functions of each. b. State which blood vessel type carries oxygen-rich blood and which type carries oxygen-poor blood in each circuit. 2.

With respect to the coronary circulation:

a. Trace blood flow through the coronary circulation from the aorta to the right atrium. b. Discuss the significance of collateral coronary circulation. 3. With respect to the hepatic portal circulation: a. Identify the abdominal veins that coalesce to form the hepatic portal vein, and list additional veins that empty into it. b. Explain how the anatomical design of the hepatic portal circulation serves its function. 4. With respect to the fetal circulation: a. Describe the role of the placenta and umbilical blood vessels in fetal circulation.

- 32 -

b. Identify the ductus venosus, foramen ovale, and ductus arteriosus and explain their roles in fetal circulation. c. Trace the pathway of blood flow from the placenta through the fetal heart and body and back to the placenta. d. For each umbilical vessel and the major fetal blood vessels, state whether each vessel carries oxygen-rich, oxygen-poor or mixed blood, and explain why the different oxygen levels occur in these vessels. e. With respect to the umbilical vessels, ductus venosus, ductus arteriosus and foramen ovale, describe the changes associated with birth and the ultimate postnatal fate of these structures. f. Compare and contrast prenatal and postnatal circulatory pathways. 1. Define blood flow, blood pressure, and peripheral resistance. 2. State and interpret the equation that relates blood flow to pressure and resistance. 3. List the local, hormonal and neuronal factors that affect peripheral resistance and explain the importance of each. Blood pressure & its functional interrelationships with cardiac output, peripheral resistance, & hemodynamics

4. Interpret relevant graphs to explain the relationships between vessel diameter, cross-sectional area, blood pressure, and blood velocity. 5. Using a graph of pressures within the systemic circuit, interpret the pressure changes that occur in the arteries, capillaries, and veins. 6. Given values for systolic and diastolic blood pressure, calculate pulse pressure (PP) and mean arterial pressure (MAP). 7. With respect to capillary exchange: a. Explain the role of diffusion in capillary exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes. b. Explain the roles of filtration and reabsorption in capillary exchange of fluid. c. Describe how net filtration pressure across the capillary wall determines movement of fluid across the capillary wall. d. Relate net filtration pressure to potential edema and the need for a functional lymphatic system. 9. Discuss how muscular compression and the respiratory pump aid venous return. 10. With respect to autoregulation: a. Explain how autoregulation controls blood flow to individual tissues. b. Explain the role of the precapillary sphincter in autoregulation.

- 33 -

c. List some chemicals that cause vasodilation and explain when they are active. d. List some chemicals that cause vasoconstriction and explain when they are active. 11. With respect to regulation of blood pressure: a. During the baroreceptor reflex, explain how cardiac output and peripheral resistance are regulated to maintain adequate blood pressure on a moment-to-moment basis. b. During the chemoreceptor reflex, explain how the respiratory and cardiovascular systems are coordinated to provide flow and oxygen to body tissues. c. Explain the role of the sympathetic nervous system in regulation of blood pressure and volume. d. Explain the role of hormones in regulation of blood pressure, including the mechanism by which specific hormones affect preload, heart rate, inotropic state or vascular resistance. Application of homeostatic mechanisms Predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states & disorders

1. Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the cardiovascular system responds to maintain homeostasis in the body. 2. Explain how the cardiovascular system relates to other body systems to maintain homeostasis. 1. Predict factors or situations affecting the cardiovascular system that could disrupt homeostasis. 2. Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the cardiovascular system could not maintain homeostasis.

Lecture Study Questions â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Part I: Heart 1. What are the three layers of the heart wall? What is the purpose of each? 2. How is the structure of heart muscle different from skeletal muscle? How is it similar? 3. Cardiac myocytes are fatigue resistant. Why do they need to be? What makes them this way? 4. Describe the pathway of blood through the heart. Make sure you refer to the pulmonary and systemic circuits. 5. What valve prevents backflow of blood from the left ventricle to the left atrium? From the right ventricle to the right atrium? 6. What valve prevents backflow of blood from the aorta? From the pulmonary artery? 7. Blood returning to the heart from the lungs, enters which chamber? Is it oxygenated or deoxygenated? 8. Blood returning to the heart from the body, enters which chamber? Is it oxygenated or deoxygenated? 9. Which chamber sends blood to the lungs? Is it oxygenated or deoxygenated? 10. Which chamber sends blood to the body? Is it oxygenated or deoxygenated? 11. A common misconception is that the heart muscle gets oxygen and nutrients from the blood thatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s in the chambers. Based on the characteristics of blood in the right side of the heart, - 34 -

explain why this canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be the case. Also discuss this in terms of the rate of diffusion through a thick layer of tissue. 12. How does the myocardium get oxygenated blood? What is it called when a clot becomes stuck in one of these vessels? What happens to the part of the myocardium that is affected? 13. What structure causes the heart to beat (in a healthy heart)? Would it still be able to beat if you took it out of the body? 14. Describe the pathway that depolarization takes as it travels through the heart (including the speed). Why do the atria contract before the ventricles do? 15. What purpose does it serve to have the signal slow down so much at the AV node? 16. What would happen if the left branch of the Purkinje fibers was damaged? 17. How is the SA node able to generate spontaneous action potentials? What type of channel is responsible? 18. How do action potentials spread from one cardiac myocyte to another? 19. Describe an action potential in a cardiac myocyte. What causes depolarization? How long does depolarization last? What causes it to repolarize? 20. Why is the plateau of the cardiac myocyte action potential important? 21. What ion causes contraction of the myocyte? What happens to contraction if there is more of that ion? Less? 22. What part of the heart is contracting when depolarization is spreading through the AV node? 23. What is a normal heart rate? What things (or systems) control heart rate? What would the heart rate be if you removed the heart from the body (for a transplant, for instance)? 24. What do we call it when the heart rate is abnormally high? Abnormally low? 25. What part of the heart would take over establishing the rhythm if a heart attack damaged the SA node? 26. What does the ECG measure? Draw out a typical ECG and label the waves. Describe the events that cause each wave. 27. What would it mean if an ECG showed no P wave? 28. What would it mean if an ECG had P waves, but was missing many of the QRS complexes? 29. What is fibrillation? What might cause it? What would it look like on an ECG? What would the heart look like (if you could see it)? 30. Relate flow to pressure and volume. How do you change pressure in order to cause flow? 31. What causes AV valves to open? What causes AV valves to close? Describe in terms of pressure, but make sure that you also give a description of the events that lead to the changes in pressure. 32. What causes semi lunar valves to open? What causes them to close? Describe in terms of pressure, but make sure that you also give a description of the events that lead to the changes in pressure. 33. Write out the steps of the cardiac cycle. Start with depolarization of the SA node and then describe depolarization, contraction, changes in volume (space), changes in pressure, and flow (volume of blood in the ventricles). After you have the basic events sketched out, go back to the steps where pressure is changing and break it down into steps so that you can add the heart sounds (i.e. pressure in the ventricles is increasing: as long pressure in the ventricles is lower than pressure in the atrium and arteries, there is no blood flow; when pressure in the ventricles becomes higher than pressure in the atrium, the AV valve shuts; when pressure in the ventricles is higher than pressure in the arteries, blood flows into the arteries). 34. Describe ventricular filling. How would ventricular filling be affected if a heart attack prevented the atria from contracting? - 35 -

35. Why doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t blood start flowing from the ventricles as soon as the ventricles start contracting? Why is there a delay? 36. What would happen if the left ventricle consistently pumped out less blood than the right ventricle? What if the right ventricle consistently pumped out less blood than the left ventricle? 37. What is stroke volume? 38. What is cardiac output? What happens to CO when heart rate increases? Decreases? What happens to CO when stroke volume increases? Decreases? 39. What kinds of things will increase heart rate? 40. Explain why athletes are able to have the same CO as non-athletes, but with a much lower heart rate. 41. What three things influence stroke volume? 42. What kinds of things will increase preload? Decrease preload? 43. What kinds of things will increase contractility? Decrease contractility? Relate these things to the concentration of calcium in the myocytes. 44. What kinds of things increase afterload? Decrease afterload? 45. What would happen to the heart rate if the vagus nerve were severed? 46. Some heart patients are given -blockers for their condition. These drugs bind to adrenergic receptors in the heart muscle and prevent the receptor from being activated. Use what you know about sympathetic stimulation to explain what the effect would be on the patient. Lecture Study Questions â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Part II: Blood Vessels 1. When blood leaves the heart, what kind of vessel is it traveling in? What about this kind of vessel makes it ideally suited for transporting blood under high pressure? 2. What kind of vessel carries blood back to the heart? What prevents blood from flowing downhill in these vessels? 3. What kind of vessel does gas and nutrient exchange take place in? What about this kind of vessel makes it ideally suited for exchange? 4. Based on what you know about the circulatory pathway, why would an embolus formed in the legs be more likely to become lodged in the lungs (pulmonary embolism) than in the brain or somewhere else? 5. Which type of vessel has the most control over which organs are receiving blood? 6. How is blood flow related to pressure? Resistance? 7. What would happen to blood flow if pressure increased? Decreased? What would happen to blood flow if resistance increased? Decreased? 8. What kinds of things affect resistance in blood vessels? Which one of these has the greatest effect? Explain why in terms of laminar flow. 9. Explain the metabolic theory of autoregulation. What sorts of metabolites increase blood flow? 10. How would it affect blood flow to skeletal muscle at the beginning of exercise? 11. How does the autonomic nervous system influence blood pressure and flow? Which branch? Explain the difference between the effect on cardiac and skeletal blood vessels and blood vessels that serve the rest of the body? 12. Explain the baroreflex. What happens in response to high blood pressure? Low blood pressure? 13. Describe the hormones that influence blood pressure and flow. 14. Are most hormones involved in increasing or decreasing blood pressure? Why do you think that is (think evolution)? 15. In local control of blood pressure and flow, dilation increases flow and constriction decreases flow. In neural and hormonal regulation, dilation decreases pressure and flow and constriction - 36 -

increases pressure and flow. On the surface, these seem to conflict. Explain the differences. Make sure that you discuss systemic versus local and blood volume and distribution. 16. Describe and differentiate between hydrostatic pressure and oncotic pressure. 17. If capillary hydrostatic pressure increased, would filtration increase or decrease? 18. If capillary oncotic pressure increased, would filtration increase or decrease? 19. If tissue hydrostatic pressure increased, would filtration increase or decrease? 20. If tissue oncotic pressure increased, would filtration increase or decrease? 21. Describe changes in hydrostatic pressure along the capillary. What changes and why? 22. Describe oncotic pressure along the capillary. Are there any changes? Why or why not? 23. Describe the relationship between hydrostatic and oncotic pressure along the capillary. Which one dominates at the arterial end? Which one dominates at the venous end? What are the consequences in terms of fluid being filtered and reabsorbed? 24. What happens to fluid that is filtered but not reabsorbed by the capillary? 25. Describe the effects of each of the following in terms of hydrostatic and/or oncotic pressure: kwashiorkor, liver disease (liver makes plasma proteins…), congestive heart failure, complete paralysis, renal failure, allergies, lymph node removal. 26. Describe the five mechanisms of venous return. 27. How would venous return be affected in someone with low blood pressure? Why? 28. How would venous return be different when a person is standing versus when they are lying down? Why? 29. How would venous return be different between a person who is standing at attention and one who is walking around? Why? 30. How would venous return be different between a person who is breathing rapidly and a person who is breathing slowly (assuming that they are both breathing at the same depth)? 31. Which of the factors affecting stroke volume is the same thing as venous return? 32. What are the four categories of circulatory shock? For each one, explain what causes the shock and give an example. 33. Explain how fainting compensates for shock. 34. Shock can very easily enter a fatal positive feedback cycle. Explain how this happens. Lecture Study Questions – Part III: Blood 1. List the functions of the circulatory system. For each function, describe in 2-3 sentences how the system performs that function. 2. What fluid compartment of the body does blood belong to? 3. What is viscosity? Osmolarity? What contributes to each of these factors in blood? For each of the factors that you just listed, predict what would happen to viscosity and/or osmolarity if it increased or decreased. 4. What is plasma? What do you expect to find in the plasma? 5. Which plasma protein contributes the most to blood osmolarity? What would happen if the concentration of this protein decreased? What kinds of things might cause this protein to decrease? 6. What do you predict would happen if the liver were no longer able to secrete plasma proteins? 7. What is the primary function of erythrocytes? Which organelle is the RBC missing, and why? 8. What special protein does the RBC contain? What is its purpose? Describe its structure. 9. What is erythropoiesis? Where does it take place? What nutrients are required? 10. Where does iron come from? How does it get into the bloodstream? Where is it stored if it isn’t needed right away? - 37 -

11. What hormone stimulates erythropoiesis? Where is the hormone produced? What causes the hormone to be secreted? 12. How long do RBCs last? Why is their lifetime so short? Where do the usually die and why? 13. How are the various parts of RBCs recycled or disposed of? Relate the process to the pigments that provide color to urine and feces. 14. What is polycythemia? What causes it? What are the possible effects? Are the effects primarily because of changes to viscosity or osmolarity? Explain. 15. What is anemia? What causes it? What are the possible effects? Are the effects primarily because of changes to viscosity or osmolarity? Explain. 16. What is sickle cell disease? What causes it? What are the consequences? If itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s so bad, why does the gene continue to exist in the population? 17. What is the primary function of all leukocytes? 18. List all of the leukocytes and describe the major function(s) of each. 19. What is it called when the WBC count is low? What can cause this? What is the effect? 20. What is it called when the WBC count is high? What can cause this? What is the effect? 21. What is leukemia? Why is the inability to clot a symptom of leukemia? 22. What is the role of platelets? How are platelets formed? What hormone causes this? 23. What are the three mechanisms of hemostasis? Which ones involve platelets? 24. Describe vascular spasm. What causes it? Is it enough to stop bleeding? 25. What is a platelet plug? Platelets release a variety of chemicals, most of which are either vasoconstrictors or attractants. What role do these play in formation of the platelet plug? What are pseudopods and what do they do? 26. What is coagulation? How is it different from the other two hemostatic mechanisms? 27. What causes coagulation? What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms? What do they have in common? 28. What protein ultimately forms the clot? What is the name of the enzyme that forms it? 29. Explain how positive feedback is used to make the clot form quickly. 30. What is the name of the enzyme that dissolves the clot? How is it formed? How is positive feedback used in this case? 31. What prevents unwanted clots from forming? 32. What are anti-coagulants and why are they given to stroke and heart attack victims? What would happen if they (heart attack victims) accidentally cut themselves? How is this similar to hemophilia? 33. What is the difference between a thrombus and an embolus?

2-Fluids and Transport: Lymphatic System & Immunity (Lecture Topic) General functions of the lymphatic system

Describe the major functions of the lymphatic system.

Lymph & lymphatic vessels

1. Compare and contrast whole blood, plasma, interstitial fluid, and lymph. 2. Compare and contrast lymphatic vessels and blood vessels in terms of structure and function. 3. Describe the path of lymph circulation. - 38 -

Lymphatic cells, tissues, & organs

Introduction to innate (nonspecific) defenses & adaptive (specific) defenses

Innate (nonspecific) defenses

4. Describe the mechanisms of lymph formation & circulation 1. Describe the basic structure and cellular composition of lymphatic tissue and correlate it to the overall functions of the lymphatic system. For the lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, tonsils and other aggregations of mucosae-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT): a. Identify and describe the gross anatomical features of each organ or tissue. b. Describe the location in the body of each organ or tissue. c. Describe the function of each organ or tissue. 1. Compare and contrast innate (nonspecific) defenses with adaptive (specific) defenses. 2. Define immunity and the immune system. 3. Describe the roles of various types of leukocytes in innate and adaptive body defenses. 4. Analyze ways in which the innate and adaptive body defenses cooperate to enhance the overall resistance to disease. 1. Name the surface membrane barriers and describe their physical, chemical, and microbiological mechanisms of defense. 2. Define diapedesis, chemotaxis, opsonization, and membrane attack complex and explain their importance for innate defenses. 3. Describe the steps involved in phagocytosis and provide examples of important phagocytic cells in the body. 4. Describe natural killer cells and discuss their function. 5. Explain how complement and interferon function as antimicrobial chemicals. 6. Explain the role of pattern-recognition receptors in innate defenses. 7. With respect to the inflammatory response: a. Describe the mechanisms of inflammation initiation. b. Summarize the cells and chemicals involved in the inflammatory process. c.

List and explain the cause of the four cardinal signs of inflammation.

d. Explain why inflammation can be beneficial. 8. With respect to fever: a. Describe the mechanism of fever and the role of pyrogens. Overview of adaptive (specific) defenses

b. Explain why fever can be beneficial. 1. Distinguish between humoral and cell-mediated immunity 2. Describe the immunological memory (anamnestic) response. 1. Define antigen and antigen receptor.

Antigens & antigen processing

2. Distinguish among complete antigens, haptens, antigenic determinants and selfantigens. 3. With respect to major histocompatibility complex (MHC): a. Define MHC. - 39 -

b. Describe where class I and class II MHC and MHC proteins are found. c. Explain the function of class I and class II MHC in adaptive immunity. 4. Discuss the source of antigen receptor diversity. 5. Explain the role of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and provide examples of cells that function as APCs 1. Distinguish among the various types of lymphocytes, including helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells, regulatory (or suppressor) T cells, B cells, plasma cells, and memory cells. 2. With respect to B cells and T cells: Lymphocytes & a. Define immunocompetence and self-tolerance and distinguish between naive and their role in activated immune cells. adaptive immunity b. Compare & contrast the sites where the cells originate and achieve their immunocompetence, and the primary location of the immunocompetent cells in the body. c. Compare & contrast the defense mechanisms and functions. 3. Describe the contribution of clonal deletion to immunity. 1. Describe antibody structure. 2. Describe mechanisms of antibody action and correlate mechanisms with effector Antibodies & their functions. 3. List the five classes of antibodies and discuss structural and functional features that role in adaptive distinguish each class. immunity 4. Interpret a graph of the primary and secondary immune response, in terms of the relative concentrations of different classes of antibodies produced over time.

Applied immunology Application of homeostatic mechanisms Predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states & disorders

1. Distinguish between active and passive immunity. 2. Describe natural and artificial examples of both active and passive immunity. 3. Provide examples of how applied immunology can be used to diagnose, treat and prevent diseases. 1. Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the lymphatic and immune systems respond to maintain homeostasis in the body. 2. Explain how the lymphatic and immune systems relate to other body systems to maintain homeostasis. 1. Predict factors or situations affecting the lymphatic and immune systems that could disrupt homeostasis. 2. Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the lymphatic and immune systems could not maintain homeostasis.

Lecture Study Questions: Lymphatic System & Immunity 1. What are the two major functions of the lymphatic and immune system? 2. Explain how elephantiasis affects fluid recovery. Why does it cause edema? Is it related to hydrostatic more than to oncotic pressure? 3. How are lymphatic vessels similar to blood vessels? How are they different? 4. How does fluid enter lymphatic capillaries? - 40 -

5. Where does lymphatic fluid re-renter the circulatory system? Is it important whether it reenters at arteries or veins? Why? Discuss in terms of pressure. 6. How are the mechanisms of lymph flow similar to venous return? How are they different? 7. What is the difference between non-specific and specific defenses? 8. What is the difference between the first line of non-specific defense and the second line? 9. Describe the various features of the first line of defense. 10. Describe the various features of the second line of defense. 11. For each of the cells that are involved in non-specific defense, describe the type of pathogen that they best respond to and how they respond. 12. What are perforins and granzymes? How do they work together? What types of cells secrete them? Are they specific or non-specific immunity? 13. What are the two categories of anti-microbial proteins? 14. What are interferons? What kind of cell makes them? Which cells respond and how do they respond? Is this specific or non-specific? 15. Describe complement. Where is it usually found? How is it activated? What kinds of things does complement do? Is this specific or non-specific? 16. What are the four cardinal signs of inflammation and what causes each? 17. What does inflammation do to help the body fight pathogens? How does it do those things? 18. Inflammation activates both fibrinogen (a clotting protein) and heparin (an anti-coagulant). This seems somewhat contradictory. Explain why they are both needed. 19. Both inflammation and fever are associated with an increase in temperature. What is the difference between them? 20. In what ways is a fever actually beneficial to the body when trying to fight off a pathogen? 21. If you are just beginning to get a fever, do you feel warm or cold? Why? What about when the fever is finally starting to subside? 22. Describe specific immunity. What cells are involved? How is it different from non-specific immunity? 23. What is the difference between cellular and humoral immunity? 24. What is the difference between active and passive immunity? Which one lasts longer? Why? 25. Come up with as many examples as you can of both active and passive immunity. Which ones are natural and which ones are artificial? Does it make any difference in the quality of the protection? 26. What is an antigen? What is an antibody? What is an epitope? Is it possible for more than one kind of antibody to recognize an antigen? 27. What is the purpose of antigen presentation? How does it happen? 28. What is the difference between MHC-1 and MHC-2? Which cells use them? How do immune cells respond to each of the MHC types? 29. What is the difference between TC, TH, and TM cells? 30. Where are T cells formed? Where do they mature? What sort of selection processes do T cells have to go through? What can make a T cell â&#x20AC;&#x153;failâ&#x20AC;? and what happens to it if it does? What happens to T cells that pass the selection process? 31. How is B cell development similar to T cell development? How is it different? 32. What are the three stages of specific immunity? Make a table with three columns: one for TH cells, one for TC cells, and one for B cells. Compare the events in each of the three stages between the three cell types. 33. HIV infects TH cells and macrophages. Based on what you know about these two cell types, and their role in immunity, explain why HIV is so devastating to the immune system. - 41 -

34. When do memory cells form? Have memory cells ever “seen battle?” When are they activated? 35. What are plasma cells? Why do they have so much endoplasmic reticulum? 36. What are antibodies? Where do they come from? Do they “attack” or kill pathogens? How do they help the body battle pathogens? 37. What are the five antibody classes? How is each different? What about its structure makes it well-suited to its particular role in the immune system? 38. Humans only have ~35,000 genes, but the immune system is capable of making more than 1 trillion unique antibodies. How is this possible? 39. The immune system uses a variety of strategies to protect the body from pathogens: prevent access, isolation, elimination, phagocytosis, poisoning, and destruction of membrane (poking holes). Go back through the chapter and categorize each immune defense according to the strategies listed above. 40. Describe and give examples of the three categories of immune disorders

3-Energy, Maintenance, and Environmental Exchange: Respiratory System (Lab and Lecture Topic) 1. General functions of the respiratory system

Describe the major functions of the respiratory system.

2. Describe the four respiratory processes - ventilation, external respiration (gas exchange at lung), internal respiration (gas exchange at body tissues), and cellular respiration. 1.

Describe and distinguish between the upper and lower respiratory tracts.

2. Describe and distinguish between the conducting and respiratory zones of the respiratory tract. 3. List, in order, the respiratory structures that air passes through during inspiration.

Gross & microscopic anatomy of the respiratory tract & related organs

4. For each of the following - nasal cavities, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, pleural membranes, pulmonary blood vessels and nerves, thoracic and pleural cavities, and diaphragm: a. Identify each structure. b. Describe the gross anatomical features of each structure. c. State the function of each structure. 5. Relate the anatomical structures of the respiratory system to adjacent organs and tissues. 6. For each of the following - respiratory (nasal) mucosa, the layers of the tracheal wall, the bronchi and bronchioles, the three cell types found in alveoli, and the respiratory membrane: a. Identify each structure. - 42 -

b. Describe the microscopic anatomy of each structure c. State the function of each structure. 7. Describe the changes in epithelial and connective tissue seen in various portions of the air passageways and relate these changes to function. 1.

Define pulmonary ventilation, inspiration, and expiration.

2. Identify the muscles used during quiet inspiration, during forced inspiration, and Mechanisms of pulmonary ventilation during forced expiration, as well as the nerves responsible for stimulating those muscles. 3. Define and state relative values for atmospheric pressure, intrapulmonary pressure, intrapleural pressure, and transpulmonary pressure. 4. State Boyle’s Law and relate this law to the specific sequence of events (muscle contractions/relaxations and pressure/volume changes) causing inspiration and expiration. 5. Explain how each of the following affect pulmonary ventilation: bronchiolar smooth muscle contractions, lung and thoracic wall compliance and recoil, and pulmonary surfactant and alveolar surface tension. 6. Describe the forces that tend to collapse the lungs and those that normally oppose or prevent collapse. 1. Define, identify, and determine values for the respiratory volumes (IRV, TV, ERV, and RV) and the respiratory capacities (IC, FRC, VC, and TLC). Pulmonary air volumes & capacities

Define and calculate values for minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation.

3. Define anatomical dead space and explain the effect of anatomical dead space on alveolar ventilation and on the composition of alveolar and expired air. 1. 1. State Dalton’s Law and Henry’s Law, and relate both laws to the events of external and internal respiration and to the amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolved in plasma. 2. With respect to external respiration:

Mechanisms of gas exchange in the lungs & tissues

a. Describe oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration gradients and net gas movements. b. Analyze how oxygen and carbon dioxide movements are affected by changes in partial pressure gradients (e.g., at high altitude), surface area, diffusion distance, and solubility and molecular weight of the gases. c. Describe the mechanisms of ventilation-perfusion coupling and predict the effect that reduced alveolar ventilation has on pulmonary blood flow and the effect that reduced pulmonary blood flow has on bronchiole diameter and alveolar ventilation. 3.

With respect to internal respiration:

- 43 -

a. Describe oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration gradients and net gas movements. b. Explain the factors that maintain oxygen and carbon dioxide gradients between blood and tissue cells. 1.

With respect to oxygen transport:

a. Describe the ways in which oxygen is transported in blood and discuss the relative importance of each to total oxygen transport. b. State the reversible chemical equation for oxygen binding to hemoglobin and predict how raising or lowering the partial pressure of oxygen will shift the equilibrium. 2. With respect to the oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve: a.

Interpret the curve at low and high partial pressures of oxygen.

b. List factors that shift the curve down and to the right, and explain how this results in increased oxygen delivery to the tissues. c. List factors that shift the curve up and to the left, and explain how this facilitates oxygen binding to hemoglobin in the lungs. d. Describe the oxygen-fetal hemoglobin saturation curve and its impact on oxygen delivery to fetal tissues. 3.

With respect to carbon dioxide transport:

a. Describe the ways in which carbon dioxide is transported in blood and discuss the relative importance of each to total carbon dioxide transport. b. State the reversible chemical equation for the reaction of carbon dioxide and water to carbonic acid and then to hydrogen ion and bicarbonate ion. Mechanisms of gas transport in the blood

c. Explain the relationship between pH and hydrogen ion concentration d. Predict how changing the partial pressure of carbon dioxide will affect the pH and the concentration bicarbonate ions in the plasma. e. Predict how changing the pH or the concentration of bicarbonate ions will affect the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the plasma. f. State the reversible chemical equation for carbon dioxide binding to deoxyhemoglobin and predict how changing carbon dioxide concentrations will affect deoxyhemoglobin levels in the tissues and the lungs. g. Explain how each of the following relates to carbon dioxide transport: carbonic anhydrase, hydrogen ions binding to hemoglobin and plasma proteins, the chloride ion shift, and the oxygen-hemoglobin saturation level. 1.

Describe the locations and functions of the brainstem respiratory centers.

- 44 -

2. List and describe the major chemical and neural stimuli to the respiratory centers. Control of pulmonary ventilation

3. Compare and contrast the central and peripheral chemoreceptors. 4. Define hyperventilation, hypoventilation, panting, eupnea, hyperpnea and apnea. 5. Explain why it is possible to hold oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s breath longer after hyperventilating than after eupnea.

Application of homeostatic mechanisms Predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states & disorders

1. Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the respiratory system responds to maintain homeostasis in the body. 2. Explain how the respiratory system relates to other body systems to maintain homeostasis. 1. Predict factors or situations affecting the respiratory system that could disrupt homeostasis. 2. Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the respiratory system could not maintain homeostasis.

Lecture Study Questions: Respiratory System 1. Describe the relationship between pressure, volume, resistance and flow. How is this similar to blood flow through the heart and vessels? 2. What is intrapulmonary pressure? If it is higher than atmospheric pressure, what happens? What happens if it is lower than atmospheric pressure? Which gas law would you apply to explain this? State the law. 3. What is intrapleural pressure? Why is it important? What keeps it lower than intrapulmonary pressure? 4. What would happen if intrapleural pressure became higher than intrapulmonary pressure? What might cause this? 5. Explain the events of inspiration and expiration in terms of muscle contraction, change in volume (space), change in pressure, and flow. 6. How would increasing resistance influence flow? What kinds of things will change resistance? Do they increase or decrease resistance? How? 7. What is compliance? Describe how breathing would be affected if compliance was reduced. What would happen if compliance were increased? What kinds of things alter lung compliance? 8. What is surfactant? How does it influence surface tension? What would happen without surfactant? How does surfactant influence compliance? 9. What structures control the rate and depth of breathing? How do they do this? 10. What factors stimulate breathing? Between O2 and CO2, which is more important in terms of stimulation of breathing? Why? 11. What five factors influence the rate of gas exchange? For each factor, describe what would happen to gas exchange if it increased/decreased. Give an example (where possible) of something that would cause the factor to increase or decrease. 12. What is the importance of ventilation perfusion coupling? - 45 -

13. Would bronchioles constrict or dilate if blood flow to the alveoli increased? What if blood flow decreased? 14. Would pulmonary arterioles dilate or constrict if air flow to the alveoli increased? What if air flow decreased? 15. What would be the response of the bronchioles if the concentration of oxygen decreased in pulmonary vessels? What if oxygen increased? Why oxygen and not carbon dioxide? 16. What would be the response of the pulmonary vessels if the concentration of carbon dioxide decreased in the alveoli? What if it increased? Why carbon dioxide and not oxygen? 17. What is partial pressure? Why do we use partial pressure instead of percentage when we discuss the concentration of gases? 18. What would the partial pressure of nitrogen be if atmospheric pressure was 720 mmHg? Would the partial pressure of nitrogen increase or decrease at a higher altitude? 19. What is the composition of atmospheric air? How does the composition change as air moves through the trachea and bronchi on its way into the lungs? 20. What happens to the composition of air in the alveoli? Why? 21. Why is the composition of expired air different from alveolar air? 22. Oxygen has a much steeper concentration gradient than CO2 (between blood and alveoli), but CO2 reaches equilibrium just as quickly. Why is this? 23. What is the partial pressure of O2 in the alveoli? What is the partial pressure of O2 in the pulmonary artery blood? In what direction will the O2 move? What is the resulting partial pressure of O2 (in the pulmonary vein)? 24. What is the partial pressure of CO2 in the alveoli? What is the partial pressure of CO2 in the pulmonary artery blood? In what direction will the CO2 move? What is the resulting partial pressure of CO2 (in the pulmonary vein)? 25. What is the partial pressure of O2 in the systemic arteries? What is the partial pressure of O2 in the tissue fluid? In what direction will the O2 move? What is the resulting partial pressure of O2 (in the systemic veins)? 26. What is the partial pressure of CO2 in the systemic arteries? What is the partial pressure of CO2 in the tissue fluid? In what direction will the CO2 move? What is the resulting partial pressure of CO2 (in the systemic veins)? 27. How long does it take for gases to equilibrate across the respiratory membrane? How long does it usually take for a RBC to pass through the alveolar capillary in a resting person? 28. How long does it normally take for a RBC to pass through the alveolar capillary in a person who is exercising vigorously? Does gas exchange have time to reach equilibrium? How would this be different in a person with emphysema? Could they exercise vigorously? 29. How does most oxygen travel through the bloodstream? Explain why based on the solubility of oxygen in water. 30. Nitrogen has a much partial pressure than oxygen. How come nitrogen is not found in large quantities in our bloodstream? Which of the gas laws would you apply to explain this? State the law. 31. How does CO2 travel through the bloodstream? What enzyme found in RBCs helps to convert CO2 to this form? 32. In systemic gas exchange, the chloride shift helps to keep the formation of HCO3- and H+ going. How does it do this? 33. You could say that the presence of CO2 actually helps the unloading of O2 through the Bohr effect. How does this work? 34. What is venous reserve? Why would it be important in the case that a person stopped breathing? - 46 -

35. In alveolar gas exchange, what kind of feedback is involved in O2 loading? 36. Describe the factors that promote unloading of O2. Explain how each factor works. 37. How would a buildup of CO2 affect plasma pH? How would a loss of CO2 affect plasma pH? 38. How would acidosis affect breathing? How would this help to return the plasma pH to normal? 39. How would alkalosis affect breathing? How would this help to return the plasma pH to normal? 40. What is a COPD? What effects do COPDs have on the body? What are some common examples? 41. Based on what you now know about the respiratory system, what reasons would you give for not smoking?

4-Energy, Maintenance, And Environmental Exchange: Urinary System (Lab and Lecture Topic) General functions of the urinary system

Describe the major functions of the urinary system. 1. With respect to gross anatomy of the urinary tract: a. Describe the external structure of the kidney, including its location, support structures and covering. b. Identify, and describe the structure and location of, the ureters, urinary bladder and urethra. c. Compare and contrast the male and female urethras. d. Identify the major internal divisions and structures of the renal tissue. e. Identify the major blood vessels associated with the kidney. 2. Trace the path of blood through the kidney.

Gross & microscopic anatomy of the urinary tract, including detailed histology of the nephron

3. With respect to the nephron and collecting system: a. Identify the major structures and subdivisions of the renal corpuscles, renal tubules and renal capillaries. b. Compare and contrast cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons. c. Compare and contrast the structure and function of glomerular and peritubular capillaries. d. Identify the location, structures and cells of the juxtaglomerular apparatus. 4. With respect to the histology of the kidney: a. Describe the histological structure of the proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct. b. Distinguish histologically between renal cortex and medulla. 5. Trace the path of filtrate/urine from the renal corpuscle to the urethral opening. 1. List the three major processes in urine formation and where each occurs in the nephron and collecting system. 2. With respect to filtration:

- 47 -

a. Describe the structure of the filtration membrane. b. Explain the anatomical features that create high glomerular capillary blood pressure and explain why this blood pressure is significant for urine formation. c. Describe the hydrostatic and colloid osmotic forces that favor and oppose filtration. d. Describe glomerular filtration rate (GFR), state the average value of GFR, and explain how clearance rate can be used to measure GFR. e. Predict specific factors that will increase or decrease GFR. 3. With respect to reabsorption: a. List specific transport mechanisms occurring in different parts of the nephron, including active transport, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, passive electrochemical gradients, receptor-mediated endocytosis, and transcytosis. Functional process of urine formation, including filtration reabsorption, & secretion

b. List the different membrane proteins of the nephron, including aquaporins, channels, transporters, and ATPase pumps. c. Compare and contrast passive and active tubular reabsorption. d. Describe how and where water, organic compounds, and ions are reabsorbed in the nephron. e. Explain why the differential permeability or impermeability of specific sections of the nephron tubules is necessary for urine formation. f. Explain the role of the loop of Henle, the vasa recta, and the countercurrent multiplication mechanism in the concentration of urine. g. State the percent of filtrate that is normally reabsorbed and explain why the process of reabsorption is so important. 4. With respect to tubular secretion: a. List the location(s) in the nephron where tubular secretion occurs. b. Describe the physiological processes involved in eliminating drugs, wastes and excess ions. 5. Compare and contrast reabsorption and tubular secretion, with respect to direction of solute movement, strength of concentration gradients, and energy required. 6. Explain how the three processes in urine formation determine the rate of excretion of any solute. 7. Compare and contrast blood plasma, glomerular filtrate, and urine and then relate their differences to function of the nephron. 8. Determine the physical and chemical properties of a urine sample and relate these properties to normal urine composition.

Factors regulating & altering urine volume & composition, including the renin-angiotensin system & the roles of aldosterone, antidiuretic

1. With respect to autoregulation: a. Describe the myogenic and tubuloglomerular feedback mechanisms and explain how they affect urine volume and composition. b. Describe the function of the juxtaglomerular apparatus. 2. Describe how each of the following functions in the extrinsic control of GFR: reninangiotensin mechanism, natriuretic peptides, and sympathetic adrenergic activity.

- 48 -

hormone, & the natriuretic peptides

3. Describe how each of the following works to regulate reabsorption and secretion, so as to affect urine volume and composition: renin-angiotensin system, aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone, and natriuretic peptides. 4. Predict specific factors involved in creating dilute versus concentrated urine. 5. Explain the mechanism of action of diuretics.

Additional endocrine activities of the kidney

1. Describe the role of kidney in vitamin D activation. 2. Describe the role of kidney in regulating erythropoiesis. 1. Describe the function of the ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.

Innervation & control of the urinary bladder

2. Describe the micturition reflex. 3. Describe voluntary and involuntary neural control of micturition. 4. Relate the anatomy and histology of the bladder to its function.

Application of homeostatic mechanisms Predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states & disorders

1. Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the urinary system responds to maintain homeostasis in the body. 2. Explain how the urinary system relates to other body systems to maintain homeostasis. 1. Predict factors or situations affecting the urinary system that could disrupt homeostasis. 2. Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the urinary system could not maintain homeostasis.

Lecture Study Questions: Urinary System 1. What are the major functions of the kidney? 2. What is BUN? Where do nitrogenous wastes come from? What effect do they have on the body if they become too concentrated? 3. How do nitrogenous wastes enter the kidney (what structure)? How do they come out? 4. Explain the difference between filtration, absorption, reabsorption, and secretion. 5. Draw a nephron, label each segment and describe the events that take place in that segment. 6. What is the difference between cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons (describe function as well as location)? 7. What kinds of things are filtered by the glomerulus? What kinds of things are not filtered? 8. Describe filtration in terms of hydrostatic and colloid osmotic pressure. 9. What would happen to GFR if blood hydrostatic pressure increased? Decreased? What kinds of things might increase or decrease blood hydrostatic pressure? 10. What would happen to GFR if blood colloid osmotic pressure increased? Decreased? What kinds of things might increase or decrease blood colloid osmotic pressure? 11. For each of the following, predict (and explain) how GFR would be affected (assume that there is no compensation to keep GFR constant): liver disease, hypertension, dehydration, starvation, cardiovascular shock. 12. What happens if GFR is too high? What happens if GFR is too low? 13. How is GFR regulated? For each mechanism, explain how it would respond to an increase in GFR, then explain how it would respond to a decrease in GFR. 14. Draw a flowchart of RAAS (renin, angiotensin, aldosterone system). Make sure that you indicate where each hormone is produced, where it is converted (if applicable), where it acts, and what it does. - 49 -

15. Glucose and uric acid are in the proximal convoluted tubule. Where does each go next? Think carefully and be specific! 16. How are things reabsorbed in the PCT? Explain why high glucose concentration in the PCT would prevent all glucose from being reabsorbed. Explain in terms of transport. 17. Why would low GFR cause elevated BUN? What would be happening in the PCT? 18. How would you expect the DCT to respond in acidosis to return the plasma pH to normal? What about alkalosis? 19. Describe the positive feedback mechanism used by the nephron loop to make the medulla salty. 20. Why isn’t the salt in the medulla simply absorbed and carried away by the vasa recta? 21. How does the salty medulla help the kidney conserve water? 22. How does water get through the cells of the collecting duct? What kind of transport is this? 23. What would happen to water conservation if the number of aquaporins increased in the CD? What if they decreased? 24. Describe each of the hormones that act on the DCT and CD. Where are they made? When are they produced? What effect do they have? 25. Using what you now know about the urinary system, explain why patients with diabetes mellitus experience the following symptoms: glucosuria, polyuria, polydipsia. 26. What is a diuretic? What are some examples of diuretics and what mechanisms do they use? 27. Why shouldn’t you drink alcohol when you’re dehydrated?

5-Energy, Maintenance, And Environmental Exchange: Fluid/Electrolytes & Acid/Base Balance (Lecture Topic) NOTE: Some of the topics in the table below may be covered within other systems throughout the course

Regulation of water intake & output

Description of the major fluid compartments Chemical composition of the major compartment fluids

Movements between the major fluid compartments

1. List and describe the routes of water entry into the body and state representative volumes for each. 2. List and describe the routes of water loss from the body and state representative volumes for each. 3. Describe the mechanisms used to regulate water intake. 4. Describe the mechanisms used to regulate water output. Describe the fluid compartments (including the subdivisions of the extracellular fluid) and state the relative volumes of each. 1. Define electrolyte. 2. Compare and contrast the relative concentrations of major electrolytes in intracellular and extracellular fluids. 3. Describe the function(s) of each abundant electrolyte found in body fluids, including sodium, chloride, potassium, phosphate and calcium. 4. Describe hormonal regulation of electrolyte levels in the plasma, including sodium, chloride, potassium, phosphate and calcium. 1. Explain the role of electrolytes and non-electrolytes in the determination of osmotic pressure. 2. Describe the forces that affect capillary filtration, including the determinants of each force. - 50 -

3. Compare and contrast the roles that osmosis and capillary filtration play in the movement of fluids between compartments. 4. Describe the role of “capillary permeability” in fluid movement across the capillary wall. 5. Explain how dehydration and overhydration (water intoxication) develop and how fluids shift between the three major body compartments during each. 1. Define acid, base, pH and buffer. 2. State the normal pH range for arterial blood.

Buffer systems & their roles in acid/base balance

3.With respect to the bicarbonate buffer system, the phosphate system, and the protein system a. State the chemical equation for each buffer system. b. Explain the role of each buffer system in regulation of blood, interstitial fluid, and intracellular pH, including how each system responds to increases or decreases in pH. 4. Explain the role of hemoglobin in pH buffering.

Role of the respiratory & urinary systems in acid/base balance

Application of homeostatic mechanisms

Predictions related to homeostatic

1. State the normal ranges for PCO2 and HCO3− in arterial blood and summarize their relationship to blood pH. 2. Describe the role of the respiratory system in regulation of blood pH and predict how hypo- and hyperventilation will affect blood pH. 3. Explain the mechanisms by which the kidneys secrete hydrogen ions, and how this process affects blood pH. 4. Explain the mechanisms by which the kidneys retain bicarbonate ions, and how this process affects blood pH. 5. Discuss the concept of compensation to correct respiratory and metabolic acidosis and alkalosis. 6. Given appropriate arterial blood gas values, determine whether a patient has normal blood pH or is in respiratory acidosis or alkalosis or is in metabolic acidosis or alkalosis, and whether the acidosis/alkalosis is partially or fully compensated or uncompensated. 1. Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the cardiovascular, endocrine, and urinary systems respond to maintain homeostasis of fluid volume in the body. 2. Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the cardiovascular, endocrine, respiratory, and urinary systems respond to maintain homeostasis of electrolyte concentrations and pH of body fluids. 3. Explain how fluid volumes and distribution contribute to the maintenance of homeostasis in other body systems. 4. Explain how electrolyte concentrations and body fluid pH contribute to the maintenance of homeostasis in other body systems. 1. Predict factors or situations that would lead to a disruption of homeostasis by affecting the volume or composition of body fluids. - 51 -

imbalance, including disease states & disorders

2. Predict factors or situations that would lead to a disruption of homeostasis by causing respiratory acidosis, respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, or metabolic alkalosis. 3. Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the volume and composition of body fluids were not maintained within normal homeostatic ranges. 4. Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if body fluid pH were not maintained within the normal homeostatic range

Lecture Study Questions: Fluid/Electrolytes & Acid/Base Balance 1. Which fluid compartment accounts for the most water in the body? 2. Where does the water in our bodies come from? How is it lost? 3. What is the effect of dehydration? Think back to the cardiovascular system. 4. Which ion is most responsible for extracellular water distribution in the body? Why? 5. Explain water intoxication. Make sure that you discuss Na+ and osmosis. 6. How would edema affect water volume? 7. What is the normal range of pH for the plasma? What is it called when the pH is too high? too low? 8. What kinds of things cause acidosis? Which ones are respiratory and which ones are metabolic? 9. What kinds of things cause alkalosis? Which ones are respiratory and which ones are metabolic? 10. How would the respiratory mechanism respond to acidosis? alkalosis? 11. How would the renal mechanism respond to acidosis? alkalosis?

6-Energy, Maintenance, And Environmental Exchange: Digestive System and Metabolism (Lab and Lecture Topics) General functions of the digestive system

Describe the major functions of the digestive system.

1.With respect to the wall of the alimentary canal a. Identify, and describe the histological structure and the function of, each of the four layers of the wall - the mucosa, the submucosa, the muscularis externa, and the serosa (visceral peritoneum), b. Describe regional specializations in the histological structure of the alimentary canal and relate these specializations to the functions of the particular organs in which they are located. 2.With respect to the oral cavity a. Identify the boundaries of the oral cavity - 52 -

b. Identify the hard and soft palates and discuss their functions. c. Describe the structures of the tongue, including taste buds and papillae, and discuss their functions. d. Identify the different types of teeth and discuss their functions. Gross & microscopic anatomy of the alimentary canal

e. State the dental formulas for both deciduous and permanent teeth. f. Identify the anatomical structures of a tooth. 3. Identify the naso-, oro- and laryngopharynx and classify these regions with respect to passage of food and/or air through them. 4.With respect to the esophagus a. Describe the structure and discuss the function of the upper esophageal and lower esophageal (cardiac) sphincters. b. Describe the locations of skeletal and smooth muscle within the wall of the esophagus. 5.With respect to the stomach a. Describe the structure and discuss the function of the cardiac and pyloric sphincters. b. Identify the structure and discuss the function of the cardiac region, the fundus, the body and the pyloric region of the stomach. c. Discuss the significance of rugae. d. Discuss the function of the oblique muscle layer of the stomach. e. Identify the structure of a gastric gland including the location of the chief (zymogenic) cells, parietal (oxynic) cells, enteroendocrine cells, and mucous cells, and discuss the functions of these different cell types. 6.With respect to the small intestine a. Identify the location and discuss the relative length and the functions of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. b. Identify and discuss the histology and functions of the plicae circulares, villi, and microvilli. c. Identify Brunnerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s glands (duodenal glands) in the duodenum and Crypts of Leiberkuhn (intestinal glands) in all portions of the small intestine, and discuss the function of these glands. 7.With respect to the large intestine - 53 -

a. Describe the structure and discuss the function of the ileocecal valve and the internal and external anal sphincters. b. Identify the location and discuss the functions of the cecum and appendix, the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon, the rectum, and the anus. c. Identify and discuss the functions of teniae coli, haustra, and epiploic appendages 1.With respect to salivary glands: a. Describe the location of the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands and their respective ducts. b. Contrast the histology and the products of the serous cells and the mucous cells. Gross & microscopic anatomy of the accessory glands & organs

2.With respect to the liver: a. Identify the individual lobes of the liver b. Identify the coronary ligament, falciform ligament, and round ligament (ligamentum teres). c. Identify the hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein, and hepatic vein and discuss the function of each of those blood vessels. d. Identify the histological components of a liver lobule (including hepatocytes, hepatic sinusoids, Kupffer cells, bile canaliculi, central vein, and the components of a hepatic triad) and discuss the function of each. e. Identify the hepatic duct, cystic duct, gallbladder, common bile duct, sphincter of the hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of Vater and sphincter of Oddi) and discuss the roles of those structures in the flow of bile. 3.With respect to the pancreas: a. Identify the head, body and tail of the pancreas b. Identify the pancreatic acini and discuss their functions. c. Identify the pancreatic islets and discuss their functions. d. Identify the pancreatic duct and the hepatopancreatic sphincter and discuss their roles in the flow of pancreatic enzymes. 1. Describe the histology of the visceral and parietal peritoneum.

Peritoneum & mesenteries

2. Differentiate between intraperitoneal and retroperitoneal location of digestive structures. 3. Identify the mesentery proper and the mesocolon and explain their function. - 54 -

1. List the structures involved in the process of deglutition and explain how they function, including the changes in position of the glottis and larynx that prevent aspiration. 2. Define the terms peristalsis, segmentation, migrating myoelectric complex, and mass movement, and discuss the role that these activities play in the function of various regions of the alimentary canal. 3. Explain how volume, chemical composition, and osmolarity of the chyme affect motility in the stomach and in the duodenum. 4.With respect to the process of defecarion: Motility in the alimentary canal

a. Describe the defecation reflex and the function of the internal and external anal sphincters. b. Explain the effect of rectal distension in the defecation reflex. c. Discuss the conscious control of the defecation reflex. d. Discuss the specific role of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system in the reflex e. Explain the Valsalva maneuver and the effects it has on the process of defecation and on the cardiovascular system.

1.With respect to mechanical digestion: a. Define mechanical digestion. b. List the organs and structures of the digestive system that function in mechanical digestion and explain the details of the process for each. 2.With respect to enzymatic hydrolysis:

Mechanical & chemical processes of digestion

a. Define enzymatic hydrolysis. b. List the organs and structures of the digestive system that function in enzymatic hydrolysis. c. List the enzymes used in enzymatic hydrolysis. d. Discuss the activation of specific enzymes, where applicable. e. List the substrates and products of enzymatic hydrolysis for each enzyme. f. Discuss the mechanisms used to regulate secretion and/or activation of each enzyme. 4. Discuss the function, production, and regulation of secretion of hydrochloric acid (HCl). 5.With respect to the process of emulsification: - 55 -

a. Define emulsification and describe the process. b. List the organs and structures of the digestive system that function in the process of emulsification. 1.With respect to monosaccharides, peptides and amino acids, and fatty acids and monoglycerides Processes of absorption

a. List the organs and specific structures involved in the absorption of each of these types of nutrient. b. Explain the processes involved in absorption of each type of nutrient. 2. Discuss the absorption of fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins and the absorption of vitamin B12. 3. Discuss the enterohepatic circulation of bile salts. 1. List the components of both a short reflex and a long reflex in the digestive system.

Hormonal & neural regulation of digestive processes

2. Discuss regulation of reflexes by the enteric nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. 3. Explain the effect of the cephalic phase of regulation on the mucous glands. 4. Explain the effect of the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase on the functions of the stomach and give examples for each phase. 5. Explain the effect of the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase on the functions of the small intestine and give examples for each phase. a. State the organ or structure that produces each hormone or agent. b. State the target organ for each hormone or agent. c. Describe the action of each hormone or agent.

Application of homeostatic mechanisms Predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states & disorders

1. Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the digestive system responds to maintain homeostasis in the body. 2. Explain how the digestive system relates to other body systems to maintain homeostasis. 1. Predict factors or situations affecting the digestive system that could disrupt homeostasis. 2. Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the digestive system could not maintain homeostasis.

Lecture Study Questions: Digestive System and Metabolism 1. What is the difference between the digestive tract and accessory organs? - 56 -

2. What are the two types of digestion? Where does each occur? 3. List the layers of the digestive tract and describe what each layer does to contribute to digestion and absorption. 4. How is the digestive tract controlled? What is unique about the enteric nervous system? 5. The salivary glands, stomach, pancreas, and liver all secrete substances that are important to the digestive process. List what each produces and what the product is important for. 6. Describe the process of acid secretion. How is it similar to gas transport in the respiratory system? 7. What is heartburn? 8. What enzyme starts starch digestion? Where is it produced? Where is it active? What deactivates it? What is the next enzyme that digests starch? Where is it produced? Where is it active? Where is starch digestion completed? What enzymes finish the job? 9. What enzyme starts protein digestion? Where is it produced? Where is it active? What activates it? What are the next enzymes that digest protein? Where are they produced? Where and how do they become active? Where is protein digestion completed? What enzymes finish the job? 10. What is emulsification? What substances are important in the process of emulsification? Where are they produced? 11. What is the first enzyme to start digestion of lipids? Where is it produced? Where is it active? Where does it become inactive? What enzyme completes the process of lipid digestion? Where is it produced? 12. Many enzymes in the digestive system are produced in a inactive form. Why is this? What would happen if they were produced in an active form? 13. What sorts of things stimulate gastric secretion and motility? What inhibits them? 14. Where are the contents of the pancreas, liver, and gall bladder delivered to the gastrointestinal tract? 15. What product of the pancreas is important in the neutralization of stomach acid? 16. How does the filling of the stomach affect motility in the large intestine? 17. How does the amount and composition of chyme in the small intestine affect motility and secretion in the stomach? 18. Where does the majority of digestion and absorption take place? Where do nutrients go after they have been absorbed (which blood vessel)? 19. Name two structures that increase the surface area of the small intestine. Why is this important? 20. What is the purpose of intrinsic factor? 21. Why would someone have to get shots of vitamin B12 after a gastrectomy? Why canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t they take oral multivitamins? 22. How is food propelled through the digestive tract? How is it mixed? 23. What is the major role of the large intestine? 24. What are hemorrhoids? What causes them

7-Energy, Maintenance, And Environmental Exchange: Digestive System and Nutrition (Lab and Lecture Topics) NOTE: Some of the topics in the table below may be covered within other systems throughout the course

- 57 -

1. With respect to nutrients: a. Define nutrient, essential nutrient and non-essential nutrient. b. List the six main classes of nutrients. c. For carbohydrates, fats, and proteins - list their dietary sources, state their energy yields per gram, and discuss their common uses in the body. Nutrition

d. Classify vitamins as either fat-soluble or water-soluble and discuss the major uses of each vitamin in the body. e. List the important dietary minerals and describe the major uses of each mineral in the body. 2. Describe the components of a balanced diet including the concept of recommended daily amounts. 3. Discuss appetite control, including its regulation by hormones. 4. Explain the significance of nitrogen balance in a healthy diet. 1. Define metabolism, anabolism and catabolism 2. Provide examples of anabolic and catabolic reactions.

Introduction to metabolism

3. Compare and contrast the roles of enzymes and coenzymes in metabolism. 4. Explain the roles of coenzyme A, NAD, and FAD in metabolism. 5. Describe the processes of oxidation, reduction, decarboxylation, and phosphorylation. 1. With respect to carbohydrate metabolism: a. State the overall reaction for glucose catabolism.

Cellular respiration & the catabolism & anabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, & proteins

b. Describe the processes of glycolysis, formation of acetyl CoA, the Krebâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (TCA) cycle, and the electron transport chain, including the substrates and products of each, their locations within the cell and the energy yield of each process. c. Describe the process of chemiosmosis and its role in ATP production. d. Describe the anaerobic process for generating ATP, including conditions under which it occurs and its products and their functions. e. Describe the processes of glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis, including the substrates and products of each. f. Describe the role of hormones (such as cortisol, growth hormone, thyroid hormone, insulin, glucagon and norepinephrine) in regulation of carbohydrate catabolism and anabolism. g. Predict the metabolic conditions that would favor each of the following processes: glycogenesis, glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. 2. With respect to protein and amino acid metabolism: - 58 -

a. Describe the basic process of protein synthesis. b. Describe the process of deamination and its importance in gluconeogenesis and the interconversion of nutrients. c. Describe the process of transamination in the interconversion of nutrients. d. Explain how protein catabolism leads to ATP production. e. Describe the effect of protein metabolism on ammonia and urea production. f. Describe the role of hormones (such as cortisol, human growth hormone and insulin) in regulation of protein catabolism and anabolism. 3. With respect to fat metabolism: a. Name essential fatty acids and their functions. b. Describe the basic process of lipogenesis and lipolysis. c. Describe the role of hormones (such as cortisol, human growth hormone and thyroid hormone) in regulation of lipogenesis and lypolysis, d. Summarize the overall process of the beta oxidation of fatty acids and explain how it relates to ketogenesis & ketoacidosis. e. Describe the nutrient interconversion pathways that involve fats. f. Compare and contrast the structure and function of different types of lipoproteins in the body. 1. Describe the role of the liver in metabolism. Metabolic roles of body organs

2. Explain the role of adipose tissue in metabolism. 3. Describe the role of skeletal muscle in metabolism. 1. Compare and contrast the processes that occur in the absorptive and postabsorptive states. 2. Explain the role of cortisol, human growth hormone, thyroid hormone, insulin and glucagon in the absorptive and post-absorptive states. 3. Explain the significance of glucose-sparing for neural tissue in the postabsorptive state.

Energy balance & thermoregulation

4. Define calorie and kilocalorie. 5. Discuss the importance of energy (caloric) balance in maintaining healthy body weight. 6. Define metabolic rate and basal metabolic rate. 7. Describe factors that affect metabolic rate. 8. Explain the importance of thermoregulation in the body. 9. Differentiate between radiation, conduction, evaporation and convection and explain the role of each in thermoregulation. - 59 -

Application of homeostatic mechanisms Predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states & disorders

1. Provide specific examples to demonstrate how metabolic processes respond to maintain homeostasis in the body. 2. Explain the role of metabolism as it relates to other body systems to maintain homeostasis. 1. Predict factors or situations affecting metabolism that could disrupt homeostasis. 2. Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body metabolic processes could not maintain homeostasis.

Lecture Study Questions: Nutrition 1. What things determine our body weight? 2. What hormones are involved in regulation of appetite? How does each work? What is the role of the hypothalamus? 3. What is the overall reaction for the breakdown of glucose? 4. Draw and describe the glycolysis pathway. What is the main product of glycolysis? What happens to this product if oxygen is available? 5. Draw and describe the pathways that a cell would utilize if there were plenty of oxygen available. Which molecules go in? Out? 6. What is glycogenolysis? Glycogenesis? Gluconeogenesis? Provide a situation in which each of these pathways would occur. 7. Why are carbohydrates important in the body? Where do they come from in the diet? How are they metabolized when there is excess? Insufficiency? 8. What is fiber? What kinds of fiber are there? What effect does each kind of fiber have? 9. Why is fat a more efficient way to store energy than carbohydrates or protein? 10. Why are fats important in the body? Where do they come from in the diet? 11. What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats? Which is better for you? 12. Where does cholesterol come from? How is it delivered to the cells of the body? How is it eliminated from the body? What do we mean by good and bad cholesterol? 13. Why are proteins important in the body? Where do they come from in the diet? How are they metabolized when there is excess? Insufficiency? 14. What are the metabolic consequences of diabetes? Starvation? Carbohydrate-free diets?

8-Reproduction and Development: Reproductive System (Lab and Lecture Topics) General functions of the male & female reproductive systems Gross & microscopic anatomy of the male & female reproductive systems

Describe the major functions of the male and female reproductive systems. 1. With respect to the gross anatomy, identify and describe the anatomy of the male and female reproductive system, including the gonads, ducts, accessory glands, associated support structures, and external genitalia. 2. With reference to microscopic anatomy:

- 60 -

a. Identify and describe the reproductive and supporting cells of the seminiferous tubules of the testis. b. Identify and describe the different stages of follicular development in the ovary, including the preovulatory follicle and the corpus luteum. c. Identify and describe the histology of the uterine wall. 1. Contrast the overall processes of mitosis and meiosis. Gametogenesis

2. Relate the general stages of meiosis to the specific processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis. 3. Contrast the process and the final products of spermatogenesis and oogenesis. 1. Describe the pathway of the ovum from the ovary to the uterus. 2. Describe the ovarian cycle and relate the events of the ovarian cycle to oogenesis.

Specific roles of the female reproductive organs

3. Describe the events of the uterine cycle. 4. Analyze graphs depicting the typical female monthly sexual cycle and correlate ovarian activity, hormonal changes, and uterine events. 5. Explain why changes in cervical mucus can predict a womanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s monthly fertility. 6. Provide examples of how birth control methods relate to normal reproductive function. 1. Discuss the relationship between the location of the testes and sperm production.

Specific roles of the male reproductive organs

2. Explain the role of the sustentacular cells and interstitial cells in sperm production. 3. Describe the pathway of sperm from the seminiferous tubules to the external urethral orifice of the penis. 4. Identify and describe the organs involved in semen production 5. Discuss the composition of semen and its role is sperm function. 1. State the functions of gonadotropin releasing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, inhibin, testosterone, estrogen and progesterone. 2. Compare and contrast endocrine regulation of spermatogenesis and oogenesis,

Regulation of reproductive system functions

3. Compare and contrast the events and endocrine regulation of female and male puberty. 4. Define secondary sex characteristics and describe their role in reproductive system function. 5. Compare and contrast female and male sexual responses. 6. Define menopause, describe the physiological changes associated with menopause, and explain the fertility changes that precede menopause.

Conception, pregnancy, &

1. Describe conception, including sperm capacitation, acrosomal reaction, sperm penetration, cortical reaction, and fusion of pronuclei. 2. Define fertilization. - 61 -

embryological & fetal development

3. Describe the major events of embryonic and fetal development. 4. Describe the formation and function of the placenta and extraembryonic membranes. 5. Describe the hormonal changes during pregnancy and the effect of these hormones. 6. Describe the functional changes in the maternal reproductive, endocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, and urinary systems during pregnancy.

Parturition & labor

1. Explain the hormonal events that initiate and regulate labor. 2. Describe the three stages of labor.

Mammary glands & lactation Application of homeostatic mechanisms Predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states & disorders

1. Describe the structure and the function of the mammary glands. 2. Describe the hormonal regulation of lactation. 1. Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the reproductive system responds to maintain homeostasis in the body. 2. Explain how the reproductive system relates to other body systems to maintain homeostasis. 1. Predict factors or situations affecting the reproductive system that could disrupt homeostasis. 2. Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the reproductive system could not maintain homeostasis.

Lecture Study Questions: Reproductive System 1. Which parent determines whether a child will be male or female? How? 2. What hormone triggers puberty? How is puberty defined for males and females? 3. For the following hormones, indicate where they are produced, where they act, what they do, and how they are inhibited: GnRH, FSH, LH, HCG, estrogen, testosterone, progesterone, and inhibin. 4. Why is body fat associated with onset of menstruation? 5. Describe all of the events in the female sexual cycle (menstrual cycle) and the hormones that cause them. You may want to use a flowchart. 6. Which hormone is responsible for prevention of ovulation? Which one causes ovulation? 7. Which hormone builds up the uterine lining? 8. Compare the secretions of the corpus luteum and the placenta. 9. Which hormone is used to detect pregnancy? What produces it? What is the purpose of the hormone? 10. Describe the adjustments to pregnancy. What is the purpose of these changes? 11. What controls uterine contractions? What is it called when the uterus contracts throughout gestation? 12. Why are contractions spaced out in labor? Why not have one long contraction until the baby is out? 13. What hormones are involved in lactation (milk synthesis and ejection)? - 62 -

Akkaraju, Liachovitzky & McDaniel, 2014-15

Lab 1: The Circulatory System: Heart Anatomy and Blood Flow

Objectives Checklist After completion of this lab, you should be able to:  describe the location and position of the  distinguish between the right and left heart relative to other organs in the ventricles and explain the significance of thoracic cavity. the anatomical difference.  identify the layers of the heart and their  identify the major vessels attached to the purpose, especially the pericardium. heart and the direction in which they carry blood.  compare and contrast the pulmonary and  trace the pathway of blood through the systemic circuits (oxygenation, pressure). heart, pulmonary and systemic circuits including major vessels and valves.  identify and describe the roles of the major structures of the heart in figures and on models of the heart.

Pre-Lab Activities A. Heart Anatomy 1. Label the diagram to the right using the terms in the box below. visceral pericardium parietal pericardium pericardial fluid myocardium endocardium

2. Label the diagrams below using the terms in the box. If you see a structure on more than one diagram, label it on both diagrams. aorta coronary vein

aortic valve inferior vena cava

bicuspid valve interatrial septum

left atrium myocardium right atrium

left pulmonary artery papillary muscle right pulmonary artery tendinous cords

left pulmonary veins pulmonary trunk right pulmonary veins tricuspid valve

superior vena cava

- 41 -

coronary artery interventricular septum left ventricle pulmonary valve right ventricle

3. Watch a Heart Anatomy Preview by clicking here, or copy and paste http://youtu.be/rguztY8aqpk

Lab Activities A. Heart Anatomy 1. What’s another name for “visceral pericardium”? 2. In the space below, sketch the pericardium as simply as you can. Which part is attached to the myocardium?

3. Describe the function(s) of the pericardium. For each function, explain how the structure of the pericardium allows it to perform this function. Refer to the figure(s) above to help you think about it.

B. Histology of the Myocardium (20 min) 1. What characteristics define cardiac muscle when compared to other types of muscle? You may need to go back to the chapter on muscle tissue for a refresher—think in terms of size, arrangement, appearance. - 42 -

• • •

Size: Arrangement: Appearance:

2. Bring a microscope and the slide of heart muscle back to your bench. Examine the cardiac muscle under high power and sketch what you see in the space below. Does you sketch show the characteristics that you listed above?

3. When you’re studying for your practical, you may want to use an online histology tutorial to review. For example, http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/histology_mh/start_histology.html has all the slides you need. Your instructor may demonstrate this in today’s lab, or you might go explore an online tutorial on your own outside of class. C. Heart Anatomy (30 min) 1. Find each of the structures that you labeled in Pre-Lab Activity A2 on heart models in the lab. Remember, you will be tested using models! 2. OPTIONAL ACTIVITY: Dissection of a Sheep Heart. Ask you instructor, he/she might ask you to dissect the heart as a group, or he/she might show you a demo. a. If you have internet access, you can watch dissection by clicking here (or copy and paste: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-JerRPgnVGs) to guide your observations. b. The heart of a sheep is similar --size and structure—to the human heart so it is a good model to observe the real organ. c. Obtain a tray, tools, disposable gloves, and a sheep heart d. Examine the anterior surface and identify the structures you labeled in the pre-lab activities A1 and A2. e. Examine the posterior surface and identify the structures you labeled in the pre-lab activities A1 and A2. f. Examine the interior of the heart by making a frontal (coronal) section and identify the structures you labeled in the pre-lab activities A1 and A2. 3. How can you tell the right ventricle from the left ventricle based on the thickness of the myocardium? What’s the reason for the difference?

4. Look at the atrioventriclar and semilunar valves. Describe the appearance of each. How can you tell them apart? • Atrioventricular: - 43 -

•

Semilunar:

5. How are the left and right AV valves different from one another? What other names do they have? • Right: •

Left:

6. What is the importance of valves? What do they do?

D. Circulatory Circuits (30 min) 1. In the diagram to the right, circle (or label) the pulmonary and the systemic circuits. 2. Label each of the following on the diagram (Arteries always carry blood Away from the heart, veins always bring blood back to the heart). Label the vessels that have the arrows next to them—not the ones connected to the heart.  pulmonary artery  vena cava  aorta  pulmonary vein 3. Explain why systemic arteries are red and systemic veins are blue while the opposite is true for the pulmonary circulation. (In the diagram on right, the vessels on the left side are blue, while the vessels on the right are red).

4. Fill in the following blanks. In the systemic circuit, the _________ ventricle pumps blood into the ___________ which is the largest artery in the body. The blood it carries delivers _____________ and nutrients to the organs and tissues of the body, and picks up ____________________ and wastes. This blood then returns to the heart through the _____________, a large vein. In the pulmonary circuit, the _________ ventricle pumps blood into the ______________________. The blood it carries delivers ________________________ and wastes to the _____________ where they are exchanged for ________________ and nutrients. The blood then returns to the heart through the ________________________. 5. Fill in the table below. - 44 -

Vessel

carries blood from…

carries blood to…

blood is oxygenrich or poor?

connects to which heart chamber

pulmonary artery pulmonary vein aorta

vena cava

E. Pathway of blood (45 min) 1. In the table below, trace the path that a red blood cell would follow from the right ventricle back to the right ventricle. Make sure that you list every structure (heart chamber, valve, vessel) that the red blood cell would pass through, and also describe the blood as oxygen-rich or oxygen poor. Structure Structure type Gas composition of blood 1) right ventricle chamber oxygen-poor 2) valve 3) vessel 4) organ 5) vessel 6) chamber 7) valve 8) chamber 9) valve 10) vessel 11) organ 12) vessel 13) chamber 14) valve 1) right ventricle chamber 2. Now trace the pathway of blood again, but this time start at the big toe (don’t worry about the names of the smaller vessels…we’ll do those in another lab). You can make a table like the - 45 -

question above, or you can make a list or flow chart, or you can even write it out in sentence form. It’s up to you. Big toe → …

3. Which valve does blood pass through on its way to the right ventricle? :_______________ 4. Which vessel carries oxygenated blood in the pulmonary circuit? :_______________ 5. Which chamber of the heart receives blood returning from the body? :_______________ 6. Which chamber of the heart sends blood to the lungs? :_______________ 7. Which valve prevents backflow of blood into the left ventricle? :_______________ 8. Which vessels carry oxygen-rich blood? :_______________ 9. Which vessels carry oxygen-poor blood? :_______________ 10. Which vessels carry blood away from the heart? :_______________ 11. Which vessels carry blood back to the heart? :_______________ 12. Which valve does blood pass through in order to enter the pulmonary artery? :_______________ 13. Where does blood in the right atrium go next? :_______________ 14. Where does blood in the left ventricle go next? :_______________? 15. Where does blood in the vena cava go next? :_______________ 16. Is blood in the pulmonary vein oxygen-rich or oxygen-poor? Where does it go next:___________

- 46 -

Lab 2 - The Circulatory System: Blood Vessels

Akkaraju, Liachovitzky & McDaniel, 2014-15

Objectives Checklist - After completion of this lab, you should be able to:  describe the structural features of  identify the major systemic arteries and arteries, veins, and capillaries and relate veins, the organs or regions of the body the structures to the functions of each that they each serve, and whether they vessel type. carry oxygen-rich or oxygen-poor blood  distinguish between arteries, veins and  predict the next major vessel or organ capillaries histologically using the that blood will travel to from any microscope. location in the circulatory system  describe the arrangement and types of  describe the importance of the hepatic vessels involved in a typical circulatory portal system and identify the major route and contrast this with portal vessels and organs systems and anastomoses  identify pressure points, and  describe the functional significance of differentiate pulse form heart rate anastomoses and give examples of their locations in the body

Pre-Lab Activities A. Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries 1. Label the diagrams using the terms in the box below. Some structures will appear in more than one diagram; label them in every diagram in which they appear. Artery basement membrane capillary Vein tunica interna endothelium Lumen tunica externa tunica media valve tunica media elastic lamina

B. Circulatory Routes 1. Label the diagram to the right with the correct type of circulatory route (A-E in box). Then match each with the best description. • allows blood to bypass capillary bed; good for A. arterial anastomosis

B. arteriovenous anastomosis C. portal system

•

D. venous

•

anastomosis

E. typical (simple)

•

- 47 -

preventing heat loss in extremities. Occurs in_________. designed for most efficient exchange of gases, fluids and nutrients. Occurs in_________. designed for most efficient exchange of gases, fluids and nutrients. Occurs in_________. has two sequential capillary beds so that items put in the bloodstream by one organ can be delivered directly to a second organ. Occurs in_________. allows for alternative drainage routes from organs. Occurs in_________.

C. Identification of Major Vessels 1. Label the images below with the arteries and veins listed in the box. Some vessels will appear in more than one diagram; label vessels in every diagram in which they appear. Vessels of the Thoracic Cavity Arteries Arteries Veins vena cava aorta Aorta inferior & superior coronary coronary left & right left & right Brachiocephal brachiocephalic ic subclavian subclavian left & right left & right azygos intercostals (not pictured) Arteries pulmonary

Arteries

Veins

pulmonary

Vessels of the Arm Veins Arteries

Veins

axillary

radial

brachial

ulnar

Ulnar

----------

median cubital

palmar arch

palmar arch - 48 -

Vessels of the Abdominal Cavity Arteries Veins vena cava I celiac trunk V inferior C gastric gastric left & right left & right gonadal gonadal left & right left & right hepatic

hepatic

-----------

hepatic portal

iliac internal, external, & common

lumbar

mesenteric inferior & superior

renal

splenic

Arteries

Veins

Vei

- 49 -

Vessels of the Head Arteries Veins common Jugular carotid internal & left & right external

Vessels of the Leg Arteries Veins

Arteries

femoral

popliteal

tibial anterior & posterior

plantar arch

Veins

- 50 -

Lab Activities A. Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries (30 min) 1. Fill in the table by placing a check under arteries, veins or capillaries if the description applies. Some descriptions may apply to more than one type of vessel. ARTERIES

VEINS

CAPILLARIES

return blood to the heart take blood away from the heart carry oxygenated blood carry deoxygenated blood have valves have thick muscular walls lack muscle and fibrous layers allow exchange of gases 2. Below are listed several unique structural features of specific types of blood vessels. Which type of vessel does each characteristic apply to? And what is the physiological function of the feature? Types of blood vessels Physiological function Very thin wall (lacks tunica media)\ Valves thick muscular wall 3. Look at slide #39 (artery/vein/nerve) on the microscope and identify the artery and vein. If you look closely, you may also see a few capillaries. Sketch what you see in the space below. Use the micrograph to help you, and label what you see in your diagram as well as the micrograph. If you want to review more later, you can use an online histology tutorial (e.g. http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/histology_mh/start_histology.html)

4. Why is the vein in the microscope image flat while the artery is more rounded?

- 51 -

B. Identification of Major Vessels (45 min) You have already labeled all of the vessels that you are responsible for knowing in this course (Pre-Lab Activity C), but it isn’t enough to simply memorize the diagrams in your textbook—you need to know where each vessel is carrying blood from and where it is carrying blood to. Fortunately, arteries and veins almost always exist in pairs. One vessel will deliver blood from the heart to the organ or region (artery) and the other will deliver blood from the organ or region to the heart (vein). 1. Fill in the table below by indicating the organ, region or vessel that the named vessel receives blood from, and the organ, region or vessel to which it delivers blood (see example for aorta and coronary arteries). If you’re doing it right, both columns will have the same answer. You will need to refer to the images in your textbook and lab models to do this. Vessels of the Thoracic Cavity Artery

Blood goes to (organ/region)

Blood comes from (organ/region)

Aorta

entire systemic circuit

coronary left & right

myocardium

Vein vena cava inferior & superior coronary left & right

Brachiocephalic

brachiocephalic

subclavian left & right

subclavian left & right azygos (not pictured)

Intercostals Pulmonary

Artery

pulmonary Vessels of the Abdominal Cavity Blood goes to Blood comes from (organ/region) (organ/region)

Vein

gastric left & right gonadal left & right

vena cava inferior gastric left & right gonadal left & right

Hepatic

hepatic

-----------

hepatic portal

iliac internal, external, & common

Lumbar

lumbar

mesenteric inferior & superior

celiac trunk

- 52 -

Renal

renal

Splenic

splenic

Artery

Vessels of the Arm Blood goes to Blood comes from (organ/region) (organ/region)

Vein

Axillary

axillary

Brachial

brachial

----------

median cubital

Radial

radial

Ulnar

ulnar

palmar arch

Artery

Vessels of the Head Blood goes to Blood comes from (organ/region) (organ/region)

common carotid left & right Artery

Vein jugular internal & external

Vessels of the Leg Blood goes to Blood comes from (organ/region) (organ/region)

Vein

Femoral

femoral

Popliteal

popliteal

tibial anterior & posterior

plantar arch

C. Vessels Applied (30 min). 1. Which is worse, a severed artery or vein? Why?

2. When you put a band around your arm (like when taking blood) and the vessels stand out, are those arteries or veins?

3. Which vessel (be specific) is most often used to collect blood samples?

4. Which vessel (be specific) is most often used to measure blood pressure? - 53 -

5. Blood leaving the brachial vein goes to which vessel next? 6. Blood leaving the anterior tibial artery goes to which vessel next? 7. Blood leaving the jugular vein goes to which vessel next? 8. Blood leaving the radial vein goes to which vessel next? 9. If the coronary artery becomes blocked, what organ will be deprived of blood? What is the consequence? 10. If someone severed their femoral artery, where would you apply pressure to stop the bleeding: the iliac or the popliteal artery? Why? 11. If the carotid artery becomes blocked, which organ will be deprived of oxygenated blood D. Hepatic Portal System (15 min) 1. The organs below (liver, stomach, intestines, and spleen) are all part of the hepatic portal system. Connect the organs to one another by drawing in the vessels that listed in the box below. Use diagrams from your textbook to help, but donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t try to make it anatomically correct (itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s not possible). See the example of the gastric artery and the aorta and the hepatic vein and the vena cava. You do the rest. splenic artery hepatic portal vein

gastric vein inferior vena cava

hepatic artery mesenteric artery

splenic vein mesenteric vein gastric artery

vena cava

aorta

hepatic vein

2. A molecule has just been absorbed into the bloodstream from the intestines. Trace the pathway that the molecule takes all the way back to the heart and name each vessel/organ that the molecule encounters on the way.

- 54 -

3. What is the role of the liver in the hepatic portal system?

4. Is blood arriving at the liver from the hepatic portal vein oxygenated or deoxygenated?

5. What vessel delivers oxygenated blood to the liver?

6. What would happen if molecules absorbed across the intestinal epithelium were delivered directly to the inferior vena cava? Will detoxification take place?

E. Pulse and Heart Sounds (30 min) 1. What is a “pulse”? What is a “heart rate”? How are they different? •

Pulse:

•

Heart Rate:

2. Find each of the pressure points shown in the box on the image and on your own body (by what it is called palpation). A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I.

Superficial temporal a. Facial a. Common carotid a. Radial a. Brachial a. Femoral a. Popliteal a. Posterior tibial a. Dorsal pedal a.

3. Find your lab partner’s pulse at two different pressure points. Calculate his or her heart rate. Generally, the easiest way to do this is to count the pulses for 15 seconds then multiply by 4 to get the number of beats per minute. Record the heart rates of each member of your group:

- 55 -

Adapted from Akkaraju, Liachovitzky & McDaniel 2014/15 Experiment by Wolf/Liachovitzky 2014-15

Lab 3 – Cardiovascular Physiology: Electrocardiography, Pulse and Blood Pressure Objectives Checklist After completion of this lab, you should be able to:  Identify the major components of the ECG -P wave, QRS complex, T wave- using the lead II  Relate the electrical activity in the heart to major components of the ECG  Provide estimates of the timings of the components of the ECG and their magnitudes  Know how to calculate heart rate from the ECG  Define systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure

 Explain how Korotkoff sounds are related with changes in arterial blood pressure  Use a sphygmomanometer and a stethoscope --and/or cardio microphone-to measure arterial blood pressure  Define pulse  Determine systolic blood pressure using a sphygmomanometer and measuring finger pulse  Explain how the position of the arm affects the magnitude of arterial blood pressure measurement

Pre-Lab Activities A. Electrocardiography and The Cardiac Cycle 1. Fill in the blanks using the items in the box The __________ reflects the electrical activity of the heart. An ECG 1. Ventricular systole recording shows the addition of __________generated by all the 2. Ventricular diastole cells of the heart. P wave represents__________, which is followed 3. Ventricular repolarization by __________. QRS complex represents __________, which is 4. Ventricular depolarization followed by __________. T wave represents__________, which is 5. Atrial depolarization followed by __________. 6. Atrial systole 7. Electrical potentials 8. ECG

2. The image on the right shows a portion of an actual ECG of a 26 year old male. Identify: a) P wave, b) QRS complex, and c) T wave

3. During the cardiac cycle, there are two (sometimes three) heart sounds audible with a stethoscope. Listening to sounds made by the body is called __________. The first and second heart sounds, symbolized __and __, are often described as a “lubb-dupp”. S1 corresponds with the closing of the __________valve, whereas S2 corresponds with the closing of the ________ valve. 4. See the stages of the cardiac cycle and heart sounds, and how they match the ECG waves here (or you can copy and paste in your browser: http://library.med.utah.edu/kw/pharm/hyper_heart1.html). Once on the site use the controls to stop, forward or rewind step-by-step.

- 56 -

B. Blood Pressure and Pulse 1. When we measure someone’s blood pressure, it gives us several pieces of important information. Match the measurements/calculations in the box with the information that they give. the highest pressure experienced by arteries

•

diastolic

baseline pressure in arteries

•

pulse pressure

the range of pressure experienced by arteries each heart beat the average pressure in the arteries over time

•

systolic

•

mean arterial pressure (MAP)

2. What are normal values for each of the following pressure measurements? Use your notes or textbook. Systolic= Pulse pressure= Diastolic=

MAP=

3. What is a sphygmomanometer? 4. See how it works here (or copy and paste this link into http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/bloodpressure.html)

your

browser

5. The diagrams inside the table below illustrate the events that take place when measuring blood pressure. Use them as a guide, and fill in the table with your explanations after watching the animation from the link above. Brachial Artery Stethoscope Arm

Cuff Pressure Brachial Artery (open, open closed)

Cuff

Over Systolic

Between Systolic Below Diastolic And Diastolic

sometimes,

Sounds audible? (yes or no) Explain.

6. What are Korotkoff sounds? What produces the sounds? - 57 -

Lab Activities The following is a copy of the pages found in the LtLabStation© activities to be performed during lab A. Heart, ECG, and Pulse Lesson (60 min) 1/8 – Lesson Learning Objectives In this lab, you will record and analyze your own ECG and finger pulse, and observe how these provide different representations of the cardiac cycle. Learning objectives By the end of this lab you will be able to do the following: • Record an ECG and identify the major components. • Explain the temporal relationship between the ECG and the finger pulse. • Interpret events in the cardiac cycle, and relate these to features in the ECG and the finger pulse. 2/8 - What is an ECG? The electrical currents along the heart walls travel through the body and generate changes in the electrical potential of the skin. These changes of potential can be detected by applying electrodes (leads) to the skin (typically wrists, ankles and six location in the heart) and recorded in an Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) Figure 1. Electrocardiogram (ECG) Question 1. Describe the events happening during: 1. P wave, 2.QRS complex, 3. T wave, 4. P-R interval, 5. Q-T interval, 6. End of T to following R 1: 2: 3: 4: 5:

- 58 -

Figure 2. Action potential of a cardiac contractile cell Question 2. What does figure 2 on the left show? How does is relate with figure 1 above?

Figure 3. ECG Tracing Correlated to the Cardiac Cycle Question 3. This diagram correlates an ECG tracing with the electrical and mechanical events of a heart contraction. Indicate what happens during events 1-6 1: 2: 3: 4: 5: 6:

- 59 -

3/8 - What is Pulse? When the left ventricle ejects blood into the aorta, this generates a pressure wave that travels along systemic arteries. The elastic arteries walls expand and recoil at a frequency that follows heartbeats. The rhythmic contraction and recoil of the arteries is known as the pulse. Activity. Using your index and middle fingers, apply light pressure to a pulse point. Record pulses in the table below Subject Pulse

Figure 4. Pulse Sites

4/8 - Equipment setup Bio Amp cable Setup 1. Make sure the PowerLab is connected to your computer and turned on. 2. Connect the electrode cables to Earth, CH1 NEG, and CH1 POS on the Bio Amp cable. 3. Connect the Bio Amp cable to the Bio Amp input on the PowerLab. 4. Connect the finger pulse transducer to Input 1 on the PowerLab. 5. See next page for electrodes attachment.

5/8 - Attaching ECG electrodes Procedure

- 60 -

1. Remove any jewelry from the volunteer's wrists and ankles. 2. Attach the clamp electrodes onto the three electrode cables. 3. Secure the clump the electrodes to the following prepared areas on the volunteer's skin: • Place the positive electrode on the left wrist. • Place the negative electrode on the right wrist. • Place the earth electrode on the right leg 1. Ensure the finger pulse transducer is attached to a distal part of the volunteer's middle or index finger.

6/8 - ECG and pulse Measurements) Procedures The volunteer should relax and sit as still as possible to minimize signal artifacts due to movements. 1. Enter the volunteer's name into the Comment panel. 2. Select Start to record, then select Add. 3. Use Auto Scale to see the data clearly in all channels. 4. After 60 s, select Stop. Leave the ECG cables and electrodes attached to the volunteer. 5. Examine the ECG recording. Compare it to a model ECG recording.

7/8 - ECG and pulse (Analysis) Analysis (data from previous step 6/8) Use the compression buttons and the scroll bar to view two ECG cycles in the data panel. A. ECG components Enter in Table A (below the chart): 1. Heart rate (To calculate heart rate use this formula: HR = 60 ÷ t , where HR = heart rate (BPM) and, t = time interval for a single beat (seconds). 2. RT interval duration (ventricular systole) 3. End of T to the next P duration (ventricular diastole) - 61 -

B. ECG and pulse wave Enter in Table B (below the chart): 1. The time between the peak of the R wave to the start of the finger pulse upswing. 2. The time from the peak of the T wave to the dip after the peak of the pulse wave, which is known as the dicrotic notch. Table A. ECG components Subject Heart Rate Beat [Beats/min] Duration [sec]

RT interval [sec]

Table B. ECG and pulse End of T to R to start of T to dip next R [sec] pulse after peak upswing of pulse (ms) (ms)

Check your understanding 1. Why don't all members of your team have the same resting heart rate? List all possible variables responsible for the differences 2. Explain why the timing of the QRS complex in the ECG and the start of the pulse wave do not coincide. 3. What is the dicrotic notch, and why does it follow the T wave? 4. Based on your observations, what phase is faster: systole or diastole? Why? 8/8 – Report B. Blood Pressure Lesson (90 min) 1/10 - Blood Pressure In this lab you will become familiar with auscultation of Korotkoff sounds in the measurement of blood pressure. The activities involve measuring your blood pressure using a blood pressure cuff, a sphygmomanometer, and one of the following: a stethoscope, cardio microphone, or finger pulse transducer. You will also assess how changes in arm position affect measured blood pressure. Learning objectives By the end of this lab you will be able to do the following: • Explain what is meant by systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure. • Use a sphygmomanometer and stethoscope to measure human arterial blood pressure. • Demonstrate how measurement position affects the magnitude of the arterial blood pressure.

Figure 1. Indirect measurement of arterial blood pressure. - 62 -

2/10 – Auscultation In this activity you will measure blood pressure and listen for Korotkoff sounds using a stethoscope. Don't leave the cuff inflated at high pressures for too long, for the following reasons: • Pressures greater than the volunteer's systolic pressure will prevent blood flowing below the cuff. • Pressures between the volunteer's systolic and diastolic pressure will hinder the return of the venous blood to the heart. • Always deflate the cuff completely after you have determined the volunteer's diastolic pressure. Clinically, it is recommended that blood pressure measurements are made without clothing obstructing the cuff. View the correct way to perform a blood pressure measurement clinically. Palpation procedure Here you will palpate the pulse to estimate systolic blood pressure. 1. Wrap the sphygmomanometer cuff around the volunteer's upper arm, and just above the elbow. Ensure that the cuff fits firmly and is not loose. 2. Feel for the brachial or radial pulse, then inflate the cuff until the pulse is no longer detectable. 3. The pressure on the sphygmomanometer when the pulse is no longer detectable is an estimate of the systolic blood pressure. 4. Enter this value in the table below. 5. Deflate the cuff. The "palpatory" estimation of systolic blood pressure can be very useful when auscultatory sounds are difficult to distinguish. For example, patients who are in shock, pregnant, or following exercise. Estimated systolic blood pressure using palpation Volunteer's Name Systolic Pressure (mmHg)

Stethoscope procedure You will now record the systolic and diastolic blood pressure as you listen to the Korotkoff sounds. To perform this correctly, you must be familiar with the use of a stethoscope and sphygmomanometer. 1. Place the stethoscope diaphragm over the brachial artery. Inflate the cuff to 30 mmHg higher than the estimated systolic pressure (see the table above). 2. Slowly reduce the pressure in the cuff (~1–2 mmHg/s) while listening through the stethoscope for Korotkoff sounds. 3. The systolic pressure is the pressure at which sharp, tapping sounds are first heard. 4. Continue to slowly reduce the cuff pressure. The diastolic pressure is defined as the pressure at which the sounds disappear. 5. Completely deflate the cuff after diastolic pressure is determined. Never leave the cuff inflated, or partially inflated. - 63 -

6. For each volunteer, record two measurements of the blood pressure. Allow 1â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2 minutes between measurements for recovery. Blood pressure using stethoscope method: Volunteer's Name Attempt Systolic Diastolic Pressure Pressure (mmHg) (mmHg) 1 2 1 2 Check your understanding 1. What are some possible sources of error or variation in this technique of blood pressure measurement? 2. Is the following statement true or false? Clinically, two careful measurements of blood pressure with a one-minute interval are recommended. A repeat measurement should be taken when there is any uncertainty. 3/10 - Equipment setup Setup In the next activity you will measure the volunteer's blood pressure using a finger pulse transducer. 1. Connect the pressure transducer to Input 1 on the PowerLab. 2. Ensure the pressure transducer is attached to the sphygmomanometer cuff. 3. Wrap the sphygmomanometer cuff around the upper arm of your volunteer, just above the elbow. 4. Connect the finger pulse transducer to Input 2. 5. Place the pressure pad of the finger pulse transducer against the distal segment (the tip) of the middle finger of the volunteer's hand (on the same arm as the blood pressure cuff). 6. Use the Velcro strap to attach it firmly, neither too loose nor too tight. 4/10 -Blood pressure and finger pulse In this activity you will investigate the changes in finger pulse while measuring blood pressure. Procedure 1. Use the same volunteer as in the previous activity. 2. The volunteer should relax with hands in the lap, and sit as still as possible to minimize movement artifacts. 3. Select Start to record. Enter the volunteer's name into the Comment panel, then select Add. The recorded pulse should look similar to this example. - 64 -

4. Inflate the cuff to 30 mmHg higher than the estimated systolic pressure (see the table below, for your reference). Note that the finger pulse signal disappears. 5. Enter "arm at heart level" into the Comment panel, then select Add. 6. Slowly deflate the cuff at a rate of 1â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2 mmHg/s. Note where the finger pulse signal reappears. 7. Deflate the cuff completely after the pressure falls below 50 mmHg, and select Stop. 8. Now repeat the procedure with the arm above the head. Select Start to record, inflate the cuff to 30 mmHg above systolic, then allow the pressure to decrease slowly. 9. Enter "arm above head" into the Comment panel, then select Add. 10. Deflate the cuff completely after the pressure has fallen below 50 mmHg, and select Stop. The table below shows your estimate of the volunteers' systolic blood pressure from the pulse palpation activity. Estimated systolic blood pressure using palpation Volunteer's Name

Systolic Pressure (mmHg)

5/10 - Blood pressure and finger pulse As the cuff pressure is released, does the reappearance of the finger pulse indicate your volunteer's blood pressure? Pulse Detection Method Analysis 1. Scroll to the comment "arm at heart level". 2. Place the point selector on the first clear pulse to reappear as the cuff pressure was decreasing. This represents the return of blood flow to the forearm, which occurs at the systolic pressure. 3. Enter the value from the Pressure channel into the table. 4. Enter "systolic pressure" into the Comment panel, then select Add at this point in the data panel. 5. Repeat steps 1â&#x20AC;&#x201C;4 for the comment "arm above head". Pulse Detection Method Estimated Systolic Pressure (mmHg) Arm at heart level Arm above head

Check your understanding 1. From your finger pulse recording, is there any way to determine diastolic pressure? Could a finger pulse measurement ever replace the stethoscope in determining diastolic pressure?

- 65 -

2. What happened to the finger pulse amplitude when the arm is held above the head? What happened to the estimated systolic pressure? What do you think could account for this observation? 6/10- Cardio microphone In the auscultatory measurement of blood pressure, the Korotkoff sounds will be heard as the blood pressure cuff is deflated (if you use a stethoscope). you will find in the following activities, the Korotkoff sounds can also be seen as spikes (if you a cardio microphone and a PowerLab). The Korotkoff sounds will appear as spikes on the Cardio Microphone channel, as shown in the image below (orange signal). The upper channel (dark blue signal) shows the corresponding pressure in the cuff it is deflated. Activity: Label the diagram on the right with the appropriate terms: Auscultatory gap, Diastolic pressure, Systolic pressure.

As use

7/10 - Equipment setup Setup 1. Leave the pressure transducer connected to Input 1 of the PowerLab. 2. Ensure the pressure transducer is attached to the sphygmomanometer cuff. 3. Wrap the sphygmomanometer cuff around the upper arm of your volunteer, just above the elbow. 4. Remove the pulse transducer from Input 2. 5. Connect the cardio microphone to Input 2. In the following activities you will place the cardio microphone over the brachial artery. Note: the side of the cardio microphone with the hole in it should be placed next to the skin You should locate the brachial artery by palpation. It lies slightly medial to the tendon of the biceps muscle just above the elbow. If it lies below the level of the cuff you should use a Velcro strap to secure the cardio microphone over the artery. If it lies conveniently beneath the cuff you can use the cuff to hold the cardio microphone in place over the volunteer's brachial artery. - 66 -

8/10 - Cardio microphone In this activity you will use the cardio microphone to record arterial sound while recording blood pressure. Procedure Try to keep room noise to a minimum in these activities to avoid a noisy recording from the cardio microphone. 1. Ensure the cardio microphone is positioned over the brachial artery and held in place with a Velcro strap. 2. Select Start to record. 3. Inflate the cuff to 30 mmHg higher than the estimated systolic pressure. 4. Slowly reduce the pressure in the cuff (~2–3 mmHg/s). 5. Deflate the cuff completely after the pressure has fallen below 50 mmHg or after the disappearance of the Korotkoff sounds. Enter "slow" into the Comment panel, then select Add. 6. Select Stop. 7. Allow 1–2 minutes for recovery. 8. Repeat the procedure on the same volunteer, but modify the speed at which you release the pressure in the cuff. Enter "medium" and "fast" into the Comment panel, and select Add when deflating at the respective speeds. The table below shows your estimate of the volunteers' systolic blood pressure from the pulse palpation activity. Estimated systolic blood pressure using palpation: Volunteer's Name

Systolic Pressure (mmHg)

9/10 - Cardio microphone In this analysis you will use the Korotkoff sounds to determine systolic and diastolic pressure. Analysis Scroll to the comment "slow". 1. Place the point selector on the first Korotkoff sound (the first clear spike in the series). 2. Enter the value from the Pressure channel into the table (this is the systolic pressure). 3. Place the point selector on the last clear spike in the series. 4. Enter the value from the Pressure channel into the table (this is the diastolic pressure). Note: diastole may be hard to detect. Sometimes you need to estimate by extrapolating the trend of the decreasing spikes. 5. Repeat steps 1–5 for the comments "medium" and "fast". Using the cardio microphone to determine systolic and diastolic pressure: Rate of Pressure Systolic Pressure Diastolic Pressure Change (mmHg) (mmHg)

- 67 -

Slow Medium Fast

Check your understanding 1. What is the basis for the sounds referred to as Korotkoff sounds?  Laminar blood flow  Maximal blood flow  Turbulent blood flow 2. How did deflating the cuff more quickly alter your blood pressure measurements? Can you explain why?

10/10 -Report C. Optional: The Cardiac Cycle 1. For each event that leads to the flow of blood through the heart, the following must occur in order: ➢ electrical stimulation (depolarization of the myocytes) ➢ contraction (decreases the volume of the chamber) ➢ pressure increases ➢ valve opens ➢ blood flows ➢ relaxation (increases the volume of the chamber) ➢ pressure decreases ➢ valve closes (to prevent blood from flowing back into the chamber) One important thing to keep in mind: the events of the cardiac cycle do not take into consideration where the blood is going after it leaves the heart. Therefore, we don’t need to treat the left and right sides of the heart differently. We don’t even need to consider them at all since the left and rights sides of the heart beat at the same time. Write out all of the steps for all of the stages of the cardiac cycle. Use the bullet points above and the diagram to the right to help guide you. Start with the first steps given below: The SA node fires and the atria become depolarized (electrical event). The atria contract which decreases the volume of the chambers (contraction event). …

- 68 -

Akkaraju, Liachovitzky & McDaniel, 2014-15

Lab 4 – The Circulatory System: Blood Analysis and Typing Objectives Checklist - After completion of this lab, you should be able to:  describe the functions of the circulatory  explain the relationship between system with emphasis on the particular antigens and antibodies. role that blood plays in carrying out  determine the blood type of a “patient” those functions. by performing and interpreting a mock  describe the composition of whole blood test. blood, including where each component  explain how antibodies against ABO settles during centrifugation; recall blood groups are produced and which normal values for blood volume and antibodies and blood types are hematocrit. compatible.  identify the formed elements and  explain the role of antibodies in describe the major functions of each. transfusion reactions and predict the best  describe the composition of plasma and match for blood transfusion based on the serum, noting the source, destination, blood type of the patient (and potential and function of each component, where donors). appropriate.  distinguish between Rh+ and Rh- blood  analyze an abnormal complete blood and explain how and when antibodies count (given normal value ranges) based against Rh factor are produced. on what you know about relative  describe erythroblastosis fetalis and distribution and function of the formed explain how this condition may develop elements. then explain the importance of Rh blood typing for pregnancy & childbirth.

Pre-Lab Activities A. Composition Of Whole Blood 1. Blood, when first collected, is a mixture of plasma and formed elements. The diagram to the right shows a tube that has been centrifuged to separate blood components. Label the layers indicated by the arrows (B = buffy coat, E = erythrocytes, P = plasma). Then in the table below, place the letter of the layer where you will find that blood component. red blood cells white blood cells Albumin Platelets clotting protein Antibodies 2. What is the percentage of total blood volume for each layer? Plasma: ____

buffy coat: ____

3. What is the definition of hematocrit (Hct)? - 69 -

erythrocytes: ____

4. What are normal values for Hct for males and females? 5. What is the underlying cause for the difference between male and female Hct levels? (hint: hormones)

B. Characteristics Of Formed Elements 1. What is a formed element?

2. Complete the table. Characteristic

WBCs

RBCs

Medical term Contains nucleus? Contains hemoglobin? Number per microliter ( l) Lifespan in bloodstream Major function(s)

Platelets Platelets

Varies

3-4 days

C. Types Of White Blood Cells 1. Use your textbook to complete the following table. You will observe WBCs in the lab. Leukocyte Description Size Sketch Function(s) # per l Neutrophil

Eosinophil

Basophil

- 70 -

% of WBCs

Lymphocyte

Monocyte

2. Identify (label) the following leukocytes based on the descriptions in your textbook. Also indicate what allowed you to make the identification (# lobes of nucleus, for instance).

________________

______________

___________

_______________

________________

D. Blood Antigens And Antibodies 1. What is an antigen?

2. What are the three kinds of antigens found on red blood cells that determine blood type?

3. What is an antibody? Where do antibodies come from?

4. What is agglutination? What causes it?

Lab Activities A. Components of Plasma (15 min) 1. Match the following descriptions with the plasma component to which they refer. Not all answers will be used. You may use some answers more than once. A. Albumin B. Electrolytes C. Fibrinogen D. Oxygen E. carbon dioxide F. immunoglobulins

⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯

Makes up about 92% of plasma Circulating regulatory substances Plasma cations and anions Constitutes more than half of total plasma protein A clotting protein made by the liver Proteins that aid in recognition and neutralization of pathogens - 71 -

G. Water H. hormones & enzymes I. urea & creatinine J. glucose, amino acids, & fats

⎯ Wastes produced by metabolic processes that are carried in the blood and then disposed of by kidneys or sweat glands ⎯ Nutrients absorbed from the digestive system and then carried in the blood to be delivered to body cells ⎯ Although it’s always the least abundant, the lack of this protein could result in hemophilia ⎯ Starvation usually affects the amount of this plasma protein, resulting in low plasma osmolarity ⎯ The amount of this in the plasma is strongly influenced by the amount of plasma protein and electrolytes ⎯ This plasma protein is not produced by the liver, but instead is produced by specialized immune cells called plasma cells ⎯ This gas is produced by metabolically active cells when they synthesize ATP and is carried in the bloodstream to be removed by the lungs.

B. General Properties Of Blood (10 min.) 1. What is osmolarity?

2. What is viscosity?

3. How is serum different from plasma?

C. Differentiating Between Types Of White Blood Cells (30 Min) 1. Use your textbook, models, and the microscope (#38 blood smear slide) to identify different types of white blood cells. Compare WBCs to the RBCs to describe their size (e.g. 2X larger, same size). Refer to the pre-lab activity C (Types of white blood cells). 2. Based on your descriptions from pre-lab activity C (Types of white blood cells), fill in the flow chart below by identifying the proper type of leukocyte. Does the cytoplasm contain organelles that appear as colored granules through the microscope?

yes

Does the nucleus have three or more lobes?

yes

Is the cell about the same size as a RBC with a nucleus that occupies almost all of the cytoplasm?

__________________ yes

_________________

yes

Is the nucleus visible and dumbbell shaped?

- 72 -

_________________

Is the nucleus ovoid, kidney or U-shaped?

__________________ yes

___________________

large lymphocyte

You can practice identifying WBCs on your own using online histology tutorial (e.g. http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/histology_mh/start_histology.html) D. Analyze An Abnormal Complete Blood Count (CBC; 15 Min) CBC values vary by age and sex. Normal values are determined by the laboratory where the test is performed. Compare the patient’s values to the normal range reported (use the column on the right), then answer the questions that follow. Assume that your patient is a 24 year-old woman who is not pregnant. Category WBCs

Normal Range 4,500–11,000 per µl

Patient’s Values 8595 per µl

neutrophils

2813-6696 per µl 50–70% 1406-3348 per µl 25–35% 225-574 per µl 4–6% 56-287 per µl 1–3% 23-96 per µl 0.4–1% 4.2–5.0 million/µl for women; 4.5–6.2 million /µl for men 35–47% for women; 42–52% for men 150,000 - 350,000 per µl

6800 per µl 79% 1457 per µl 17% 239 per µl 3% 68 per µl 1% 31 per µl 0.1% 4.7 million per µl

0.5–1.5%

.98%

lymphocytes monocytes eosinophils basophils RBCs Hematocrit Platelets Reticulocyte count

High/Low/Normal

42% 263,000 per µl

1. Why is “normal” presented as a range instead of an exact number?

2. Your patient has a platelet count of 263,000 per µl, should we be concerned? Why or why not?

3. Cell numbers are often reported as percentages as well as actual numbers (like in the report above), but when one cell type has an abnormally high or low number, it changes the percentages of all blood cell types. Therefore, when looking for abnormal counts, you should always use the actual number—not the percentage. Which cell type or count is most abnormal in the test above?

- 73 -

4. What type of pathogen does the abnormal cell type normally respond to? What kind of pathogen do you think your patient is trying to fight off?

5. Predict what a blood test would look like for someone with lymphocytic leukemia.

6. What does a high reticulocyte count indicate?

E. Blood Antigens And Antibodies (15 Min) 1. Review antigen and the different kinds of antigens on red blood cells, antibody, and agglutination from Pre-lab Activity D. 2. In the table below, draw the appropriate antigens on each of the red blood cells. You can simply use the letter of the antigen as the A+ example shows (use the letter D to symbolize the presence of the Rh factor). A+ B+ AB+ O+ A D A-

B-

AB-

O-

3. For the antigen/antibody combinations below, indicate whether you expect to see agglutination or not. Blood type Antibody Result (antigen) (agglutination/no agglutination?) A+ anti-B Banti-B ABanti-A O+ anti-A ABanti-D A+ anti-D Aanti-A F. Mock blood test (30 min) The agglutination reaction in the activity above is the basis of how we determine a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s blood type. - 74 -

1. Follow the instructions below for a simulated blood typing test done with chemicals, not real blood. Procedure You’ll work in groups of 3-4 to do this activity. Each group will get four blood typing slides and eight toothpicks. Each table will share “blood” samples and anti-serum. There are four unknown “blood” samples: • Mr. Smith • Ms. Jones • Mr. Green • Ms. Brown There are three kinds of antibodies: ✓ anti-A simulated typing serum ✓ anti-B simulated typing serum ✓ anti-Rh simulated typing serum Directions Use a wax pencil to label each of your slides with the name or number of the patient that you will be testing. i. Add “blood” samples to appropriate slides. ii. Place 3-4 drops of Mr. Smith’s blood in each of the A, B, and Rh wells of slide 1. iii. Place 3-4 drops of Ms. Jones’ blood in each of the A, B, and Rh wells of slide 2. iv. Place 3-4 drops of Mr. Green’s blood in each of the A, B, and Rh wells of slide 3. v. Place 3-4 drops of Ms. Brown’s blood in each of the A, B, and Rh wells of slide 4. vi. Add antibodies to appropriate wells on each slide. vii. Place 3-4 drops of anti-A simulated typing serum in each A well on the four slides. viii. Place 3-4 drops of anti-B simulated typing serum in each B well on the four slides. ix. Place 3-4 drops of anti-Rh simulated typing serum in each Rh well on the four slides. x. Use separate toothpicks to stir each sample. xi. Record your observations in the table below (simply note whether you saw clumping or not, then decide what the blood type must be). Note: a positive test is indicated by a strong agglutination reaction. anti-A serum

anti-B serum

anti-D serum (Rh)

Blood Type

Mr. Smith Ms. Jones Mr. Green Ms. Brown

2. Now answer the following questions: a. You’ve just determined someone’s blood type to be AB-. What antigens are present on their RBCs?

- 75 -

b. You perform a blood typing test in which anti-A and anti-Rh both cause agglutination. What is the blood type? c. You perform a blood typing test in which none of the antibodies cause agglutination. What is the blood type? G. Blood antibodies (10 min) Antibodies are useful for a blood test, but if agglutination occurs in our bodies, it is a real problem. In infancy, we begin to produce antibodies to bacteria that naturally inhabit our intestines. Interestingly, these antibodies also agglutinate the ABO antigens on our RBCs. Obviously, this would be a bad thing if we produced antibodies that caused our own RBCs to clump, so for that reason, we only make the antibodies that won’t hurt us. For instance, someone with Type A blood wouldn’t be able to tolerate anti-A antibodies, so she would only have anti-B, not anti-A. Interestingly, we don’t make antibodies to the Rh factor unless we are directly exposed to blood containing that antigen. So, for now, we only have to worry about anti-A and anti-B antibodies. 1. Use the information above to help you fill out the table below showing which antibodies will be found in the plasma of the different blood types. Blood type A+ B+ AB+ O+ ABABOAntigens present on RBC surface Antibodies present in plasma

A, Rh

anti-B

H. Blood Transfusions (20 min) Now that you see that we have both blood antigens and antibodies to worry about, you can no doubt imagine why it is so important to find the right match before performing a blood transfusion. Luckily, we only have to worry about the antibodies that the patient (the one receiving the blood) has in his or her plasma. It’s not important to think about the antibodies in the donor’s blood in this case. Let’s take the case of a patient, Erica, who has lost a great deal of blood and needs a transfusion. Her blood type is A- but the hospital is completely out of A- (which would be the best option) blood for transfusions, so we have to find a substitute. 1. Start by identifying the antigens and antibodies in the patient’s blood, and draw them like this: A anti-B

A+

B+

AB +

O+

A-

B-

AB -

O-

2. Now draw all of the other blood types in the circles above (don’t worry about the antibodies, just draw the antigens). These represent all of our possible donors. - 76 -

The first rule of thumb is that we never want to give Rh+ blood to someone who is Rh-. It’s true that they probably don’t have antibodies to the Rh factor, but if we give them that blood, they will begin to make antibodies, and that will cause problems in the future. So we can just eliminate half of the donors in this case. Now all we have to focus on is whether there is a dangerous match between the antibodies in the patient and the antigen on the surface of the donor cell. Let’s look at the B- donor. What would happen if the B antigen on the donor cell were exposed to the patient’s plasma (containing anti-B)? Agglutination. And that’s not good, so that’s a bad match. Try the other blood types to see if you can find a match. Tip: if the match is no good, put an X through that donor cell so you don’t lose track. 3. What’s the only blood type that we can give our A- patient if we don’t have any A- blood?

Now try this one: Mary has been in an accident and is losing a great deal of blood from damage to her femoral artery. Paramedics arrive in time to rush Mary to the closest Emergency Room. The attending medical team determines Mary’s blood group to be O positive. 4. Why should Mary not be given type A+ blood?

5. What is the correct blood group match for Mary? Why?

I. Erythroblastosis Fetalis Or Hemolytic Disease Of The Newborn (HDN; 15 Min) Although people with Rh-blood don’t normally make antibodies to the Rh factor, any exchange of blood with someone who is Rh+ will cause them to make antibodies. Erythroblastosis fetalis results from a related complication. Work through the following questions to see that you understand what causes it. Theresa and John and thrilled to learn that they are to be parents for the first time. Theresa goes in for her routine pre-natal check up and finds that her blood type is O negative, but John has Rh positive blood, so there is a chance that their child will be Rh positive. For the following questions, assume that the fetus is Rh positive. 1. When will Theresa first be exposed to Rh antigens? Be specific.

2. When will she produce anti-Rh antibodies? Be specific.

3. Will her first child be affected by anti-Rh antibodies? Why or why not?

- 77 -

4. If Theresa isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t given an immunoglobulin shot (RhoGAM), can she and John safely have a second child? Why or why not? (Include HDN in your explanation).

5. What is RhoGAM? How does it prevent Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN)?

- 78 -

Akkaraju, Liachovitzky & McDaniel, 2014-15

Lab 5 – The Respiratory System: Respiratory Anatomy

Objectives Checklist - After completion of this lab, you should be able to:  describe the five stages of respiration  identify microscopically and explain the and the events that occur in each. physiological significance of the histological structures of the lung  describe the location and position of the (alveoli) and trachea. lungs relative to other organs (heart) and the relaxed diaphragm.  describe the sequence of structures encountered by gas molecules traveling  identify the layers of the pleural from outside of the body to the alveoli. membrane and explain the significance of the pleural membrane and pleural  describe the sequence of vessels fluid in ventilation. encountered by blood as it travels through the pulmonary circuit: from the  identify the major structures of the heart, to the lungs, then back to the upper and lower respiratory tract using heart. textbook diagrams and models.  demonstrate the connection between the  distinguish between the conducting respiratory and circulatory systems by system and the respiratory divisions of tracing the pathway of oxygen from the respiratory system functionally and outside of the body to the cells and a anatomically. molecule of CO2 from the cells to the  identify the type of epithelium covering outside of the body. each region of the respiratory pathway and explain its role or significance there.

Pre-Lab Activities A. Anatomical Structures 1. Label the diagram with the terms in the box below. nasal cavity frontal sinus oral cavity nasal conchae hard palate meatuses soft palate glottis nasopharynx epiglottis oropharynx esophagus laryngopharynx auditory tube larynx uvula palatine tonsil

- 79 -

Label the diagram with the terms in the box below. diaphragm esophagus trachea left inferior lobe left superior lobe pleural membrane

right inferior lobe

right middle lobe right superior lobe primary bronchus secondary bronchus tertiary bronchus

2. Label the diagram below with the terms in the box.

epiglottis vestibular fold glottis vocal cord

3. Label the diagram to the right with the terms in the box. larynx thyroid cartilage primary bronchus secondary bronchus trachea tertiary bronchus 4. Label the diagram to the right with the terms in the box. terminal bronchiole respiratory bronchiole Bronchiole pulmonary arteriole pulmonary venule capillary bed alveolus alveolar sac - 80 -

5. Label the diagrams below with the terms in the box. pseudostratified columnar simple epithelium epithelium cilia

mucus

cuboidal

goblet cells

chondrocytes

mucus gland

hyaline cartilage

mucociliary escalator (mechanism lumen shown)

6. Label the diagram below with the terms in the box. great alveolar cell squamous alveolar cell capillary endothelial cell alveolar macrophage simple squamous epithelium (2) surfactant respiratory membrane 7. On the diagram of the alveolus that you just labeled, draw an arrow between the capillary and alveolus indicating the direction that a molecule of O2 would travel. Draw another arrow indicating the direction of a CO2 molecule. Label your arrows. 8. What role does each of the cells below play in the maintenance of the alveolus? • great alveolar cell: •

squamous alveolar cell:

•

alveolar macrophage:

9. Watch a Respiratory System Preview by clicking here. Use the videos on the right hand side of the screen (or copy and paste http://www.youtube.com/user/aandpatbcc#p/c/15DB64A5E5A5BECA )

- 81 -

Lab Activities A. Anatomical Structures and Functions 1. Find each of the structures that you labeled in the Pre-Lab Activities on models in the lab. Remember, you will be tested using models! 2. Compare the shape and lobes of the left and right lungs. What makes them different from one another?

3. What are three purposes of the pleural membranes?

4. In the heart, the pericardium played a role in resisting excessive expansion of the heart, but the pleural membrane does not play this role for the lungs. What structure resists excessive expansion of the lungs?

5. Many people think that the epiglottis prevents food from being aspirated (entering the larynx) when you swallow. However, people who have had the epiglottis removed are still able to eat without choking. What structures actually prevent food from entering the larynx when you swallow?

6. What is the purpose of the cartilaginous rings in the trachea and bronchi?

7. Why do the cartilaginous rings not form a complete circle in the trachea?

8. Draw a transverse section and a sagittal section that shows how the trachea and esophagus are positioned relative to one another.

9. Look carefully at the left and right primary bronchi. How are they different? If food is aspirated, which bronchus is the food most likely to get stuck in? Explain.

10. In addition to classifying the respiratory anatomy according to location (upper and lower respiratory tract), we also classify respiratory anatomy according to functionâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the conducting and respiratory divisions. What is the essential difference between them? â&#x20AC;˘ Conducting division: â&#x20AC;˘ Respiratory division: - 82 -

11. Which structures are part of the respiratory division? B. Respiratory Histology 1. For each of the following parts of the respiratory tract, indicate the type of epithelium found there (simple squamous, stratified squamous, pseudostratified ciliated columnar), and why that location requires the type of epithelium that it has. Part of the Type of Epithelium Respiratory Tracy vestibule (of the nostril) laryngopharynx nasal cavity Nasopharynx Oropharynx Alveoli 2. What is â&#x20AC;&#x153;respiratory epitheliumâ&#x20AC;?? What purpose does it serve? Make sure that you discuss the mucociliary escalator in your answer.

C. Stages of Respiration 1. Describe the events that take place in each of the following stages of respiration. Make sure to note where in the body each stage takes place and in which direction each gas molecule is moving. Stage of Respiration

Description

Ventilation External Respiration Transport Internal Respiration Cellular Respiration (give reaction) D. Connecting the respiratory and circulatory systems. 1. During ventilation, where does O2 come from and where is it going? Name the major structures that it encounters (in sequence).

2. Describe what happens to oxygen during external respiration. Which structures does it cross? - 83 -

3. Name the vessels (in the correct sequence) that O2 travels in during transport.

4. Describe what happens to oxygen during internal respiration. Which structures does it cross?

5. What happens to O2 during cellular respiration? What is produced?

6. What is the relationship between CO2 and cellular respiration?

7. Describe what happens to CO2 during internal respiration. Which structures does it cross?

8. Name the vessels (in the correct sequence) that CO2 travels in during transport.

9. Describe what happens to CO2 during external respiration. Which structures does it cross?

10. What is the pathway of CO2 in ventilation? How is it different from the pathway that oxygen takes?

11. How is transport different for oxygen and CO2?

12. What is the overall purpose of breathing?

- 84 -

Lab 6 – The Respiratory System: Spirometry

Akkaraju, Liachovitzky, & McDaniel 2014/15 Experiment by Wolf & Liachovitzky 2014/15

Objectives Checklist - After completion of this lab, you should be able to:  describe the mechanics of ventilation:  differentiate between static pulmonary changes in volume, pressure and flow tests and dynamic pulmonary function tests  identify the muscles involved in ventilation; distinguish those involved in  perform pulmonary function tests, and inspiration from those involved in describe the common measurements expiration. made from them (PIF, PEF, FVC and FEV1).  distinguish between inspiration & expiration and resting & forced breathing  distinguish between restrictive and in terms of energy requirements obstructive lung disorders  define the various respiratory volumes  describe the effect of airway restrictions and capacities. on PIF, PEF, FVC and FEV1

Pre-Lab Activities A. Ventilation 1. Look at the diagram to the right showing the position of the relaxed diaphragm relative to the ribcage, Demonstrate where the relaxed diaphragm is on your own body. Where will the diaphragm will be when it is contracted? 2. If the diaphragm were to contract, i. what would happen to the volume (space) of your thoracic cavity (increase/decrease)? __________ ii. what would happen to the pressure (increase/decrease)? __________ iii. which way will the air flow (inward/outward)? __________ 3. If the diaphragm were to relax, iv. what would happen to the volume (space) of your thoracic cavity (increase/decrease)? __________ v. what would happen to the pressure (increase/decrease)? __________ vi. which way will the air flow (inward//outward)? __________ 4. Based on your answers to the previous two questions, and the fact that muscle contraction requires ATP, what can you say about the energy requirements of inspiration and expiration (normal quiet breathing using only the diaphragm)? Is inspiration active or passive? What about expiration? • Inspiration: • Expiration: 5. Under conditions where normal breathing isn’t sufficient, other muscles will assist the diaphragm in changing the volume of the thoracic cavity. A muscle that increases the volume of the thoracic cavity will cause pressure to ( / ) which means that it is helping with forced (inspiration/expiration). A muscle that decreases the volume of the thoracic cavity will cause pressure to ( /) which means that it is helping with forced (inspiration/expiration). - 85 -

6. Label the diagram to the right with the terms in the box. I/E Muscle diaphragm internal intercostals external intercostals Sternocleidomastoid rectus abdominis external abdominal obliques pectoralis minor

7. Put an “I” next to the muscles above that aid in inspiration. Put an “E” next to the ones that aid in expiration. 8. Why does contraction of abdominal muscles help with forced expiration? B. Respiratory Volumes and Capacities 1. Match the following volumes and capacities with their descriptions. _____TV + ERV + IRV + RV _____RV + ERV; the volume of air that remains in the lungs during normal breathing _____The amount of air that enters and leaves the lungs during normal breathing _____The amount of air in addition to tidal volume that enters the lungs during a forced inspiration _____The frequency of breathing x (TV – Anatomical Dead Space) _____The amount of air in addition to tidal volume that is evacuated during forced expiration _____The amount of air forced out in the first second following a maximal inspiration. _____TV + ERV + IRV; represents the maximum volume of air that the lungs can exchange _____The amount of air that remains in the lungs after a forceful expiration _____The amount of air that is not involved in gas exchange.

- 86 -

Tidal Volume (TV) Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) Residual Volume (RV) Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) Vital Capacity (VC) Total Lung Capacity (TLC) Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV1) Alveolar Ventilation Rate (AVR) Anatomical Dead Space (ADS)

2. Label the figure below with the terms in the box in the previous page. 3. Label the axes and write down the units in the graph, and then answer: a) What is the typical value of tidal volume in a young healthy person? b) What is the typical value of residual volume? c) What is the typical value of vital capacity? d) What is the typical value of total lung capacity?

___________ ___________ ___________ ___________

4. See alveolar pressure changes during inspiration and expiration here (or copy and paste in your browser http://tiny.cc/lz8viw )

5. Place each of the measures below into either the static or dynamic category

6. What does “restrictive lung disorder” mean? 7. What does “obstructive lung disorder” mean?

- 87 -

Lab Activities The following is a copy of the pages found in the LtLabStation© activities to be performed during lab A. Lung Volumes Lesson 1/16 – Introduction In this lab, you will record and analyze your own respiratory variables, and mimic the situation of a patient who breathes with hyperinflated lungs. Learning objectives By the end of this lab you will be able to do the following: • Record and analyze your own respiratory variables. • Relate your recorded lung volumes and capacities to those of a typical person of the same sex, height, and age. • Perform pulmonary function tests, and analyse dynamic variables from your volunteer's data. • Appreciate how it feels to breathe with hyperinflated lungs. 2/16 - Pulmonary function tests Pulmonary function tests (or measurements) can be classified as either static or dynamic. Before proceeding with this lab, check that you know the difference between these tests. 1. Place each of the measures below into either the static or dynamic category.

2. How did you make the distinction between the two types of test? 3/16 - Equipment setup Setup 1. Connect the Spirometer Pod to Input 1 on the PowerLab.

- 88 -

2. The Spirometer Pod is sensitive to temperature and tends to drift during warm-up. To prevent this, turn on the PowerLab at least 5 minutes before use. Then place the Spirometer Pod on a shelf or beside the PowerLab, away from the PowerLab power supply. 3. Connect the two plastic tubes from the flow head to the short pipes on the back of the Spirometer Pod. 4. Attach clean-bore tubing, a filter, and a mouthpiece to the flow head. 5. Make sure you have extra mouthpieces and disposable air filters for each volunteer. Also, make sure to have a tape measure for measuring the volunteer's height. NOTE: If you are suffering from a respiratory infection, do not volunteer for this experiment. 4/16 - Zeroing the Spirometer Pod The Spirometer Pod is susceptible to thermal drift of the baseline signal. However, the baseline can be reset by selecting the Zero Inputs button before making any new recording. NOTE: It can be difficult to breathe normally when you are consciously thinking about it. It is essential that the volunteer sits comfortably in a position from which the computer screen can't be seen. Ensure tubing always points upwards. Procedure 1. Leave the flow head apparatus undisturbed on the bench and select Zero Inputs. This will reset the offset of the Flow channel to zero. 2. Ask the volunteer to put on the nose clip. If possible, leave the nose clip on for the entire lab to promote breathing through the mouth. This ensures that all air breathed passes through the mouthpiece, filter, and flow head. To calculate volume from the flow, start recording before breathing through the flow head. 3. Select Start to record. The mouthpiece can now be put into the volunteer's mouth. 4. Hold the flow head with two hands with the plastic tubing pointed upwards. - 89 -

5. Observe the data. Select Auto Scale if required. Expiration should be a downward deflection. If the signal deflects upward stop recording and swap the tubular connections on either the back of the Spirometer Pod or the flow head. 6. When the volunteer has become accustomed to the apparatus, select Stop. Make sure the volunteer keeps the nose clip on and breathes through the mouthpiece. 5/16 - Volume correction The volume correction procedure corrects for the fact that expired air is of a greater volume than inspired air. This is due to expired air being warmer and containing more water vapor. Procedure Zeroing 1. Re-zero the Spirometer Pod using the Zero Inputs button. Remember that the flow head must be left undisturbed on the bench during the zeroing process. 2. Select Start before you ask the volunteer to pick up the flow head and start breathing through it. 3. The volunteer should remain in the same setup as on the previous page. 4. Ask the volunteer to inhale and exhale normally through the apparatus. That is, normal tidal breathing for 1 minute. 5. Enter "volume correction procedure" into the Comment panel, then select Add. 6. At the end of 1 minute, select Stop. The volunteer should continue breathing through the flow head and keep the nose clip on. Volume correction 7. Use the compression buttons and scroll bar to view the normal tidal breathing. 8. Use the region selector to select the regular breathing data. Do not select the areas of zero flow at the beginning and end of the recording. 9. In the Spirometry panel, select Calibrate. This will apply a volume correction to your data. 6/16 - Static measurements Challenge 1. Match the lung parameter to its correct description.

- 90 -

2. Place each label onto its correct location

7/16 - Static measurements The question here is: "What lung volumes and capacities can be measured, and how can these measurements be made?" Your data from the previous activity has been transferred to this page. Therefore, you do not need to perform the volume correction procedure. Procedure

- 91 -

1. Re-zero the Spirometer Pod using the Zero Inputs button. Remember, the flow head must be left undisturbed on the bench during the zeroing process. 2. Ask the volunteer to hold the flow head with the tubes pointed upwards. 3. Select Start to record. 4. Enter "normal tidal breathing" into the Comment panel, then select Add. 5. Prepare the comment "lung capacity procedure" in the Comment panel. Note: The following procedure should not be performed rapidly, but at the same speed as a regular tidal breath. 6. After the tidal breathing period, ask the volunteer to inhale as deeply as possible, then exhale all the air they possibly can. At the same time select Add to enter the comment. 7. Afterwards, allow the volunteer to return to normal tidal breathing. 8. Select Stop. 9. Your recording should resemble this. You may want to repeat the lung capacity procedure several times. 10. Complete the table below to predict your volunteer's residual volume (RV). See the height units conversion table, if required. Your volunteer's predicted values: Residual volume (RV) and lung capacities: Sex (M or F) Height (cm) Age (years) Predicted RV (L) Predicted VC (L) Predicted FRC (L) Predicted TLC (L)

8/16 - Static measurements Using your results, you will calculate the data for "normal breathing" in the table below. You will complete this table for hyperinflated lungs in a later activity. Be sure to have filled in all relevant cells in the table on the previous page.

- 92 -

Analysis 1. Use the scroll bar to locate the "normal tidal breathing" comment. 2. Use the region selector to select a portion of normal tidal breathing. Do not select the areas with gaps at the beginning of the recording. 3. Enter the respiratory rate from the value panel into the Normal Breathing column in the table. 4. Place the Marker at the beginning (trough) of a normal tidal inspiration in the Volume channel. 5. Place the point selector on the peak. Enter the difference in volume (â&#x2C6;&#x2020; Volume) from the value panel into the Tidal volume (VT) cell of the table. The expired minute volume will be calculated for you. Inspiratory reserve volume 6. Use the scroll bar to locate the "lung capacity procedure" comment. 7. Place the Marker at the end of a normal tidal inspiration (peak). 8. Place the point selector at the maximum point of inspiration (peak). 9. Enter the value from the Volume value panel into the IRV cell of the table. Expiratory reserve volume 10. Place the Marker at the maximum point of expiration (trough). 11. Place the point selector at the beginning of a normal tidal inspiration (trough). 12. Enter the value from the Volume value panel into the ERV cell of the table. Note that volume should be a positive value! If not, check the positions of the Marker and point selector.

Enter the volunteer's respiratory parameters in the table below: Respiratory rate Tidal volume Expired minute volume Inspiratory reserve volume Expiratory reserve volume Your volunteer's predicted RV Lung Capacities Inspiratory capacity Expiratory capacity Vital capacity Functional residual capacity Total lung capacity

Abbreviation RR VT VE (= VT x BPM) IRV ERV RV Abbreviation and Formula IC = VT + IRV EC = VT + ERV VC = IRV + ERV + VT FRC = ERV + RV TLC = VC + RV

Units breaths/min (BPM) L L/min L L L Units L L L L L

- 93 -

Normal Breathing

Calculated Value â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Normal Breathing

Check your understanding 1. Examine the following table to answer the question below.

Your volunteer's predicted and measured lung capacities: Predicted Value Experimental Value Vital capacity (VC) (L) Functional residual capacity (FRC) (L) Total lung capacity (TLC) (L)

2. Comment on the differences between the experimental and predicted values for VC, FRC, and TLC in the table above. What could cause these differences, if any? 3. How might lung volumes and capacities be altered in a 74-year-old woman who struggles with breathlessness? 9/16 - Dynamic function tests The forced vital capacity (FVC) procedure involves exhaling air as fast as possible from full inspiration to full expiration. The recording below shows lung volume changing as a healthy person performs this procedure. 1. Place the comments in the appropriate place

10/16 - Dynamic function tests In this activity, you will measure parameters of forced expiration that are used in evaluating pulmonary function. You should use the same volunteer as for the static lung measures activity. Procedure

- 94 -

1. Re-zero the Spirometer Pod using the Zero Inputs button. Remember, the flow head must be left undisturbed on the bench during the zeroing process. 2. Select Start to record. 3. Ensure the volunteer has the nose clip in place, and breathes normally through the flow head for 1 min. 4. Select Stop and apply the volume correction procedure. 5. Select Start and ask the volunteer to breathe normally for approximately 20 s. 6. Enter "FVC procedure" into the Comment panel. 7. Ask the volunteer to slowly inhale until no more air can be inspired and hold for no more than 1 second. Then exhale as forcefully, as fully, and for as long as possible, until no more air can be expired. During this procedure select Add to enter the comment. 8. Allow the volunteer's breathing to return to normal, then select Stop. 9. Your recording should resemble this. 10. Repeat steps 5â&#x20AC;&#x201C;8 twice more, so that you have 3 separate FVC recordings. 11/16 - Dynamic function tests In this analysis of pulmonary function variables, you will follow the steps described below to complete the table. The most important measurement here is of FEV1.

- 95 -

Analysis Forced vital capacity 1. In the Volume channel, determine which of the 3 recordings shows the greatest or "maximal" FVC. 2. In the Volume channel, place the point selector at the end of the plateau, directly before the steep decrease in volume. 3. Place the Marker at the point of maximal expiration (trough). 4. Enter the values from the Time and Volume value panels into the table. Forced expiratory volume in one second

5. 6. 7. 8.

Use the same recording that gave the maximal FVC. Leave the point selector where it is from the analysis of FVC. Place the Marker 1 s to the right of the point selector. Enter the value from the Volume value panel into the FEV1 cell of the table. The ratio of FEV1 to FVC expressed as a percentage will be calculated for you. Respiratory Parameter Time for FVC Vital capacity (VC) Forced vital capacity (FVC) Forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) % FVC expired in 1 second (FEV1/FVC*100)

Units s L L L %

Normal Breathing

Check your understanding 1. In your own words describe the physiological significance of the FEV1/FVC ratio. 2. Why do you think the forced vital capacity is less than the vital capacity? 3. How would the 74-year-old woman's breathlessness affect her ability to exhale forcefully? What effect would this have on her test results?

12/16 - Hyperinflated breathing The question here is: "What does it feel like to breathe with hyperinflated lungs?" Here, the volunteer will breathe with lungs held partially expanded after a large inspiration.

- 96 -

Procedure 1. Re-zero the Spirometer Pod using the Zero Inputs button. Remember, the flow head must be left undisturbed on the bench during the zeroing process. 2. Select Start. Ensure the volunteer has the nose clip in place and breathes normally through the flow head for 1 min. 3. Select Stop and apply the volume correction procedure. 4. Select Start and record normal tidal breathing for about 30 s. Enter "normal tidal breathing" into the Comment panel, then select Add. 5. Ask the volunteer to take a deep breath, breathe out a little, and then breathe in and out on top of this increased lung volume for 30 s (or 1 min, if possible). The volunteer may need to practice this technique 2â&#x20AC;&#x201C;3 times before they can manage a 30â&#x20AC;&#x201C;60 s recording. 6. Enter "hyperinflated breathing" into the Comment panel and select Add. 7. After the hyperinflated tidal breathing period and at the end of a tidal expiration, ask the volunteer to inhale as deeply as possible and then exhale as fully as possible. Enter the comment "lung capacity procedure" into the Comment panel, then select Add. Afterwards, allow the volunteer to return to normal tidal breathing. 8. Your recording should resemble this. 9. Select Stop. 13/16 - Hyperinflated breathing You will analyze your recordings to investigate how breathing with hyperinflated lungs influences respiratory parameters. View the lung volumes and lung capacities that will be calculated.

- 97 -

Analysis Tidal volume 1. Use the region selector to select a portion of hyperinflated tidal breathing. 2. Enter the respiratory rate from the value panel into the Hyperinflated Lungs column in the table. 3. Place the Marker at the beginning (trough) of a hyperinflated tidal inspiration in the Volume channel. 4. Place the point selector on the peak. Enter the difference in volume (∆ Volume) from the value panel into the Tidal volume (VT) cell of the table. The expired minute volume will be calculated for you. Inspiratory reserve volume 5. 6. 7. 8.

Scroll to the comment "lung capacity procedure". Place the Marker at the end of a normal tidal inspiration (peak). Place the point selector at the maximum point of inspiration (peak). Enter the value from the Volume value panel into the Hyperinflated Lungs column of the table.

Expiratory reserve volume 9. In the Volume channel, place the Marker at the maximum point of expiration (trough). 10. Place the point selector at the beginning of a normal tidal inspiration (trough).

Enter the volunteer's respiratory parameters in the table below: Units Normal Breathing Hyperinflated Lungs breaths/min (BPM) Tidal volume VT L Expired minute volume VE (= VT x BPM) L/min Inspiratory reserve IRV L volume Expiratory reserve ERV L volume Your volunteer's RV L predicted RV Lung Capacities Abbreviation and Units Calculated Value – Calculated Value – Formula Normal Breathing Hyperinflated Lungs Inspiratory capacity IC = VT + IRV L Expiratory capacity EC = VT + ERV L Vital capacity VC = IRV + ERV L + VT Functional residual FRC = ERV + RV L capacity Total lung capacity TLC = VC + RV L Respiratory rate

Abbreviation RR

- 98 -

Check your understanding 1. Examine the table showing respiratory rate and tidal volume after breathing normally and with hyperinflated lungs. Has respiratory rate or tidal volume changed? How do you account for this? 2. Has there been any change to the lung volumes with hyperinflated breathing? 3. When you compare the rate of breathing with hyperinflated lungs with that in normal breathing, you will notice a significant increase. This will have resulted in an increased expired minute volume. What effect will this have had on blood gases? 4. Patients with an obstructive lung disease often develop hyperinflated lungs, where air becomes "trapped" in the lungs and can't be exhaled. As a consequence, the chest and neck muscles must work harder to assist with breathing. Ask the volunteer to describe how it felt to breathe with hyperinflated lungs. 5. A 74-year-old woman has more air in her lungs than normal, and breathes with an inflated chest. Do you think an inflated chest would make breathing uncomfortable? Would it alter the rate of breathing, or the volume of each breath? 14/16 - Hyperinflated function test Now that the volunteer is accustomed to breathing with hyperinflated lungs, you will perform a pulmonary function test. Procedure 1. Re-zero the Spirometer Pod by selecting Zero Inputs. Leave the flow head undisturbed on the bench during the zeroing process. 2. Select Start. Ensure the volunteer has the nose clip in place and breathe normally through the flow head for 1 min. Select Stop and apply the volume correction procedure. 3. Select Start. After 20 s of normal breathing, ask the volunteer to start breathing with hyperinflated lungs. Enter "hyperinflated breathing" into the Comment panel, then select Add. 4. After approximately 20 s, enter "FVC procedure" into the comment panel, then select Add. Immediately ask the volunteer to inhale until they can't inspire any more air, holding for no more than 1 second. Then exhale as forcefully, deeply, and for as long as possible. - 99 -

5. Afterwards, allow the volunteer's breathing to return to normal then select Stop. 6. Your recording should resemble this. 7. Repeat steps 3â&#x20AC;&#x201C;5 twice more, so that you have three separate FVC recordings. 15/16 - Hyperinflated function test In this analysis, you will measure the forced expired volume (FVC) and forced expired volume in 1 second (FEV1) from your data with hyperinflated lungs. Analysis Forced vital capacity 1. In the Volume channel, determine which of the 3 recordings shows the greatest or "maximal" FVC. 2. In the Volume channel, place the point selector at the end of the plateau, directly before the steep decrease in volume. 3. Place the Marker at the point of maximal expiration (trough). 4. Enter the values from the Time and Volume value panels into the table. Forced expired volume in one second Use the same recording that gave the maximal FVC. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Leave the point selector where it is from the analysis of FVC. Place the Marker 1 s to the right of the point selector. Enter the value from the Volume value panel into the FEV1 cell of the table. The ratio of FEV1 to FVC expressed as a percentage will be calculated for you.

Respiratory Parameter Time for FVC Forced vital capacity (FVC) Forced expired volume in 1 second (FEV1) % FVC expired in 1 second (FEV1/FVC*100)

Units s L L %

Normal Breathing Hyperinflated Lungs

Check your understanding 1. What effect has hyperinflated breathing had on FEV1 when compared to normal breathing? 16/16 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Report

- 100 -

B. Respiratory Disease Patterns 1. Respiratory disease is typically categorized as either being restrictive or obstructive. Describe both patterns below. Make sure you also give examples of the types of diseases that fall into each pattern. Restrictive Lung Disorders Obstructive Lung Disorders Characteristic Examples

Changes in pulmonary function (e.g. reduced or increased pulmonary volumes/capacities) 2. Which type of respiratory disease would be associated with a lower-than-normal vital capacity? Why?

3. Which type of respiratory disease would be associated with a lower-than-normal FEV1? Why?

- 101 -

Akkaraju, Liachovitzky & McDaniel, 2014-15

Lab 8: The Urinary System: Urinary Anatomy and Physiology Objectives Checklist - After completion of this lab, you should be able to:  identify the organs of the urinary system and  identify nephron structures and their describe their relation to one another; functions distinguish between male and female urinary  distinguish between cortical and anatomy juxtamedullary nephrons and their functions  describe and categorize the major functions  describe and distinguish between the various of the kidneys transport processes that occur in the kidney  identify the gross anatomical features of the  describe the structures that filtrate passes kidney and superimpose blood vessels and through as it becomes urine; indicate which nephron structures transport processes are taking place at each  describe the flow of blood through the kidney structure

Pre-Lab Activities A. Organs of the Urinary System 1. Label the diagram below with the terms in the box. inferior vena cava aorta renal artery renal vein kidney urinary bladder ureter urethra 2. The diagrams on the right illustrate the differences between male and female urinary anatomy. Label the diagrams as male/female, then label with the terms in the box. If a structure is shown on both diagrams, label it on both. internal urethral sphincter prostatic urethra urethral openings external urethral sphincter membranous urethra detrusor muscle external urethral orifice penile urethra

- 102 -

B. Anatomy of the Kidney 1. Label the flowing diagram with the terms in the box.

major calyx minor calyx renal artery renal cortex renal medulla renal papilla

renal pelvis renal pyramid renal sinus renal vein ureter renal column

Label the flowing diagram with the terms in the box. arcuate artery arcuate vein interlobar artery interlobar vein interlobular (cortical radiate) artery interlobular (cortical radiate) vein segmental artery renal artery renal vein 2. The Nephron i. Label the flowing diagram of the nephron using the terms in the box. afferent arteriole ascending limb of loop collecting duct descending limb of loop distal convoluted tubule efferent arteriole glomerular (Bowmanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s) capsule glomerulus (glomerular capillaries) nephron loop papillary duct proximal convoluted tubule renal corpuscle thick segment of loop thin segment of loop

- 103 -

ii. Label the diagram of the renal corpuscle with the terms in the box below. glomerulus glomerular capsule afferent arteriole efferent arteriole proximal convoluted tubule iii. Which arteriole (afferent or efferent) has a wider diameter? iv. The diagram below shows a portion of a lobe of the kidney and helps to illustrate the relationship between blood circulation and urine formation in the kidney. Label the following diagram with the terms in the box. afferent arteriole arcuate artery arcuate vein collecting duct cortex DCT interlobular(cortical radiate) artery interlobular(cortical radiate) vein medulla nephron loop PCT peritubular capillaries vasa recta afferent arteriole arcuate artery arcuate vein v. Which of the nephrons in the above image is considered juxtmedullary? Which one is cortical? vi. The Juxtaglomerular Apparatus helps to maintaing an appropriate rate of urine production by monitoring the fluid in the DCT and adjusting the glomerular filtration rate (constricting or dilating afferent & efferent arterioles) to maintain homeostasis. Label the following diagram with the terms in the box below. In the image on the right, showing an entire nephron, circle the region where the juxtaglomerular apparatus is.

- 104 -

afferent arteriole DCT efferent arteriole glomerular capsule glomerulus juxtaglomerular cells macula densa PCT sympathetic fiber 3. Watch a Kidney and Nephron Anatomy and Physiology Preview by clicking here, or copy and paste in your browser http://youtu.be/glu0dzK4dbU)

Lab Activities A. Anatomy 1. Find each of the structures that you labeled in the Pre-Lab Activities on models in the lab. Remember, you will be tested using models! 2. Bladder infections occur when bacteria from outside of the body enter through the urethra and colonize the bladder. Based on the anatomical differences between the sexes, explain why women are more susceptible to bladder infections than men. 3. What constitutes a â&#x20AC;&#x153;lobeâ&#x20AC;? of the kidney? How many lobes are there in the kidney pictured to the right? 4. Renal Blood Flow i. Where do nitrogenous wastes enter the kidney? ii.

Where do they leave?

- 105 -

iii.

Fill in the flow chart above to show the pathway of blood through the kidney.

B. The Nephron 1. Which arteriole (afferent or efferent) has a wider diameter? hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus?

How does that affect

2. What would have to happen to the afferent and efferent arterioles to increase pressure? What would have to happen to decrease pressure? Think in terms of constriction and dilation. Afferent To increase pressure To decrease pressure

- 106 -

Efferent

3. Match each of the following functions with the nephron A. afferent arteriole structure that performs them. B. collecting duct 4. ___ makes medulla salty to aid in the reabsorption of C. renal corpuscle water D. distal convoluted tubule 5. ___ leaky capillaries designed to allow water and E. efferent arteriole electrolytes to leave F. glomerular capsule 6. ___ controls filtration pressure in the glomerulus by G. Glomerulus constricting or dilating (there are two answers for this H. nephron loop one!) I. proximal convoluted 7. ___ reabsorption of electrolytes; involved in blood acidtubule base balance 8. ___ carries blood away from the glomerulus 9. ___ site of hormonally-controlled water reabsorption; leads to renal papilla 10. ___ major site of reabsorption; amino acids and glucose in addition to electrolytes 11. ___ collects filtrate from the glomerulus 12. ___ includes the glomerulus and the glomerular capsule

13. Which type of nephron (juxtamedullary or cortical) is responsible for making the medulla salty? 14. Observe the kidney on the microscope (slide 42). Use the diagram below to help you identify the following structures: afferent & efferent arterioles, glomerulus, glomerular/Bowmanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s capsule, glomerular space, PCT, DCT. Label the diagram on the right with the above structures. If a structure listed is not clearly visible, then draw in where you expect to see it. Remember that the glomerulus is polar; the PCT is at the opposite end from the DCT and arterioles.

15. You may also use an online histology tutorial (e.g. http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/histology_mh/start_histology.html) to observe and study these structures on your own. C. Renal Transport Processes 1. Match the following descriptions of transport processes with the appropriate terms in the box.

- 107 -

___ process of eliminating metabolic waste products from the body ___ process by which a chemical passes through a membrane or tissue surface and becomes incorporated into a body fluid or tissue ___ process by which hydrostatic pressure forces fluid through a capillary wall ___ process by which chemicals are extracted from the blood and moved into the tubular fluid ___ process of reclaiming solutes from the tubular fluid and returning them to the blood

a) filtration b) secretion c) excretion d) absorption e) reabsorption

2. For each of the following processes, list the structures in the urinary system where they occur • • • •

Filtration: Secretion: Excretion: Reabsorption:

3. What types of substances tend to be secreted? 4. What types of substances tend to be reabsorbed? 5. Why do we use the term “reabsorption” instead of “absorption” in the kidney?

D. From Filtrate to Urine 1. Filtrate is formed by hydrostatic pressure forcing fluid to leave the glomerulus. The filtrate is then collected by the glomerular capsule. List all of the structures, starting with the glomerular capsule, that fluid passes through until it eventually leaves the body. After you have listed the structures, indicate where the fluid is called filtrate, where it’s called tubular fluid, and where it is called urine. glomerular capsule→

2. Putting it all together. If we straighten out the blood flow to the kidney, it makes it a little easier to see what’s going on. Observe the diagram below. Then label the diagram with the following missing elements (interlobular -cortical radiate- artery and vein, arcuate artery and vein, interlobar artery and vein, glomerular capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, nephron loop, distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct).

- 108 -

Using three different colored pens/pencils, trace the pathway of a blood cell, a glucose molecule and a waste molecule starting from the renal artery. To do this properly, you have to think about whether it gets filtered or not, then whether it gets reabsorbed or not.

afferent arteriole

glomerulus efferent arteriole

renal artery

peritubular capillaries renal vein

- 109 -

Adapted from Akkaraju, Liachovitzky & McDaniel, 2014-15

Lab 9 – The Digestive System: Anatomy and Processes of the Digestive System Objectives Checklist - After completion of this lab, you should be able to:  locate each of the organs of the  be able to trace the pathway of food digestive system on models and through the digestive tract and textbook figures and their anatomical indicate what processes occur along relationships to one another the way  describe the processes happening  identify the location, composition and along the alimentary canal function of the four major histological layers found throughout the digestive  distinguish between the digestive tract (mucosa, submucosa, tract and its accessory organs and muscularis, serosa) know the major functions of each  explain the purpose of membrane  identify the products of each adaptations such as villi and accessory gland and where each microvilli delivers its product(s) to the digestive  distinguish between longitudinal, tract circular, and oblique muscles

Pre-Lab Activities A. Processes of the Digestive System 1. Define the following processes happening of the digestive system: Process Definition/Description Ingestion Mechanical Digestion Chemical Digestion Motility: Peristalsis Motility: Segmentation Secretion Absorption Reabsorption Compaction) Defecation

(and

- 110 -

B. Anatomy of the Digestive System 1. Organs of the Alimentary Canal and Accessory Glands: Label the following diagram with the terms in the box. Oral cavity (mouth) Rectum Salivary glands Anus Pharynx Liver Larynx Stomach Esophagus Gallbladder Stomach Liver Small intestine Diaphragm Colon Esophagus Trachea Glottis Oral Cavity Tongue Oropharynx Laryngopharynx

2. Oral Cavity: Label the following diagrams with the terms in the boxes Parotid gland Submandibular gland Sublingual gland Sublingual duct orifices Submandibular duct orifices

- 111 -

Incisors=I Canines=C Premolars=P Molars=M Palatin tonsils

Crown Enamel Dentin Root Root canal Gingiva

3. Stomach: Label the following diagram with the terms in the box Cardiac sphincter Cardiac region Fundic region Body region Pyloric region Pyloric sphincter Duodenum

Rugae of mucosa Circular layer of muscularis externa Oblique layer of muscularis externa Longitudinal layer of muscularis externa

the the the

4. Small Intestine and Large Intestine: Label the following diagram with the terms in the box

Duodenum Jejunum Ileum Ileocecal sphincter Pyloric Sphincter Mesentery Appendix

- 112 -

Cecum Appendix Ascending colon Transverse colon Descending colon Sigmoid colon

C. The Histology of the Digestive Tract: 1. Label the following diagrams using the terms in the box

Mucosa (Mucous Membrane) Submucosa Muscularis externa Serosa Cross Section of the Esophagus Cross Section of the Stomach

- 113 -

Haustra Taenia coli Rectum Anal canal Internal anal sphincter External anal sphincter Anus

D. Digestive system review 1. Watch a Digestive System Anatomy Preview by clicking here, or copy and paste http://youtu.be/Z7xKYNz9AS0 into your browser

Lab Activities A. Anatomy and Processes of the Digestive System 1. Find each of the organs that you labeled in the Pre-Lab Activity B on the models in the lab. Remember, you will be tested using models! 2. Circle the organs in the text box that are considered accessory organs (food does not pass through them, but they make product(s) which are delivered to the tract to help with digestion or absorption). Esophagu Small Laryngopharyn Appendix Larynx Anus Stomac Rectu sLiver intestin x m Gall Oropharyn Pancrea Salivar hColon Oral cavity e bladder x s y 3. For each of the following accessory organs, describe its glands products (enzymes or other secretions) and how the product gets into the digestive tract (part of the tract that it empties into). Accessory Products delivered to: organ (enzymes etc.) (where in the GI tract it goes) salivary glands pancreas

Liver

- 114 -

4. Use models to help you fill in the flow chart below showing all of the structures/organs that food passes through as it moves through the digestive tract. After you complete the flow chart, lightly shade the boxes where the pH is acidic. Next, write the name of the appropriate accessory organs in the spaces to the left and write the name(s) of the products that each produces above or below the arrow (see example).

salivary amylase, salivary lipase

oral cavity

FOOD

salivary gland

small intestine

large intestine

anus

FECES 5. Use the information you summarized in the Pre-Lab Activity A.1 table. and in the previous exercise, to fill in the table below. Find in the models (and in the dissected pig if available) all the organs you list in the table below. Process List ALL -when applicable- the organs where this process happens Ingestion Mechanical Digestion Chemical Digestion Motility: Peristalsis

- 115 -

Motility: Segmentation Secretion Absorption Reabsorption Compaction) Defecation

(and

6. Describe mechanical digestion. Where does it occur? What structures are responsible for mechanical digestion?

7. Describe chemical digestion. What is responsible for chemical digestion?

8. Fill in the following table with a summary description of the major function(s) of each organ. Organ Function Mouth esophagus stomach small intestine large intestine (colon) Rectum

9. Where does chemical digestion begin? Where in the digestive tract does the majority of chemical digestion take place?

10. Where does absorption begin? Where in the digestive tract does the majority of absorption take place?

11. What is the primary function of the large intestine? Why is this important? - 116 -

12. Mucus is secreted everywhere along the digestive tract. What purpose does it serve? Why do you think that the number of goblet cells (produce mucus) is so much higher in the large intestine?

B. The Histology of the Digestive Tract 1. The type of epithelium varies through the digestive tract. Fill in the table with the appropriate type of epithelium and the purpose that it serves. Epithelial Type Where Found Purpose oral cavity, upper esophagus anal canal stomach small and large intestines 2. While most of the digestive tract has two layers of muscle in the muscularis externa (longitudinal and circular), the stomach has a third oblique layer. Based on what you know about the role of the stomach in both mechanical and chemical digestion, why do you think the stomach has this third layer?

3. Which part of the digestive tract has villi? How are villi different from microvilli? What purpose does each one serve?

4. Gather slides of the different organs of the digestive tract and identify each of the layers (mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, serosa) in each using low or medium magnification. After you identify the mucosa, change to high magnification and sketch what you see. Use your book to help you identify structures (villi, glands, crypts, etc.). To review these tissues, you can use an online histology tutorial (e.g. http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/histology_mh/start_histology.html).

Organ esophagus slide # 30

Sketch

Organ small intestine slide # 32 (composite of all three regions)

- 117 -

Sketch

stomach slide # 31

large intestine slide # 33

5. Viewing Station Watch the following short videos in a smartphone or tablet: i. Ingestion (See epiglottis in action at the beginning of the video!): http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=umnnA50IDIY ii. Rugae of the stomach: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ln09qihUi3g iii. Peristalsis in Stomach: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YH3U_SLp9G0 iv. Peristalsis in Stomach: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pJCjDtfhsCI v. Peristalsis in Duodenum and Jejunum: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jn0QIlaDVYs vi. Segmentation in Jejunum: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PfnKvErPwY4

- 118 -

Adapted from Akkaraju, Liachovitzky & McDaniel, 2014-15

Lab 10 – The Digestive System: Digestion and Enzymatic Activity

Objectives Checklist - After completion of this lab, you should be able to: how each influences the rate  list the polymers and monomers of specifically each of the major organic categories (protein, carbohydrate, lipid, nucleic  test presence of amylase in saliva by acid) using a color reaction  explain the relationship between  name the enzymes that are part of the enzymes, substrate and products digestive system, where they are formed, their substrates and products,  define protein denaturation and how it their site of action, and their optimal influences enzyme activity pH  name the factors that influence the rate of chemical reactions and explain

Pre-Lab Activities A. Macromolecules 1. Fill in the table below to review macromolecules and their components (monomers). Macromolecule Examples Components Examples of (Polymer) Macromolecules (Monomers) Components Protein methionine, tyrosine, alanine, etc. Nucleic Acid Nucleotides Carbohydrate

2. Give -at least- four examples of lipids.

3. Fill in the blanks of the following paragraph. Nutrients are substances that we ingest for maintenance, growth and repair. There are three categories of organic nutrients (called macronutrients) which are _________________, ________________, and _________________. Macronutrients are normally ingested as macromolecules then broken down into smaller molecules by the action of ________________ which are _________________ that speed up biochemical reactions in the body without _____________________________. Enzymes are commonly named using the suffix _______ and part of the substance that the enzyme acts on, which is also called a _____________________. This substance binds to the ______________________ of the enzyme, the enzyme changes it, and the end result is called a ______________. 4. Review your knowledge about enzymes here (or copy and paste in your browser http://tiny.cc/agawiw)

B. Enzymes 1. Label the figure below using the terms in the box.

- 119 -

Enzyme Substrate enzymesubstrate product(s) complex active site

2. What type of reaction is shown above: synthesis, decomposition, or exchange? 3. What does it mean that an enzyme “denatures”?

4. What factors can change the shape of an enzyme?

Lab Activities A. The Effect of Various Factors on the Rate of an Enzyme Reaction All four experiments will use the enzyme catalase, which is found in potatoes. Catalase acts on the substrate, H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide), to produce H2O and O2. The O2 is released as bubbles. Therefore, the more bubbles you see, the greater the reaction. The effect of temperature on the rate of enzyme reactions a. Prepare three water baths i. Fill three 500 ml beakers with approximately 300 mls of water. ii. To the first beaker add ice; this will be the 0oC bath. iii. To the second beaker do nothing; this will be the 25oC (room temperature) bath. iv. Place the third beaker on a hot plate set on high; when the water boils, this will be your 100oC bath. While you are waiting for the water baths to reach equilibrium temperature, you can continue to the next step. b. Prepare the test tubes. i. Using a wax pencil, label three test tubes (C1, C2, C3). ii. To each tube, add 1 ml of catalase using a serological pipet. You may use the same pipet repeatedly, but only for catalase. iii. Place tube C1 in the 100oC bath. iv. Place tube C2 in the 25oC bath. v. Place tube C3 in the 0oC bath. vi. Using a wax pencil, label three additional test tubes (P1, P2, P3). vii. To each tube, add 1 ml of H2O2 using a serological pipet. You may use the same pipet repeatedly, but only for H2O2. viii. Place tubes P1 and P2 in the 25oC bath. ix. Place tube P3 in the 0oC bath. x. Wait at least 15 minutes for the test tubes to equilibrate with the water baths. xi. Remove tube C1 from the 100oC bath (use a tube holder—don’t burn yourself!) and place it in the 25oC water bath alongside. Wait ~5 minutes for tube 1 to cool to 25oC. - 120 -

1. What do you predict will happen when you add H2O2? Which temperature will be best for the catalase reaction? Why?

2. Write your predictions in the table below (prediction column). Tube

Pre-treatment Temperature (0oC, 25oC, 100oC)

Reaction Temperature (0oC, 25oC, 100oC)

Prediction - no bubbles + some bubbling ++ strong bubbling +++ very strong bubbling

Observations - no bubbles + some bubbling ++ strong bubbling +++ very strong bubbling

C1 C2 C3 xii. Working quickly, pour the H2O2 from each of the P tubes into its corresponding C tube (P1 into C1, etc.). Return tubes C1 and C2 to the 25oC bath; return tube C3 to the 0oC bath. Observe each tube for bubbling and record your observations in the table above. Wash your test tubes to use for the next experiment, but SAVE THE CATALASE! The effect of pH on the rate of enzyme reactions a. Prepare the test tubes. i. Using a wax pencil, label 5 test tubes (1, 2, 3, 4, 5). ii. To each tube, add 1 ml of catalase using a serological pipet. You may use the same pipet repeatedly, but only for catalase. iii. Next you will add various buffered solutions. Use a serological pipet to transfer the solution to the appropriate test tube, but make sure to RINSE YOUR PIPET BETWEEN EACH SOLUTIONS. You might want to keep a small beaker of distilled water handy for this purpose. iv. To Tube 1, add 1 ml of pH 3 buffer solution. v. To Tube 2, add 1 ml of pH 5 buffer solution. vi. To Tube 3, add 1 ml of pH 7 buffer solution. vii. To Tube 4, add 1 ml of pH 9 buffer solution. viii. To Tube 5, add 1 ml of pH 11 buffer solution. 1. What do you predict will happen when you add H2O2? Which pH will be best for the catalase reaction? Why? Write your predictions in the table below (prediction column).

- 121 -

Tube

Prediction - no bubbles + some bubbling ++ strong bubbling +++ very strong bubbling

Observations - no bubbles + some bubbling ++ strong bubbling +++ very strong bubbling

1 2 3 4 5 ix. Working quickly, add 1 ml of H2O2 to each tube. Observe each tube for bubbling and record your observations in the table above. Wash your test tubes to use for the next experiment, but SAVE THE CATALASE! The effect of enzyme concentration on the rate of enzyme reactions a. Prepare the different concentrations of catalase. i. Using a wax pencil, label 3 test tubes (25%, 50% and 75%). ii. To the tube marked 25%, add 1 ml of catalase then 3 mls of distilled water. iii. To the tube marked 50%, add 2 ml of catalase then 2 mls of distilled water. iv. To the tube marked 75%, add 3 ml of catalase then 1 mls of distilled water. v. Mix each tube by shaking or swirling it gently. vi. Prepare the test tubes. vii. Using a wax pencil, label 5 test tubes (1, 2, 3, 4, 5). viii. To tube 1, add 1 ml of distilled water. ix. To tube 2, add 1 ml of the 25% catalase solution. x. To tube 3, add 1 ml of the 50% catalase solution. xi. To tube 4, add 1 ml of the 75% catalase solution. xii. To tube 5, add 1 ml of 100% catalase solution (from the beaker). 1. What do you predict will happen when you add H2O2? Which enzyme concentration will be best for the catalase reaction? Why?

2. Write your predictions in the table below (prediction column). Tube

Enzyme Concentration

Observations - no bubbles, + some bubbling. ++ strong bubbling, +++ very strong bubbling

1 2 3 4 5 - 122 -

xiii. Working quickly, add 1 ml of H2O2 to each tube. Observe each tube for bubbling and record your observations. Wash your test tubes and everything else that you used. Once youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve cleaned up, you can start answering the questions in the following section. B. Analyzing Factors that Affect Enzyme Reaction Rates Temperature 1. What is the preferred temperature for the enzyme catalase?

2. What explains the level of activity with the catalase that was boiled prior to the experiment? Relate this to protein structure and denaturization.

3. What do you conclude about the effect of temperature on enzyme activity? Donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t just say that it has an effect, say how it affects it.

4. Based on your conclusion, do you think you might digest ice cream at a slower or faster rate than a hot soup?

pH 1. In the space below, create a graph that shows the effect of pH on enzyme activity. +++

Rate (amount of bubbling)

+ -

pH - 123 -

1. What is the ideal pH for the enzyme catalase? What happens to enzyme activity when the pH is significantly higher or lower than the ideal pH

2. Relate what youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve observed to the activity of the enzyme, salivary amylase. Where is it formed? Where is it active? Where is it deactivated? What causes it to be deactivated? Relate this to protein structure and denaturization.

3. Again, thinking of the effect of pH on enzyme activity, why does the pancreas secrete HCO3-? What would you predict to happen to digestion and absorption in the small intestine if the pancreas stopped producing bicarbonate?

Enzyme Concentration 1. In the space below, create a graph that shows the effect of enzyme concentration on enzyme activity. +++

Rate (amount of bubbling)

+ -

0 Enzyme Concentration (%)

100

2. How does enzyme concentration affect reaction rates? C. Starch digestion Salivary amylase is produced by the parotid, the submandibular, and the sublingual salivary glands, which empty their secretions by way of ducts into the mouth. Amylase acts on starch and glycogen, hydrolyzing them to maltose. 1. Identify substrate(s), enzyme(s), and product(s) - 124 -

Starch: Maltose: Amylase: 2. Test your saliva for amylase i. Massage your parotid gland for about one minute, or mimic rinsing your mouth to obtain saliva. ii. Place an unsalted saltine on your tongue, without chewing, and close your mouth until you have a sugary taste. The amylase in your saliva has changed the starch in the crackers to smaller sugar molecules. iii. Record the time it took to notice the sugary taste, and compare with the members of your group Are there any differences? Why?

3. Color reactions in enzyme assays: Iodine Reaction We will detect starch digestion (hydrolysis) using a dye - potassium iodine (IKI) -that colors starch molecules, but not maltose, the disaccharide digestion product. As the enzyme acts upon starch, the stain will not color the substance. i. Place two drops of 1% starch solution on a spot plate depression, and add two drops of 1% amylase solution. Label this spot plate depression 1. ii. Place 4 drops of 1% starch solution on a spot plate depression. Label this spot plate depression 2. iii. Place 4 drops of 1% amylase solution on a spot plate depression. Label this spot plate depression 3. iv. Wait 30 minutes v. Add one drop of iodine to all and each one of the three depressions vi. Record your result in the table below Spot plate depression

Iodine Test Outcome + dark/bluish; - amber/yellowish)

#1: Amylase + Starch 1% #2 : dH20 + Starch 1% #3: Amylase + dH20 1. List all the compounds in #1 30 min. after adding the drops of iodine? 2. List all the compounds in #2 30 min. after adding the drops of iodine? 3. List all the compounds in #3 30 min. after adding the drops of iodine? 4. What is the purpose of #2? 5. What is the purpose of #3? 6. If you boiled the content of #1, would the iodine test come up positive? Why? - 125 -

D. Digestion of foodstuff 1. Fill in the table below with the substrate and product of each digestive specific (you can say “sugars” rather than “glucose and fructose.” Enzyme Substrate(s) Product(s) Organ Producing it? salivary amylase Starch sugars salivary glands

enzyme. You do not have to be Site Action? salivary glands

of Optimal pH? neutral

pancreatic amylase salivary lipase pancreatic lipase Pepsin Trypsin Carboxypeptidase Nucleosidase

2. What are bile salts? What organ produces them? Where are they stored? Where is their site of action?

- 126 -

Akkaraju, Liachovitzky & McDaniel, 2014-15

Lab 11 - The Reproductive System: Male and Female Reproductive Anatomy Objectives Checklist - After completion of this lab, you should be able to:  identify the organs and structures of the male  identify the organs and structures of the reproductive system and their functions female reproductive system and their functions  describe the components of ejaculate and their importance in reproduction  describe the various secretions and their importance in reproduction  describe the importance of and the structures  identify the microscopic structures of the responsible for temperature regulation of the testes female reproductive system and explain their importance  identify the microscopic structures of the male reproductive system  trace the pathway of an oocyte from the ovaries to the outside of the body  trace the pathway of sperm from the testes to (menstruation) the outside of the body  describe where fertilization and implantation typically occur

Pre-Lab Activities A. Male Reproductive Anatomy 1. Label the diagram below with the terms in the box. testes Urethra scrotum ejaculatory duct glans penis seminal vesicle corpus spongiosum urinary bladder corpus cavernosum prostate gland epididymis vas (ductus) deferens bulbourethral gland rectum

2. Label the diagram below with the terms in the box. seminiferous tubule vas (ductus) deferens rete testis epididymis (head, tail) efferent ductules

body,

- 127 -

3. Label the diagram below with the terms in the box. testis dartos muscle pampiniform plexus prepuce (foreskin) cremaster muscle median septum epididymis

4. Label the diagram below with the terms in the box. deep artery corpus spongiosum corpus cavernosum dorsal artery and vein urethra prepuce glans lacunae 5. Which of the vessels that you labeled in the diagram above dilates to form an erection?

6. The following diagrams show micrographs of the testes. Label the diagrams below with the terms in the box. sperm cells spermatogonia seminiferous tubule interstitial cells sustentacular cells

- 128 -

B. Female Reproductive Anatomy 1. Label the diagram below with the terms in the box. ovary uterus uterine tube fimbriae cervix vagina urinary bladder rectum clitoris labia minora labia majora pubic bone prepuce 2. Label the diagram below with the terms in the box. mons pubis vaginal opening labia majora clitoris/glans Anus prepuce urethral opening labia minora vestibular bulb

3. Label the following diagram with the terms in the box. ovary uterus uterine tube fimbriae cervix vagina endometrium perimetrium - 129 -

paraurethral glands Bartholinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (greater vestibular) glands

myometrium 4. Label the diagram below with the terms in the box. Youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll learn more about the significance of these structures in the following lab. corpus luteum mature follicle ovulated oocyte secondary follicle oocyte in follicle corpus albicans primary follicle primordial follicle

5. Watch a Male Anatomy Preview by clicking here. Use the videos on the right hand side of the screen (or copy and paste http://youtu.be/nr5W9trSv8I 6. Watch a Female Anatomy Preview by clicking here. Use the videos on the right hand side of the screen (or copy and paste http://youtu.be/ptCW_W07pzk

Lab Activities A. Male Reproductive Anatomy and Physiology 1. Find each of the organs that you labeled in the Pre-Lab Activities on models in the lab. Remember, you will be tested using models! 2. Based on the anatomy of the male, explain why an enlarged prostate would make urination difficult.

3. For each of the following structures or organs, indicate the function or importance of each product. Structure/Organ Product(s) Purpose or Function testes sperm testosterone seminal vesicle

fructose prostaglandins proseminogelin

prostate gland

clotting enzyme serine protease buffer

bulbourethral gland

clear fluid

slippery - 130 -

4. Fill in the flowchart below to trace the pathway of sperm formation and transit (to the outside of the body). List each of the structures that the sperm encounter along the way. The three glands should be listed on the left; draw an arrow to show where they contribute their secretions then write the names of the secretions on the arrows that you draw.

5. What part of the pathway above is the same as the pathway of urine?

6. Fill in the blanks of the following sentences. The dartos and cremaster muscles help to maintain ideal testicular temperature. The ideal temperature is slightly ________________ than body temperature. If the outside temperature is too cold, the dartos and cremaster will ________________ which will cause the testes to move _____________________ the body. If the outside temperature is too warm, the dartos and cremaster will ________________ which will cause the testes to move _______________________ the body. 7. Why is temperature control of the testes important? Why are men with low sperm counts advised to wear loose-fitting undergarments if theyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re trying to have children?

8. How does an erection form? What are lacunae? How do they play a role in the formation of an erection?

9. During an erection, the corpus spongiosum never becomes as engorged with blood (never gets as hard) as the corpora cavernosa. Why must this be the case?

- 131 -

B. Female Reproductive Anatomy 1. Briefly describe function of each of the following. Structure/Organ Function ovary Bartholinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (greater vestibular) gland paraurethral glands clitoris vestibular bulbs fimbrae uterus

2. After an oocyte has been released from the ovary (ovulation) where does it go? Use the flow chart below to trace the pathway of an oocyte to the outside of the body. List each of the structures that it encounters along the way. ovary 3. Where does fertilization take place (if it takes place)? 4. Where does implantation take place (if it takes place)? 5. What kind of epithelium is found lining the uterine tube? Why?

6. Cigarette smoking has been shown to inhibit cilia movement. Suggest a hypothesis for why women who smoke have a higher incidence of ectopic preganacies.

7. The vaginal wall has no glands, yet its surface is generally well-lubricated. Where does the lubrication come from? 8. What kind of epithelial tissue is found in the mature female vagina? Why? 9. What makes the vagina acidic? What purpose does it serve? 10. Which of the three layers of the uterine wall is lost during each menstrual cycle? 11. Which of the three layers of the uterine wall is important for expelling the fetus during birth? 12. Which of the three layers of the uterine wall forms the maternal part of the placenta during pregnancy? - 132 -

13. How does the position of the uterus change when a woman becomes aroused? What other changes take place? How is this beneficial for intercourse?

14. Many women report an area of increased sensitivity (to pressure) on the anterior wall of the vagina, called the G-spot. While no anatomical structure has been found, there is substantial evidence that the region exists. Some scientists hypothesize that the increased sensitivity is due to pressure on the spongy tissue surrounding the urethra, others have linked the G-spot to the paraurethral glands. Find both of these spots on the diagram that you labeled in Pre-Lab Activities B1 and B2. C. Microscopic Anatomy 1. Examine slide #55 (testes) on the microscope and identify the same structures that you labeled in PreLab Activity A6. Sketch what you see in the space below.

2. Briefly describe the role(s) of interstitial cells and sustentacular cells.

3. Examine slide #44 (ovaries) on the microscope and identify the same structures that you labeled in PreLab Activity B4. Sketch what you see in the space below. Remember, you can always look at the structures again (to study) using an online histology tutorial (e.g. http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/histology_mh/start_histology.html)

- 133 -

Akkaraju, Liachovitzky & McDaniel, 2014-15

Lab 12 – The Reproductive System: Gametogenesis

Objectives Checklist - After completion of this lab, you should be able to:  describe and compare the stages of meiosis  describe spermatogenesis and identify the and mitosis cells at different stages  distinguish chromosomes, chromatids, and  describe oogenesis and identify the cells at homologous pairs; haploid and diploid different stages

Pre-Lab Activities A. Orientation 1. Define the following terms. homologous chromosomes chromatid autosomes karyotype

diploid haploid gonad gamete

2. Label the diagram below with the terms below. homologous chromosomes chromosome chromatid centromere centrioles

3. Draw a replicated (or duplicated) chromosome. What are the two halves called?

4. Draw a pair of homologous chromosomes.

5. What is the difference between a haploid cell and a diploid cell? Make sure you discuss your answer in terms of homologous chromosomes.

B. Mitosis 1. Label the stages of the mitosis below.

- 134 -

2. How do the daughter cells compare to the original (parent) cell in mitosis?

C. Meiosis 1. Label the stages of meiosis below.

2. Circle a pair of homologous chromosomes in the above figure. 3. How do the daughter cells compare to the original (parent) cell in meiosis? 4. Watch a comparison between mitosis and meiosis here (or copy and paste in your browser: http://tiny.cc/vlbwiw ) D. Spermatogenesis and Spermiogenesis 1. Label the diagrams below with the terms below. primary spermatocyte homologous chromosomes sperm cells 1st meiotic division secondary spermatocyte haploid cell 2nd meiotic division diploid cell spermatids

2. What is the difference between spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis? 3. Label the diagram below with the terms below. Acrosome; tail; nucleus; head mitochondria

- 135 -

E. Oogenesis and Ovulation 1. Label the diagram to the right with the terms below. primary oocyte secondary oocyte 1st meiotic division 2nd meiotic division fertilization zygote 1st polar body 2nd polar body 2. Label the diagram below with the terms below. corpus luteum mature follicle zona pellucida ovulated oocyte corona radiata secondary follicle oocyte corpus albicans primary follicle primordial follicle

F. Summarizing Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis 1. Watch a preview of male and female gametogenesis here (or copy and paste in your browser: http://tiny.cc/asbwiw )

Lab Activities A. 1. 2. 3.

Meiosis. At which stage of meiosis are homologous pairs lined up on the equator of the cell? ____________ At which stage of meiosis are sister chromatids separated? ____________ At which stage of meiosis does the cell first become haploid? ____________

4. Draw the stages of the meiosis below. Label each stage with its defining events (nuclear membrane dissolves, chromosomes line up at the equator, etc).

- 136 -

5. Meiosis begins with a (haploid/diploid) cell, meaning that it has pairs of (heterozygous / homogenous / homologous) chromosomes (pairs of chromosomes that have alleles of the same genes). The first meiotic division results in the chromosome pairs being separated which produces (haploid/diploid) cells, meaning that there are no chromosome pairs. In the second division, the cell separates each chromosome into two identical copies, called (chromosomes / chromatids / centromeres). 6. In the following exercise, you’ll be demonstrating meiosis using pipe cleaners. To do this, you’ll need eight pipe cleaners in two different colors. In each color, two should be short and two should be long. a) Take two long chromosomes of the same color and twist them together at the middle. This represents a duplicated chromosome and each pipe cleaner represents a sister chromatid. The chromatids are joined at the centromere. Do the same with the other pipe cleaners. b) Once all of the pipe cleaners are doubled, you’re ready to start meiosis. The cell is in Prophase I. c) Arrange the homologous chromosomes (same-sized chromosomes) in pairs, then line them up in a double row along the mid-line of the “cell” (Metaphase I). d) Next, pull the homologous pairs apart. Don’t un-twist the pipe cleaners! During this phase, each chromosome begins to move to an opposite end of the cell (Anaphase I). e) Once the two sets of chromosomes are far enough apart, the cell membrane can begin to divide. Move the two sets of chromosomes completely apart (Telophase I and Cytokinesis). f) The result: you have two new cells; each with half the number of chromosomes that were in the original cell (from diploid to haploid). Each of these cells is now in Prophase II. g) Now you are ready to perform the second meiotic division. Line up the two chromosomes in each of the daughter cells along the midline of the cell. (Metaphase II). h) Drag the chromatids away from each other (Anaphase II). i) Separate the chromatids completely (Telophase II and Cytokinesis). j) You should now have one small and one large chromosome in each of the daughter cells. You may find that the colors are the same or you may find that the colors are different. This shows how we get random distribution of chromosomes in gamete production. k) Save your gametes for Exercise 2 in Mitosis. B. Mitosis 1. Draw the stages of mitosis here. Label each stage with its defining events (nuclear membrane dissolves, chromosomes line up at the equator, etc).

2. Metaphase in mitosis is most similar to what phase of meiosis? 3. In the following exercise, you’ll be demonstrating fertilization and mitosis using pipe cleaners. To do this, you’ll need two of the gametes that you produced in Exercise 6 above. You can also trade one of your gametes with another group so that you have different colors for each gamete.

- 137 -

a) Take two of the gametes from meiosis. One gamete will represent the oocyte, and the other gamete will represent the sperm. Put the chromosomes from each gamete together in one “cell.” This process represents fertilization and the resulting cell is called a zygote. b) Arrange the chromosomes into homologous pairs (same-sized). Why can’t the cell start mitosis yet? c) Find pipe cleaners of the same size and color and twist them together at the middle with the chromosomes that you already have in the zygote. This represents a duplicated chromosome and each pipe cleaner represents a sister chromatid. The chromatids are joined at the centromere. Do the same with the other pipe cleaners. d) Once all of the pipe cleaners are doubled, you’re ready to start mitosis (Prophase). e) Line up the chromosomes in a row along the mid-line of the “cell” (Metaphase). f) Drag the chromatids away from each other (Anaphase). g) Separate the chromatids completely (Telophase and Cytokinesis). h) You should now have two daughter cells—each with two long chromosomes and two short chromosomes. Each of these cells will continue to replicate its DNA and divide by mitosis (development). But we’ll talk about that next week. C. Comparing Meiosis and Mitosis. 1. Fill out the table below comparing mitosis and meiosis. CHARACTERISTIC

MITOSIS

MEIOSIS

Is the parent cell haploid or diploid? How many daughter cells are formed? Are the daughter cells are haploid or diploid? During metaphase, how do chromosomes line up at the equator (homologous pairs or individually)? Where in the body does this type of division occur (everywhere/gonads)? What type of cell results from this division (somatic or gamete)? 2. If a parent cell containing 30 chromosomes underwent mitosis, how many chromosomes would each daughter cell have? How many daughter cells would there be? 3. If a parent cell containing 30 chromosomes underwent meiosis, how many chromosomes would each daughter cell have? How many daughter cells would there be?

D. Spermatogenesis and Spermiogenesis. 1. What events occur in spermiogenesis?

- 138 -

2. Why are the mitochondria located where they are? 3. Where is the DNA stored? 4. What is contained in the acrosome? Why? E. Oogenesis and Ovulation 1. What stage is the oocyte at when it is ovulated? 2. What has to happen before the secondary oocyte can complete meiosis? 3. Why does oogenesis result in only one oocyte instead of four? What purpose does this serve (think cytoplasm)?

F. Comparing Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis. 1. Fill in the table blow comparing spermatogenesis and oogenesis. CHARACTERISITIC SPERMATOGENESIS How many viable gametes are produced from one parent cell? Describe the gamete in terms of size and mobility. Is the gamete diploid or haploid? Where does the process begin and where is it complete? What is the average number and frequency of gametes produced?

- 139 -

OOGENESIS

Akkaraju, Liachovitzky & McDaniel, 2014-15

Lab 13 – The Reproductive System: Human Development

Objectives Checklist - After completion of this lab, you should be able to:  describe the processes of capacitation and  describe the fate of the three germ layers fertilization (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm)  differentiate between secondary oocytes,  describe the special features of fetal zygote, morula and blastocyst circulation and explain the purpose of each  describe the process of implantation  explain how twins are formed and the difference between fraternal and identical  describe the formation of the placenta and twins embryonic membranes and their functions  differentiate between pre-embryonic, embryonic and fetal stages of development

Pre-Lab Activities A. Fertilization 1. Label the following diagram with the terms below. acrosome nucleus first polar body secondary oocyte second meiotic division cell membrane of oocyte zona pellucida corona radiata

2. Where (specifically) does this process take place in the body?

B. Cleavage 1. Label the following diagram with the terms in the box. Draw lines from each stage to its location in the uterine tube or uterus. morula zygote ovary 2-cell stage 4-cell stage 8 cell stage oocyte blastocyst cleavage 2. When the zygote divides, is it using meiosis or mitosis? - 140 -

C. The Placenta and Embryonic Membranes 1. Label the diagram below with the terms in the box. chorion chorionic villi trophoblast amniotic sac amniotic cavity inner cell mass germ layers ectoderm mesoderm endoderm blastocyst yolk sac 2. Complete the following table with the functions of each of the embryonic membranes. Embryonic Membrane Function Yolk Sac Chorion (& chorionic villi) Allantois Amnion

3. Complete the following table with the organs/systems that arise from each of the germ layers. Germ Layer Fate Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm

D. Fetal Circulation 1. Label the diagram below with the terms in the box. Note: this diagram can be a little confusing. If you look closely at the number 5 in the diagram, youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll see what is supposed to be the fetusâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; belly - 141 -

button. Coming out from that (down and left) is the umbilical cord which attaches to the placenta (and then to the mother). On the other side of the belly button are the organs and vessels of the fetus. iliac artery umbilical artery ductus arteriosus umbilical vein Aorta foramen ovale ductus venosus vena cava

Lab Activities A. Fertilization 1. Sperm must undergo capacitation before they are capable of fertilizing the egg. What is capacitation? What causes it?

2. What barriers must a sperm cross in order to fuse with the egg? How does the sperm accomplish this feat?

3. Only one sperm can gain entrance into the secondary oocyte (egg). How is the passage of other sperm into the oocyte (egg) prevented? There are two processes -fast and slow- be sure to describe both.

4. What would be the consequences if polyspermy was not prevented?

- 142 -

B. Cleavage 1. Find each of the organs that you labeled in the Pre-Lab Activities on models in the lab. Remember, you will be tested using models! 2. How does the zygote (or morula or blastocyst) travel through the uterine tube?

3. What is the name of the structure that ultimately implants in the uterus? What would happen if it didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t make it all the way?

C. Implantation 1. Find each of the organs that you labeled in the Pre-Lab Activities on models in the lab. Remember, you will be tested using models! 2. What is the fate of the trophoblast? Label the trophoblast in the figure on the right.

3. What is the fate of the inner cell mass? Label it.

4. Which of the structures produces human chorionic gonodotropin (HCG)? Label it in the diagram on the right.

5. What is the function of HCG? What would happen to the implanted blastocyst if HCG were not secreted?

D. The Placenta and Embryonic Membranes 1. Find each of the organs that you labeled in the Pre-Lab Activities on models in the lab. Remember, you will be tested using models! 2. What is the purpose of the placenta?

3. Which part of the blastocyst eventually becomes the fetal placenta? 4. In birds, developing chicks rely on the yolk sac to provide essential nutrients, but in humans, this is not the case. Why donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t we need it to provide nutrition? - 143 -

5. What is amniocentesis? How is it done?

E. Fetal Circulation 1. Examine the diagram of fetal circulation again. Why is the umbilical vein red? 2. Why arenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t the pulmonary veins red like they would be in adult circulation?

3. What is the function of the ductus venosus?

4. What is the function of the ductus arteriosus?

5. What is the function of the foramen ovale?

6. Which organ has taken over the function of pulmonary gas exchange? How can you tell?

7. Why is the umbilical artery purple?

- 144 -

- 145 -

LABORATORY RULES - ME401/ME402 Read the rules & sign the agreement below, and hand In to your lab instructor Laboratory Safety: Lab safety is everyoneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s responsibility. 1. Be familiar with the exercises and experiments that you will be doing before coming to laboratory. This will increase your understanding, enjoyment, and safety during the laboratory. 2. Know your own allergies and be aware of the potential allergens (e.g. penicillin, pollen, latex) that might be present in the laboratory. Take the necessary precautions to prevent allergic reactions. 3. Know where the shower, eyewash bath, and fire extinguisher are and how and when to use them. 4. Do not put backpacks, bags, and other personal items on the lab bench. Keep them out of the way under the bench. 5. Follow all protocols (instructions for experimental procedures) carefully. Varying the order could be dangerous. 6. Approach all chemicals with caution. Do not taste or inhale (smell) chemicals. Avoid getting chemicals on your skin. We may use strong acids and bases that can cause chemical burns. We may use chemicals that have been linked to causing cancer (carcinogens). 7. Wash your hands before and after each laboratory session. Good hygiene is important in limiting the spread of disease. Hand-washing will also get rid of any chemical residues you might have inadvertently been exposed to. 8. No food or drink in the laboratory, including water. If you are thirsty or hungry, leave the classroom. 9. Smoking is prohibited in all public buildings in New York City, including this one. 10. Report accidents and breakages or any equipment that is malfunctioning to your professor. Do not attempt to clean up any spills or breakages yourself. Tell your professor. 11. Long hair and flowing clothing can be dangerous in the laboratory because they can get caught. Opentoed shoes or sandals are not to be worn in the lab because chemicals might spill directly on your skin. You may bring an old shirt to class to wear over you clothing. 12. Do not wear contact lenses in the lab. Lenses may absorb fumes and cause permanent damage. 13. Never remove chemicals, equipment, or parts of models from the laboratory. Anyone caught doing so is subject to disciplinary action. 14. Leave the lab in the same or better condition than when you entered. Put all microscopes back properly. Clean lab benches. Return all materials to the cart. Wash any glassware, slides, trays that you have used. Dispose of specimens in appropriate containers.

CUT OVER THE DOTTED LINE AND HAND IN TO YOUR LAB INSTRUCTOR - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - I have read the above material and I understand and agree to comply with these rules. I understand that I may be removed from the lab if I do not comply. Biology ____ Section ________ Instructor _____________________________________________ Name (print) ________________________________________________ Date ________________ Signature ______________________________________________

- 146 -