Biodiversitas vol. 13, no. 4, October 2012

ISSN: 1412-033X E-ISSN: 2085-4722

Journal of Biological Diversity Volume

13 – Number 4 – October 2012

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Society for Indonesia Biodiversity

Sebelas Maret University Surakarta

B I O D I V E R S IT A S Volume 13, Number 4, October 2012 Pages: 161-171

ISSN: 1412-033X E-ISSN: 2085-4722 DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d130401

Species diversity of critically endangered pristid sawfishes (Elasmobranchii: Pristidae) of Nusantara waters (Malay Archipelago) SUTARNO1, AHMAD DWI SETYAWAN1,♥, IWAN SUYATNA2 1

Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Sebelas Maret University. Jl. Ir. Sutami 36A 57 126 Surakarta, Central Java, Indonesia. Tel./Fax. +62-271-663375, email: volatileoils@gmail.com 2 Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Mulawarman University, Kampus Gunung Kelua, Samarinda 75116, East Kalimantan, Indonesia.

Manuscript received: 20 August 2011. Revision accepted: 20 October 2012.

ABSTRACT Sutarno, Setyawan AD, Suyatna I. 2012. Species diversity of critically endangered pristid sawfishes (Elasmobranchii: Pristidae) of Nusantara waters (Malay Archipelago). Biodiversitas 13: 161-171. The pristid sawfishes (Pristidae) are notable because of their sawlike rostrum and large body size (up to seven meters). All pristids are listed as critically endangered by IUCN, since decreasing population; Nusantara is home for five pristid species, namely: Anoxypristis cuspidata Latham, 1794, Pristis clavata Garman, 1906, Pristis microdon Latham, 1794, Pristis zijsron Bleeker, 1851, and Pristis pectinata Latham, 1794. A. cuspidata differ from Pristid spp. by the presence of a very narrow rostral saw, with 16 to 29 pairs of teeth except for the part along the quarter of the rostral saw near the head. P. microdon has a highly defined groove that runs along the entire posterior edge of the tooth into and beyond its confluence with the rostrum. This groove is absent in juvenile of P. clavata and whilst it develops in larger individuals it rarely runs along the entire posterior edge of the tooth or reach its confluence with the rostrum. P. clavata possibly have been misidentified as P. pectinata, whose distribution in the Indo-West Pacific is uncertain. P. clavata can be distinguished from P. pectinata and P. zijsron by the possession of fewer rostral teeth (18 to 22 in P. clavata cf. 24 to 28 in P. zijsron and 24 to 34 in P. pectinata), and by its smaller body size (i.e. less than 250 cm TL in P. clavata). P. microdon indicates different sexes of the number of rostral teeth, i.e. 17-21 in female cf. 19-23 in male, but in P. clavata, it can not be used to differentiate male from female, with both sexes possessing an average of 42 rostral teeth. In P. clavata the dorsal fin origin is opposite or slightly behind the pelvic fin origin, the rostum is relatively shorter (22-24% of TL), the lower cauda fin lobe is smaller.

Key words: Anoxypristis, pristid, Pristis, sawfish, Nusantara, Malay Archipelago.

INTRODUCTION The pristids sawfishes (Family Pristidae Bonaparte, 1838; Greek: pristēs meaning a sawyer or a saw) are a group of iconic-benthic species of elasmobranchs that are notable because of their large body size (up to seven meters) and saw-like projection of the upper jaw bearing lateral teethlike denticles, termed as rostrum (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953; Last and Stevens 2009), that is used to hunt and stun prey (Compagno 1977; Last and Stevens 2009). The rostral teeth grow continuously from the base and attach to the rostrum via alveoli (Slaughter and Springer 1968; Compagno and Last 1999). The peduncle is not expanded and the dentine cap is easily worn off (Slaughter and Springer 1968).

The taxonomy of the pristid family is chaotic and one of the most problematic in the elasmobranch families (Ishihara et al. 1991; Compagno and Cook 1995; van Oijen et al. 2007; Wiley et al. 2008), with uncertainty regarding the true number of species (Ishihara et al. 1991; Deynat 2005). The single family Pristidae is divided into two genera, Pristis Linck 1790 and Anoxypristis White & MoyThomas, 1941. The genus Pristis comprises six putative species; two species are distributed in the Atlantic East Pacific (AEP), i.e. Pristis pristis L, 1758 (Common

sawfish) and Pristis perotteti Muller & Henle, 1841 (Largetooth sawfish); three species are distributed in the Indo West Pacific (IWP), i.e. Pristis clavata Garman, 1906 (Dwarf sawfish), Pristis microdon Latham, 1794 (Freshwater sawfish), and Pristis zijsron Bleeker, 1851 (Green sawfish); and one species Pristis pectinata Latham, 1794 (Smalltooth sawfish) is distributed worldwide, although AEP is the main distribution area. The genus Anoxypristis is represented by a single IWP species, Anoxypristis cuspidata Latham, 1794 (Knifetooth sawfish) (Compagno 1999; Compagno and Last 1999; McEachran and de Cavarlho 2002). All IWP pristids have been identified in Nusantara, although it is rarely found.

Pistids are rarely found and the whole body rarely collected completely, since they have large body size, then a few description is based on parts of speciment. Species descriptions of pristids based on isolated body parts have caused confusion and often misidentification. P. zijsron was described solely on the basis of its rostrum; Pristis dubius Bleeker 1852 (syn. P. zijsron) was described solely on the basis of its caudal fin; and Pristis leichardti Whitley 1945 (syn. P. microdon) was described only from a single photograph (Thorburn et al. 2003; van Oijen et al. 2007).

The problems associated with the systematics of pristids

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may only be solved with genetic analyses, for some species may be morphologically identical (Thorburn et al. 2003).

Resolving this taxonomic uncertainty has been a major problem, since it is difficult to obtain tissue samples from these increasingly rare animals for taxonomic research.

Pristids have a large body size and are thought to have high longevity, late maturity, viviparous reproduction, and low fecundity (Thorburn et al. 2007; Peverell 2008). On the basis that they are large, mobile, and marine, adult pristids seemingly have the potential to distribute over vast distances. However, virtually all of the available data on pristid movements pertain to juveniles and sub-adults found in coastal or riverine nursery areas (e.g. Peverell 2005; Thorburn et al. 2007; Whitty et al. 2009). There is a suggestion that the dispersal in elasmobranchs is often dictated by individual or social behavior, and female philopatry appears to be common in species where adult and juvenile habitats are spatially removed (Feldheim et al.

2001; Keeney et al. 2005).

Pristids occur inshore, in freshwater and in marine environments to a maximum depth of 122 m (McEachran and de Cavarlho 2002; Simpfendorfer 2006). P. microdon has habitat partitioning in different life stages, with juveniles utilising freshwaters as nursery grounds and penetrating long distances into freshwater while adults use marine waters (Taniuchi et al. 1991; Thorburn et al. 2003, 2007; Peverell 2005). While P. clavata may adopt a strategy similar to that of P. microdon, where juveniles remain within rivers and move offshore upon maturation (Thorburn et al. 2007). The juvenile of P. clavata appear to utilise estuarine waters only (Thorburn et al. 2008), and was not encountered in freshwaters above the tidal limit (Morgan et al. 2004; Thorburn et al. 2004). Female philopatry coupled with male-dispersal is common in elasmobranch species in which adult and juvenile habitat is spatially removed (Springer 1967; Ebert 1996; Feldheim et al. 2001, 2004; Keeney et al. 2005).

The biology of P. zijsron, P. clavata, and P. microdon is generally believed to be similar with the exceptions of adult size and juvenile habitat use. The adults of P. zijsron and P. microdon are both relatively large (up to seven meters) (Last and Stevens 2009), while those of P. clavata are smaller (up to at least three meters) (Peverell 2005; Last and Stevens 2009). This size difference is potentially relevant as it might influence the potential dispersal of the species (assuming that larger adults can traverse greater distances) and therefore the amount of metapopulation (Jenkins et al. 2007). The life cycles of P. zijsron and P. clavata are fairly typical of pristids because they are completed entirely in marine waters; the juveniles are predominantly found in inshore waters and mangrove areas (Peverell 2005). In contrast, P. microdon are marineestuarine as adults, but spend the juveniles in the upper reaches of estuaries and freshwater rivers (Thorburn et al.

2007; Whitty et al. 2009). This life history strategy would make them especially vulnerable to over-exploitation (Stobutzki et al. 2002). There is disparity in the size at maturity of P. microdon suggesting there may be more than one species. A two meters male P. microdon in a Hong Kong aquarium (collected from Australia) was sexually

mature, while a 3.7 m male specimen in a Paris aquarium was immature (Stevens et al. 2005).

Sawfish populations have been declining worldwide (Stevens et al. 2000; Cavanagh et al. 2003), especially in the Indo-West Pacific (Compagno and Cook 1995) and the southern hemisphere (Cavanagh et al. 2003). All pristid species have undergone dramatic declines in range and abundance in recent times. A range of factors contributes to this vulnerability, including that pristids (i) have a relatively slow rate of population growth (K-selected life history) (Simpfendorfer 2000; Compagno et al. 2006); (ii) are actively exploited for a range of reasons, including as trophies and decorations (Peverell 2005; Thorburn et al.

2007; Siriraksophon 2012), aquarium and museum collections (Cook et al. 1995), cultural and spiritual purposes (Peverell 2005; Berra 2006) as well as sport/ recreational fishing (Seitz and Poulakis 2002; Peverell 2005); (iii) are feature in the by-catch of several fisheries and as a consequence suffers significant amounts of mortality (Simpfendorfer 2000; 2002; Pogonoski et al. 2002; Stobutzki et al. 2002; Gribble 2004), and (iv) have habitat degradation (Simpfendorfer 2000; 2002). Since the juveniles likely depend on rivers for their survival, pristids are vulnerable to the effects of the degradation of freshwater systems, as well as to the effects of coastal influences, and they are more susceptible to be captured in rivers (Saunders et al.

2002). A combination of their coastal shallow water distribution and their heavily toothed rostrum make all classes of pristid vulnerable to be captured by net and long line fisheries (Peverell 2005). P. microdon, P. zijsron, and P. clavata were once broadly distributed in the Indo-West Pacific region (Last and Stevens 2009); but, these species are now restricted to northern Australia (Pogonoski et al.

2002; Thorburn et al. 2003; Stevens et al. 2005; Last and Stevens 2009). Although the number of pristids in Australian have declined in recent times, these declines are probably not as extreme as those happened in other regions, such as Indonesia (Thorson 1982; Simpfendorfer 2000).

All pristids are currently listed as critically endangered worldwide by the World Conservation Union (IUCN 2010) and some of them are among the most endangered fishes (Stevens et al. 2000; Cavanagh et al. 2003). In the end of this year only four pristids species are listed in the Red List, namely A. cuspidata, P. clavata, P. pectinata and P. zijron (IUCN 2012). The taxonomic problem is the main reason for deleting the list of other species (Scott J, IUCN Red List Unit, pers. com. 2012). Trading of pristid sawfishes are also banned. In June 2007, all pristids were listed in Appendix I of CITES, except for P. microdon, which was listed in Appendix II; and has been annotated as follows: “for the exclusive purpose of allowing international trade in live animals to appropriate and acceptable aquaria for primary conservation purposes” (CITES 2008). Long before that, in 1999, the Indonesian government established that all species of pristid sawfishes are protected animals, then it is prohibited to hunt, to kill, to trade, and to consume (PP 7/1999). P. microdon breeding efforts has been attempted in Indonesia, but did not succeed due to lack of live fish as broodstock (Fahmi and Dharmadi 2005).

SUTARNO et al. – Pristid sawfishes of Nusantara

Pristids have been studied for a long time in Nusantara.

One species, P. zijsron, was named and described after a specimen collected from Banjarmasin, South Kalimantan.

Unfortunately, this research was not continued due to rarity of the specimen collection (large body size is the reason).

The main objective of this study was to assess taxonomic diversity of Pristidae in Nusantara waters (Islands of Southeast Asia or Malay Archipelago, Malesia).

MATERIALS AND METHODS The research materials are preserved specimens of pristid sawfishes (Pristidae) and data from previous research by literature review. Previous field studies have been conducted to trace the existence of pristids in Nusantara. As we know, Nusantara (Malay Archipelago) includes all Indonesian Archipelago, the Malay Peninsula, the Philippines, and New Guinea. The study was conducted by interviewing the fishermen, fish traders, coastal communities, government officials and local officials of the Marine and Fisheries Department, and also the interviews with fisheries experts, and did field surveys to sites known as a pristids habitat.

The previous study was conducted on the western coast of West Sumatra and Mentawai Islands, the northern coast of Sumatra (Aceh), the eastern coast of Jambi, the western coast of West Kalimantan (Peniti River estuary and surroundings), Barito River estuary and surroundings in South- and Central Kalimantan, Mahakam River estuary in East Kalimantan, Lake Sentani in Papua, and the river estuaries and coastal area of Merauke, South Papua.

Information about the existence of pristids also be traced in some Fish Auction Place (TPI) in Java, particularly in Juwana and Pekalongan. Field studies show that pristids ever present at all of those sites. Around 20-25 years ago, fishermen still caught and sold. But, in mid 2012, when the study was conducted, the live pristids or fresh specimens were not found anymore.

In this study, we successfully collected two pristids rostrum, which is one of P. microdon of Lake Sentani, Papua (caught 6 years before), and one of Pristis sp. of Merauke water, South Papua (caught one year before). The only information about the living pristids in the wild is in the south coast of Merauke, but in this study the live specimens were not captured. Information about the preserved pristids specimen also be traced to the various research centers and universities, but found only three specimen of pristids, i.e. a juvenile P. microdon collected

by Bogor Zoological Museum (MZB) Cibinong, Bogor in 1970s from Lake Sentani, Papua; and one pristid specimen collected by Office of Marine and Fisheries, Kutai Kartanegara District in 1975/1976 from Mahakam River Delta, i.e. Sungai Meriam, Anggana, Kutai Kartanegara, East Kalimantan (similar specimen caught from Muara Badak, Mahakan Delta has been lost).

Given the limited pristids specimen, the literature was very important in knowing taxonomy of Pristidae from Nusantara (Malay Archipelago). Some manuscripts were

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very valuable, i.e. Compagno and Last (1999), Deynat (2005), van Oijen et al. (2007), and Last and Stevens (2009).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Pristidae Bonaparte, 1838 Large to gigantic shark-like batoids (adults reaching 2.4 to 7 m total length (TL), placoid scales; no enlarged denticles, thorns, or spines on dorsal surface of trunk or tail. Moderately depressed trunk, thick and shark-like.

Moderately depressed precaudal tail, with lateral ridges on sides, tail which is not abruptly narrower than trunk, with no barbed sting (stinger or stinging spine) and no electric organs in tail. Head narrow, but moderately depressed; snout supported by a stout rostral cartilage, greatly elongated into a flat, rostral saw with a single row of large, transverse teeth on each side that grow continuously from their bases; saw is without small teeth or paired dermal barbels on its underside and without smaller teeth between the large ones on its sides; posteriormost rostral teeth well anterior to nostrils. Five small gill slits are on underside of front half of pectoral-fin bases, not visible in lateral view; no gill sieves or rakers on internal gill slits.

Eyes are dorsolateral on head and well anterior to spiracles. Mouth is transverse and straight, without knobs and depressions. Nostrils are well anterior and completely separated from mouth, far apart from each other and not connected to the mouth by nasoral grooves; short anterior nasal flaps, not connected with each other and not reaching mouth. Very small oral teeth, rounded-oval in shape and without cusps on their crowns, not laterally expanded and plate-like, similar in shape and in 60 or more rows in either jaw. Pectoral fins are small, starting from behind mouth, attached to posterior part of head over gills, and ending with well anterior to pelvic-fin bases. No large electric organs at bases of pectoral fins. Pelvic fins are angular, and not divided into anterior and posterior lobes.

Two large equal-size and widely separated dorsal fins present. These have similar angular or rounded-angular shape with distinct apices, anterior, posterior, and inner margins, and well-developed free rear tips, varying in shape from triangular to strongly falcate. First dorsal-fin base is anterior and over junction between trunk and tail, over or partially in front of the pelvic fins. Caudal fin is large, shark-like, strongly asymmetrical, with vertebral axis raised above body axis; lower caudal lobe is strong to weak, or absent. Dorsal surface is yellowish, brownish or grey-brown, or greenish above and on flanks, and white below. there are no prominent markings on body or fins though fins may be darker than body (Compagno and Last 1999).

Keys of identification Key to the species of sawfishes (Pristidae) occuring in Nusantara waters, the Malay Archipelago (Compagno and Last 1999; Figure 1).

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1a Posteriormost teeth on rostral saw well anterior to base of saw; rostral teeth greatly flattened, blade-like, and triangular, with single sharp anterior and posterior edges in adults and a posterior barb in young; broad incurrent apertures; long nostrils, narrow, and between edges of head and nostril incurrent apertures; long nostrils, narrow, and diagonal, small and narrow anterior nasal flaps; narrow-based, high and short pectoral fins; first dorsal fin with origin over or slightly posterior to pelvicfin insertions; a secondary caudal keel below the first one on the caudal-fin base; caudal fin with a shallow subterminal notch and a long, prominent ventral lobe ………………..… …………………… Anoxypristis cuspidata 1b Posteriormost tooth on rostral saw just anterior to base of saw; elongated, and peg or awl-like, moderately flattened rostral teeth, with rounded anterior edge and double posterior edges with a groove between them in adults of all species and in young of some species (Pristis microdon); no incurrent grooves on underside of snout between edges of head and nostril incurrent apertures; short, broad, and transverse nostrils, large and broad anterior nasal flaps; broad-based, low, and long pectoral fins; first dorsal fin with anterior base, over of somewhat posterior to pelvic-fin bases but ahead of pelvic-fin insertions; no secondary caudal keel below the main one on the caudal-fin base; caudal fin without a subterminal notch and with short ventral lobe or none. ………………….. ………………………………… 2 (Pristis) 2a Caudal fin with a short but conspicuous ventral lobe; base of first dorsal fin considerably anterior to pelvicfin.……………………………….... ….…… Pristis microdon 2b Caudal fin without definite ventral lobe; base of first dorsal fin varies from over or slightly anterior to pelvicfin, to slightly behind midbases of pelvic fins ………..

3 3a Base of first dorsal fin over or anterior to pelvic-fin (20 to 32, usually 25 or more, pairs of rostral teeth)...…… ………………………………………………. Pristis pectinata 3b Base of first dorsal fin behind pelvic-fin …………….…

4 4a First dorsal-fin base posterior to midbases of pelvic fins; 23 to 34 pairs to rostral teeth; size to 610 cm or more..… ………………… …………………………..… Pristis zijsron 4b First dorsal-fin base anterior to the midbases of pelvic fins; 18 to 22 pairs of rostral teeth; size possibly to about 140 cm. …………… ………………………… Pristis clavata

Description Anoxypristis cuspidata Latham, 1794 Synonym: *Pristis cuspidatus Latham, 1794; *Anoxypristis cuspidate Latham, 1794; *Anoxypristis cuspidatus Latham, 1794; *Pristis cuspidate Latham, 1794; Squalus semisagittatus Shaw, 1804; Pristis semisagittatus Shaw, 1804. Note: * = misspellings (Froese and Pauly 2011).

Common name: Knifetooth sawfish (Aust.), Narrow sawfish (FAO), Pointed sawfish.

Description: Maximum length 470 cm TL (max. lengths of up to 610 cm TL are based on unconfirmed reports). Length at first maturity 246-282 cm. Greyish above, pale below; fins usually pale. shark-like body, distinct pectoral fins; flattened head, with a blade-like snout bearing 18-22 pairs of lateral teeth; slender blade, not tapering distally. Nostrils are very narrow with small nasal flaps. Short rostral teeth, flattened, broadly triangular, lack

of groove along posterior margins; no teeth on basal quarter of blade. Adults are with widely spaced denticles, whilest young with naked skin (Compagno and Last 1999).

Ecology: A marine, euryhaline (moving between fresh and salt water) or marginal (brackish water), these species are found from inshore in the intertidal waters to a depth of 40 m, frequents river deltas and estuaries, and may go upstream in rivers. They are common in sheltered bays with sandy bottoms. Feeds on small fish and cuttlefish (Compagno and Last 1999; Riede 2004). Though details of its ecology are not precisely known, it probably spends most of its time on or near the bottom in the shallow coastal waters and estuaries it inhabits. The sawfishes are all ovoviviparous (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997). Females of this species can be pregnant at 246 to 282 cm. Litters range from 6 to 23 young. Age at maturity, longevity and average generation time are unknown (Compagno et al. 2005, 2006, Last and Stevens 2009). Generally harmless but its sawlike snout may cause serious injury when it is caught: it is known to thrash violently and vigorously (Compagno and Last 1999).

Distribution: This large sawfish was formerly distributed through much of the Indo-West Pacific region in shallow inshore coastal waters and estuaries, apparently declining in some areas (Compagno et al. 2005). Historically, it is a relatively common euryhaline or marginal of the Indo-West Pacific. It has been reported in inshore and estuarine environments from the mouth of the Suez Canal, throughout the Red Sea, the Persian (Arabian) Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the Malay Archipelago to the northern Australia. In mainland Asia it was reported from the Gulf of Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, China to Korea and out to the southern portion of Japan (Honshu), as well as the north west of Taiwan (Compagno and Cook 1995a; Compagno and Last 1999; Compagno et al. 2006; Last and Stevens 2009). Brackish water records have been reported from the Oriomo River estuary, Papua-New Guinea (Taniuchi et al. 1991).

In Nusantara, it has been reported from Kalimantan: Kinabatangan River of Sabah (Fowler 2002), estuaries and inshore coastal waters of Sabah and Brunei (Manjaji 2002; Siriraksophon 2012); the Philippines; Malay Peninsula: Malacca, Pinang, and Singapore (Siriraksophon 2012; van Oijen et al. 2007); Java: Jakarta (Batavia) and Semarang in sea waters (van Oijen et al. 2007); New Guinea: Oriomo River of Papua New Guinea (Compagno 2002; Taniuchi 2002; Fowler 2002), and somewhere in Indonesia (Siriraksophon 2012) (Figure 2A).

Conservation status: Critically Endangered (CR) (A2bcd+3cd+4bcd) (IUCN 2012); Appendix I (CITES 2008); Protected (PP 7/1999).

Human uses: Commercial fisheries, caught for its flesh and liver (Last and Stevens 2009), gamefish.

Taxonomic note: A. cuspidata is distinguished from sawfish of the genus Pristis by the presence of a very narrow rostral saw, with 16 to 29 pairs of distinctive dagger-shaped teeth on the rostrum but no teeth along the quarter of the rostral saw nearest to the head . It has a distinct lower caudal lobe (Compagno et al. 2006).

SUTARNO et al. – Pristid sawfishes of Nusantara

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PRISTID SAWFISHES SPECIES IDENTIFICATION

Snout has 24-34 pairs of teeth

First dorsal fin over or anterior to pelvic-fin

First dorsal begins behind pelvic fin

Dark gray to blackish brown

Olive green

Pristis pectinata

Snout has less than 24 pairs of teeth

18-22 pairs of teeth beginning Some distance from the head Greyish

Pristis zijsron

Anoxypristic cuspidata

Teeth starting close to the head and spaced evenly or close to evenly

Pristis clavata

Lacking of a groove or it is not present along the entire length of the tooth

Strong groove present along the posterior edge of the rostral teeth

First dorsal fin slightly behind pelvic fins

First dorsal fin begins in front of pelvic fins

Green/brown

Yellowish Pristis microdon

Figure 1. The key identification of pristid sawfishes in Nusantara waters, the Malay Archipelago (after Daley et al. 2002; McAuley et al.

2002; Thorburn 2006).

B I O D I V E R S IT A S 13 (4): 161-171, October 2012

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A

B

D

E

C

Figure 2. Species distribution of pristid sawfishes in Nusantara waters, the Malay Archipelago. A. A. cuspidata, B. P. clavata, C. P. microdon, D. P. pectinata and E. P. zijron. Note: grey area = formerly or potential area distribution of pristids (Compagno and Last 1999); = pristids record.

Pristis clavata Garman, 1906 Synonym: Misapplied name: Pristis pectinata (non Latham, 1794) (Froese and Pauly 2011).

Common name: Dwarf sawfish (Aust.), Queensland sawfish Description: Maximum length is 140 cm TL. Greenish brown, rarely yellowish; ventrally white; paler fins. sharklike body, distinct pectoral fins; flattened head, with a blade-like snout bearing 18-22 pairs of lateral teeth; broad blade, not tapering distally. Broad nostrils with large nasal flaps. Slender rostral teeth, with a groove along posterior margins; teeth reaching basal quarter of blade. Skin with denticles (Compagno and Last 1999). Biology little known (Compagno and Last 1999).

Ecology: Inshore and intertidal species found in estuaries and on tidal mudflats. Ascends brackish areas of rivers (Compagno and Last 1999). Coastal and estuarine habitats in tropical Australia, particularly over mudflats in the Gulf of Carpentaria (Pogonoski et al. 2002). It occurs some distance upriver, almost into freshwater (Last and Stevens 2009). This relatively small sawfish may be restricted to the tropical coasts and estuaries of north and north-western Australia, or more widely distributed through the Indo-Pacific. Australian populations have declined significantly as a result of bycatch in commercial gillnet and trawl fisheries throughout this limited range and this bycatch continues, in commercial and recreational fisheries. When this sawfish occurs outside Australian waters, these areas are fished even more intensive and populations over there are likely to be nearing extirpation (IUCN 2012). Ovoviviparous (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997).

Distribution: Confirmation comes from tropical coastal and estuarine habitats in Northern and Northwestern Australia. Other records are unconfirmed, but it may occur or have occurred more widely in Indo-West Pacific areas (IUCN 2012). A record of the occurence of P. clavata in the Canary Islands may not be this species. The species is likely P. pristis that naturally spread in the eastern Atlantic.

Both species are known similar and needs further research to determine if the two species are distinct (Compagno and Last 1999).

In Nusantara, it was recorded from New Guinea: south coast of Papua New Guinea (e.g. Macaraeg RA, 2002, blogroll/pers. com; need more confirmation) (Figure 2B).

Conservation status: Critically Endangered (CR) (A2bcd+3cd+4bcd ver 3.1 ) (IUCN 2012); Appendix I (CITES 2008); Protected (PP 7/1999) Human uses: Flesh may be good to eat (Last and Stevens 2009).

Taxonomic note: On the basis of rostral tooth morphology, P. clavata may be different from P. microdon, which possesses a similar number of rostral teeth. In P. microdon, a highly defined groove runs along the entire posterior edge of the tooth into and beyond its confluence with the blade of the rostrum (Thorburn et al. 2007). In contrast, this groove is absent in juvenile of P. clavata and whilst it develops in larger individuals. It rarely runs along the entire posterior edge of the tooth or reachs its confluence with the rostrum. Furthermore, P. clavata can be distinguished from P. pectinata and P. zijsron by the possession of fewer rostral teeth (18 to 22 in P. clavata cf.

24 to 28 in P. zijsron and 24 to 34 in P. pectinata) (Thorburn et al. 2007; Last and Stevens 2009), and by its

SUTARNO et al. – Pristid sawfishes of Nusantara

smaller size (i.e. less than 250 cm TL in P. clavata). In P. microdon different sexes can be indicated by the number of rostral teeth, i.e. 17-21 in female cf. 19-23 in male, but in P. clavata, it can not be used to differentiate male from female, for both sexes possesses an average of 42 rostral teeth (Thorburn et al. 2008). In P. clavata the dorsal fin origin is opposite or slightly behind the pelvic fin origin, the rostum is relatively shorter (22-24% of TL), the lower cauda fin lobe is smaller (Compagno and Last 1998).

Pristis microdon Latham, 1794 Synonym: Misapplied name: Pristis antiquorum (non Latham, 1794); Pristis perotteti (non Müller & Henle, 1841); Pristis pristis (non Linneaus, 1758). Ambiguous synonym: Pristiopsis leichhardti Whitley, 1945; Pristis zephyreus Jordan & Starks, 1895 (Froese and Pauly 2011), Pristis leichardti Whitley 1945.

Common name: Freshwater sawfish (Aust.), Largetooth sawfish (FAO), Leichhardt’s sawfish Description: Maximum length is 700 cm TL (White et al. 2005); common length is 500 cm TL (Schneider 1990); max. published weight is 600 kg (Stehmann 1981); max. reported age is 30 years (Compagno and Last 1999) (up to 44 years). Length at first maturity is 240-300 cm; slow to mature (about seven years) and has low fecundity (a litter size of 1-12 young) (Tanaka 1991; Thorburn et al. 2007). A heavily-bodied sawfish with a short but massive saw which is broad-based, strongly tapering and with 14-22-(23) very large teeth on each side; space between last 2 saw-teeth on sides less than 2 times space between first 2 teeth (Compagno et al. 1989). Interspace between the posterior rostral teeth is once or twice greater than that between the anterior teeth. Origin of the first dorsal fin is in front of level of the origin pelvic fin. Caudal fin has a small but distinct ventral lobe (Seret 2006). Pectoral fins are high and angular, first dorsal fin is mostly in front of pelvic fins, and caudal fin with pronounced lower lobe (Compagno et al.

1989). Greenish, grey or golden-brown above, cream below (Compagno et al. 1989).

Ecology: Inhabits sandy or muddy bottoms of shallow coastal waters, estuaries, river mouths, and freshwater rivers and lakes, until 10 m depth (Riede 2004); Reiner 1996). Usually found in turbid channels of large rivers over soft mud bottoms (Allen et al. 2002). Adults are usually found in estuaries and coastal areas, and the juveniles in fresh water. Most of the rivers in which it becomes into a series of pools in the dry season, reducing its available habitat (Last 2002). Large adults can also be found in fresh water, but are rarely caught (Rainboth 1996). They are the bottom dweller of estuaries and large river systems. Feeds on benthic animals and small schooling species.

Ovoviviparous, producing 15-20 embryos (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997). The saw is used for grubbing and attacking prey as well as for defense. The saws are sold as tourist souvenirs (Skelton 1993). Occasionally, they are caught by demersal tangle net and trawl fisheries in the Arafura Sea; they possibly have been extinct in parts of the Indo-Pacific; they are highly susceptible to gill nets. They are utilized for the fins and meat (both are very expensive), and also their skin and cartilage (White et al. 2006).

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Distribution: Indo-West Pacific, from East Africa to New Guinea, north to the Philippines and Vietnam, south to Australia. Also Atlantic East Pacific, if Pristis perotteti and Pristis zephyreus are synonymized with P. microdon.

The original description of P. microdon did not give further explaination, but most authors have used the name Pristis microdon for the Indo-West Pacific sawfishes of this species group as contrasted from the Atlantic P. perotteti and the eastern Pacific P. zephyreus (Compagno and Last 1999).

In Nusantara, its occurence has been reported from Sumatra: Indragiri River, Riau (Taniuchi 1979, 2002), Batanghari River, Jambi (Tan and Lim 1998); Kalimantan: Kinabatangan River, Sabah (Fowler 2002; Compagno 2002), Kampong Batu Putih in Kinabatangan River, Kampong Tetabuan in Labuk Bay, Kampong Tomanggong in Segama, Sabah (Manjaji 2002), Brunei (Siriraksophon 2012); Banjarmasin, South Kalimantan in river waters (van Oijen et al. 2007); somewhere in Indonesian Borneo (Compagno 2002); Sungai Meriam, Anggana, Mahakan Delta, East Kalimantan (collection of Office of Marine and Fisheries, Kutai Kartanegara District, but need molecular identification, since it is only rostrum without teeth); the Philippines: Luzon (Compagno and Last 1999); Malay Peninsula and Singapore (Siriraksophon 2012); Java: Jakarta (Batavia) and Gresik in sea waters, Surakarta in river of Kali Pepe, caught in 1846 (van Oijen et al. 2007), somewhere in Java (Compagno and Last 1999), New Guinea: Oriomo River (Papua New Guinea), Lake Murray (Papua New Guinea), Sepik River (Papua New Guinea) (Taniuchi 2002; Fowler 2002), Sentani Lake, Jayapura, Papua (our personal collection and MZB collection), Merauke, South Papua (our personal collection, but need more investigation); somewhere in Papua New Guinea and Indonesia (Morgan et al. 2011) (Figure 2C).

Conservation status: Critically Endangered (CR) (A2bcd+3cd+4bcd ver 3.1 ) (IUCN 2012); Appendix II (CITES 2008); Protected (PP 7/1999) Human uses: Minor commercial fisheries (marketed salted); the saws are sold as tourist souvenirs (Skelton 1993), gamefish.

Pristis pectinata Latham, 1794 Synonym: Pristis acutirostris Duméril, 1865; Pristis annandalei Chaudhuri, 1908; Pristis granulosa Bloch & Schneider, 1801; Pristis leptodon Duméril, 1865; Pristis megalodon Duméril, 1865; *Pristis pectinatus Latham, 1794. Misapplied name: Pristis antiquorum (non Latham, 1794); Pristis clavata (non Garman, 1906); Pristis zijsron (non Bleeker, 1851). Ambiguous synonym: *Pristis evermanni Fischer, 1884; Pristis occa (Duméril, 1865); Pristis serra Bloch & Schneider, 1801; Pristis woermanni Fischer, 1884; Pristobatus occa Duméril, 1865. Note: * = misspellings name (Froese and Pauly 2011).

Common name: Smalltooth sawfish (FAO), Wide sawfish Description: Maximum length is 760 cm TL; common length is 550 cm TL (Last and Stevens 2009); max. published weight is 350 kg (Stehmann 1981). Long, flat, blade-like rostrum with (20)-24 to 32 pairs of teeth along

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the edges. Interspace between the posterior rostral teeth is 2 to 4 times greater than that between the anterior teeth. Base of the first dorsal fin is at level of the pelvic fin base.

Caudal fin is large and oblique without a distinct ventral lobe (Seret 2006). Dark gray to blackish brown above, paler along margins of fins. White to grayish white or pale yellow below (Bigelow et al. 1953). In Nusantara, it present has been reported from the Philippines.

Ecology: Inshore and intertidal species; in shallow bays, lagoons and estuaries, also in freshwater (Riede 2004), until depth of 10 m (Stehmann 1990). it may cross deep water to reach offshore islands; and swim up rivers for it can tolerate fresh water (Compagno and Last 1999). It commonly be seen in bays, lagoons, estuaries, and river mouths. Also it can be found in rivers and lakes (Michael 1993). Feeding on fishes and shellfishes (Vidthayanon 2005). Ovoviviparous (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997). Using its saw to stir the bottom when feeding on bottom invertebrates and to kill pelagic fishes (Compagno and Last 1999). It is utilized as a food fish; its oil is used as medicine, soap and in leather tanning (Last and Stevens 2009). Adults stuffed is for decoration (Last and Stevens 2009). It is reported to be aggressive towards sharks when it is kept in tanks (Michael 1993). Because it grows slowly, it is believed to mature late and large individuals are thought to be very old. The four-generation period could be 100 years or more. Bigelow and Schroeder (1953b) suggest that large females produce between 15 and 20 young per year; the young are born at 70 to 80 cm TL. Size at maturity is estimated as 320 cm TL. Maximum life span is estimated to be 40 to 70 yrs and generation times are approximately 27 yr. Annual rate of population increase estimated as 0.08 to 0.13. (Adams and Williams 1995, Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Simpfendorfer 2000, 2002, Adams 2005). Juveniles are common in very shallow waters, but adults occur to depths over 100 m (Poulakis and Seitz 2004, Simpfendorfer and Wiley 2005). They are thought to spend most time on or near the seabed, but occasionally swim at the surface. There are many records from coastal lagoons, estuarine environments and the lower, brackish drainages of rivers (Yarrow 1877, Bigelow and Schroeder 1953b, Swingle 1971). The food of P. pectinata is primarily fish, but it also consumes crustaceans and other bottom dwelling organisms (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953b). Breder (1952) summarized the function of the saw in the feeding strategy of P. pectinata, noting that prey is impaled on the rostral teeth then scraped-off on the bottom and consumed (Adam et al. 2006).

Distribution: It is known from tropical and warm temperate nearshore ocean waters; circumglobal. It is in Western Atlantic from North Carolina (USA), Caribbean and northern Gulf of Mexico (Robins and Ray 1986) to Argentina (Menni and Lucifora 2007). It is in Eastern Atlantic from Gibraltar to southern Angola (possibly northern Namibia), it is possibly in the Mediterranean Sea. It can be found in Indo-West Pacific from the Red Sea and East Africa to the Philippines, and south to the tropical Australia. Possibly, it occurrs in the eastern Pacific (Compagno and Last 1999). This large, widely distributed sawfish has been wholly or nearly extirpated from large

areas of its former range in the North Atlantic (Mediterranean, US Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico) and the Southwest Atlantic coast due to fishing and habitat changes. The remaining populations are now small, fragmented and critically endangered globally. It is apparently extinct in the Mediterranean and likely also the Northeast Atlantic. Reports of this species outside the Atlantic are now considered to have been misidentifications of other Pristis species.

In Nusantara: the Philippines (Compagno and Last 1999; Siriraksophon 2012) (Figure 2D).

Conservation status: Critically Endangered (CR) (A2bcd+3cd+4bcd ver 3.1 ) (IUCN 2012); Appendix I (CITES 2008); Protected (PP 7/1999) Human uses: Minor commercial fisheriy; gamefish; remedies for Asthma, rheumatism, arthritis (Alves and Rosa 2006; Alves et al. 2007; Alves and Rosa 2007) Taxonomic note: P. clavata possibly have been misidentified as P. pectinata, whose distribution in the Indo-Pacific is uncertain (Thorburn et al. 2007).

Pristis zijsron Bleeker, 1851 Synonym: Pristis granulosa Schneider & Bloch 1801; Pristis occa DumĂŠril 1865; Pristis woermanni Fischer 1884; *Pristis zyrson Bleeker, 1851; *Pristis zysron Bleeker, 1851; *Pristis zysross Bleeker, 1851; Misapplied name: Pristis antiquorum Latham 1794; Pristis clavata Garman 1906; *Pristis zisron Bleeker, 1851; Pristis pectinata (non Latham, 1794); Pristis pectinatus Latham 1794. Note: * = misspellings name (Froese and Pauly 2011), Pristis dubius Bleeker 1852 (van Oijen et al. 2007).

Common name: Green sawfish (Aust.), Longcomb sawfish (FAO), Narrowsnout sawfish Description: Maximum length 730 cm TL (Compagno et al. 1989); common length 550 cm TL. Length at first maturity 430 cm (Last and Stevens 2009). It is ovoviviparous (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997), giving birth to large young. Grant (1978) suggested that adult males use their saws during mating battles. Sawfishes generally feed on slow-moving shoaling fish such as mullet, which are stunned by sideswipes of the snout. Molluscs and small crustaceans are also swept out of the sand and mud by the saw (Allen 1982, Cliff and Wilson 1994). A male captured as a juvenile survived 35 years in captivity. Dark grey to blackish brown on above part, white to yellowish on below part (Heemstra 1995).

Ecology: Inshore and intertidal species are known to enter freshwater in some areas (Compagno and Last 1999).

They are found in shallow (demersal) bays, estuaries, and lagoons, with depth range of 5 m (Heemstra 1995; Compagno and Last 1999). They inhabits muddy bottom habitats and enters estuaries (Allen 1997). Often on the bottom, they lay with their saw elevated at an angle to the body axis (Compagno and Last 1999). Feeds on fishes and shellfishes (Vidthayanon 2005). It has been recorded in inshore marine waters to at least 40 m depth, in brackish water (estuaries and coastal lakes) and in rivers. Its habitat is heavily fished and often also subject to pollution, leading to habitat loss and degradation from coastal, riverine and catchment developments. A very large, formerly common,

SUTARNO et al. – Pristid sawfishes of Nusantara

Indo-West Pacific sawfish is recorded mainly in inshore marine habitats, also reported from freshwater. Like all sawfishes, it is extremely vulnerable to capture by target and bycatch fishing throughout its range, which has contracted significantly as a result. All populations are now very seriously depleted, with records having become extremely infrequent over the last 30 to 40 years (Froese and Pauly 2011).

Distribution: Indo-West Pacific from South Africa to the Persian Gulf, and eastwards to southern China, Papua New Guinea, south to New South Wales, Australia (Last and Stevens 2009).

In Nusantara, it has been reported from Kalimantan: Kampong Tetabuan in Labuk Bay, Sabah (Manjaji 2002), Brunei (Siriraksophon 2012); Banjarmasin (Banjermassing), South Kalimantan (van Oijen et al. 2007); Malay Peninsula and Singapore (Siriraksophon 2012); Java (Compagno 2002); Moluccas: Ternate (Compagno 2002), Ambon (van Oijen et al. 2007) (Figure 2E).

Conservation status: Critically Endangered (CR) (A2bcd+3cd+4bcd ver 3.1 ) (IUCN 2012); Appendix I (CITES 2008); Protected (PP 7/1999) Human uses: commercial fishery; gamefish Taxonomic notes: P. zijsron is a member of the Pristis pectinata complex, probably also containing P. clavata, with narrow-based, less tapered, lighter rostral saws, with more numerous (usually over 23), smaller teeth than species of the Pristis pristis complex. (Compagno et al.

2006).

CONCLUSION Five pristids species were found in Nusantara, namely: Anoxypristis cuspidata Latham, 1794, Pristis clavata Garman, 1906, Pristis microdon Latham, 1794, Pistis zijsron Bleeker 1851, and Pristis pectinata Latham, 1794.

A. cuspidata differs from Pristid spp. by the presence of a very narrow rostral saw, with 16 to 29 pairs of teeth but no teeth along the quarter of the rostral saw nearest to the head. P. microdon has a highly defined groove runs along the entire posterior edge of the tooth into and beyond its confluence with the rostrum. This groove is absent in juvenile of P. clavata and whilst in larger individuals, it develops, and it rarely runs along the entire posterior edge of the tooth or reach its confluence with the rostrum. P. clavata possibly have been misidentified as P. pectinata, whose distribution in the Indo-West Pacific is uncertain. P. clavata can be distinguished from P. pectinata and P. zijsron by the possession of fewer rostral teeth (18 to 22 in P. clavata cf. 24 to 28 in P. zijsron and 24 to 34 in P. pectinata), and by its smaller body size (i.e. less than 250 cm TL in P. clavata). P. microdon indicate different sexes of the number of rostral teeth, i.e. 17-21 in female cf. 19-23 in male, but in P. clavata, it can not be used to differentiate male from female, with both sexes possessing an average of 42 rostral teeth. In P. clavata the dorsal fin origin is opposite or slightly behind the pelvic fin origin, the rostum is relatively shorter (22-24% of TL), the lower cauda fin lobe is smaller.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank to Dr. Dewi Roesma (Andalas University, Padang), Dr. Muchlisin ZA (Syiah Kuala University, Banda Aceh), Dr. Bambang Sulistiyarso (Christian University of Palangkaraya), Dr. Sri Wilujeng Cendrawasih University, Jayapura), Haryono (Museum Zoologicum Bogor), Fahmi (Research Center for Oceanography, Jakarta), and Duto Nugroho and Dharmadi (Agency for Marine and Fisheries Research and Development, Jakarta), who inform the existence of pristid sawfishes in all over Indonesian waters. Funding provided by “The Foreign Collaborative Research and International Publication", Directorate General of Higher Education, Ministry of Education and Culture, Indonesia to the first author.

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B I O D I V E R S IT A S Volume 13, Number 4, October 2012 Pages: 172-177

ISSN: 1412-033X E-ISSN: 2085-4722 DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d130402

Species diversity of Rhizophora in Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, Indonesia AHMAD DWI SETYAWAN1,♥, YAYA IHYA ULUMUDDIN2 1

Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Sebelas Maret University. Jl. Ir. Sutami 36A 57 126 Surakarta, Central Java, Indonesia. Tel./Fax. +62-271-663375, email: volatileoils@gmail.com.

2 Research Center for Oceanography, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (PPO-LIPI), East Ancol, North Jakarta 14430, Indonesia.

Manuscript received: 16 April 2012. Revision accepted: 17 October 2012.

ABSTRACT Setyawan AD, Ulumuddin YI. 2012. Species diversity of Rhizophora in Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 13: 172177. Research on diversity and distribution of mangroves on the small remote islands are rarely performed than on the coastal area and estuaries. Tambelan Islands is a cluster of small islands isolated in the Natuna Sea, Indonesia. On the island there are four species of Rhizophora, namely R. apiculata, R. stylosa, R. mucronata, and hybrid species R. x lamarckii. Rhizophora stylosa and R. apiculata are the most common species found. R. mucronata only found in certain places (i.e. Durian River), R. x lamarckii rare, usually grows in stands that also covered by the two parental, R. stylosa and R. apiculata. All Rhizophora species were found to have thorn on the leaf tip, and spotted brown on the underneath leaf. R. apiculata has a petal without woolly feathers, inflorescence have short stalks and cork.

R. stylosa and R. mucronata are sibling species, both of them have a long-stalks and dichotomy inflorescence, but the style of R. mucronata very short (<2.5 mm), whereas in R. stylosa longer (> 2.5 mm). R. x lamarckii has characters between R. apiculata and R. stylosa.

Key words: Rhizophora, diversity, Tambelan, Natuna Sea

Stilt mangroves are widespread throughout most tropical coastal areas of Indo-Malaya, from the east Africa to western Pacific (Duke 2006; Giesen et al. 2006). This group of the genus Rhizophora consists of three species, R. mucronata, R. stylosa (two being closely allied or sibling species) and R. apiculata, and two hybrids, R. × lamarckii (from R. apiculata x R. stylosa) and R. × annamalayana (from R. apiculata x R. mucronata) (Duke 2006). The five species can be found in Indonesia. R. apiculata and R. stylosa is the most common species found. R. mucronata relatively rare, although its global distribution much wider than the two other Rhizophora species (Hou 1992; Duke 2006; Duke et al. 2010a,b,c). R. x lamarckii rarely found, only in locations where both parents present. R. × annamalayana Kathiresan (Kathiresan 1995; 1999) only once recorded in Indonesia, i.e. in Lombok Island, West Nusa Tenggara, and originally named R. lombokensis Baba & Hayashi (Baba 1994). The main distribution of this hybrid is the east coast of India (Pichavaram, Tamil Nadu), Sri Lanka and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Ragavan et al. 2011; Dahdouh-Guebas 2012).

Tambelan Islands is a group of small islands located in the Natuna Sea, Indonesia between Kalimantan, Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, with the coordinates of 0o2"1o25” N and 106o50"-107o40" E (IOTA 2007). Tambelan Islands consist of 77 islands; but the exact number is debatable, since some small islands rise and submerged by the tide, about 20 islands are inhabited or used for agricultural field. The total area of land is 169.42 acres,

while the ocean is 58993.42 acres, with a population of about 4738 inhabitants (BPS Bintan 2008). The two largest islands and inhabited by majority population are Tambelan (Tambelan Besar) and Benua. Uwi is important for natural conservation, since it is the main spawning spot turtles on the islands. The Tambelan Islands have hilly topography.

At the last glacial maximum period, this region is the mountain peaks near the North Sunda super-river that empties into the Natuna Sea (Steinke et al. 2008). Marine waters of Tambelan Islands have about 0.5 to 2 m wave height (Bull Meteor 2009). Based on the satellite image data processing ALOS AVNIR-2 (earth.esa.int), in 2010, the mangrove ecosystem of these islands covered an area of 478.2 hectares (data not shown). Setyawan and Ulumuddin (2012) noted the existence of two species of Bruguiera, ie B. cylindrica and B. sexangula in the islands.

In Tambelan Islands, there is no major river; the mangrove ecosystem is marine type with relatively high levels of salinity. Stilt mangroves grow on various types of substrates, such as fertile mud sediments, white sand, and corals. Typically, these mangroves are common in the midinter-tidal zone, and particularly along the seaward margin of mangrove stands, especially for R. apiculata and R. stylosa. Stilt mangroves are known to play a vital role in shoreline protection, enhancement of water quality in nearshore environments (including coral reefs), and in supporting food chains. This tree is often harvested for firewood, and sometimes is used for building materials.

Stilt mangroves are very well known by the Tambelan

SETYAWAN & ULUMUDDIN – Rhizophora of Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea

population, generally named “bakau”. The Malays, as the major populations, recognize R. apiculata as bakau minyak, R. stylosa as bakau (pasir) and R. mucronata as bakau kurap; although it is sometimes confusing.

This study aims to determine the diversity of Rhizophora species in the Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, Indonesia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Area study Several series of survey had been conducted within two weeks in the end of 2010 in Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, Indonesia. A total of 23 islands was explored, namely Uwi, Sedulang Besar, Sedulang Kecil, Sedua Besar, Sedua Kecil, Bungin, Tambelan (Tambelan Besar), Genting, Mundaga, Lintang, Panjang, Tamban, Ibul, Nibung, Nangka, Lesuh, Benua, Bedua (incl. Untup Darat), Jelak (incl. Burung), Selentang, Betung, Lipih, Kepala Tambelan, Menggirang, and Menggirang Kecil. On the quite large Tambelan Island, the exploration was conducted at four locations, namely: Suak (canal) Dadu and Suak Ganja located in the Tambelan Bay, and Durian River and Telukkupang River (incl. Kera Island) in the northwestern

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part of Tambelan. The list of exploration sites had been previously set based on the satellite imagery of ALOS AVNIR-2 in 2010, topographic maps of the Tambelan Islands with the scale of 1: 75,000, and a preliminary study of a few months before.

Based on satellite imaginery and field surveys, as many as seven islands were covered with mangrove ecosystem characterized by a group of mangrove tree habitat (>100 ha), namely Bedua, Benua, Burung, Ibul, Menggirang, Selentang, Tambelan (in four locations). Based on field survey, mangroves are also present in many other islands, but the quantity is very limited (Figure 1).

Procedures Field surveys. Mangrove habitat is entered from the seaward using rubber boats. Further searching was done along the edge of the mangrove forest, followed by walking through the canals in the mangrove forest or directly through the pneumatophore to know the conditions in the forest. At the locations where the water was deep enough and the trunks were too tight to pass such as in the surrounding of the Durian River and Telukkupang River, the exploration was done only by boat; the crocodiles that inhabited those places were also a consideration in itself.

Figure 1. The distribution of mangrove ecosystems in Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, Indonesia

B I O D I V E R S IT A S 13 (4): 172-177, October 2012

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On small islands, the exploration was done along the coastal areas as far as possible, even in some small islands such as Lipih, the exploration was done by walking around the island beaches, while on the island with a steep and wavy coastline such as Sedulang Kecil, the exploration was done by boat around the island. The exploration was expected to represent all parts of the island potentially covered with mangroves.

Sample observations. Each species of Rhizophora was found in every location sampled as many as 2-5 specimens and each sample was supposed to have flowers and hypocotyls. Samples were observed directly on the sites in a fresh condition and documented, then dried and made into herbarium and again observed in the laboratory. The preparation of dried herbarium samples was carried out according to Lawrence (1951). Herbarium specimens were stored at the Research Center for Oceanography, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (PPO-LIPI), Jakarta.

Further herbarium samples were observed with reference to Rifai (1976) and de Vogell (1987), i.e. the samples were grouped according to morphological similarities and each species was observed for the first 10 samples, then the identification key was made, after that all remaining samples were observed, and described by adding the character as fresh specimens. The identification was done by referring to Backer and Bakhuizen v.d. Brink (1968), Tomlison (1986), Ng and Sivasothi (1999), Giesen et al.

(2006), and Duke (2006), Qin and Boufford (2007). The ecological characteristic and others were also referred to Giesen et al. (2006), and Duke et al. (2010a,b,c). The conservation status was referred to IUCN (2012).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Keys of identification Rhizophora Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 443. 1753 Trees are with stilt roots, usually branching and several metres from the trunk. Stem internodes are hollow. Stipules are reddish, sessile, leaflike, interpetiolar, lanceolate.

Leaves are opposite or distichous, cauline, leathery, petiolate, simple. Leaf blades are glabrous, entire; elliptic, or obovate (usually elliptic to obovate); pinnately veined (midrib extended into a caducous point); margin is entire or serrulate near apex. Inflorescences axillary, dense cymes (simple or di- or trichasial); pedunculate. Flowers are ebracteate; bracteoles forming a cup just below flower; usually 4 or 5 merous. Perianth is with distinct calyx and corolla; 6-32; 2 -whorled; isomerous. Calyx tube is ovate (to narrowly ovate), adnate to ovary, persistent; lobes 5-8.

Petals are 4, ovate; sessile, alternating with the calyx, lanceolate; blunt-lobed; valvate; tubular; regular; commonly fleshy (or leathery); persistent. Stamens are 812; filaments are much shorter than anthers or absent; free of one another; anthers are connivent; dorsifixed; dehiscing by longitudinal valves, introrse, locules many, dehiscing by an adaxial valve. Ovary is inferior, 2-loculed, apically

partly surrounded by a disk, free part elongating after anthesis; style 1, sometimes very short; stigmas are 4. Fruit is brown, ovoid, ovoid- conic, or pyriform. Fertile seed is 1 per fruit; germination viviparous; hypocotyl protruding to 78 cm before propagule falls (Ko 1983; Gathe and Watson 2008).

Eight or nine species: tropics and subtropics; five species in Indonesia; four species in Tambelan Islands.

1a. Peduncle is shorter than petiole, thick, on leafless stems; flowers are 2 per inflorescence; bracteoles united, cupshaped; petals are glabrous; stamen is 9-15.

2a. Bracts are corky brown, flower are hairless .. R. apiculata 2b. Bracts are smooth green ………………… R. x lamarckii 1b. Peduncle is usually as long as (or greater than) petiole, slender, in leaf axil; flowers are more than 2 per inflorescence; bracteoles are united at base; petals are pubescent; stamen is 6-8.

3a. Style is 0.5-1.5 mm (less than 2.5 mm); anthers are sessile ........ ...................................... R. mucronata 3b. Style is 4-6 mm (greater than 2.5 mm); anthers are on a short but distinct filament ............. R. stylosa

Description Rhizophora apiculata Blume, Enum. Pl. Javae 1: 91.

1827 Synonyms.

Mangium candelarium Rumph., Rhizophora candelaria Candolle, Rhizophora conjugata (non Linné) Arn., Rhizophora lamarckii, Rhizophora mangle (non Linné).

Local name. Bakau minyak, bakau tandok, bakau akik, bakau puteh, akik (Mal.); Bakau, bakau minyak, bangka minyak, donggo akit, jankar, abat, bangkita, bangkita baruang, kalumagus, kailau, parai (Ind.).

Description. Trees are erect, 3-6 (-30) m tall, and 50 cm d.b.h. Stilt-roots are up to 5 m up the stem. Bark is dark grey and chequered, usually with vertical fissures. Stipules are 4-(6)-8 cm, dropped early. Leaves are crowded at twig tips, opposite, simple, penni-veined but venation barely visible, glabrous, narrowly elliptic, leathery; are dark green with a distinct light green zone along the midrib, tinged reddish underneath. Petiole is 1.5-3.5 cm, usually tinged reddish; and is flanked by leaflets at its base, 4-8 cm. Leaf blade is elliptic-oblong to sublanceolate, 7-19 × 3-8 cm, abaxial midvein reddish, base broadly cuneate, apex acute to apiculate. Inflorescences are 2-flowered cymes; peduncle is 0.7-10 mm. Flowers ca. are 2 cm diam., sessile, yellow-red, placed in axillary bundles, stalk 1.4 cm long.

Calyx lobes are ovate, concave, 1-1.4 cm, apex acute.

Sepals are 4,yellow-red, persistent, in a recurved form on the end of the fruit. Petals are lanceolate, flat, 6-8 mm, membranace- ous, glabrous, white. Petals are 4, yellowwhite, membranous, flat, hairless, 9-11 mm long. Stamens are mostly 12, 4 adnate to base of petals, 8 adnate to sepals, 6-7.5 mm; anthers are nearly sessile, apex apiculate. Ovary is largely enclosed by disk, free part 1.5-2.5 mm; style is ca. 0.8-1 mm. Fruit ca. is 2.5 × 1.5 cm, apical half

SETYAWAN & ULUMUDDIN – Rhizophora of Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea

narrower, contain one fertile seed. Hypocotyl is cylindricclavate, green with purple, club shaped, ca. 1.8-3.8 × 1-2 cm, ± blunt before falling.

Ecology. Occurs on deep, soft, muddy soils that are flooded by normal high tides. Avoids are firmer substrates mixed with sand. Dominant: may form up to 90% of the vegetation at a site (Giesen et al. 2006).

Distribution. From Sri Lanka throughout Southeast Asia to Australia and the western Pacific Islands. In Tambelan Islands found in nine coastal regions namely: Tambelan (Suak Dadu, Suak Ganja, Telukkupang River, Durian River), Benua, Ibul, and Uwi Islands.

Conservation status. Least Concern ver 3.1.

Uses. The roots are sometimes used as anchors. The wood is used as fire-wood, for construction and for charcoal making.

Taxonomic note. The species ephitet “apiculata” means “pointed out”. It differs from R. mucronata and R. stylosa in possessing short, stout, dark grey inflorescence stalks (vs. long, slender, yellow).

Rhizophora x lamarckii Montrouz. Mém. Acad. Roy. Sci. Lyon, Sect. Sci. sér. 2, 10:201. 1860 Rhizophora x lamarckii is a hybrid of R. apiculata and R. stylosa. This species has many similarities with its parents.

Local name. Unknown Description. It has erect trees and shrubs up to ca. 25 m, often with several trunks; bark is light brown, smooth to dark grey, rough, and often horizontally fissured. Stilt roots extend to 2(-6) m above the ground, extend downwards from branches. Stem base is diminished below the stilt roots. Leaves are simple, opposite, obovate-elliptic to elliptic, bright yellowish-green, waxy above and dull below, 7-15 cm long, 3-8 cm wide, yellow-green, with a pointed apex and mucronate spike to 6 mm long, and are not evenly spotted below (but old leaves are often liberally wound-spotted); petiole is 1-4 cm long. Inflorescence is axillary, 2-4-flowered (occasionally 1), borne within the leafy shoot; yellow-green or cream flowers which are held within leaf clusters; peduncle is 1-3 cm long, green,smooth; bracteoles are partly united, smooth, yellow-green except a brown crenulate rim. Flowers have 4 calyx lobes and 4 slightly hairy white petals. Petals c. are 10 mm long; margins slightly incurved, sparsely hairy. Stamens are variable, usually 9-11; anthers sessile. Upper part of ovary is shallowly conical; style c. are 2.5 mm long; stigma minutely 2-lobed. Fruit is rarely found beyond the immature fruit stage. Fruit is shiny, brown-olive, inverted pear-shape, pyriform, 2.5-3 cm long. Hypocotyl is rarely developed, smooth, green, 14-28 cm long, narrowly clubshaped, rounded at apex.

Ecology. Occurs in locations that are found both parents (R. apiculata and R. stylosa), both deep, soft, muddy soils that are flooded by normal high tides and firmer substrates are mixed with sand. Dominant: relatively rare, but spreading evenly; rarely produces fertile propagules, but it is capable of asexual reproduction by dividing and spreading over large areas.

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Distribution. Its distribution is overlapping to its parents. From India throughout Islands of Southeast Asia to tropical Australia. In Tambelan Islands, it is found in four coastal regions namely: Tambelan (Durian River), Benua, Ibul, and Uwi Islands.

Conservation status. This hybrid species has not yet been assessed for the IUCN Red List.

Uses. The wood is used as fire-wood, for construction and for charcoal making.

Taxonomic note. The species ephitet “lamarckii” is named in honour of Jean Baptiste Antoine Pierre de Monnet de Lamarck (1744-1829), the French botanist famous for his theory of acquired traits in evolution.

Rhizophora mucronata Lamarck ex Poiret, Encycl. 6: 189. 1804 Sinonyms.

Mangium candelarium Rumphius, Rhizophora candelaria Wight & Arn., Rhizophora latifolia Miq., Rhizophora longissima Blanco, Rhizophora macrorrhiza Griff., Rhizophora mangle (non Linné) Roxb., Rhizophora mucronata var. typica Schimp.

Local name. Bakau kurap, Bakau belukap, Bakau gelukap, Bakau jankar, Bakau hitam, (Mal.) Bangka Itam, Dongoh Korap, Bakau Hitam, Bakau Korap, Bakau Merah, Jankar, Lenggayong, Belukap, Lolaro (Ind.).

Description. It has erect trees and shrubs, and is up to 27(-30) m, d.b.h. is up to 70 cm in diam; bark is dark to almost black, horizontally fissured. It has both stilt roots and aerial roots growing from lower branches. Stipules are 5.5-8.5 cm. Petiole is 2.5-4 cm. Leaf blade is broadly elliptic to oblong, 8.5-23 × 5-13 cm, leathery, base cuneate, apex ± blunt to ± acute. Leaf stalk is green, 2.5-5.5 cm long, leaflets are at the base of leaf stalk 5.5-8.5 cm.

Inflorescences are forked 2-3 times, 2-5(-12)-flowered cymes; peduncle is 2.5-5 cm. Flowers are sessile. Calyx lobes are ovate, 9-14 × 5-7 mm, deeply lobed, pale yellow.

Petals are lanceolate, 7-9 mm, fleshy, partly embracing stamens, margins pilose (densely hairy margins). Stamens are 8, 4 borne on base of petals, 4 borne on sepals, 6-8 mm; anthers sessile. Ovary emerges far beyond disk, free part elongate-conic, 2-3 mm; style is 0.5-1.5 mm. Fruit is dull, brownish green, elongate-ovoid, 5-7 × 2.5-3.5 cm, basally often tuberculate, apically slightly contracted. Hypocotyl is cylindric, 30-65 cm long, up to 2 cm wide.

Ecology. They are found in similar localities as R. apiculata but more tolerant to sandy and firmer bottoms.

Distribution. From East Africa throughout Southwest Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia, tropical Australia, to Western Pacific Islands. In Tambelan Islands is only found in Tambelan (Durian River).

Conservation status. Least Concern ver 3.1.

Uses. The timber is used for firewood and charcoalmaking.

Taxonomic note. The species ephitet “mucronate” means “leaf apex usually broad, terminated by a short stiff point called a mucro”. The Malay name refers to their fruit, kurap means "warty". R. mucronata differs from R. apiculata in possessing long, slender, yellow inflorescence stalks (vs. short, stout, dark grey) and from R. stylosa in the 0.5-1.5 mm long style in the flower (vs. 4-6 mm long).

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A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

Figure 2. Diagnostic characters of Rhizophora on Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, Indonesia. Inflorescense: A. R. apiculata, B. R. x lamarckii, C. R.mucronata, D. R. stylosa; Flowers: E. R. apiculata, F. R. x lamarckii, G. R.mucronata, H. R. stylosa (photo: many sources)

Rhizophora stylosa Griffith, Not. Pl. Asiat. 4: 665. 1854 Synonyms.

Rhizphora lamarckii, Rhizophora mucronata Lamarck var. stylosa (Griffith) Schimper.

Local name. Generally the same names as for Rhizophora mucronata (Bakau in Indonesia and Malaysia); well known as Bakau pasir in Singapore.

Description. It has multi- or single-trunked erect small trees or shrubs, often less than 8 m up to 10 m tall. Bark is reddish or pale gray, smooth to rough, fissured; it is 10-15 cm at d.b.h.; stilt-roots are up to 3 m long, and aerial roots emerge from the lower branches. Leaves are broadly elliptic,; leaf blade is obovate, 6.5-12.5 × 3-4(-5.5-7.5) cm, base broadly cuneate, apex mucronate, leathery, with a regularly-spotted lower surface and a pointed tip. Petiole is 1-3.5 cm, with 4-6 cm long leaflets at its base.

Inflorescences are axillary, flowers are forked 3-5 times, with 2- to many (up to 32) flowered; peduncle is 1-5 cm.

Pedicel 5-10 mm, terete; bracteoles are brown, connate.

Calyx lobes are pale-yellow, still present on the fruit, but are then recurved, lanceolate to oblong- lanceolate, 9-12 × 3-5 mm. Petals are white-yellow, 0.8-1.2 cm, involute, margin densely villous/woolly. Stamens are usually 8; filaments are short but distinct; anthers are 5-6 mm. Ovary is emerging beyond disk, free part and shallowly conic and less than 1.5 mm; style is 4-6 mm; stigma lobes are 2. Fruit is green-brown, conic, pear-shaped, 2.5-4 × ca. 2 cm.

Hypocotyl is cylindric (often mistaken for the ‘fruit’), 2040 cm, apex acute. Flowers and fruits are produced throughout the year.

Ecology. It grows in a variety of tidal habitats on mud, sands, coarse grits and rock, pioneering in coastal environments or on landward margins of mangroves. One typical niche is in the fringing mangroves of small `coral' islands, growing on coral substrate.

Distribution. From Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia throughout South China, Ryukyu Islands to tropical Australia and the western Pacific Islands. In Tambelan Islands, it is found in nine coastal regions namely: Tambelan (Suak Ganja, Telukkupang River, Durian River), Burung, Benua, Lipih, Ibul, and Uwi Islands.

Conservation status. Least Concern ver 3.1.

Uses. The timber is used for fire-wood, for construction and for charcoal making.

Taxonomic note. The species ephitet “stylosa” is Latin and comes from ‘stylos’ which means 'pillar' and refers to the long style of this species. R. mucronata and R. stylosa, the sibling species, are distinguished by short styles (<2.5 mm long) in R. mucronata, while R. stylosa has long styles (>2.5 mm long). According to Duke et al. (2002) both species are genetically and morphologically similar.

Note. The only mangrove species of Indo-Malayan region that is not found in Tambelan is R. annamalayana, a hybrid species between R. apiculata and R. mucronata. The main distribution of this hybrid is the east coast of India, Sri Lanka and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The western distribution of R. stylosa is not reaching these regions, except for a little stand in Orissa and Andaman

SETYAWAN & ULUMUDDIN – Rhizophora of Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea

and Nicobar states (Ellison et al. 2012), so that hybridization occurs only between R. apiculata and R. mucronata. Meanwhile, in Nusantara (Malesia), there are plenty of R. stylosa that density is often higher than R. mucronata, so more frequent hybridization between R. apiculata and R. stylosa generate R. x lamarckii. The nature style of R. stylosa is much longer than the style of R. mucronata, and it is thought to increase the success of hybridization between R. stylosa and R. apiculata.

However, in Nusantara there are also notes about the presence of R. annamalayana, in Merbok, Malay Peninsula (Chan 1996) and Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara, originally named R. lombokensis (Baba 1994).

CONCLUSION On Tambelan islands, there are four species of Rhizophora, namely R. apiculata, R. stylosa, R. mucronata, and hybrid species R. x lamarckii. Rhizophora stylosa and R. apiculata are the most common species found. R. mucronata is only found in certain places (i.e. Durian River), R. x lamarckii is rare, and it usually grows in stands that are also covered by the two parental species, i.e. R. stylosa and R. apiculata. All Rhizophora species were found to have thorn on the leaf tip, and spotted brown on the underneath leaf. R. apiculata has a petal without woolly feathers, inflorescence has short stalks and cork. R. stylosa and R. mucronata are sibling species, both of them have a long-stalks and dichotomy inflorescence, but the style of R. mucronata is very short (<2.5 mm), whereas R. stylosa is longer (> 2.5 mm). R. x lamarckii has mixed characters between R. apiculata and R. stylosa.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The research was funded through the Research Project "Natuna Sea Expedition - 2010" in collaboration with the Directorate General of Higher Education, Ministry of National Education, GoI and the Research Center for Oceanography of Indonesian Institute of Science (PPOLIPI) Jakarta. The author would like to thank Dr. Dirhamsyah as the chairman of the project, Fahmi as the coordinator of field researchers, Daniel Irham as captain of the Research Ship of Baruna Jaya VIII, and Murtada village chief of Kampung Melayu who acting as field guide and informant.

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Bull Meteor. 2009. Evaluation of weather and rainy characteristic in October 2009 as well as weather and rainy characteristic in November 2009. Stasiun Meteorologi Klas I Hang Nadim. Batam. Bulletin Meteorologi Edisi 23, November 2009. [Indonesia] Chan HT. 1996. A note on the discovery of Rhizophora x lamarckii in Peninsular Malaysia. J Trop For Sci 9: 128-130.

Dahdouh-Guebas F. 2012. Rhizophora annamalayana Kathiresan. In: Dahdouh-Guebas F (ed.).

World mangroves database. http://www.vliz.be/vmdcdata/mangroves/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id= 344744 de Vogel EF. 1987. Guidelines for the preparation of revisions. In: de Vogel EF (ed). Manual of herbarium taxonomy theory and practice.

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Duke N, Kathiresan K, Salmo III SG, Fernando ES, Peras JR, Sukardjo S, Miyagi T. 2010b. Rhizophora mucronata. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. www.iucnredlist.org.

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Duke NC. 2006. Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, R. stylosa, R. × annamalayana, R. × lamarckii (Indo-West Pacific stilt mangroves), ver. 2.1. In: Elevitch, C.R. (ed.). Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry. Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), Hōlualoa, Hawai‘i. www.traditionaltree.org.

Ellison J, Duke N, Kathiresan K, Salmo III SG, Fernando ES, Peras JR, Sukardjo S, Miyagi T. 2010. Rhizophora stylosa. In: IUCN 2012.

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Gathe J, Watson L. 2008. Rhizophora L. FloraBase the Western Australia Flora. http://florabase.dec.wa.gov.au/browse/profile/21806 Giesen W, Wulffraat S, Zieren M, Scholten L. 2006. Mangrove guidebook for Southeast Asia. FAO and Wetlands International Hou D. 1992. Rhizophora mucronata Poiret. In: Lemmens RHMJ, Wulijarni-Soetjipto N (eds.): Plant Resources of South-East Asia. No. 3: Dye and tannin-producing plants. Prosea Foundation, Bogor.

IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. www.iucnredlist.org Kathiresan K. 1999. Rhizophora annamalayana Kathir (Rhizophoraceae), a new Nothospecies from Pichavaram mangrove forest in Southeastern peninsular India. Environ Ecol 17 (2): 500-501.

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Volume 1: The ecosystem and plant diversity and Volume 2: Animal diversity. The Singapore Science Centre, Singapore.

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Ragavan P, Saxena M, Coomar T, Saxena A. 2011. Preliminary study on natural hybrids of genus Rhizophora in India. ISME/GLOMIS Electronic Journal 9:5 Rifai MA. 1976. Principles of systematic botany. Lembaga Biologi Nasional, LIPI, Bogor. [Indonesia] Setyawan AD, Ulumuddin YI. 2012. Species diversity and distribution of Bruguiera in Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, Indonesia. Proc Soc Indon Biodiv Intl Conf 1: 82-90.

Steinke S, Hanebuth SJJ, Vogt C, Stattegger K. 2008. Sea level induced variations in clay mineral composition in the southwestern South China Sea over the past 17,000 yr. Marine Geol 250 (3-4): 199-210 Tomlinson PB. 1986. The botany of mangroves. Cambridge University Press, London.

B I O D I V E R S IT A S Volume 13, Number 4, October 2012 Pages: 178-189

ISSN: 1412-033X E-ISSN: 2085-4722 DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d130403

Impact of forest disturbance on the structure and composition of vegetation in tropical rainforest of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia RAMADHANIL PITOPANG♥ Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Tadulako University. Kampus Bumi Tadulako, Tondo, Palu 94118, Central Sulawesi. Tel. +62-451-422611, Fax. +62-451 422844, ♥email: pitopang_64@yahoo.com Manuscript received: 1 October 2012. Revision accepted: 25 October 2012.

ABSTRACT Pitopang R. 2012. Impact of forest disturbance on the structure and composition of vegetation in tropical rainforest of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 13: 178-189. We presented the structure and composition of vegetation in four (4) different land use types namely undisturbed primary forest, lightly disturbed primary forest, selectively logged forest, and cacao forest garden in tropical rainforest margin of the Lore Lindu National Park, Central Sulawesi Indonesia. Individually all big trees (dbh > 10 cm) was numbered with tree tags and their position in the plot mapped, crown diameter and dbh measured, whereas trunk as well as total height measured

by Vertex. Additionally, overstorey plants (dbh 2- 9.9 cm) were also surveyed in all land use types. Identification of vouchers and additional herbarium specimens was done in the field as well as at Herbarium Celebense (CEB), Tadulako University, and Nationaal Herbarium of Netherland (L) Leiden branch, the Netherland. The result showed that the structure and composition of vegetation in studied are was different. Tree species richness was decreased from primary undisturbed forest to cacao plantation, whereas tree diversity and its composition were significantly different among four (4) land use types. Palaquium obovatum, Chionanthus laxiflorus, Castanopsis acuminatissima, Lithocarpus celebicus, Canarium hirsutum, Euonymus acuminifolius and Sarcosperma paniculatum being predominant in land use type A, B and C and Coffea robusta, Theobroma cacao, Erythrina subumbrans, Gliricidia sepium, Arenga pinnata, and Syzygium aromaticum in the cacao plantation. At the family level, undisturbed natural forest was dominated by Fagaceae and Sapotaceae disturbed forest by Moraceae, Sapotaceae, Rubiaceae, and agroforestry systems by Sterculiaceae and Fabaceae.

Key words: tree diversity, land use types, tropical forest, Lore Lindu National Park, Sulawesi, Indonesia

INTRODUCTION Sulawesi which was formerly known as Celebes, is one of the big island in Indonesia. The island is the important island in the Wallacea subregion, situated in the centre of the Indonesian archipelago, between Borneo (Kalimantan) and the Moluccan islands. Van Steenis (1979) revealed that phytogeography of Sulawesi is part of the Malesian floristic unit; its flora is reportedly related to the Philippines, New Guinea, and Borneo and belongs to the Eastern Malesian. The Scientific knowledge of Sulawesi’s flora both taxonomically and ecologically is still limited due to lack botanical research and publication on this subject (Bass et al. 1990; Keßler 2002), for example the amount of botanical expedition in Sumatra 20 times than Sulawesi (Veldkamp and Rifai 1977) but Sulawesi has recently been identified as one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots, especially rich in species found nowhere else in the world and under major threat from widespread deforestation (Pitopang and Gradstein 2003).

Total species richness and endemism of Sulawesi are comparable to those of Sumatra, Java, Borneo and New Guinea, in spite of the very different geological history of Sulawesi and the greater distance of the island to the mainland (Roos et al. 2004). Whereas the islands of Borneo, Sumatra and Java had terrestrial connections to mainland Asia in the past, Sulawesi was always isolated

from these islands as well as from New Guinea by deep maritime straits as shown by Hall (1995) and Moss and Wilson (1998). Approximately 15% of the known flowering plant species of Sulawesi are endemic (Whitten et al. 1987). Van Balgooy et al. (1996) recognized 933 indigenous plant species on Sulawesi and of these 112 were endemic to the island. Endemism varies among groups, however, and is very high in orchids and palms which total 817 orchid species (128 genera) including 493 endemic ones (Thomas and Schuiteman 2002).

Tropical deforestation has become a major concern for the world community. Whole regions in South and Central America, Africa and Southeast Asia already completely lost their forest or are expected to become deforested in the near future (Jepson et al. 2001; Laurence et al. 2001).

Based on recent mapping of the forest cover in Indonesia, Ministry of Forestry (MoF) has revealed that the rate of the deforestation in Indonesia approximately doubled between 1985 and 1997, from less than 1.0 million ha to at least 1.7 million ha each year; whereas Sulawesi lost 20% of its forest cover in this period (Holmes 2002).

Many studies document the loss of biodiversity caused by modification or clearing of tropical rain forest where Human activity is one of the most direct causes of wild biodiversity loss (WCMC 1992) and may also negatively affect biotic interactions and ecosystem stability (SteffanDewenter and Tscharntke 1999). Introduction of exotic

RAMADHANIL â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Disturbance on tropical rainforest of Central Sulawesi

species, overexploitation of biological resources, habitat reduction by land use change, pastoral overgrazing, expansion of cultivation, and other human activities are common factors and primary agents contributing to the vast endangerments and extinctions occurring in the past and in the foreseeable future (Kerr and Currie 1995; Pimm et al.

1995; Tilman 1999; Palomares 2001; Raffaello 2001).

Human exploitation also causes major changes in the biodiversity of these forests, even though research on this subject has been limited and results were often controversial (Whitmore and Sayer 1992; Turner 1996; Kessler 2005). Some studies reveal conspicuously reduced species richness in secondary or degraded rainforests (Parthasarathy 1999; Pitopang et al. 2002), even in over 100 years old regrown forest (Turner et al. 1997), local extinction of plants (Benitez-Melvido and Martinez-Ramos 2003) in other studies is increased (Kappelle 1995; Fujisaka et al. 1998). Area size is a crucial factor

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determining the changes in biodiversity due to human impact. Loss of diversity generally decreases when larger areas are considered; therefore the impact of human activities on plant diversity thus must be interpreted with caution (Mooney et al. 1995).

This research focused on the structure and composition of four land use types differing use intensity at the Lore Lindu National Park. The main objective was to determine the taxonomic composition and forest structure of four land use types.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study sites The study area was located in the surroundings of Toro, a village at the western margin of Lore Lindu NP about 100 km south of Palu, the Capital of Central Sulawesi (Figure 1). The data of research was collected from August 2007-March 2009. Detailed information on the climate and soil conditions of this part of Central Sulawesi is not yet available (see Whitten et al.

1987). Gravenhorst et al. (2005) reported that mean annual rainfall in the study area is varied from 1,500 and 3,000 mm, mean relative humidity is 85.17%, monthly mean temperature is 23.40° C. Administratively, this village belong to Kulawi sub-district, Donggala District. This village is accessible by car, truck, motorbike and public car from Palu. As our study area, the margin of the National Park is characterized in many parts by a mosaic of primary forest, primary less disturbed forest, primary more disturbed forest, secondary forests, and several land-use systems with cacao, coffee, maize, and paddy (rice) as the dominating crops (Gerold et al. 2002). The elevation of the selected sites is between 800 m and 1100 m, therefore covering an altitudinal range that belongs to the submontane forest zone (Whitten et al. 1987).

Tree diversity was studied in four (4) different land use types with four replicates as follows: (i) Land use type A: undisturbed rain forest. (ii) Land use type B: lightly disturbed rain forest. Natural forest with rattan extraction, rattan palm removed. (iii) Land use type C moderately disturbed rain forest. Selectively logged forest, containing small to medium sized gaps, disturbed ground vegetation and increased abundance of lianas following the selective removal of canopy trees and rattan. (iv) Land use type D; Cacao forest garden, Cacao cultivated under natural shade trees (= remaining forest cover) in Figure 1. Map of study area, Ngata Toro at the western margin of the Lore Lindu the forest margin (Table 1).

National Park, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia

B I O D I V E R S IT A S 13 (4): 178-189, October 2012

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Table 1. Analyses of structural plant diversity; geographic position (measured by GPS Garmin 12), altitude and descriptions of each plot Plot

Plot

Code

Locality

Coordinates Longitute (S)

Latitude (E)

Altitude

Exposi- Inclition nation

Canopy cover Uppe Total r% %

m

deg

deg

950

SE

30

80

ESE

25

75

A1

Land use type A (undisturbed rain forest) Bulu Kalabui 010 30’. 589 1200 02'. 730

A2

Bulu Lonca

010 29’. 518

1200 01'. 596 1080

A3

Buku Kalabui

010 30’. 714

1200 02'. 750

950

W

20

80

A4

Kawumbu

010 29’. 486

1200 03'. 054 1010

280

< 25

75

B1

Land use type B ( lightly disturbed rainforest) Bulu Kuku 010 30’. 053 1200 01'. 653 1050

90

30-40 6070

B2

Bulu Kalabui

010 30’. 558

1200 02'. 967

B3

010 29’. 400

B4

Bulu Kuku North Kolewuri

010 29’. 202

840

ESE

25

80

1200 01'. 607 1080

30

30

1200 02'. 821 1000

270

35

6070 80

C1

Land use type C ( moderately disturbed rain forest) Bulu Lonca 010 29’. 490 1200 01'.738 1000 200

30

40

C2

Kolewuri

010 29’. 721

1200 02'.802

990

20-40

30

C3

Above Dusun Tujuh

010 30’. 441

1200 01'.373

1000

SSW 30-40

50

C4

Bulu Kamonua

010 22’. 525

1200 02'.170

1040

E

25

40

D1

Land use type D ( Cacao forest garden) Foot of Lonca 010 29’. 649 1200 02'.134

840

NE

25-40

10

D2

Kaha

010 30’. 072

1200 01'.761

920

E

0-20

15

D3

Kauboga

010 29’. 900

1200 01'.821

840

10

30-35 3540

D4

Foot of Bulu Kalabui

010 31. 047’

1200 01'.986

815

200

30-40 5060

30

Description and remarks

80 Many large trees; on eastern slope of Bulu Kalabui but close to ridge; very sparse understorey and variable exposition 75 Many large trees are reaching a height of approximately 35m, rattan dominating understory, bamboo on lower edge 80 Understory rattan dominated; fairly gentle slope; more slender and lower trees than other plots, even canopy structure; very close to ridge 80 Single large trees are reaching a height of approximately 35m. Probably colluvium due to variable slope and micro relief. Large rocks on the soil surface. Spring inside plot, canopy very heterogeneous with some extremely large figs, understory relatively dense 85 One of the highest plots. Very dense understorey with much Pandanus; steep and large tree fall gap on lower edge; some smaller gaps already detectable 60- Natural forest with very sparse understorey, 70 close to open plantation for precipitation gauge 80 Highest and tallest B type. Variable understorey with obvious timber and rotan extraction 80 Steep with light understorey. Fairly moist with tall and slender trees but only little rotan 60 One large older treefall gap and smaller gaps from extracted timber. Variable relief and understorey 60 There are some big tree such as Anthocephalus sp, Pterospermum sp, variable in relief, dense understory with also treefall gaps and moist soil 60 Soil very rocky and dry. On upper slope below clear cut (precipitation gauge?); Understorey dense, extremely steep and far from Toro core area 60 Evenly spaced gaps from timber extraction, understorey not too dense, little rattan 30 Owned by Pak Berwin; worst plot, large gap on lower side without cocoa; steep slope beneath plot towards creek with secondary vegetation.

Sparsely spread cocoa, high degree of grass cover, few shade trees, very steep. Northern border transition into E-type plantation.

50 Owned by Pak Abia; flattest type at highest elevation; one large gap of shade trees in center, trees very tall and at upper boundary; variable ground cover 65 Owned by Pak Penga; evenly spaced cocoa trees with few gaps and partly dense herbal undergrowth on even slope. Situated on lower edge of forest. Nearby opening as chance for precipitation gauge 75 Owned by Pak Ambi; steep with thick leaf litter layer and very little herbal undergrowth, highest shade tree cover with small gaps (some shade trees already ringed, some planted or secondary?) cocoa densely planted (< 80%) especially on lower slope

RAMADHANIL – Disturbance on tropical rainforest of Central Sulawesi

Sampling protocol Plots size and sampling designed according to standardized protocols (Wright et al. 1997; Milliken 1998; Srinivas and Parthasarathy 2000; Kessler et al. 2005; Small et al. 2004). Plot size was determined by the minimum area curve (Suryanegara and Wirawan, 1986) and was 50 x 50 m with four (4) replicates. Each plot was subdivided into 25 subplots of 10 x 10 m² each and all trees dbh > 10 cm were recorded. In these subplots (recording units), individually all big trees (dbh > 10 cm) was numbered with aluminum tags and their position in the plot mapped, crown base crown diameter and dbh measured, and trunk as well as total height estimated. Furthermore, profile diagram of forest both vertical and horizontal was made by using “Hand drawing methods” (Laumonier 1997).

All recognizable morphospecies of trees were collected in sets of at least seven duplicates. Plant collecting was according to the “Schweinfurth method” (Bridson and Forman 1999). Additional voucher specimens of plant material with flowers or fruits were collected for identification purposes. Processing of the specimens was conducted at Herbarium Celebense (CEB), University of Tadulako, Palu. Identification was done in the field, in CEB, and the Herbarium Bogoriense (BO), Bogor.

Vouchers were deposited in CEB, with duplicates in BO, GOET, L and BIOT. Data analyses Basal Area (BA), Relative Density (RD), Relative Frequency (RF), Relative Dominance (RDo.), and importance value indices (IVI) were calculated and analyzed according to the formulae Dumbois-Muller and Ellenberg (Soerianegara and Indrawan 1988; Setiadi et al.

2001).

Basal area (m²) is the area occupied by a cross-section of stem at breast height (1.3 m) = [3.14 x (dbh/2)²] Absolute values so obtained may be transcribed to relative values:

Relative density (%)

No. of individuals of a species = -------------------------------------- X 100 Total no. of individuals in sample

Basal area of a species Relative dominance (%) = -------------------------------------- X 100 Total basal area in sample

Sampling units containing a species Relative frequency (%) = -------------------------------------- X 100 Sum of all frequencies

Importance Value Index (IVI) for a species is the sum of its relative density, relative dominance, and relative frequency (Soerianegara and Indrawan 1988; Setiadi et al.

2001).

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Species diversity Statistically, the averages of number of species, genera, families, Shanon diversity index (H’), native species, timber tree, stem and basal area of tree did not differ among land use type A, B and C but was significantly different with D. The mean species number of tree was highest in land use type B (58.0±8), followed by land use type A (55.8±5.5) and type C (48.3±4.0). Cacao plantations, however, had significantly lower species numbers, with 20.8±7.8 tree species in cacao forest gardens.

Roughly one third of the tree species in the forest plots (15-20 spp.) were of economic importance as commercial timber trees; of these, 4-5 were major timber species and the rest minor ones. Timber diversity was little affected by moderate human use of the forest but was significantly reduced in cacao forest gardens and dropped to near zero in cacao plantations.

Taxonomic composition Tree species at land use type A are mainly dominated

by Palaquium quercifolium (Sapotaceae) and followed by Castanopsis acuminatissima and Lithocarpus celebicus (both Fagaceae), Ficus trachypison, Chionanthus laxiflorus (Oleaceae) and Dysoxylum densiflorum (Meliaceae), Aglaia argentea (Meliaceae), Horsfieldia costulata (Myristicaceae), Meliosma sumatrana (Sabiaceae), and Dysoxylum alliaceum (Meliaceae). Sapling species are presented by Capparis pubiflora (Capparidaceae), Castanopsis accuminatisima, Horsfieldia costulata, Ardisia celebica etc At the family level the forest was dominated

by Fagaceae, Sapotaceae, Meliaceae and Lauraceae. At the land use type B tree species mostly dominated by Neonauclea intercontinentalis, Palaquium quercifolium, P. obovatum, Pandanus sarasinorum, Meliosma sumatrana etc. Whereas, sapling species is dominated by Pandanus sarasinorum, Pinanga aurantiaca, Horsfieldia costulata, Areca vestiaria etc. The predominant species in moderately disturbed forest (type C) were Oreocnide rubescens (Urticaceae), Castanopsis accuminatisima, Lithocarpus celebicus, Pandanus sarasinorum, Neonuclea intercontinentalis and Canarium hirsutum (Burseraceae). Sapling species are Lithocarpus celebicus, Oreocnide rubescens, Castanopsis accuminatisima, Dysoxylum nutans, Dysoxylum alliaceum etc.

Tree species in cacao forest garden (type D) mainly represented by Theobroma cacao (Sterculiaceae), Coffea robusta (Rubiaceae.), Turpinia sphaerocarpa (Staphyliaceae), Horsfieldia costulata (Myristicaceae), Arenga pinnata (Arecaceae), Meliosma sumatrana, Melicope cf. confusa (Rutaceae) and Oreocnide rubescens.

At the family level, the taxonomic composition of the habitat types showed major differences. Undisturbed natural forest (land use type A) was dominated by Sapotaceae, Fagaceae, Meliaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, Moraceae, Rubiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Arecaceae and Oleaceae while Moraceae, Sapotaceae, Rubiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Meliaceae, Lauraceae and Annonaceae

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were the most common tree families in disturbed forest (land use types B and C). In the cacao forest garden with moderate use intensity (D) was dominated by Sterculiaceae, Moraceae, Rubiaceae, Staphyleaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Cunoniaceae and Myristicaceae.

Forest structure and profile diagram Forest structure and profile diagram of these studied land use types were provided in Figures 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 The analyses of forest structure revealed considerable differences in canopy height where tree species with height >30 m (emergent/top canopy species) was greater at the undisturbed rain forest (11.22%) and then followed by land use type B (8.7%) and C (3.9%). On the other side, only a few tree species > 30 m in height at the land use type D (0.9%), the middle canopy species (height 20.1-30 m) was higher at land use type B (16.35%) and C (13.8%) and followed by A (11.11%), D (7.4%). Contrary to the top canopy species, the undergrowth species (<10 m in height) was lower at the land use type A (undisturbed rain forest) and gradually increased from type B to D. The greater tree height in undisturbed rain forest (type A) and type B reflect that many originally top canopy trees persisted in these land use type.

At the land use type A (undisturbed natural rain forest), we recorded some top canopy tree species (with >30 m in height) such as Palaquium quercifolium, Palaquium obovatum, Castanopsis accuminatisima, Lithocarpus celebicus, Bischofia javanica, Octomeles sumatrana, Cinnamomum parthenoxylon, Pangium edule, Pterospermum celebicum, Aglaia argentea, Dysoxylum sp, Chionanthus ramiflorus, Ficus sp. and Polyscias nodosa.

Palaquium quercifolium is one of tree species widely distributed at the land use type A, B and C which several

individuals of this species can be reach up to 40 m in height.

At the land use type B (lightly disturbed forest) recorded the other top canopy species such as Neonuclea intercontinentalis, Artocarpus elasticus, Elmerrillia ovalis, and Magnolia champaca. Contrary to two forest types as mentioned before that there was no any emergent/ top canopy tree species founded at the land use type C (moderate use intensity), but only Palaquium quercifolium, Castanopsis accuminatisima, Canarium hirsutum, and a strangler Ficus sp with height not more than 30 m.

The middle canopy species (>20 dbh <30 m) which found at the forests (type A, B and C) are mostly presented

by Artocarpus vriesiana, Cryptocarya crassinerviopsis, Knema celebica, Goniothalamus brevicuspis, Aglaia argentea, Horsfieldia costulata, Chionanthus laxiflorus, Semecarpus forstenii, Sarcosperma paniculata, Litsea formanii, Castanopsis accuminatisima, Syzygium accuminatisima, Dysoxylum alliaceum, Pandanus polycephalus, Litsea densiflora, Trema orientalis, Broussonetia papyrifera and Mangifera foetida, Gironniera subaequalis, Astronia macrophylla, Ficus miquelii, Nauclea ventricosa, Acer laurinum, Santiria laevigata, Lithocarpus celebicus and Dracontomelon mangiferum.

The lower canopy species were mainly composed by Orophea celebica, Mitrephora celebica, Baccaurea tetrandra, Goniothalamus brevicuspis, Meliosma sumatrana, Gnetum gnemon, Siphonodon celastrineus, Antidesma celebica, Dracaena arborea, Dracaena angustifolia, Aglaia silvestris, Geunsia sp., Sterculia oblongata, Macadamia hildebrandii, Goniothalamus macrophyllus, Arenga pinnata, Picrasma javanica, Calophyllum soulatrii and Macaranga hispida.

Figure 2. Relative distribution of height class among trees in the four studied Land use types. Error bars indicated + standard error.

Notes: > 30 m = Top canopy species 20.1-30 m = meddle canopy species, 10.1- 20 m = lower canopy species, <10 m = undergrowth species.

Figure 3.Relative distribution of diameter class among trees in the six studied land use types. Error bars indicated + standard error.

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Figure 4. Profile diagram of land use type A (presented by column 5A to 5E of plot A2). Goniothalamus brevicuspis (122), Palaquium quercifolium (200, 201, 208), Beilschmiedia gigantocarpa (123), Baccaurea tetrandra (124), Meliosma sumatrana (125), Antidesma celebicum (126), Semecarpus forstenii (127, 194, 205, 2012, 2022), Macadamia hildebrandii (128), Myristica kjellbergii (129, 215, 217), Pinanga aurantiaca (130,132, 216), Arytera littoralis (131), Castanopsis accuminatisima (121, 213, 214, 2025, 2026), Artocarpus vriesiana (196), Litsea sp (197), Pometia pinnata (198), Dysoxylum parasiticum (199), Chionanthus laxiflorus (202), Horsfieldia costulata (203, 210, 268), Ficus sp (204, 270), Ficus variegata (207), Pandanus lauterbachii (209), Litsea ferruginea (211), Sterculia longifolia (212), Ardisia celebica (218), Elaeocarpus sp (269), Calophyllum soulatrii (271), Litsea formanii (2021), Pisonia umbellifera (2028), Aglaia sp (2024).

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Figure 5. Profile diagram of land use type B (presented by column 5A to 5E of plot B1 at Bulu kuku). Elaeocarpus angustifolius ( 454, 577, 663, 670, 671, 674, 680, 685), Garcinia dulcis (455,575), Antidesma stipulare (457), Chionanthus laxiflorus (458), Pterospermum celebicum (459), Macaranga tanarius (460, 461, 462, 682, 683), Sterculia oblongata (464), Horsfieldia costulata (465, 466, 568, 687), Pandanus sarasinorum ( 467, 468, 469, 561, 562, 565, 566, 569, 662, 688), Koordersiodendron pinnatum (560), Neonauclea lanceolata (563), Elmerrillia ovalis (564), Artocarpus vriesiana (567), Ficus sp (570,676), Meliosma sumatrana (571, 574), Dysoxylum alliaceum (576, 580, 665, 669), Goniothalamus brevicuspis (578), Aglaia silvestris (579), Dracaena angustifolia (581), Litsea formanii (664, 668, 686), Litsea oppositifolia (666), Gouia sp. (673), Neonauclea intercontinentalis (677), Picrasma javanica (678), Baccaurea tetrandra (679), Polyalthia glauca (681), Dehaasia celebica (689) and Litsea ferruginea (668, 690).

RAMADHANIL â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Disturbance on tropical rainforest of Central Sulawesi

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Figure 6. Profile diagram of land use type C (presented by column 2A to 2E of plot C4). Macadamia hildebrandii (2A-1), Aglaia exelca (2A-2), Cryptocarya crassinerviopsis (2A-3, 2B-2), Mitrephora celebica (2A-4, 478), Aglaia silvestris (2A-5), Lithocarpus celebicus (2A-6, 2A-9, 2A-12, 2A-13), 491, 492, 493), Litsea albayana (2B-1), Dysoxylum alliaceum (2B-4, 6, 7, 479), Acer laurinum (2B-5), Castanopsis accuminatisima (476, 477, 475, 494, 495, 496), Elaeocarpus sp (490), Horsfieldia costulata (474), Pandanus sarasinorum (441), Sterculia oblongata (432), Pisonia umbellifera (436), Phaleria costata (487), Picrasma javanica (438).

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Figure 7. Profile diagram of land use type D which is presented by column 1A to 1E of plot D4. Ae = Artocarpus elasticus, Tc = Theobroma cacao, Av = Artocarpus vriesiana, Ge = Geunsia sp., Cr = Coffea robusta, Ml = Melicope latifolia, To = Trema orientalis, Ap = Aphanamixis polystachya, Da = Dracaena arborea, Hc = Horsfieldia costulata.

RAMADHANIL – Disturbance on tropical rainforest of Central Sulawesi

The small tree/ treelet or undergrowth species (<10 cm in height) are composed by Timonius minahassae, Ardisia celebica, Dehaasia celebica, Pinanga caesea, Areca vestiaria, Pinanga aurantifolia, Caryota mytis, Oreocnide rubescens, Dendrocnide stimulant, Dysoxylum nutans, Antidesma stipulare, Lasianthus sp, Arenga undulatifolia, Eurya accuminata, Capparis pubiflora, Ficus gul, Garcinia parviflora, Fagraea racemosa, Tabernaemontana sphaerocarpa, Euonymus javanicus, Homalium javanicum and one tree fern species is Cyathea amboinensis.

In contrast to the land use type A, We were not found any emergent/top canopy species at three cacao plantations.

For example, at the land use type D (cacao cultivated under natural shade trees) there were only some big tree species such as Turpinia sphaerocarpa, Trema orientalis, Artocarpus teysmanii, Artocarpus vriesiana, Bischofia javanica, Ficus variegata, Astronia macrophylla and Lithocarpus celebicus but they can not reach more than 30 m in height.

Discussion The analyses of forest structure revealed considerable differences in canopy height (Figure 2 and 3) where tree species with height >30 m (emergent/top canopy species) was greater at the undisturbed rain forest (11.22%) and then followed by land use type B (8.7%) and C (3.9%).

Structure and composition of Sulawesi’s forest is rather different to other islands (Keßler 2002). The investigated undisturbed rain forests around Toro, the emergent tree species were composed by Palaquium quercifolium, Palaquium obovatum, Castanopsis accuminatisima, Lithocarpus celebicus, Bischofia javanica, Octomeles sumatrana, Pangium edule, Pterospermum celebicum, Aglaia argentea, Chionanthus ramiflorus, and Polyscias nodosa. Laumonier (1997) reported the emergent tree species in the lowland forest of Jambi (Sumatra) mainly represented by fifteen dipterocarp species, three Anacardiaceae species and one species of Apocynaceae.

Some of them are Anisoptera costata, Anisoptera laevis, Anisoptera marginata, Dipterocarpus crinitus, Hopea dryobalanoides, Shorea acuminate, Shorea ovalis, Mangifera rigida, Mangifera torquenda, Pentaspadon velutinus and Dyera costulata.

The timber volume was highest in land use type A (undisturbed rain forest) and gradually decreased with increased forest disturbance, and again towards forest gardens and was lowest in plantations. This result indicated that there were many large tree species in the land use type A than other land use type. Some of tree species in land use type A are mainly belong to mayor commercial timber such as Palaquium quercifolium, Palaquium obovatum (Sapotaceae) known as “nyatoh” or “nantu” (“trade name”), Pterospermum celebicum (Sterculiaceae) or “bayur”, Dysoxylum spp.

(Meliaceae) or “tahiti”, Madhuca sp. (Sapotaceae), Aglaia korthalsii, Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae) or “pulai”, Calophyllum soulatrii (Clusiaceae), beside that there were tree species as minor timber such as Elmerrillia ovalis (Magnoliaceae) or “cempaka”, Bischofia javanica (Euphorbiaceae) “balintunga or pepolo”, Mussaendopsis celebica (Rubiaceae), Ailanthus sp. (Rubiaceae),

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Alseodaphne sp. (Lauraceae), Artocarpus teysmanii or “tea uru”, Artocarpus elasticus or “tea” (Moraceae), Artocarpus integer, (Moraceae), Beilschmiedia gigantocarpa (Lauraceae), Canarium hirsutum (Burseraceae), Canarium balsamiferum (Burseraceae), Cinnamomum parthenoxylon (Lauraceae), Cryptocarya crassinerviopsis (Lauraceae), Lithocarpus grandifolius (Fagaceae), Dracontomelon dao (Anacardiaceae), Fragraea racemosa (Loganiaceae), Gymnacranthera sp.

(Myristicaceae), Lithocarpus celebicus (Fagaceae), Litsea spp (Lauraceae), Myristica fatua (Myristicaceae), Octomeles sumatrana (Datiscaceae), Sterculia oblongata (Sterculiaceae), Santiria laevigata (Burseraceae), etc. Generally, the timber tree species was found at the research site of Toro, LLNP mainly belong to the important non Dipterocarp trees (Soerianegara and Lemmens 1993; Lemmens et al. 1995; Sosef et al. 1998).

Besides that, both Neonauclea spp and Mussaendopsis celebica (Rubiaceae) “pawa”, were two economic tree species with heavy and good in quality which have been used locally for long time by the local people for construction, whereas Cacao, coffee and other fruit trees owned by many families at Toro as their cash income, besides collection of sap from the Arenga pinnata (“aren palm”) is an important source of income for some families.

The sap is collected in bamboo pole and a single tapped tree can produce up to 6 liters a day. The sap can be drunk directly but more often is boiled down to make palm sugar or fermented to produce palm wine (saguer).

Taxonomically, the investigated forests (types A-C) around Toro were mainly dominated by Palaquium quercifolium, P. obovatum, Castanopsis acuminatissima, Lithocarpus celebicus, and Neonauclea intercontinentalis.

According to Keβler et al. (2002) and Keßler (2002) the genus Palaquium is represented by eight species in Sulawesi. Palaquium obovatum is common and widespread throughout Sulawesi but P. quercifolium is rare in Sulawesi and was previously only recorded from the southern province. Both Palaquium species appear to be common in Lore Lindu National Park where they form tall trees up to 40 m high. Castanopsis acuminatissima is common and widespread in Sulawesi and is one of two chestnut species known from the island, the other one being Castanopsis buruana. Lithocarpus celebicus is endemic to Sulawesi and widespread in the island, including Lore Lindu National Park. Neonauclea intercontinentalis, finally, seems to be common in Sulawesi (Keβler et al. 2002) and is one of about 20 timber species of the large family Rubiaceae (ca.

600 genera, 10.000 species) in Sulawesi. Other important timber species of Rubiaceae recorded in the forest near Toro include Anthocephalus macrophyllus and Mussaendopsis celebica. The latter two are endemic species of Sulawesi and are representatives of the eastern Malesian element in the island.

The number of endemic species is different among all land use types where endemic trees were best represented in the three forest types with 6-10 species per plot, and declined strongly in the three cacao agroforestry systems with 0-6 species per plot. This pattern was partly a result of the lower overall native tree diversity in the cacao agroforestry systems. When the percentage of endemic

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species was considered, then the cacao forest gardens did not differ significantly (0-20% endemic species) from the three forest types (10-20%), and only the two cacao systems with planted trees had significantly reduced percentages of endemic trees (0-13%). Endemic species are of considerable conservation concern and represent about 15% of the tree flora of Sulawesi (Keßler et al. 2002). This overall value is in good accordance with the percentages recorded by us at the plot level, with 10-20% of the native tree species recorded in the three forest types and the cacao forest gardens being endemic to the island. The representation of endemic species declined strongly to 013% in the two types of cacao plantations, however, showing that endemic species are more susceptible to severe habitat disturbances than widespread taxa. This is in accordance with general hypotheses on the vulnerability of endemic plants to habitat modifications (Kruckeberg and Rabinovitz 1985).

Secondary forests, regenerating after clear-felling, were not included in the present study but were treated by Pitopang et al. (2002). These forests stand out by their total lack of large trees and the abundance of thin-stemmed trees. The high richness of trees 5 cm in secondary forests showed that this forest type has the potential to recover a considerable richness, if allowed to mature. In terms of taxonomic composition, the abundance of Meliaceae, Lauraceae, and Moraceae appeared to be considerably reduced in secondary forests relative to primary forests, whereas in Euphorbiaceae, Urticaceae and Ulmaceae it was increased. The latter families are typical fast-growing pioneer taxa of early successional stages throughout the tropics (Turner 2001; Slik 1998) that are of little economic interest.

CONCLUSION In conclusion, we found that moderate human use of the forest ecosystems by rattan and selected timber extraction did not result in significant decreases of tree biodiversity, but the forest structure and its composition were differ among land use type.

Number of endemism of tree species was higher in primary forest and it was strongly reduced to cacao forest garden, although percentage endemism did not decline significantly in cacao forest gardens. Roughly one third of tree species in the forest plots were of economic importance as commercial timber trees; timber diversity was little affected by moderate human use of the forest but was significantly reduced in cacao forest gardens.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Fieldwork was kindly supported by Department of National Education Republic of Indonesia through the BPPS Scholarship was provided by Directorate General of Higher Education and Collaborative Research Centre 552 at the University of Gottingen, funded by German Research Foundation (DFG). R. Pitopang expresses his gratitude and

appreciation to Prof. Stephan R. Gradstein (Paris Museum, France), H. Sahabuddin Mustapa (RIP), formerly the Rector of Universitas Tadulako Palu. Finally I would like to thank an anonymous reviewer for the critical and suggestion on this manuscript.

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B I O D I V E R S IT A S Volume 13, Number 4, October 2012 Pages: 190-194

ISSN: 1412-033X E-ISSN: 2085-4722 DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d130404

Plants and animals diversity in Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) in Hamadan Province, Iran MAHDI REYAHI-KHORAM1,â&#x2122;Ľ, MAJEED JAFARY1, MOSTAFA BAYATI1, REIHANEH REYAHI-KHORAM2 1 Department of Environment, Hamadan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Hamadan, Iran, P.O.BOX: 65138-734, Professor Mosivand st., Hamadan, Iran Tel: +988114494170, Fax: +988114494170, â&#x2122;Ľ email: phdmrk@gmail.com Department of Agricultural Engineering Food Industries, Qazvin Branch, Islamic Azad University, Qazvin, Iran.

2

Manuscript received: 17 June 2012. Revision accepted: 6 September 2012.

ABSTRACT Reyahi-Khoram M, Jafary M, Bayati M, Reyahi-Khoram R. 2012. Plants and animals diversity in Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) in Hamadan Province, Iran. Biodiversitas 14: 190-194. Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) is regarded as one of the genetic reserves of Hamadan province in Iran. BMA is highly important regarding variety of plant and animal species, but limited research work has been performed in this area in the field of biodiversity. Identifying the unique ecologic talents and capabilities and aesthetics of BMA is the most important objective of this study. This research was conducted during 2010 through 2011 in BMA to identify various plant and animal species through documentary and also direct field observations. With direct referring to the various regions of the studied area, plant samples were collected from different slope position and transported to field laboratory units. Sampling was made for every 20 meters increase in the height of area. Animal species of the area were identified too. Based on the results, about 44 valuable plant species, 45 species of birds as well as 7 species of mammals have been identified in BMA. It is recommended that the area be declared an A prohibited hunting area by Department of Environment (DoE) of Iran for the conservation of flora and fauna in the study area.

Key words: biodiversity, ecotourism, environment, habitat, pasture

INTRODUCTION Hamadan province with a long history and record in traditional medicine was shown as one of the main centers of production and supply of herbal plants in Iran. The tomb of eminent Iranian scientist and medicine, Avicenna (Ibn Sina), is located in the heart of Hamadan city. The province covering 19,493 square kilometers and is located in the west of Iran, 320 km far from Tehran with a population of 1.7 million, has varied pastures and natural resources (Reyahi-Khoram and Karami-Nour 2010). Based on the available information, the flora of Hamadan province includes 6000 species of which 315 species related to 71 families and 209 genus are valuable plant drug, of which 159 species have traditional usage in the province and 156 species are out of traditional and indigenous use but they are called medicinal plants in drug resources (Kalvandi et al. 2007). Medicinal plants are widely used by the indigenous people in the treatment of various diseases (Russell-Smith 2006; Suneetha 2006; Mirutse-Giday 2009; Rihawy 2010; Tilahun-Teklehaymanot 2010; Nadembega 2011). In Iran, Medicinal plants are as a basic element of medical system. In the other word, medicinal plants are a source for a wide variety of natural antioxidants. These resources are usually regarded as part of cultural traditional knowledge (Shahidi 2004; Bouayed 2007; Koochak 2010; Mosaddegh 2012).

The acceptance of traditional medicine as an alternative form of health care and the development of microbial resistance to the classical antibiotics led researchers to investigate the antimicrobial activity of several medicinal plants (Ulukanli and Akkaya 2011). Also, demand for traditional food plants has increased significantly over recent years, particularly so over the past decade. Many species of traditional food plants have been utilized by native people of the world. Hamadan province with a range of these plant species has the potential to provide a valuable source of Traditional food plants in the area.

These traditional vegetables have the potential to provide a valuable source of nutrition in areas with hot or dry climates. They could fill a valuable niche in the production of food in rural areas where the climate is not favorable to the production of vegetables. But, most of the exotic vegetables require large amounts of water for successful production. In areas where people have to walk long distances to collect their water, most water is used for domestic purposes and there is very little available for use on a vegetable garden.

Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) is regarded as one of the genetic reserves of the province, and has a special status in this regard. Although BMA is highly important regarding variety of plant and animal species, but limited research work has been performed in this area in the field of biodiversity. Therefore, it is necessary to identifying and introducing various plant and animal species and the importance of mentioned region. Identifying the unique

REYAHI-KHORAM et al. â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Biodiversity of Buqaty Mountain Area, Iran

ecologic talents and capabilities and aesthetics of BMA is the most important objective of this study. Other objectives include introducing plant and animal species of this area.

The said research may provide a means of identifying the threatened species and critically endangered species and also determine the effective causes of protecting and survival of the said species and may contribute to improvement of the programming and management overall study area.

MATERIALS AND METHODS This research was conducted during 2010 through 2011 in Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) to identify various plant and animal species through documentary, extensive field visits and also direct field observations during the years of study. Through the period, using the map, Global Positioning System (GPS) and in some cases through afoot surveying or using car, the geographical location of BMA was identified. To evaluate the climatology status of the area, data of meteorology organization was used. Means, the data of the nearest meteorology stations to the BMA including Khomigan and Nojeh Meteorology Stations were used. The analyses are based on the 21 years of available meteorological records of Khomigan and Nojeh stations.

For general identification of the area, digital maps and Geographic Information System (GIS) were used and on this basis, the topological status of the area was identified

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(Demers 2009). With direct referring to the various regions of the studied area, plant samples were collected from different slope position and packaged and transported to field laboratory unit. Sampling was made for every 20 meters increase in the height of area. Rectangular sampling or quadrate sampler unit was taken with a 100 square meters (10m x 10m). Plant samples were collected in full form including stem, root, leave, and fruit and also seed parts of plants. Before sampling, the ecology and biology form of every species was recorded directly. Plants were identified according to the appearance of stem, flower and or leaf. Then the collected species were compared to the scientific literature available and every species were identified separately. Key methods for identifying various plant species in this area including the color of flower, the size of leaf, the time of flowering, species more or less prickly, existence or non-existence of fuzz in the leaves or stem and right or branched vertical roots (Mozaffarian 2006). Animal species of the area were identified by direct observation, using the viewpoints of native people and also experts of Kabodarahang City Environment Protection Department (Mansoori 2001). Regarding that the said area is not under management of Department of Environment (DoE), Iran the native people and tourists appeared extensively in the area. This caused improper enumeration of animal species by the team members in the process of identification and this is one of the major constraints of this research.

Hamadan Province

A Iran, Islamic Republic

Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA)

Zarivar Wetland

Razan Township

B

15 km

Figure 1. Location of the study area, A. Hamadan Province, Iran, B. Razan Township, C. Buqaty mountain area

C

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192 Table 1. List of plant species in BMA Species

Family

Achillea tenuifolia Asteraceae (Compositae) Alcea ficifolia Malvaceae Alkanna bracteosa Boraginaceae Allium haemanthoides Liliaceae Astragalus michauxii Papilionaceae Astragalus onobrychis Papilionaceae Astragalus senilis Papilionaceae Chaerophyllum aureum Umbelliferae Chamaemelum nobile Asteraceae (Compositae) Cirsium osseticum Asteraceae (Compositae) Erigeron acer Asteraceae (Compositae) Francoeuria undulata Asteraceae (Compositae) Geranium collinum Geraniaceae Gundelia tournefortii Asteraceae (Compositae) Hordeum bulbosum Gramineae Hypecoum pendulum Papaveraceae Inula oculus-christii Asteraceae (Compositae) Ixiolirion tataricum Amaryllidaceae Leucopoa sclerophylla Gramineae Londesia eriantha Chenopodiaceae Matricaria recutita Asteraceae (Compositae) Muscari neglectum Liliaceae Phalaris paradoxa Gramineae Phlomis pungens Labiatae Phlomis rigida Labiatae Phyllitis scolopendrium Aspleniaceae Plantago media Plantaginaceae Prangos ferulacea* Umbellifera Rheum ribes* Polygonaceae Salvia aethiopis Labiatae Satureja laxiflora Labiatae Satureja macrantha Labiatae Scorzonera cinerea Asteraceae (Compositae) Senecio cineraria Asteraceae (Compositae) Silene conoidea Caryophyllaceae Sisymbrium irio Cruciferae Sisymbrium loeselii* Cruciferae Stachys lavandulifolia Labiatae Taraxacum syriacum Asteraceae (Compositae) Trifolium repens Papilionaceae Trigonosciadium Umbelliferae brachytaenium* Trisetum flavescens Gramineae Vicia hyrcanica Papilionaceae Vicia pseudocassubica Papilionaceae Note: * = endemic plant of Iran

Uses Medical plant Medical plant Medical plant Food plant Pasture plant Pasture plant Pasture plant Food plant Food plant Food plant Medical plant Medical plant Ornamental plant Medical plant Pasture plant Medical plant Medical plant Pastore plant Pastore plant Pastore plant Medical plant Pasture plant Pastore plant Medical plant Food Plant Medical plant Medical plant Pasture plant Medical plant Pasture plant Medical plant Medical plant Food Plant Ornamental plant Medical plant Medical plant Pasture plant Medical plant Ornamental plant Medical plant Pasture plant Pasture plant Pasture plant Pasture plant

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Geographical status of the area BMA with a maximum height of 2800 meters above sea level is located in north of Hamadan Province and in the northwest of Razan Township. This area has an area of about 12,000 hectares and is one of the most valuable pastures of Iran with diverse plant coverage. BMA is a mountainous area with moderate climate and full of a wide range of herbal medicinal plant species in the area. The

highest point in the said area is located in 48°, 41', 30.48" eastern longitude and 35°, 32', 49.20" northern latitude. The general height of the area is reduced toward the south and is then led to Kabodarahang plain (Figure 1). Based on the data gathered from the nearest meteorology stations, the average annual precipitation in the mentioned area is about 302 mm per year, the annual average of air temperature is 10.7°C, the maximum average is 18.4°C, the minimum average is 3.4°C, and the average annual evaporation is 1682 mm. There are several natural springs dispersed among the mountains and has caused massive amount tourists chose BMA as their favorite holidays.

Diversity of plant species in the area Based on the results and observations, about 44 valuable plant species in BMA have been identified.

Asteraceae, Labiatae and Papilionaceae families had the highest number of species (Figure 2). Some of these plants have pharmaceutical properties, some are used as forage crops and many of the said species have an important role in preserving water, prevent flood flowing and also preventing soil erosion on slops. Plant species diversity of the studied area is presented in table 1. The plant species of BMA, which concerning plant coverage, is one of the most original and diverse areas of Iran.

Every year in spring season, thousands of people from local areas and other provinces travel to BMA and harvest their desired traditional plants species using initial tools.

Many species of Lamiaceae family plant have medical property and have been widely used in traditional medicine and the said species plants grow at different heights of the mentioned area.

Among aromatic plants belonging to Lamiaceae family, the most popular ones are Salvia aethiopis, Satureja laxiflora and Satureja macrantha.

Diversity of animal species in the area Regarding the ecological characteristics of the area and also according to pasture management which is applied relatively often, BMA is highly talented for growth and multiplication of various animal species including mammals and numerous birds. Based on the results, 45 bird species and 7 mammal species in BMA have been identified. Accipitridae and Turdidae families had the highest number of bird species (Figure 3). Animal species diversity of the studied area as birds and mammals is presented in Table 2 and 3. Also, unplanned presence of some tourists produced insecurity in many parts of Wildlife Habitats in the study area. On the other side, all of these have caused migration of Wildlife from their natural habitats to other areas.

REYAHI-KHORAM et al. â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Biodiversity of Buqaty Mountain Area, Iran Table 2. List of bird species in BMA

12

10

Species Number

8

6

4

2

Am

(C om po sit ae ) ar yll ida ce ae As ple nia ce Bo ae ra gin ac Ca ea ry e op hy lla Ch ce en ae op od iac ea e Cr uc ife ra Ge e ra nia ce ae La bia ta e Lili ac ea e M alv ac ea Pa e pa ve ra ce Pa ae pil ion ac Pl ea an e ta gin ac ea Po e lyg on ac ea Um e be llif er ae

0

As te ra ce ae

Families

Figure 2. Number of species in each family of plants in BMA

6

5

4 Species Number

193

3

2

1

Ac cip ite rid ae Al au di Bu dae rh Ch inid a ar ad e Ci co riida ni e a cic Co in ia lu m bi Co dae ra cii da e Co rv id ae Cu cu l i Em da e be riz Fa idae lco n id Hi ae ru nd in id ae La ni id ae M er op id M a ot ac e illi da Pa e ss er id Ph ae as ia ni da e Pi cid a Ra e llid Sc ol ae op ac id ae St ar ni da e Tu rd id Up ae up id ae

0

Families

Figure 3. Number of Species in each family of Birds in BMA

A study was done in 2006 about Distribution system and its role about range destruction in BMA, it was found the way are used in BMA, is that range land exclusion (keeping livestock from entering the range land area) is applied every year until the pasture has made sufficient growth (almost up to 25th June). Rangeland exclusion to livestock is one of the best management methods for range and watershed management that are applied for range rehabilitation and improvement. This method is used for increase in vegetation cover in watershed area that leads to increase in amount of land cover and consequently, causing stabilization of soil and reduction of soil loss rate. For this purpose, the ranger mans, that was called gorogban, is employed by stakeholders. In the end of exclusion period, the sub divisions of every grass pastures and every hill pastures as well as randomly classified and selected by the stakeholders. Later than, each stakeholder cut and collects the forage and carries them to the village. After cutting the forage material and finished the exclusion period, pasture grazing becomes possible and free for all of the villagers to graze their animals on. It is obvious that unlimited grazing of pasture is made after forage harvest (Vejdani and Solgi 2006).

Scientific name

Family

Accipiter nisus Alectoris chukar Ammoperdix griseogularis Aquila chrysaetos Athene noctua Bubo bubo Burhinus oedicnemus Buteo rufinus Calandrella brachydactyla Carduelis flavirostris Ciconia cicinia Circus pygargus Coracias garrulus Corvus corone Corvus frugilegus Coturnix coturnix Columba livia Cuculus canorus Emberiza cia Emberiza pusilla Erithacus megarhynchos Erithacus rubecula Falco naumanni Falco peregrinus Galerida cristata Gallinago gallinago Gyps fulvus Hirundo rustica Lanius minor Merops orientalis Monticola saxatilis Motacilla cinerea Oenantha isabellina Otus scops Passer domesticus Passer hispaniolensis Picoides minor Porzana parva Riparia riparia Sturnus vulgaris Streptopelia decaocto Turdus merula Tringa totamus Upupa epops Vanellus vanellus

Accipitridae Phasianidae Phasianidae Accipitridae Strigidae Strigidae Burhinidae Accipitridae Alaudidae Fringillidae Ciconiidae Accipitridae Coraciidae Corvidae Corvidae Phasianidae Columbidae Cuculidae Emberizidae Emberizidae Turdidae Turdidae Falconidae Falconidae Alaudidae Scolopacidae Accipitridae Hirundinidae Laniidae Meropidae Turdidae Motacillidae Turdidae Strigidae Passeridae Passeridae Picidae Rallidae Hirundinidae Sturnidae Columbidae Turdidae Scolopacidae Upupidae Charadriidae

Table 3. List of mammal species in BMA Scientific name Paraechinus hypomelas Canis lupus Canis aureus Capra aegagrus Lepus europaeus Sus scrofa Vulpes vulpes

Family Erinaceidae Canidae Canidae Bovidae Leporidae Suidae Canidae

194

B I O D I V E R S IT A S 13 (4): 190-194, October 2012

The results of the study may be compared to two other studies that have attempted to estimate the plant diversity in Lashgardar and Khan_Gormaz Protected Areas in Hamadan province. Both studies focused only on the plant diversity of these protected area. The first of these studies was accomplished by Safikhani et al. (2003) and reported that there are 43 families, 184 genera and 266 plant species in Lashgardar protected area. Based on the second study, Approximately 46 families, 180 genera and 261 plant species have been identified in Khan Gormaz Protected Area (Safikhani et al. 2006).

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Since Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) have a substantial role in maintaining genetic resources, preserving biodiversity, production of medical herbs, biological control of plant pests and preservation of soil and water, it is necessary to combine different techniques for better exploitation of rangelands of the study area through teaching, educating, planning, investment, research and also evaluation of previous plans. In order to manage and control the natural beauty and full use of its potential, it is recommended that the area be declared as a prohibited hunting area by DoE for the conservation of flora and fauna and vested in the study area. It is obvious that the protection of BMA must be made in such a way as to guarantee the preservation and maintenance of the areas, increasing income of local people and also increasing the capacity of nature and environment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research was supported by Islamic Azad University (Hamadan Branch). The authors would like to thank department of environment of mentioned university.

Also, the authors would like to thank Ahmad Yari, the expert of Hamadan provincial directorate of environmental protection, for their collaboration in this study.

REFERENCES Bouayed J, Piri K, Rammal H, Dicko A, Desor F, Younos C, Soulimani R. 2007. Comparative evaluation of the antioxidant potential of some Iranian medicinal plants. Food Chem 104 (1): 364-368.

Demers M. 2009. Fundamental of Geographic Information System. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Kalvandi R, Safikhani K, Najafi GH, Babakhanlo P. 2007. Identification of medicinal plants of Hamedan province. Iranian J Med Aromatic Pl 23 (3): 350-374.

Koochak H, Seyyednejad SM, Motamedi H. 2010. Preliminary study on the antibacterial activity of some medicinal plants of Khuzestan (Iran). Asian Pac J Trop Med 3 (3):180-184.

Mansoori J. 2001. Field guide to the birds of Iran. Nashre Zehn Aviz, Tehran, Iran.

Mirutse Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z. 2009. Medicinal plants of the Meinit ethnic group of Ethiopia: An ethnobotanical study. J Ethnopharmacol 124 (3): 513-521.

Mosaddegh M, Naghibi F, Moazzeni H, Pirani A, Esmaeili S. 2012.

Ethnobotanical survey of herbal remedies traditionally used in Kohghiluyeh va Boyer Ahmad province of Iran. J Ethnopharmacol 141 (1): 80-95.

Mozaffarian VA. 2006. A dictionary of Iran plant names. Farhang Moaser publisher, Tehran, Iran.

Nadembega P, Boussimb J.I, Nikiemac J.B, Polia F, Antognonia F., 2011, Medicinal plants in Baskoure, Kourittenga Province, Burkina Faso: An ethnobotanical study. J Ethnopharmacol 133 (2): 378-395.

Reyahi-Khoram M, Karami-Nour M. 2010. A Case Study on Environmental Evaluation and Planning for Range and Forest Management by Means of Geographic Information System (GIS). J Agric Sci Technol 4 (6): 57-62.

Rihawy MS, Bakraji EH, Aref S, Shaban R. 2010. Elemental investigation of Syrian medicinal plants using PIXE analysis. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B, Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms 268 (17-18): 2790-2793.

Russell-Smith J, Karunaratne NS, Mahindapala R. 2006. Rapid inventory of wild medicinal plant populations in Sri Lanka. Biol Conserv 132 (1): 22-32.

Safikhani K, Rahiminejhad MR Kalvandi R. 2003. Presentation of flora, life forms, endemic species and their conservational classes in protected region of Lashkardar (Malayer city-Hamadan province).

Pajouhesh & Sazandegi 60: 72-83 Safikhani K, Rahiminejhad MR, Kalvandi R. 2006. Presentation of flora and life forms of plants in protected region of Khangormaz (Hamadan province). Pajouhesh & Sazandegi 70: 70-78.

Shahidi B. 2004. Evaluation of antibacterial properties of some medicinal plants used in Iran. J Ethnopharmacol 94 (2-3): 301-305.

Suneetha MS, Chandrakanth MG. 2006. Establishing a multi-stakeholder value index in medicinal plantsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;an economic study on selected plants in Kerala and Tamilnadu States of India. Ecol Econ 60 (1): 3648.

Tilahun-Teklehaymanot T, Giday M. 2010. Quantitative ethnobotany of medicinal plants used by Kara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in lower Omo River Valley, Debub Omo Zone, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State, Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol 130 (1): 76-84.

Ulukanli Z, Akkaya A. 2011. Antibacterial Activities of Marrubium catariifolium and Phlomis pungens Var. Hirta Grown Wild in Eastern Anatolia, Turkey. Intl J Agric Biol 13 (1): 105-109.

Vejdani HR, Solgi M. 2006. Distribution system and its role about range destruction. Proceeding of the First National Festival on Range and Rangeland Management, Mashhad, Iran.

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B I O D I V E R S IT A S Volume 13, Number 4, October 2012 Pages: 200-204

ISSN: 1412-033X E-ISSN: 2085-4722 DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d130406

Population dynamics of dominant demersal fishes caught in Tambelan Islands waters, Riau Archipelago Province YONVITNER1,â&#x2122;Ľ, FAHMI2 1

Department of Aquatic Resources Management, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB). Jl. Agatis No.1, Darmaga, Bogor 16680, West Java, Indonesia. Tel./Fax +62 251 8623644, ď&#x201A;Šemail: yonvitr@yahoo.com 2 Research Center for Oceanography, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (PPO-LIPI), North Jakarta 14430, Indonesia Manuscript received: 19 October 2011. Revision accepted: 14 October 2012.

ABSTRACT Yonvitner, Fahmi. 2012. Population dynamics of dominant demersal fishes caught in Tambelan Islands waters, Riau Archipelago Province. Biodiversitas 14: 200-204. The population of demersal fishes tends to be decline in the last few decades. The decline was due to the increased of intensive catches, fishing effort and illegal fishing practices. This study aimed to examine aspects of population dynamics such as mortality, recruitment, opportunity capture and population estimation. The study was conducted in six locations at Tambelan waters, on 4-16 November 2010. Collected data included the fish species, size and biomass catch. The analyses performed included mortality, recruitment, opportunity capture and population estimates (VPA). The data indicated that the Genus of Nemipterus and Lutjanus possess the highest total mortality rate that was respectively 1.62 and 2.55. The highest recruitment presentation of the population which has an annual period as Pentapodus was 16%. Catch opportunities tend to be higher than actual fishing, while the alleged biomass of steady state conditions reached 12.2 tons/yr.

Key words: demersal, fish, Tambelan, Natuna Sea, Riau Archipelago

INTRODUCTION Fishing area located in the Natuna Sea waters are very diverse both ecosystems and fish resources. In terms of ecosystems, the Natuna Sea waters possess coastal fisheries, offshore fishing, shallow water fishing, deep sea fishing and reef fishing. In terms of fisheries resources, there is an area dominated by one particular species but also many fishing areas inhabited by various species.

Multi-species fishery may cause the existence of three kinds of interactions, i.e. biological, technical, and economical interactions. The biological interaction may be both intra-and inter-species in the form of predation (preypredator relationships, including cannibalism), and the competition in terms of food or space. Technical interactions occur because of fisheries on a stock as a target always cause mortality in other stocks, namely in the form of by catches.

Demersal fisheries in Tambelan waters, the Natuna Sea is one of fisheries resources where fishing pressures occurred. Tambelan waters are relatively open to fishing pressure either by local and foreign fishermen. Usually fishing activities are carried out by using trawl fishing gear (bottom nets). The declining of demersal fish stocks caused by high fishing pressure has led to decrease in stocks and fish stocks in Tambelan waters. Capture diminishing size, small fish catches getting more frequently, lower percentage of recruitment as well as the percentage of low

yield per recruit may be the indicators of the declining of stock levels.

Based on the above conditions, it requires a study on the dynamics of the pattern of demersal fish stocks of which includes the more frequent small fishes catch, the lower the percentage of recruitment as well as the percentage of yield per recruit. The results of this study were expected to be used as a basis for formulating management plans and resource utilization of demersal fish from the Tambelan waters. Therefore, in the long period the stocks are maintained and remain sustainable.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Site sampling The study of demersal fish in Tambelan Islands waters, Natuna Sea, Riau Archipelago Province, Indonesia, was carried out on November 4 to 16, 2010. Fish samples were collected using a bottom trawl nets (trawling) with a swept area method. The equipments were operated on the Research Ship Baruna Jaya VIII. Fish sampling using trawl was conducted between 11 pm to 5 am.

Location of sampling stations were set as six spots in the south, east and north of Menggirang Island, west and north of Benua Island, and east of Tambelan Island. The sampling sites are presented in Table 1.

YONVITNER & FAHMI – Demersal fishes of Tambelan Islands waters, Riau Archipelago

201

Table 1. Position and description of each location of the trawl operation in Tambelan waters, November 2010.

Location

Time (WIB) Setting Hauling Velocity (kt) Depth (m)

ST1

ST2

South of Menggirang Besar Is. 3.45-4.45 N 01o 02,257' E 107 o 26,390' N 00 o 59,805' E 107 o 29,062' 3.5 33-34

East of Menggirang North of Besar Is. Menggirang Besar Is. 4.30-5.30 4.15-5.15 N 00 o 53,163’ N 00 o 54,255’' E 107 o 35,160’ E 107 o 31,478' o N 00 55,850' N 00 o 56,434' E 107 o 38,208' E 107 o 34,385' 3.2 3.2 44-45 32-34

ST3

Procedures The measurement of fishes caught were included the length (mm) and weight (grams). Measurements were performed on the Baruna Jaya ship using a ruler (precision 0.005 cm) and OHAUS scales (accuracy 0.0005 g). The collected data were subsequently analyzed with the size structure using statistical approach (average and deviation analysis), analysis of mortality, the percentage of recruited (Pauly 2004), the opportunity of the captured size, and the level of population change (yield per recruit) (Pauly 1999; FAO 2005).

Data analysis Analysis of natural mortality (M) according to Pauly (2004) derived from empirical data that is ln (M) =-0.01520279 ln (L ∞) + 0.6543ln (K) + 0463 ln (T), where L ∞ (infinity length), K (growth rate coefficient and T (average temperature of the waters). While the mortality due to fishing was evaluated using model approach from the linear relationship between the numbers of fish in length of-i with the time needed to grow as follows: ln(Ni/Dti) = a + b · ti Where, Ni: is the number of fish in length class i, Dti: is the time required for fish to grow in length to the class, ti: is the age (or the relative age, calculated) in accordance with the value of mean of class-i, and where b (negative sign) is as an estimate value of Z (mortality).

Analysis of recruitment percentage was conducted using length frequency data analysis approach used on the approach of regression analysis of the relationship of Gausian distribution model (with a normal distribution curve approaches is maximum (Moreau and Cuende 1991).

Fisheries analysis includes descriptive analysis of production data and the size of the capture, while analysis of fishing opportunities using the approach curve to approach the selection of data length and weight in the interpolation of the catch curve and compare with the actual number of catches caught by fishermen. Length parameters with the estimation success rate (%) i.e. (L25, L50, L75), which was evaluated from (i) using a logistic curve, which assumes that the selection will be symmetrical or nearly between the actual catch by logistic curve interpolation; (ii) using a moving average of each

ST4

ST5

ST6

West of Benua Is.

North of Benua Is.

East of Tambelan Is.

4.50-5.50 N 00 o 54,804’ E 107 o 25,258 N 00 o 58,669' E 107 o 22,242' 3.3 37-39

22.05-23.05 N 01 o 00.599' E 107 o 26,253' N 01 o 03,779 E 107 o 27,818' 2.8 37-42

4.34-5.58 N 00 o 59,765' E 107 o 37,788' N 01 o 02,789' E 107 o 35,134' 2.8 37-63

class and the interpolation of the parameters of selection.

The function of the logistic curve (Pauly 1999; FAO 2005) i.e. ln((1/PL)-1) = S1-S2 · L

...........................................(1)

Where, PL is catch opportunity of length data of fish catch (L).

L25 = (ln(3)-S1)/S2 ……………………….………...(2) L50 = S1/S2 …………………………………………(3) L75 = (ln(3)+S1)/S2 …………………………………(4) Function of average is: PL,i(new) = (PL,i-1+PL,i(old)+PL,i+1)/3, …………………(5) Population analysis to reconstruct the population (estimated population) which describes the maximum number to obtain the calculated amount of catch, population, fishing mortality and biomass amount which available in a state of equilibrium (steady state). Steady state conditions may include the circumstances that have not been under pressure of arrest or arrests have been under pressure, but the population is spread more uniformly. The model used was based on the model curve analysis approach to measure the length of the curve with the linear model. VPA analysis begins with the evaluation of estimated population Nt = Ct · (M + Ft)/Ft Where, Ct catch point (i.e. the number of catches taken from the largest length class). Then the value of Nt is determined from the movement of the curve F (fishing) to solve the equation Ci = Ni+Nt · (Fi/Zi) · (exp(Zi·Nti)-1) Where, Nti = (ti+1-ti), and ti = to-(1/K) · ln(1-(Li/L)) and whereas length of population (Ni) calculated from Ni = Ni+Nt. exp(Zi) Last two equations are used as an alternative to population size and mortality due to fishing for all groups of predetermined length. ELEFAN analysis assisted with analysis tools in the program I Fisat 1.2.2 series. In the

B I O D I V E R S IT A S 13 (4): 200-204, October 2012

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analysis of fish size structure, all fish samples were used.

While frequency distribution analysis, age group and the growth were measured from the dominant fish caught.

Recruitment Recruitment is the addition of new individual either due to the birth process and the process of growth and migration. In one population, recruitment is usually seen as a stage of the entry of individuals from youth to adult individuals who are ready to be captured. Indicators recruitment is usually the size of the population began to get caught by fishing gear used. Knowledge of the high fishing mortality these species endure may affect a fishery regulatorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s choice of management measures (Morgan and Burgess 2009).

From the length frequency analysis, then the level recruitment of each type of fish can be known. The results of the analysis of recruitment approaches was using Gausian distribution model as follows. Levels of recruitment from Saurida grandisquamis were happened two times within a year of entering fourth months to nine months. Percentage recruited in April reached 21.17% and in September reached 8.49%. But the percentages of the second month was not as high as in April as shown in Figure 1. Percentage recruit of Lutjanus lutjanus at the highest recruited in June reached 19.73%. In general, the level of recruit more evenly each month throughout the year with different percentages as in Figure 1.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Mortality Mortality describes fish mortality rates either due to fish catch, or natural deaths. Natural death is a process of life cycle of many populations which are influenced by the environmental factors. While deaths due to fishing is a death caused by fishing activities and use of destructive fishing gear. The results of analysis of dominant fish mortality rates are presented in Table 2.

The results showed that the highest total mortality rate in the group Lutjanus lutjanus, then Nemipterus sp and Saurida grandisquamis. Pentapodus group has a low mortality rate. From these results it can be concluded that the Tambelan waters was very supportive to life and the development of Pentapodus setosus, Selaroides leptolepis and Upeneus asymmetricus. Mortality of siganid fishes from the Luwu waters (M = 1.27, F = 1.08), Tambelan fish mortality was nearly the same of Nemipterus group (Jalil et al. 2003).

Table 2. Total maturity (z), natural maturity (m) and fishing maturity (f) of demersal fishes Species

M*

F

Z**

Note

Nemipterus sp.

1.05 0.57 1.62 Mortality of dominant catch in size > 135 mm Saurida grandisquamis 0.35 1.31 1.66 Mortality of dominant catch in size > 200 mm Upeneus asymmetricus 0.31 0.8 1.11 Mortality of dominant catch in size > 110 mm Pentapodus setosus 0.35 0.29 0.64 Mortality of dominant catch in size > 196 mm Selaroides leptolepis 0.64 0.33 0.97 Mortality of dominant catch in size > 106 mm Lutjanus lutjanus 0.54 2.01 2.55 Mortality of dominant catch in size > 109 mm Note: *: Empirical equation of Pauly; **: Empirical equation of Jones van Zelinge

A

B

C

D

E

F

Figure 1. Recruitment percentage. A. Saurida grandisquamis, B. Lutjanus lutjanus, C. Nemipterus sp., D. Pentapodus setosus, E. Selaroides leptolepis, F. Upeneus asymmetricus

YONVITNER & FAHMI â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Demersal fishes of Tambelan Islands waters, Riau Archipelago

Recruitment of Nemipterus sp. occurred evenly with a peak in September (20.81%).

However, increased recruit began in May to a peak in September. At this time many young fishes started to grow into adulthood and begin to be captured. The percentage of Nemipterus sp. recruits as shown in Figure 1C. This pattern was similar to the type of fish Pentapodus setosus that the percentage of the highest recruited in June reached 16%. In March, the percentage of recruited began to show improvement and almost evenly each month as shown in Figure 1D. Groups of Selaroides leptolepis possess high levels of recruitment two times a year.

Dominant first recruited in February reached 6.32%, the highest peak in August was 17.72% (Figure 1E). Recruitment percentage of Upeneus asymmetricus was evenly in the month since April and the peak was in August 15.22%. The pattern of Upeneus asymmetricus was recruited during the entire year with a period of more uniform as shown in Figure 1F.

203

Table 3. Estimated size of catched fish in Tambelan Species Lutjanus lutjanus Nemipterus sp.

Pentapodus setosus Saurida grandisquamis Selaroides leptolepis Upeneus asymmetricus

Estimated size (mm) L25 L50 L75 152.32 218.19 284.06 378.16 536.88 695.61 607.76 822.09 1036.41 265.65 342.35 419.05 206.75 259.21 311.67 331.75 447.94 564.12

Distribution of catched size 54,76-180 65-210 115-285 110-315 80-177,89 70-185

Table 4. VPA analyses of dominated caught fish Population Ratio (%) Species C (ind) N (ind) F (ind) SSB (ton) C/F C/N Saurida grandisquamis 48.0 391.7 41.6 0.4 86.767 12.2549 Nemipterus sp.

53.0 1802.9 10.7 0.3 20.253 2.9398 Upeneus asymmetricus 401.0 17720.0 5.1 3.7 1.261 2.2630 Pentapodus setosus 127.0 6005.5 2.8 12.2 2.190 2.1147 Selaroides leptolepis 78.8 4037.8 3.2 1.3 4.073 1.9509 Lutjanus lutjanus 147.1 5105.1 11.8 1.5 8.028 2.8824 Note: C = number of actual catches (ind); N = Estimated fish abundance (ind/area); F = Estimated catch (assuming that Lď&#x201A;Ľ, K, M according to the estimation); SSB = Steady State Biomass (tons); C/F = Ratio of actual number of catches against the estimated catch; C/N = Ratio of actual catches against the estimated total population

Captured opportunity Catching opportunity is the percentage of fish capture using trawl gear. Fishes which showed a chance of being caught in a larger size were Pentapodus setosus, Nemipterus sp. and Upeneus asymmetricus.

Opportunity of the size capture of the dominant fish is presented in Table 3. From the results revealed that fish which potentially have depleted due to fishing were Lutjanus lutjanus, Selaroides leptolepis and Saurida grandisquamis. The shorter of fish catch size indicated the lower fish size in the waters. It is an indicator of the decline

of stocks in the waters. Opportunity of catching size also indicates the affectivity of fish capture. Reduction of abundance of the bigger fishes (Serra and Canales 2007) and with this, the decrease of the relative biomass reflected in the CPUE. Information from this study is an indirect indicator for the creation of capture efficiency (Canales et al. 2005). According to FAO (1999) red snapper as a group of bentho-pelagic can reach 80 cm in size, but the average catch was in the size of 50 cm.

A

B

C

D

E

F

Figure 2. The pattern of distribution of survival rates, natural mortality, catch and catch rates of: A. Nemipterus sp., B. Lutjanus lutjanus, C. Pentapodus setosus, D. Saurida grandisquamis, E. Selaroides leptolepis, and F. Upeneus asymmetricus.

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Virtual population analysis Virtual population analysis principally is the estimation of population in an area of waters that includes information about the amount of population growth (survival) and death (mortality). The results of the evaluation of estimated population catch rate and catch rate of each size of dominant fish are presented in Figure 2 and Table 4.

From the results revealed that the fish with high survival rate due to the condition of aquatic ecosystems in Tambelan regarding to fish catches was Pentapodus setosus. Saurida grandisquamis, Lutjanus lutjanus and Nemipterus sp. tended to be susceptible to fishing pressure.

All three types of these fishes can quickly run into stock in the waters. Demersal groups of fish such as Cynoglossus sp. was difficult to escape from the capture process (Veiga et al. 2009). The low estimated total abundance and standing stock of biomass in the waters was also possible to cause the rapid decline of fish stocks populations in the waters. According to Ridho et al (2004) biomass density of demersal fish in the Natuna Sea was from 2.35 ton/km2 decreased to 1.3 ton/km2.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATION The natural mortality rate of Pentapodus setosus due to fishing activities was relatively lower compared to other fishes. Fish with solely high recruit percentage indicates that the fish possess spawning periods annually, while the number with more evenly distributed peaks are more resistant to fish catches. Opportunity catch of larger fishes than actual size of the fishing waters indicated that the standing stock was decreasing. Types of fish which were susceptible to fishing pressure are Saurida grandisquamis, Lutjanus lutjanus and Nemipterus sp.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank to the Directorate General of Higher Education and Research Center for Oceanography, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (PPO-LIPI). The help of the entire crew of Baruna Jaya VIII was also kindly acknowledged.

REFERENCES Canales C, Caballero L, Aranís A. 2005. Catch per unit effort of Chilean Jack Mackerel (Trachurus murphyi) of the purse seine fishery off south-central Chile (32º10’-40º10’ S) 1981-2005. Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Valparaiso, Chile.

FAO. 1999. Morphometric of fish species-sub ordo Percoidea. FAO, Rome.

FAO. 2005. Fisat user guide. FAO, Rome.

Jalil, Malawa A, Ali SA. 2003. Population biology of Baronang Lingkis fish (S. canaliculatus) in waters of Bua sub-district, Luwu district. J Sains & Teknologi 3 (1): 8-14. [Indonesia] Moreau J, Cuende FX. 1991. On improving the resolution of the recruitment patterns of fishes. ICLARM Fishbyte 9 (1): 45-46.

Morgan AC, Burgess GH. 2009. Fishery-dependent sampling: Total catch, effort and catch composition. Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 USA. Pauly D. 1999. Longhurst areas: ecological geography of the sea by A. Longhurst. Trends Ecol Evol 14 (3): 118.

Pauly D. 2004. Much rowing for fish. Nature 432: 813-814.

Ridho MR, Kaswadji RF, Jaya I, Nurhakim S. 2004. Distribution of demersal fish resources in the South China Sea waters. Jurnal IlmuIlmu Perairan dan Perikanan Indonesia 2: 123-128. [Indonesia] Serra JR, Canales C, Caballero L. 2007. Evaluación y captura total permisible de Jurel (Trachurus murphyi) Sub Regional, 2008.

Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Valparaiso, Chile.

Veiga P, Machado D, Almeida C, Bentes L, Monteiro P, Oliveira F, Ruano M, Erzini K, Gonçalves JMS. 2009. Weight-length relationships for 54 species of the Arade estuary, southern Portugal. J Appl Ichthyol 25: 493-496.

B I O D I V E R S IT A S Volume 13, Number 4, October 2012 Pages: 205-213

ISSN: 1412-033X E-ISSN: 2085-4722 DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d130407

The population of Jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco) in Jebak Village, Batanghari District, Jambi Province, Indonesia IIK SRI SULASMI1,2,♥, NISYAWATI2, , YOHANES PURWANTO3, SITI FATIMAH4 1

State High School number 1 of Jambi. Jl. Urip Sumoharjo No 15, Telanai Pura, Jambi 36122. Indonesia. Tel. +62-741-63147, Fax. +62-741-61108,  email: iik_08@yahoo.com 2 Conservation Biology Post Graduate School, Faculty of Mathematic and Natural Sciences, University of Indonesia, Depok 16436, West Java, Indonesia.

3 Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong Bogor 16911, West Java, Indonesia.

4 State High School number 2 of Surakarta. Surakarta 57134, Central Java, Indonesia.

Manuscript received: 12 September 2012. Revision accepted: 18 October 2012.

ABSTRACT Sulasmi IS, Nisyawati, Purwanto Y, Fatimah S. 2012. The population of Jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco) in Jebak Village, Batanghari District, Jambi Province, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 13: 205-213. Research of Rattan Jernang (Daemonorops draco Willd.) population in Jebak Village, Batanghari District, Jambi had never been done before. Daemonorops draco is a plant that produces sap called dragon blood. Dragon blood is very useful for the the lives of people of Anak Dalam Tribe in Jambi. This research used purposive random sampling method. All of data were analyzed descriptively. The results showed that beside D. draco, there were other six species of rattan in Jebak forest. The population of D. draco in Jebak forest was only 8 clumps, consisting of 82 individuals. D. draco had the smallest population among all rattan species. Calamus javensis had the highest population, namely 11 clumps, consisting of 197 individuals. The research location had air temperature of 20.2 0C-28.90C, relative humidity of 58%-68%, and pH of 4.60-4.81. In this location, there were 35 tree species (73 individuals) as supporting trees for D. draco to climb. The number of D. draco’s supporting trees and D. draco was not balanced, causing the death of D. draco in Jebak forest. Vegetation analyses showed that there were 51 tree species with diameter > 10 cm, consisting of 69 individuals. Pithecolobium saman had the highest importance value index (11) among all trees. There were also 33 tree species with diameter < 10 cm, consisting of 60 individuals. Pithecolobium saman also had the highest importance value index (20) in this group. Based on the interview, it is showed that the population of D. draco in Jebak forest declined because of illegal logging and forest encroachment.

Key words: Daemonorops draco, supporting trees, dragon blood, forest encroachment, illegal logging.

INTRODUCTION The word Daemonorops is derived from Greek, daemo and rhops; daemo means devil, and rhops means shrub (Mogea 1991). In Indonesia, the genus Daemonorops consist of many species, namely 84 species (Beccari 1911), 113 species (Dransfield and Manokaran 1994), 115 species (Rustiami et al. 2004). According to Rustiami et al. (2004), of the 115 species of Daemonorops found in Indonesia, 12 species produce sap, namely D. acehensis, D. brachystachys, D. didymophylla, D. draco, D. dracuncula, D. dransfieldii. D. maculata, D. micracantha, D. rubra, D. sekundurensis, D. siberutensis, and D. uschdraweitiana. In Jambi, 10 species of Daemonorops are found, namely, D. brachystachys, D. didymophylla (Beccari 1911), D. dracuncula, D. dransfieldii, D. longipes (Dransfield 1984), D. palembanicus, D. singalamus, D. trichrous, D. draco (Dransfield 1992), and D. mattanensis (Soemarna 2009).

According to Heyne (1987), only five species of rattan produce high quality of sap, namely D. didymophylla, D. draco, D. draconcellus, D. motleyi, and D. micracantha. Of the five species, D. draco produces the best jernang sap, which has many uses, such as coloring agent (Beccari 1911), ingredient of cosmetics (Dali and Soemarna 1985),

and medicines for diarrhea (Winarni et al. 2004), for wound (Harata et al. 2005), and ingredient of tooth paste (Purwanto et al. 2009). Not only producing jernang sap, Daemonorops periacanthus, found only in Japan, also produces edible sweet fruit (Beccari 1911).

Indonesia is the largest jernang sap exporter in the world. The demand of Indonesian jernang sap from China is 400 ton-500 ton per year (Januminro 2000; Soemarna 2009), but Indonesia can export only 27 ton per year, worth US$ 10,125,000 (Soemarna 2009). In addition to Sipintun and Lumbun Sigatal Villages, Jebak Village in Muara Tembesi Sub-District, Batanghari District, Jambi Province, also produces jernang sap as much as 300 kg per month (Jambi Forestry Office 2009).

Jebak Village has 15,830 ha of natural forest, but the forest is not utilized optimally because much of it has been damaged due to illegal logging and forest encroachment done by transmigrants coming mostly from Java and South Sumatra (Soemarna 2009; BKSDA Jambi 2010).

Forest degradation at an extent of 6,332 ha has caused the decline of population of supporting tree species on which the jernang rattan climb (BKSDA Jambi 2010), which in turn has caused the decline of jernang rattan population. As a result, the production of jernang sap has

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declined (Soemarna 2009). The degree of negative impact of illegal logging and forest encroachment on the population of jernang rattan population had not been documented. The objective of this study was to estimate the population of jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco Willd.) in Jebak Village. The results of this study can be used to complete the data of rattan population in Batanghari District, Jambi Province, Indonesia and as the basis for the development of this species in Jebak Village.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Study site The field work was done from January to February 2011 in forest area belonging to Anak Dalam Tribe (Suku Anak Dalam) in Jebak Village, Muara Tembesi SubDistrict, Batanghari District, Jambi Province. The location was selected based on the information that the Jebak forest is a habitat of jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco).

Sampling method Sampling of data in the field was done using purposive random sampling method (Fachrul 2007; Simon 2007).

Sampling plots were made only in the sites where D. draco was found. Within 25 hectares of research area, five 100m x 100m plots were made. Each plot was divided into 100 small plots measuring 10m x 10m each. Within 100 small plots, the number of jernang rattan and all species of rattan were counted and categorized according to their growth stages following Dransfield (1984), INTAG (1989), Kalima (1991) and Siswanto (1991): (i) Seedling: length of stem < 3 m, (ii) Juvenile: length of stem: 3-5 m, (iii) Semi mature: length of stem: 5-15 m, (iv), Mature: length of stem > 15 m.

Within 10m x 10m plots, the number of trees on which jernang rattan climbs was also counted. For vegetation analyses, two sizes of plots were made in one of the 100m x 100m plot, namely 10m x 10m plots and 20m x 20m plots, with a total area of 0.2 ha (20m x 100m). Trees with a diameter > 10 cm were counted in 20m x 20m plots, while trees with a diameter < 10cm were counted in 10m x 10m plots. The data of trees were used as supporting data.

The names of species and number of individual trees were recorded to determine the frequency and density of each species. Identification of trees was not done because the local and scientific names of trees had been given.

Data analyses Importance value index was counted for each species using formula cited in Rugayah et al. (2004) and Simon (2007). From the importance value, dominance index was determined using the formula cited in Simon (2007), namely: ID= ÎŁ _ni/N_2 ID= dominance index for each tree species, ni= importance value of each tree species, N= total importance value indexes.

Criteria for Simpson dominance indexes were 0 < C < 0.5 = low dominance; 0.5 < C < 0.75 = medium dominance; 0.75 < C < 1 = high dominance

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Population of jernang rattan and others According to Rustiami (2004), Daemonorops draco Willd. is also known as Calamus draco Willd. and Daemonorops propinqua Becc. The species has many local names in Indonesia, namely rotan jernang (Malay), limbayung (West Sumatra), huar (Dayak-Busang), seronang (Dayak-Penihing), uhan (Dayak-Kayan), getih badak (Sundanese), getih warak (Javanese). The jernang rattan is distributed in two islands, namely Sumatra (Jambi, Bengkulu, Riau Archipelago Provinces), and Kalimantan.

The species grows in clumps in valleys and is commonly found in flood plain near rivers.

In Jambi, there were 10 species of Daemonorops, namely D. brachystachys, D. didymophylla (Beccari 1911), D. dracuncula, D. dransfieldii, D. longipes (Dransfield 1984), D. palembanicus, D. singalamus, D. trichrous, D. draco (Dransfield 1992), and D. mattanensis (Soemarna 2009). Currently only three species can be found in Jambi, namely D. didymophylla, D. draco, and D. mattanensis.

The three species can be found in the Districts of Batanghari, Sarolangun, Tebo, and Tanjung Jabung (Soemarna 2009). Based on the information from the jernang sap seekers in Jebak Village, Malay people in Jambi know two jernang sap producing rattans, namely rotan jernang (D. draco) and rotan kelukup (Daemonorops didymophylla), while the people of Anak Dalam Tribe in Jebak Village call the two species rotan jernang (D. draco) and rotan mengkarung/kelemunting (D. didymophylla). The jernang rattan has longer panicles and high density of flower, darker fruit and more abundant, higher quality and more expensive sap than the kelemunting. The people of Anak Dalam Tribe in Jebak Village can easily distinguish jernang rattan from other rattans from the stems, leaves, fruits, and spines. Jernang rattan has diameter between 1cm to 3 cm, reddish green leaves, shinny black fruit, the skin being scaly when extracted. It has stem internodes between 15cm to 40 cm long, and the whole stem is covered by black spines which do not shed until old age. The number of stems in a clump is between 5 to 20 individuals, with the height between 8m to 15m.

According to jernang sap seekers, the cane of D. draco can be used to make household equipments. But the quality of cane is not good, so the people of Anak Dalam Tribe only infrequently use it. Figure 1. shows the differences between jernang rattan and batang rattan, young leaves of female jernang rattan, jernang rattan fruit. Jernang rattan can be easily distinguished from other rattan from its stem, leaves, and fruit. Jernang has many spines, light green or reddish green leaves and black fruit.

According to Rustiami (2004) and Winarni et al.

(2004), the characteristics distinguishing D. draco from other Daemonorops are the followings: Its height is 8m15m, the length of internodes 20 cm; the breadth of sheath 30mm; the length of leaf 3m, the length of cirrus 100 cm, petiole10 cm; diameter of stem 10mm-30mm. The leaves have sheath circling the stem. The fruit skin is scaly like salaccaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fruit. The spines are arranged in a structure called the knee (Figure 1).

SULASMI et al. – Daemonorops draco of Jebak village, Jambi

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A

B C

D

E

Figure 1.A. Stem of jernang rattan, B. Stem of batang rattan (Calamus), C. Seedlings, D. Young leaves of female jernang rattan, E. Jernang rattan fruit.

The differences between female and male jernang rattan can be seen from the bracts, young leaves, flower, internodes, and number of individuals in a clump (Table 1).

Daemonorops draco is a dioecious plant. Female flowers and male flowers are produced in different rattan clumps. D. draco starts producing fruit at the age of two years, but it starts producing jernang sap when it is 5 years old (Winarni et al. 2004). A clump of D. draco generally consists of 5-20 individuals (BKSDA Jambi 2010).

Based on the report from the Forestry Office of Jambi Province in 2009, the population of jernang rattan in Jambi is relatively small, as shown in detail in Table 2. Table 2 shows that the smallest population in nature is found in Batanghari District, which is 40 clumps, because since 1990, illegal logging and forest encroachment in Jebak Village, Batanghari District has been the largest among all districts (BKSDA Jambi 2010). Therefore, in 2008 two people from Anak Dalam Tribe started planting 40 clumps of rattan under the guidance of Forestry Office of Batanghari District (Jambi Forest Office 2009). However, only 25 clumps survive, because the other 15 clumps were consumed by pigs. According to jernang rattan farmers, since November 2011, the planted jernang rattans have produced sap as much as 30 kg.

The results of our study showed that the population of jernang rattan in Anak Dalam Tribe forest area in Jebak Village has declined. Our study only found 8 clumps of jernang rattan consisting of 82 individuals (stems). Table 2 shows that the population in nature has declined from 40 clumps/ha in 2009 to 8 clumps in 25 ha in 2011. The decline of rattan population is caused by illegal logging and forest encroachment done by transmigrants and other outside communities. According to Anak Dalam Tribe, the damage due to illegal logging and forest encroachment in 2011 was 60% from the total of 15.830 ha of forest belonging to the tribe. Transporting timber in the forest is done using skid road made of timber. Many jernang rattans die because there are not enough supporting trees to climb.

Table 1. The differences between female jernang rattan and male jernang rattan Distinguishi Female jernang rattan Male jernang rattan ng factors Young Reddish green Green leaves’ color

Internodes

54 cm cm 54

49 49 cm cm

15 cm-20 cm

35 cm-40 cm

20 20cm cm 20 20 cm cm

Bracts

Large

Small 2.5 cm

2.5 cm 3.5 cm

♂ Number of 5-20 individuals individuals in a clump

♀ 3-5 individuals

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Table 2. The population of naturally growing jernang rattan and planted jernang rattan in Jambi Province based on the Forestry Ofiice report and on research data in 2011.

Batanghari Sarolangun

Population in nature per hectare 40 clumps 53 clumps

Tebo Tanjung Jabung

71 clumps 69 clumps

District

Research data

Plantation In 2008, plantation was started in jebak Village, consisting of 40 clumps.

In 2006, plantation was started in Sipintun and Lumban Sigatal villages, consisting of 500 clumps. Rattans were planted in rubber plantation at the extent of 10 ha.

Plantation has not been done.

Plantation has not been done.

B

8 clumps 8 clumps 8 clumps 8 clumps

C

A

B

C

D

E

F

Figure 2. Pictures of forest encroachment in Jebak Village: A= encroachment; B= skid road to facilitate timber transportation, C= jernang rattan died because there was no supporting tree, D= forest fire; E-G = conversion of forest into oil palm plantation; F. indicates an area inside Anak Dalam Tribe forest being encroached.

After the death of jernang rattan, people burn the forest to clear the land for oil palm plantation, 2-3 months later (Figure 2). The information was in agreement with the data from BKSDA Jambi (2010) stating that the forest damage in 2009 was 40% of 15.830 hectare, resulting in the decline of trees on which the jernang rattan climb. The damage of forest can be seen from the conversion of forest into oil palm plantation.

Since 1990, the encroachment of forest has grown out of control because of lack of supervision from the government and because of unclearness of the boundary

between the forest area and the villages around the area.

The encroachment is done not only by transmigrants, but also by several oil palm plantation companies in the surrounding areas. (The companies are PT. Asiatic Persada in the west, PT. Tunjuk Langit Sejahtera and Batanghari Sawit Persada in the north, and PT. Nan Riang in the east of the forest area).

According to the people of Anak Dalam Tribe, before 1990, they could easily get the sap because the population density of jernang rattan was still high. Within less than 6 hours, they could collect jernang rattan fruit as much as 60

SULASMI et al. – Daemonorops draco of Jebak village, Jambi

kg-180 kg per family. That amount was collected from 3-6 clumps of jernang rattan. After 1990, they could collect jernang fruit only 3 kg-20 kg per day, taken from 1 clump of jernang rattan. In 2010, the population of jernang rattan in Jebak Village was 15-30 clumps, but in 2011, only 8 clumps left, consisting of 82 individuals. The composition of growth stages of the 83 individuals are given in Figure 3.

Figure 3 shows that the number of seedlings was much higher than the mature individuals, so the production of jernang sap was low. But, the abundant seedlings also ensure the sustainability of jernang rattan in the future if illegal logging and forest encroachment is stopped, so the number of supporting trees on which rattan climb is sufficient.

Mature

Semi mature

Juvenile

Seedling

No. of individuals

Figure 3. The number of jernang rattan individuals at different growth stages in Jebak Village in 2011.

The complete data of the number of individuals of jernang rattan is given in Table 3. In plot 1, a clump of young female rattan (5 individuals) was found. One clump died in plot 4 because there was no supporting tree to climb. In plot 11, a clump of female rattan was found (5 seedlings and 5 semi mature individuals). Two clumps died in plots 13 and 16. In plot 21 a clump of semi mature male jernang rattan was found (3 individual), and clump died in plot 24.In plot 31 a clump of female jernang rattan was found (3 individuals of seedling, 3 individuals of juvenile, and 7 individuals of semi mature rattan). In plot 35 a clump of semi mature male jernang rattan was found (5 individuals), and a clump died in plot 38. In plot 41 a clump of female rattan was found (5 individuals of seedlings, 3 individuals of juvenile, 2 individuals of semi mature, and 10 individual of mature rattan). In plot 43 a clump of female jernang rattan was found (10 individuals of seedlings, 4 individuals of semi mature and 7 individuals of mature rattan). In plot 45 a clump of rattan died. In plot 47 a clump of female jernang rattan was found (5 individuals of seedlings, and 4 individuals of mature rattan). In plot 50 a clump of rattan died. Table 3 shows that jernang rattan population was distributed widely in each plot.

Overall, there were 2 clumps of male jernang rattan (8 individuals), 6 clumps of female jernang rattan (74 individuals) (Figure 4), and 7 clumps of jernang rattan died. Because the number of female and male rattans was not equal and their locations were separated widely, natural reproduction of jernang rattan did not occur easily. To overcome this constraint, artificial pollination has been conducted.

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Table 3. Number of individuals of jernang rattan in Jebak Village Plot nos 1 2 3 4† 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13† 14 15 16† 17 18 19 20 21♂ 22 23 24† 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35♂ 36 37 38† 39 40 41 42 43 44 45† 46 47 48 49 50† Total

Jernang rattan population (ind.)

Semi Seedlings Juvenile Mature mature 5 5 3 5 10 5 33

3 3 6

5 3 7 5 2 4 (†) 22

10 7 4 21

No. of individuals

Male rattan

Female rattan

Figure 4. Comparison of number of female and male individuals of jernang rattan in 2011

B I O D I V E R S IT A S 13 (4): 205-213, October 2012

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The comparison of population between jernang rattan and other rattans in Jebak Village is presented in Table 4.

The detailed information of rattan population in Jebak Village is given in Table 5.

therefore, the humidity was high.

Table 6. Air temperature, relative humidity, soil pH in Jebak Village, during research period in 2011.

Table 4. Population of rattan in Jebak Village. ď &#x201C; Local names Scientific names clumps Rotan lilin Calamus javensis Bl. 11 Rotan semambu Calamus scipionum Lour.

9 Sego air Calamus axillaris Becc.

9 Rotan getah Daemonorops melanochaetes Bl. 10 Rotan dahan Calamus flagellaris Burr.

8 Rotan manau Calamus manan Miq. 8 Rotan jernang Daemonorops draco Willd.

8

ď &#x201C; Ind 197 178 103 102 95 93 82

21 20 35 27 103

23 24 23 32 102

Rotan manau

Rotan getah

Rotan dahan 20 30 16 29 95

14 18 35 26 93

Rotan semambu

33 6 22 21 82

Rotan lilin

Seedlings Juvenile Semi mature Mature Total

Sego air

Number of individuals

Rotan jernang

Table 5. Population of rattan in Jebak Village in 2011

24 41 63 69 197

24 39 44 71 178

It can be seen in Table 4 that jernang rattan had the smallest number of individuals. This may be due to illegal logging and forest encroachment which result in the shrink of jernang rattan habitat. Meanwhile, the populations of rotan lilin (Calamus javensis) and rotan semambu (Calamus scipionum) were relatively large because, according to the community, these two species have low economic value. The canes from these species have low quality because they are easily broken. Of the 7 species above, beside jernang rattan, rotan manau (Calamus manan) also has high economic value. The cane of rotan manau has the highest quality among all the species and it is flexible, so it can be easily made into desirable forms (Soemarna 2009).

Habitat of jernang rattan in Jebak Village The results showed that in 2011 the forest in Jebak Village had been damaged by illegal logging and encroachment, so the vegetation was sparse. The relatively open vegetation caused the relatively wide range of air temperature, 20.20C-28.90C, and low relative humidity, 58%-68% (Table 6).

The sparse vegetation results in low transpiration, so the water vapor is little, and consequently the humidity is low.

Bernatzky (1978) said that water vapor in the air from evapotranspiration affects air humidity. Table 7 shows that in 2005-2009 the range of air temperature was not wide and the relative humidity was high, 80%-87%. These phenomena indicated that the vegetation in that period was dense, so the water vapor from transpiration was large;

Day/date Monday/3-1-2011 Wed./5-1-2011 Thurs./6-1-2011 Wed./12-1-2011 Thurs./13-1-2011 Sat/15-1-2011 Tuesday/18-1-2011 Thurs./20-1-2011 Monday/24-1-2011 Tuesday/25-1-2011 Thurs/27-1-2011 Wed./2-2-2011 Sat./5-2-2011 Tuesday/8-2-2011 Wed/9-2-2011 Thurs/10-2-2011 Sat./12-2-2011 Monday/14-2-2011 Thurs./17-2-2011 Monday/21-2-2011

Parameters measured Relative Plot no. Temp.

Soil humidity 0 ( C) pH (%) 1 23.1 65 4.71 2 24.2 64 4.71 5 25.1 63 4.70 6 25.1 63 4.71 10 26.0 60 4.74 11 25.9 60 4.75 15 26.8 59 4.70 20 27.0 59 4.61 21 27.0 59 4.61 25 27.5 59 4.64 30 28.6 58 4.61 31 28.6 58 4.60 33 28.5 58 4.62 35 28.9 58 4.62 37 28.9 58 4.62 40 23.0 66 4.68 41 22.9 66 4.68 43 22.9 66 4.77 47 20.2 68 4.81 50 21 68 4.81

The soil in Jebak village is acidic (pH 4,60-4,81) and belongs to yellow red podzolic soil type (Soemarna 2009).

The village has an altitude of 20 m above sea level with annual rainfall of 1500-2296 mm (BPS 2010).

Table 7. The average temperature, relative humidity and rainfall in Jebak Village in 2005-2009 (BPS 2006-2010)

Month January February March April May June July August September October November December

Air Relative humidity temperature (%) (oC) 25.9 86 25.4 87 25.9 85 26.4 84 27.5 80 27.3 81 26.9 83 26.8 82 27.4 81 26.9 83 26.6 84 26.5 85

Rainfall (mm) 126 243 207 167 137 129 70 123 139 157 245 254

Jernang rattan is an endemic species of Sumatra (Soemarna 2009). In Jebak Village jernang rattan is found mostly in dry flood plain. According to Soemarna (2009), jernang rattan grows in acidic yellow red podzolic soil, with pH of 4-6, in lowland, with annual rainfall of 10002300 mm, air temperature of 24-32oC, and relative humidity of 60-85%. Plantation of jernang rattan will produce the best result if it is done in its natural habitat.

The forest area in Jebak village is suitable for the development of jernang rattan.

SULASMI et al. â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Daemonorops draco of Jebak village, Jambi

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Figure 5. Forest encroachment results in the death of jernang rattan because there is no supporting tree.

Species diversity of jernang rattan supporting trees Diversity of tree species Jernang rattan is a liana. Its life depends on the The trees found in the study area were divided into two supporting tree on which it climbs. If the population of groups, those with stem diameter > 10 cm (Table 9) and supporting trees declines due to forest degradation, the population jernang rattan Table 8. Jernang rattan supporting trees in jebak Village. will decline too (Figure 5.).

In Jebak Village, jernang rattan is Local names Scientific names No. of ind. Plot nos usually found climbing 7 species of trees, namely keranji, berangan, duku, durian, Keranji Dialium platysepalum Backer 4 1, 11, 31, 47 Quercus elmeri Merr.

4 21, 31, 41 meranti bunga, kayu tahi, and sekentut. Berangan Eugenia sp. Verdc.

4 11, 41 These 7 species were frequently found in Kelat Medang api Adinandra dumosa Jack 4 21, 41 sampling plots. However, their population Duku Lansium domesticum Corr.

3 31, 41, 47 has declined due to forest degradation. The Durio zibethinus Murr.

3 11, 31, 43 comparison of the number of individuals of Durian Meranti bunga Shorea teysmanniana Bl. 3 31,41,43 jernang rattan and the supporting trees is Kayu tahi Celtis wightii Planch.

3 1, 31, 47 presented in Table 8. Study on jernang Sekentut Saprosma arboreum Blume 3 21, 31,43 rattan supporting trees had not been Berangan babi Castanopsis inermis Lindl 3 31, 43 conducted.

Siluk Gironniera subaequalis Planch.

3 31, 41 Sloetia elongata Kds. 2 21,43 It can be seen from Table 8 that all tree Tempinis Koompassia malaccensis Maing.

2 31, 35 species can become jernang rattan Kempas Kayu arang Diospyros pilosanthera Blanco 2 35, 41 supporting trees. According to Mogea Dyera costulata Miq 2 11, 43 (2002), Jasni et al. (2007) and Soemarna Jelutung Kepayang Pangium edule Reinw.

2 21, 35 (2009), all tree species in forest can become Trembesi Pithecolobium saman Jacq.

2 1, 47 supporting trees for jernang rattan to climb. Kedondong Spondias cytherea Forst 2 35, 47 However, since the number of supporting Jengkol Pithecellobium lobatum Benth 2 31, 35 trees is not balanced with the number of Petai Parkia speciosa Hassk 2 31, 47 jernang rattan individuals (82), the Ambacang Mangifera foetida Lour.

2 1 Litsea sp. Lam. 2 35 possibility of jernang rattan to die is high Medang Artocarpus champeden Lour.

2 47 because of the lack of supporting trees. Cempedak 1 47 Table 8 also shows that some tree species Simpur rawang Dillenia indica L. Cinnamomum parthenoxylon Jack 1 11 were clustered in one location, while other Medang serai Rambutan Nephelium lappaceum L. 1 1 species were distributed in several locations.

Mahang Macaranga hypoleuca Rechb.

1 1 The results of this study showed that to Brumbung Adina minutiflora Val. 1 31 grow optimally, each individual jernang Kabau Archidendron bulbalium Jack 1 21 rattan needed 4 supporting trees. This result Tempunek Artocarpus rigida Blume 1 11 is in agreement with the statement of Kayu batu Rhodamnia sp.

1 35 Eugenia densiflora Blume 1 31 Soemarna (2009) that each jernang rattan Kelat jambu Artocarpus elastic Willd.

1 35 needs 4 supporting trees. If there is no Kayu terap Baccaurea crassifolia J. J. Sm. 1 35 supporting tree or the number of supporting Tampui Scaphium macropodum 1 47 trees is small, then jernang rattan will not Merpayang Rotan jernang Daemonorops draco Willd. (82 ind.) survive.

Total

73

B I O D I V E R S IT A S 13 (4): 205-213, October 2012

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those with diameter < 10 cm (Table 10). All tree species had been identified by Forestry Office of Batanghari District, so tree identification was not done in this study.

Table 9 shows that the species of trees found abundantly in the study site were, among others, trembesi. pinang, and sungkai. The abundance of those tree species indicates that those species have high adaptation capability, so they grow fast in Jebak forest area. Ecologically, those species have positive role for jernang rattan population because those trees can become supporting trees for jernang rattan.

It can be seen from Table 10 that tree species with stem diameter < 10 cm which had the highest importance value index (20) was trembesi. (rain tree) That species was found in highest number of individuals among all trees in the ecosystem. Keranji and sekentut had the same IVI, which was 10. The relatively large differences in IVI are caused by forest degradation which lead to the decline of plant population, which in turn affects dominance value in ecosystem.

According to Irawan (2002, 2003), the low IVI of several species in Jebak forest was due to the low population caused by illegal logging. While Peluso (1992) stated that the decline of population of a species is due to over exploitation of that species.

In general, the dominance of trembesi (rain tree) among all tree species population was categorized as low. The dominance indexes of trembesi for tree with diameter > 10 cm, and < 10 cm were low, namely 0.00123 and < 10cm were 0.00018, respectively. This is in accordance with the criteria of Simpson Dominance Index, namely 0 < C < 0.5 = low dominance; 0.5 < C < 0.75 = medium dominance; 0.75 < C < 1.00 = high dominance.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATION

Table 9. Importance value index (IVI), number of individuals (n), density (n/ ha), and dominance index (DI) of trees with stem diameter > 10 cm Local names Trembesi Keranji Punak Jelutung Mahang Manggis Kayu batu Balam Kayu arang Gaharu Kelat jambu Kayu terap Medang Medang kuning Mahang gajah Merpayang Pasak bumi Duku Cempedak Durian Sungkai Kedondong Kabau Kempas Siluk Medang serai Kayu tahi Berangan Simpur rawang Jengkol Petaling Medang api Kepayang Meranti bunga Medang kelor Sekentut Merawan Ambacang Keruing Kelat Kemang Mangga Tempinis Berangan babi Bulian Tempunek Karet Brumbung Petai Rambutan Tampui Total

The population of jernang rattan in Jebak forest in 2011 was 8 clumps, consisting of 82 individuals. The life or jernang rattan depends highly on the supporting trees on which jernang rattan climbs. All trees can become supporting trees for jernang rattan.

There were 35 species of supporting trees, consisting of 73 individuals in Jebak forest. The tree species in Jebak Village on which jernang rattan usually climbed were berangan (Quercus elmeri), duku (Lansium domesticum), durian (Durio zibethinus), kelat (Eugenia sp.), kempas (Koompassia malaccensis), keranji (Dialium platysepalum), mahang (Macaranga hypoleuca), and

Scientific names Pithecolobium saman Jacq.

Dialium platysepalum Backer Tetramerista glabra Miq. Dyera costulata Miq. Macaranga hypoleuca Rechb.

Garcinia mangostana L. Rhodamnia sp.

Palaquium sp. R. Br. Diospyros pilosanthera Blanco Aquilaria malaccensis Oken Eugenia densiflora Blume Artocarpus elastic Willd.

Litsea sp. Lam. Pimelodendron sp. Hassk.

Macaranga gigantean Reichb.

Scaphium macropodum (Miq.) Beumee ex Heine Eurycoma longifolia Jack Lansium domesticum Corr.

Artocarpus champeden Lour.

Durio zibethinus Murr.

Peronema canescens Jack Spondias cyntherea Forst Archidendron bubalinum Jack Koompassia malaccensis Maing.

Gironniera subaequalis Planch.

Cinnamomum parthenoxylon Jack Celtis wightii Planch.

Quercus elmeri Merr.

Dillenia indica L. Pithecellobium lobatum Benth Ochanostachys amentacea Mast.

Adinandra dumosa Jack Pangium edule Reinw.

Shorea teysmanniana Bl. Litsea teysmanni Miq. Saprosma arboreum Blume Hopea mengarawan Miq. Mangifera foetida Lour.

Dipterocarpus hasseltii Blume Eugenia sp. Verdc.

Mangifera kemanga Blume Mangifera indica L. Sloetia elongate Kds. Castanopsis inermis Lindl.

Eusideroxylon zwageri T. et B. Artocarpus rigida Blume Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg. Adina minutiflora Val. Parkia speciosa Hassk.

Nephelium lappaceum L. Baccaurea crassifolia J. J. Sm.

IVI n n/ha

DI

11 9 8.8 8.8 8.5 8.4 8.1 7.9 7.6 7.5 7.5 7.4 7.3 7.3 7.1 7

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

0.00123 0.0009 0.00086 0.00086 0.00081 0.00079 0.00072 0.00069 0.00065 0.00062 0.00062 0.0006 0.00059 0.00059 0.00056 0.00055

6.5 6.2 6.1 6 5.7 5.6 5.6 5.3 5.2 5.2 5.1 5.1 5.1 5 4.9 4.9 4.9 4.8 4.8 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.1 4.1 4.1 3.9 3.8 3.8 300

2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 69

10 5 5 5 10 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 345

0.00047 0.00043 0.00041 0.00039 0.00037 0.00034 0.00034 0.00031 0.0003 0.0003 0.00029 0.00029 0.00029 0.00028 0.00026 0.00026 0.00026 0.00025 0.00025 0.00024 0.00024 0.00024 0.00023 0.00023 0.00023 0.00023 0.00022 0.00022 0.00022 0.00019 0.00018 0.00018 0.00017 0.00016 0.00016

rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum). The population of jernang rattan (D. draco) was only 82 individuals, smaller than other rattan such as rotan lilin (Calamus javanensis) 197 individuals, rotan semambu (C. scipionum) 178 individuals, sego air als (C. axillaris) 103 individual, rotan getah (D. melanochaetes) 102 individuals, rotan dahan (C.

SULASMI et al. â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Daemonorops draco of Jebak village, Jambi

flagellaris) 95 individuals, and rotan manau (C. manan) 93 individuals.

To protect the forest from the increasing forest encroachment, serious efforts from the government are needed, such as increasing forest rangers that are brave and firm in enforcing the law to the encroachers. Further research is needed to estimate the population of jernang rattan in other district, because the population in Batanghari District is critical.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Yana Soemarna, Erwin Nurdin, Wisnu Wardana, Dr. Kuswata Kartawinata, Mega Atria, Dr. Himmah Rustiami, Titi Kalima, Totok Waluyo, Dr. Bambang Irawan, who spent time with us for discussion. The financial support and permission to conduct reseacrh by the government of Jambi are greatly appreciated.

REFERENCES

213

Table 10. Importance value index (IVI), number of individuals (n), density (n/ ha), and dominance index (DI) of trees with stem diameter < 10 cm.

Local names

Scientific names

IVI n n/ha DI

Trembesi Pinang Sungkai Balam Mahang Berangan babi Medang Brumbung Keranji Sekentut Medang kuning Medang serai Tempinis Kayu terap Rambutan Kayu arang Punak Simpur rawang Kayu tahi Petaling Kelat Kemang Karet Kelat jambu Kabau Tempunek Tampui Cempedak Kacang-kacang Bulian Merpayang

Pithecolobium saman Jacq.

Areca catechu L. Peronema canescens Jack Palaquium sp. R. Br. Macaranga hypoleuca Rechb.

Castanopsis inermis Lindl.

Litsea sp. Lam. Adina minutiflora Val. Dialium platysepalum Backer Saprosma arboreum Blume Pimelodendron sp. Hassk.

Cinnamomum parthenoxylon Jack Sloetia elongate Kds. Artocarpus elastic Willd.

Nephelium lappaceum L. Diospyros pilosanthera Blanco Tetramerista glabra Miq. Dillenia indica L. Celtis wightii Planch.

Ochanostachys amentacea Mast.

Eugenia sp. Verdc.

Mangifera kemanga Blume Hevea brasiliensis Muell.Arg. Eugenia densiflora Blume Archidendron bulbalium Jack Artocarpus rigida Blume Baccaurea crassifolia J. J. Sm. Artocarpus champeden Lour.

Strombosia javanica Blume Eusideroxylon zwageri T. et B. Scaphium macropodum (Miq.) Beumee ex Heine Litsea teysmanni Miq. Mangifera indica L.

20 20 16 16 15 15 12 11 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 9.9 8.9 8.2 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5 5 5

4 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

20 20 15 15 15 15 15 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

0.00018 0.00018 0.00010 0.00010 0.00010 0.00010 0.00010 0.00004 0.00004 0.00004 0.00004 0.00004 0.00004 0.00004 0.00004 0.00004 0.00004 0.00004 0.00001 0.00001 0.00001 0.00001 0.00001 0.00001 0.00001 0.00001 0.00001 0.00001 0.00001 0.00001 0.00001

Beccari O. 1911. Asiatic palm lepidocariae the species of Daemonorops. Ann Royal Bot Gard Calcuta 12 (1): 1-237.

Bernatzky A. 1978. Tree ecology and preservation. Elsevier, San Francisco.

BKSDA Jambi. 2010. Non-timber forest products of Jambi Province. Department of Forestry, Jambi. [Indonesia] BPS [Badan Pusat Statistik]. 2010. Jambi in Figures. Badan Pusat Statistik, Jambi. [Indonesia] Dali Y, Soemarna Y. 1985. Cultivation of potential rattan.

Prosiding Lokakarya Nasional Rotan. IDRC Canada-Badan Litbang Kehutanan, Dephut, Jakarta. [Indonesia] Dransfield J, Manokaran N. 1994. Rattan plant resources of Medang kelor 4.7 1 5 0.00001 South-East Asia. LIPI, Jakarta.

Mangga 4.7 1 5 0.00001 Dransfield J. 1984. The genus Areca in Borneo. Kew Bull 39:1-22.

Total 300 60 300 Dransfield J. 1992. The list of rattan in the world. Allen Press, Kansas.

Fachrul MD. 2007. Sampling methods of Bio-Ecology. Bumi Aksara, Jakarta. [Indonesia] Peluso NL. 1992. The ironwood problems management and development Harata K, Mogea JP, Rahayu M. 2005. Diversity conservation and local of an extractive rainforest product. Conserv Biol 6 (2): 210-219. knowledge of rattans and sugar palm in Gunung Halimun Salak Purwanto Y, Polosakan R, Susiarti S, Waluyo EB. 2009. Extraction of National Park Indonesia. Palms 40 (1): 25-35. jernang sap (Daemonorops spp.) and the possible extension. In: Heyne K. 1987. De Nuttige Planten van Indonesie. Badan Litbang Purwanto Y, Walujo EB, Wahyudi A. (eds.). 2009. Valuasi hasil Departemen Kehutanan, Jakarta. [Indonesia] hutan bukan kayu setelah pembalakan (Kawasan konservasi PT INTAG. 1989. Pedoman inventarisasi rotan. Direktorat Inventarisasi Wirakarya Sakti Jambi). LIPI, Bogor: 183-198. [Indonesia] Hutan Departemen Kehutanan. Jakarta. [Indonesia] Rugayah, Widjaya EA, Praptiwi. 2004. Guidelines for collecting data on Irawan B. 2002. Ironwood (Eusideroxylon zwageri) present condition and the diversity of flora. Pusat Penelitian Biologi-LIPI, Bogor. future development in Jambi, Indonesia. J Ecol 91: 222-233.

[Indonesia] Irawan B. 2003. A study on tree diversity in association with variability of Rustiami H, Setyowati FM, Kartawinata K. 2004. Taxonomy and uses of ironwood (Eusideroxylon zwageri) in Jambi, Indonesia. J Ecol 92: 10-18.

Daemonorops draco (Willd.). J Trop Ethnobiol 1 (2): 65-75.

Jambi Forest Office. 2009. Annual Report. Jambi Forest Office, Jambi.

Rustiami H. 2004. A new species of Daemonorops section Piptospatha [Indonesia] (Arecaceae) from Siberut island, West Sumatra. Kew bulletin. 57 (3): Januminro CFM. 2000. Rattan of Indonesia. Pusat Penelitian Hasil Hutan, 729-733.

Bogor. [Indonesia] Simon H. 2007. Methods on forest inventory. Pustaka Pelajar, Jasni, Damayanti R, Kalima T. 2007. Atlas of Indonesian Rattan. Pusat Yogyakarta. [Indonesia] Penelitian dan Pengembangan Hasil Hutan, Bogor. [Indonesia] Siswanto BE. 1991. Methods of forest inventory in forest group of Sungai Kalima T. 1991. Some species of Daemonorops; jernang producer and its Aya Hulu, KPH Hulu Sungai, South Kalimantan. Buletin Penelitian problems. Sylva Tropika 6 (1): 15-18. [Indonesia] Hutan 538: 13-22. [Indonesia] Mogea JP. 1991. Utilization and conservation of Indonesian palms. In: Soemarna Y. 2009. Cultivation of jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco Johnson DVJ (ed) Palms for Human Needs in Asia. A.A. Balkema, Willd). J Litbang Kehutanan 2 (3): 5-10. [Indonesia] Rotterdam.

Winarni I, Waluyo T, Hastoeti P. 2004. An overview of jernang as Mogea JP. 2002. Rattan in Gunung Halimun National Park and the potential commodity. Prosiding hasil-hasil hutan. Bogor: 173-176. prospects for cultivation in the village Cisungsang, Lebak, Banten.

[Indonesia] Prosiding Biodiversitas Taman Nasional Halimun 6 (1): 33-55.

[Indonesia]

B I O D I V E R S IT A S Volume 13, Number 4, October 2012 Pages: 214-227

ISSN: 1412-033X E-ISSN: 2085-4722 DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d130408

Review: Sugarcane production: Impact of climate change and its mitigation ASHOK K. SRIVASTAVA1, MAHENDRA K. RAI2,♥ 1

Department of Geology, Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University, Amravati 444602, Maharashtra, India. Tel: +91-721-2662207/8, Extension-302. Fax: +91 721 2660949, 2662135.email: ashokamt2000@hotmail.com 2 Department of Biotechnology, Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University, Amravati 444602, Maharashtra, India. Tel: +91-721-2662207/8, Extension-267.

Fax: +91 721 2660949, 2662135. ♥email: pmkrai@hotmail.com Manuscript received: 11 August 2012. Revision accepted: 17 October 2012.

ABSTRACT Srivastava AK, Rai MK. 2012. Review: Sugarcane production: impact of climate change and its mitigation 13: 214-227. Sugarcane is a climatic sensitive crop: therefore, its spatial distribution on the globe is restricted as per the suitability of various climatic parameters.

The climate change, though, a very slow phenomenon is now accelerated due to natural, as well as enormous human activities disturbing the composition of atmosphere. The predications of various climatic models for probable rise in temperature, rainfall, sea level show an alarming condition in forthcoming decades. As the sugarcane is very sensitive to temperature, rainfall, solar radiations etc. therefore, a significant effect on its production and sugar yield is expected in future. It is also well known that sugarcane is one of the precious crops of the world and its end products i.e. sugar and ethanol have a continuous growing demand on global level. Hence, the studies related to good production of sugarcane in changing conditions of climate has become one among the front line area of research and is a major concern of scientist’s world over. Advance agronomic measures including development of suitable cane varieties susceptible to changed climatic conditions, land preparation, time and pattern of plantation, weed, disease and pest managements, nutrients managements, proper timing and adequate water management seems to be the affective measures for obtaining high production of crop with good quality juice in future.

Key words: sugarcane, climate change, agronomy, soil

INTRODUCTION Sugarcane, a taxa represented by stout, jointed, fibrous stalk of 2-6 m with sugar is a tall perennial grass of the genus Saccharum of family Poaceae (Clark et al. 1995). It is native to warm temperate to tropical regions of South Asia and Southeast Asia having humid climate. This C4 plant has a high efficiency to store solar energy as well as efficient converter of the same. Broadly, four growth phases of the plant can be identified, i.e. germination phase, tillering phase, main growth phase and, maturity and ripening phase. The first phase covers a period of planting up to the completion of germination of buds which depends upon field condition and lasts for 4-5 weeks. The optimum temperature for sprouting is around 20-30°C. The second phase is of about 120 days i.e. tillering which is a tender and highly sensitive to the local climate, soil climate, water and nutrient supply as it forms a base for good production.

Temperature and solar radiations play a major role in this phase. Temperature around 30°C is optimum whereas: sufficient light is required for good growth. Tillering is also influenced by water availability, spacing manuring, weed control etc. The phase of main growth is a period of actual cane formation and elongation which may take 270-300 days. Better growth of the cane requires warm and humid conditions which facilitates leaf production and their growth. Similar temperature condition as of the second

phase with around 80% humidity is the best suited condition. The last phase of maturity and ripening prevails for a period of about 90 days. In this phase, rapid accumulation of sugar as well as conversion of simple sugar to cane sugar takes place. A dry weather with good sunshine, warm days accelerate the process.

The crop is grown in more than 120 countries, of which, Brazil (420,121,000 MT), India (232,320,000 MT), China (88,730,000 MT), Thailand (49,572,000 MT), Pakistan (47,244,100 MT), Mexico (45,126,500 MT), Columbia (39,849,240 MT), Australia (38,246,100 MT), Philippines (31,000,100 MT) and USA (25,803,960 MT) are the top ten countries in production (FAO 2005). Area wise, Brazil is the highest, i.e. 5.63 million ha, whereas, India’s contribution is 4.0 million ha (FAOSTAT 2005). In production, Brazil still remains on the top with 33% of global sugar production followed India (23%), China (7%) and Pakistan (4%) (FNP 2009). Worldwide sugarcane occupies an area of 20.42 million ha with a total production of 1328 million metric tons (FAOSTAT 2005).

In India, sugarcane occupy about 4.0 million hectare area and is produced in most of the states having the highest area of 47.05% in Uttar Pradesh followed by Maharashtra (17.52%), Karnataka (7.76%), Tamil Nadu (7.47), Gujarat (4.57%) and Andhra Pradesh (3.76%) contributing about 88% of the total area. The rest of the 12% area is shared by Bihar, Uttarakhand, Haryana,

SRIVASTAVA & RAI – Impact of climate change on sugarcane production

Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Punjab etc. However, the yield of sugarcane per hectare is highest in Tamil Nadu, followed by West Bengal, Karnataka and Maharashtra (ICRISAT 2009). The average cane yield in India is about 70.0 tonnes per hectare while the sugar recovery is around 10.0 percent (IISR 2011).

Though, the cultivation of sugarcane is geographically restricted so as to climate, but its end products e.g, sugar and ethanol have a global increasing demand, therefore, it is very essential to look the cultivation, production and yield in this changing scenario of the climate. Sugarcane is very sensitive to the climate but also highly adoptive.

Basically, it is a rain-fed crop and depends heavily on the amount and duration of precipitation, humidity, moisture content, temperature and soil condition (Gawander 2007).

These factors are to some extent interrelated and the change in one normally affects the others. In recent years, both natural phenomena, i.e. variations in the earth's orbital characteristics, atmospheric carbon dioxide variations, volcanic eruptions and variations in solar output (Masih 2010): and, human activities, particularly, the rapid industrialization which resulted in increased emission of CO2, global warming, green house effect etc. (Segalstad 1996) have influenced the global climatic set-up.

Therefore, it is a matter of concern on priority to study the effect of climatic change on various aspects of sugarcane.

CLIMATE AND SOIL FOR SUGARCANE Climate requirement Climate plays an important role in all the phases of the plant. Since, the plant stands in the field for 12-24 months, hence, goes through all possible limits of weather parameters i.e. rainfall, temperature, sunshine, humidity etc. All these parameters have a role in plant growth, sugar yield, quality and content of juice etc. For good growth of plant and high production, specific weather conditions with suitable parameter are required.

The crop is grown in the world from latitude 36.7° N to 31.0° S however, inhabits well in tropical region. In India, two distinct regions can be categorized for sugarcane cultivation, i.e. tropical and sub-tropical. The northern subtropical region experiences extreme summer temperatures as well as severe cold in winter, whereas, the tropical region south of Vindhyans, the temperature, like previous, shoots up to 47°C in comparatively prolonged summer season, however, winter is short and temperature is comparatively congenial. The cultivation is done right from Punjab and Haryana in the north to Tamil Nadu in the down south. It has wider adaptability and grows well where temperature ranges between 20-40°C. It responds well to long period of sunlight (12 to 14 hours), high humidity (above 70%) and high rainfall even up to 1500 mm. If assured irrigation water is available, it can also be grown in areas where rainfall is low up to 500 mm. As sugarcane crop remains in the field for more than 12 months, it withstands temperature variations of winter (6-8°C) and summer (40-42°C). The climatic factors required for the good growth of the plant is a matter of active research on

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global level which is basically necessitated to have a good crop in different regions having local variations in climatic set-up. Optimum climates required for cane development are as follows (Binbol et al. 2006, Gawander 2007): Rainfall: Rainfall is an important factor for good growth of sugarcane. The plant requires optimum rains during the vegetative growth as it encourages rapid cane growth, cane elongation and internodes formation. During ripening period, the rainfall should be less in order to have good quality juice, less vegetative growth as well as reduction in the tissue moisture. Due to high rainfall, these conditions may be adverse. An average of 1200 mm evenly distributed rainfall in the range of 1100-1500 mm is optimum for higher yield. However, good productions are also being taken in the regions having a minimum of 600mm and a maximum of 3000mm rainfalls, which depends on adoptive measures, selection of varieties, farming methods (ICAR 2000).

Temperature: Temperature is equally important similar to the rainfall as it is closely related to the growth and productivity of the plant. Its optimum range varies for different phase of the plant which has a severe affect on good growth of plant and recovery of sugar. An optimum temperature for sprouting (germination) of stem cuttings is 32-38°C as it slows down below 25°C, reaches plateau between 30-34°C, and reduced above 35°C, whereas, practically stops when the temperature is above 38°C. Temperatures above 38°C reduce the rate of photosynthesis and increase respiration. During ripening period, a low temperature in the range of 12-14°C reduces vegetative growth rate and enrichment of sucrose in the cane (Fageria et al. 2010).

However, there is a control of cane variety, frequency and irrigation and other field practices on growth and production of cane as well as the yield of sugar. A minimum mean temperature of 20°C congenial during active growth phase. Temperatures both below 5°C and above 35°C are not suitable as previous may be harmful for young leaves and buds. In the later case of high temperature, rolling may occur irrespective of water supply. Further rise in temperature may enhance red rot disease. The durations of high and low temperature phases influence highly on sucrose accumulation. The adverse affect of high temperature is marked by reversion of sucrose into fructose and glucose.

Enhanced photorespiration may reduce accumulation of sugar (Binbol et al. 2006; Gawander 2007): Sunlight: Increase in leaf area index is rapid during 3rd to 5th month, coinciding the formative phase of the crop and attained its peak values during early grand growth phase. Light in terms of both duration and intensity is a necessary requirement of this C4 plant, which has a high capacity of photosynthesis as well as stabilization range. In general, high radiation favors high production of cane and good yield of sugar. On average 7-9 hours of bright sun light is optimum. In cloudy and short day’s period, tillering may be adversely affected. Growth of stalk is also good during bright light with long duration (ICAR 2000; Fageria et al. 2010). The upper six leaves of the sugarcane crop canopy intercept 70% of the radiation which reduce the

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photosynthetic rate of the lower leaves due to mutual shading. Therefore, a care is to be taken for proper spacing during plantation. The areas with short growing period benefit from closer spacing to intercept higher amount of solar radiation and thus get higher yields however, with long growing season, wider spacing is suggested to avoid mutual shading and mortality of shoots (Legendre 1975).

The entire mechanism of sugarcane growth and formation of sugar depends on photosynthesis, for which sunlight is required. Like others, the growth of plant result from conservation of radiant energy from the sun into plants fibers and sugar. During the process, the first product of photosynthesis i.e. four carbon sugar (C4) is fixed in the specialized cells of conductive tissue i.e. stem of the plant. The amount of carbon gain per day from photosynthesis is dependent on latitude and clouds covers.

The previous, determines the intensities of radiation on horizontal surface and the later amount of radiation that reaches the surface. This plant thrives best under high solar insolation and temperature associates with lower latitudes (da Silva et al. 2008).

Relative humidity and wind have comparatively less control over plant, however, affect to a large extent in case of extremes. Up to 80-85% humidity and warm weather conditions favor the rapid growth of the cane. In ripening phase, a moderate humidity with limited water supply is favorable (SC 2012). Similarly, wind has no harm to plant until it reaches to a velocity capable of breakage of cane or damage to leaves. The high velocity may be harmful in initial stage of plant growth. The long duration high velocity wind will result to loss of moisture.

Broadly, two different sets of climatic parameters are required in the life cycle of the plant. Long duration of bright sunshine warm season with optimum rainfall high humidity in growing phase favors rapid growth of plant as well as cane length with good yield. The ripening season which is a phase of sugar storage needs clear sky without precipitation, warm days and dry weather conditions.

Soil requirement Soils, forming the base of any of the crop, affect the productivity as per its inherent and dynamic proportions. It provides essential nutrients and water: and, holds the crop standing for months together. Broadly, it consists of thin layers, of which, the topmost is made up of soil panticks including animal and plant decay material. Numerous types of soils are reported world over, which depends upon physical, chemical and biological properties of the same.

Since, soil is basically a weathered product: therefore, the host rock plays an important role in the composition of the soil. This specific composition makes the soil specific or suitable for a particular crop, for example, the alluvial soil of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and other adjoining area are highly fertile and rich in potassium making it highly suitable for sugarcane, rice, wheat etc. whereas, the black soil from Maharashtra and parts of Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, a weathered product of basalt rich in iron, lime, calcium, magnesium provides good crops of cotton, sugarcane, groundnut, rice, wheat etc. The red soil is iron rich and more sandy due to high content of silica and ferromagnesium minerals in host crystalline rocks. It is

good for groundnut, tobacco, potato, rice and sugarcane in the area of southern Karnataka, eastern Rajasthan, northeastern states, Maharashtra etc. However, all these soils are good for the sugarcane however, the cane variety matters. Certain other soil types i.e. lateritic soils, saline and alkaline soil, mountain soil, desert soil etc. are not suitable up to the required extent A generalized idea about the soil conditions for the sugarcane is being summarized on the basis of information available on SC (2012). Sugarcane can be produced in all the types of soils, however, well drained loamy soil with a ph of 6.5-7.5 and adequate nutrients is considered to be the ideal. There should not be compaction in soil, as well as, it should be loose and friable with a minimum depth of 45 cm, excluded with harmful soil. The plant can be well grown on higher soil, as well as, on heavy clays provided one has to opt for proper irrigation management.

A continuous monitoring of physical, chemical and biological conditions of the soil is required to ensure good cane growth, high yield and better quality of sugar. The bulk density and porosity of soil along with other significant physical parameters affects the root growth. A bulk density of 1.4mg/m3 and porosity around 50% occupied by both air and water in equal proportions are highly favorable. Higher density hampers the proper spread and growth of roots. The plant has a capacity for deep roots up to 5m, hence, soil thickness along with its quality matters as deep soil have appreciable dry tolerance (Huang 2000).

The pH conditions other than the normal (pH 6.5-7.5) of soil may lead to alkaline or acidic nature. However, sugarcane can tolerate the pH range from 5.0-8.5 but requires lime or gypsum applications in more extreme conditions. Proper management of soil is required in case of saline soil i.e. dissolution, removal of salts by draining of water trough channels, organic manuring, mechanical treatments etc. There are certain plant varieties which can tolerate salinity up to certain limits, may be opted. The light textured soils bear poor water holding capacity which can be upgraded by addition of organic matter. Black soils usually have high water holding capacity but permeability is very less i.e. ill drained, hence, bad poor drainage (European Commission 2012).

Sugarcane is a management responsive crop: therefore, soil-plant relationship is to be monitored during all the phases of the plant. The condition of plant, as well as the soil, takes so many turns in entire period as the crop remains in the field for more than one year facing all the extremes of rainfall, temperature, sunlight, humidity etc.

Therefore, it is recommended to maintain the congenial soil climate for good growth of plant by its proper management in various extreme conditions i.e. irrigations in dry period, maintaining drainage of excess water, pest control, weed control etc.

EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON SUGARCANE It general, agricultural production activities of all the sectors are the most sensitive and vulnerable to climate

SRIVASTAVA & RAI – Impact of climate change on sugarcane production

change (IPCC 1990, 2005). IPCC (2007) clearly reports that the climate change is real and the process is going on.

Its impact will be disproportionately on developing countries threatening to undermine the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals, reduction of poverty and security of safeguard food. The climatic change is not only concerned with the crop production, instead, heavy impact on socio-economic set-up of a region, ultimately affecting the national economy. The change also poses significant challenges for the fair trade movement. There are evidences that most of the small farmers in Indian subcontinent, as well as others of Southeast Asia, are experiencing increased climate variability and change. It is expected that climate change will include more extreme events and slow onset impacts, such as changes in precipitation and temperature (Nelson et al. 2010). Climate change is likely to have mainly negative impacts upon agricultural production, food security and economic development, especially in developing countries (Hannah et al. 2005).

Sugarcane is also strongly influenced by the impacts of long-term climatic change as well as local weather and seasonal variations. The climate affects the growth and development of plants and may harm the crops. It also affects severely on the microorganisms related directly or indirectly for better growth and yield of the crop.

Rosegrant et al. (2008) identified potential direct effects of climate change on the agricultural systems which are as follows: (i) Seasonal changes in rainfall and temperature could impact agroclimatic conditions, altering growing seasons, planting and harvesting calendars, water availability, pest, weed and disease populations, etc. (ii) Transpiration, photosynthesis and biomass production is altered. (iii) Land suitability is altered. (iv) Increased CO2 levels lead to a positive growth response for a number of staples under controlled conditions, also known as the “carbon fertilization effect”.

Certain model-based predictions of climate change on various regions of the globe have been made by Rosegrant et al. (2008), which are as follows: (i) Global models consistently highlight risk disparities between developed and developing countries. (ii) For temperature increases of only 1-2°C, developing countries without adaptation will likely face a depression in major crop yields. (iii) In mid-to high latitudes, increases in temperature of 1-3°C can improve yields slightly, with negative yield effects if temperatures increase beyond this range. (iv) Stronger yield-depressing effects will occur in tropical and subtropical regions for all crops, which reflect a lower growing temperature threshold capacity in these areas. (v) Estimations predict that cereal imports will increase in developing countries by 10 to 40 percent by 2080. (vi) Africa will become the region with the highest population of food insecure, accounting for up to 75 percent of the world total by 2080.

Global warming, increase in the global temperatures, is one of the main factors affecting the climate in recent past, for which, the human activities play an important role (Nikolaos 2011). The global warming is result of an increase in the concentration of “greenhouse” gases, such

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as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. The fossil fuel combustion along with land use change is the main reason for the global increase of carbon dioxide concentration, while agriculture for methane and nitrous oxide (Cerri et al. 2007). The increase in their concentrations will retain the radiations emitted by the earth’s surface causing imbalance to the earth’s thermal system. The changes in temperature, rainfall and solar radiation patterns due to global warming will affect the sugarcane production in both positive and negative ways.

IPCC (2007) reported that the average global surface temperature has increased by 0.74±0.18°C in the last century and is projected to increase by another 1.1°C-6.0°C in this century: may be 6.0°C increase by the end of this century (Rahmstorf et al. 2007). The mean annual surface air temperature is likely to increase ~ 4°C over India by the end of 21st century (2071-2098). The temperature extended i.e. daily maximum and minimum temperatures may be intense which will be more intense in case of night time temperature (Kumar 2011). The role of temperature in cane development starts from the very beginning and continues up to later stage. It is directly linked with the growth of plant, photosynthesis as well as other biochemical processes including bud development (Gawander 2007).

Photosynthesis efficiency of sugarcane increases in a linear manner with temperature in the range of 8°C to a maximum of 34°C. Cool nights and early morning temperatures 14°C in winter and 20°C in summer significantly inhabit photosynthesis next day. The leaf growth is constrained at temperatures less than 14-19°C. Cool night temperatures and sunny days slow down growth rates and carbon consumption, while photosynthesis may continue (Gawander 2007). Gbetibouo and Hassan (2005) employed a Ricardian model to measure the impact of climate change on South Africa’s field crops including sugarcane. Their study reveals that the production of field crops in South Africa will be very sensitive to even marginal changes in temperature as the remaining range of tolerance to increased temperature is narrow compared to changes in precipitation. This result suggests developing the varieties of plant which should have more heat tolerance rather than draught and moving from rain fed to irrigated agriculture could be an effective adaptation option to reduce the harmful effects of climate change for the field crops.

Gouvêa et al. (2009) made the future estimates of sugarcane yield in tropical southern Brazil for the years 2020, 2050 and 2080 on the basis of an agrometeorological model based on future A1B climatic scenarios and interpreted that increasingly higher temperatures will cause an increase of the potential productivity, since, this variable positively affects the efficiency of the photosynthetic processes of C4 plants. However, changes in solar radiation and rainfall will have less impact.

The rainfall is also a limiting factor. The countries depending more on rain-fed crops are experiencing an adverse effect the agricultural products including sugarcane because of the change in volume and spatial distribution of rains. A climatic prediction made for 2050 on Viti Levu Island, Fiji shows that the increases in rainfall during good years may offset the impacts of warmer temperatures, with

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little change in sugarcane production. However, a warmer and possibly drier climate could lead to more intense droughts during El NiĂąo years in which the sugarcane will be heavily affected (World Bank 2004). The availability of water is more or less a dependable factor on climate which is well reflected in agricultural sectors. An increase in temperature will enhance the evaporation from soil, water and plant surfaces due to deficit of water in the atmosphere.

There will be more demand of water to land ecosystems.

Kimball et al. (2002) interpreted that elevated CO2 and temperatures will affect plant growth and water balance.

Lawlor and Mitchell (1991) reported that the elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations primarily enhance CO2 diffusion into the leaf and increase the photosynthetic rate of C3-plants over a wide range of radiation intensities. In India, monsoon is most active with a share of about 70% annual rain fall in the duration of June to September, i.e. summer monsoon or southwestern monsoon. However, south-eastern and northeastern regions are more affected by the northeastern monsoon for their agricultural produce.

The high resolution regional climate precipitation model PRECIS, projects that summer monsoon in India may increase by ~150 to 2080s relative to the base line period corresponding to 1970s. The number of raining days may be non uniform over the country and spatial pattern may also differ. The intensity of rain fall on a raining day is likely to be higher in future (Kumar et al. 2011).

The sugarcane producing coastal belt areas are also vulnerable to climate change and a major loss is expected.

Low lying areas will be submerged in this phase of sea level rise. Coastal erosion and inundation will be high.

AGRONOMIC MEASURES Agronomy basically dealing with good production of any crop and yield starts from the very beginning.

Sugarcane agronomy also starts with field preparation followed by seed selection, planting patterns, tillering, irrigation, manuring, weed and insect controls, irrigation management etc. These practices are though generalized, but also need certain specifications depending upon soil characteristics, field topography, cane variety, climatic conditions etc. The long standing crop should get the optimum condition for better growth in changing environmental and soil climate, hence, specific agronomic measures are required at different phases. Some of the agronomic measures required for the sugarcane are as follows: Field preparation and planting The field preparation starts with the cleaning of the field particularly, the left out of the previous crop. The seed bed for sugar should be free from the unwanted residue of the previous crop. Paddy happens to be a preceding crop in most of the Indian subcontinent which leave a lot of stubble and roots. A common practice to remove these is their collection followed by their burning and spreading the ash in the field which results in the change of soil texture and composition. The other affect of the paddy cultivation is

the increase of soil moisture as the crop needs water and its local accumulation increases the moisture posing difficulty in ploughing. Hence, sufficient time of 1-2 weeks is required for decrease in soil moisture. A cross and deep ploughing for 2-3 times with sufficient organic manure provides good seed bed. Hard stubble of wheat, maize, sorghum should be taken out. In case of wheat as preceding crop, soil is not much deteriorated due to less moisture, hence, easy for preparation by simply collecting the residue and burning or removing the same. The cleaning is followed by ploughing which depends upon the soil conditions. Sometimes, mainly in the large forms, the transportation of crop by heavy vehicles make the soil compact and uneven which reduces the pore spaces to retain water and air, which is harmful for root development. It needs a proper tillering by disc harrows, tyned harrows or rotavator. However, 2-3 shallow and 1-2 deep ploughings are sufficient in order to maintain the soil density and moisture congenial for its proper aeration and softness. It is followed by the leveling of the ground for uniform crop stand and proper distribution of water.

Organic manure may be added by last ploughing or in the later stage to improve soil fertility (ICRISAT 2009).

Planting material The next step is the planting material and planting pattern with the selection of suitable variety of the cane.

From a long time, scientists world over are involved in developing improved varieties to make the crop more productive and high yielding with respect to change in local setup of climate and soil. The selection of variety differs with the area, requirement, climatic conditions, soil types etc.: and, the information about the same is available locally in almost all the major sugarcane producing countries.

Cane setts, settlings and bud chips are planting material to raise the crop. The setts are the cut pieces of a healthy and disease free cane which bears 2-3 buds. In most of the countries three bud setts are used. To ensure a disease free material, a few treatments are recommended. Sugarcane Streak Mosaic Virus (SCSMV) and Sugarcane Mosaic Virus (SCMV) are two common viruses affecting the crop to considerable limit (Chatenet et al. 2005: Damayanti et al.

2010). Damayanti et al. (2011) concluded that the thermal inactivation point of SCSMV ranges between 55-60°C, which is higher than the plant thermal death point.

However, treatments at 53°C for ten minutes can reduce drastically the disease severity with maintaining 100% plant viability. Apart from this, simply soaking the cane water for 12-18 hours, mud or cow dung treatments are also applied for higher germinations. Treatment with specific chemicals i.e. KMnO4, MgSO4 or potassium ferrocyanide, ammonium sulphate, chlorohydrins, acetylene etc. are good for better germination and bud sprouting, whereas, prevention from fungal attack as well as insects can be made from Aretan and Benzene. Another vegetative material is the settlings that are cane setts having roots. It can be raised in the nursery as used in spaced transplanting, as well as, in plastic bags. The later has an advantage as the climatic conditions, soil conditions;

SRIVASTAVA & RAI â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Impact of climate change on sugarcane production

nutrient supply can be regulated artificially: and over all, the transportation is easy. The other alternative is the bud chip which is excised auxiliary buds of cane stalk or, cutting of one bud from entire stem. It proved to be an alternate to reduce the mass and improve the quality of seed cane. These bud chips are less bulky, easily transportable and more economical seed material. The bud chip technology holds great promise in rapid multiplication of new cane varieties (Jain et al. 2010). This method, though have multifaceted advantages also bears certain drawbacks, e.g. poor survival conditions in the field, relatively low food reserves, limited survival etc. Food reserve and moisture in the bud chip depletes faster which results in poor sprouting which can be managed with suitable storage conditioned including low temperature. A study carried out for improvement of sprouting by soaking of pre-planting seed by growth-promoting chemicals viz, ethephon and calcium chloride helps in enhancing bud sprouting, root growth and plant vigor by altering some of the key biochemical attributes essential for the early growth and better establishment of bud chips under field conditions. Treated bud chips recorded higher bud sprouting, shoot height, root number, fresh weight of leaves, shoot and roots, and plant vigor index (Jain et al.

2011).

An ideal seed cane can be obtained from a seed crop of 7-8 months. Care should be taken to choose the seed free the diseases like red rot, wilt, smut, ratoon stunting disease etc. It should be healthy with high moisture content and nutrients and aerial roots and splits.

Planting pattern Pattern of planting is a significant factor affecting the plant. Some of the commonly followed practices are flat beds, ridges and furrows, trench method, Rayungan method etc. The field method is adopted in the areas having low rain fall. It is a simple and cheep method mostly followed in northern and central India. Shallow furrows of 8-10 cm depth at the distance of 70-90 cm are made on flat seed bed. The setts with 3-buds are planted end to end in these furrows which are covered with the soil followed by leveling. Moisture content should be adequate at this time.

The furrow planting is a common practice in the areas of northern and southern India having moderate rain fall and heavy soil with low drainage. V-shaped furrows of 15-20 cm depth are made at the intervals of 90 cm. Addition of FYM, potassium and phosphate fertilizers, nutrient in the soil of the furrow may be done as per the requirement. The cane setts are planted in end-to-end manner and are covered by about 6 cm soil which leaves a furrow above the planted row. These furrows are watered in order to enhance soil moisture for good germination. The trench method is followed in coastal areas where strong winds prevail in the rainy season. This method prevents the crop from lodging. It is also known as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Java methodâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; as common in Java. Trenches of 20-25 cm depth are dug at the distance of 75-90 cm. Suitable soil condition is made by addition and through mixing of fertilizers rich in sodium, potash and phosphate. Like previous, end to end pattern is also opted in this method. Chemical treatment to

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cane setts provides protection from soil born insects.

Trenches are filled with the soil after planting. In Rayungan method, the seed stalk is topped off about two months before planting which results in the development of lateral shoots. Trenches having 30 cm depth and 90 cm lateral intervals are made and prepared by mixing of manure.

Further digging and softening of soil up to the depth of about 15 cm is carried out and filled with same soil and fertilizer. Shaft of about 40-45 cm with 2-3 nodes are planted followed by irrigation. There are other methods of plantation like distance planting, bud transplantation, sprouting method, planting of uppermost nodes etc. which are more or less modifications of above mentioned methods suitable for specific region or climatic and soil conditions (IISR 2008).

Planting pattern has a direct bearing on the productivity and yield. An experiment conducted by Mahmood et al.

(2007) to determine the effect of different planting patterns i.e. number of rows, spacing in between, width of the ditches, pit size etc. on the yield potential and juice quality of autumn planted sugarcane indicates that there were significant differences in the length, diameter and weight of individual cane. The data also shows high variation in cane yield as well as production of millable canes due to adoption of various planting patterns. Garside and Bell (2009) experimentally demonstrated that high density planting did not produce more cane or sugar yield at harvest than low-density planting regardless of location, crop duration, and water supply and soil health. In general, tiller survival, cane weight and yield are higher in wide row planting resulting to comparatively high produce of millable canes as well as longer duration and high-yielding nature of the same (Sundra 2002: IISR 2008: Kapur et al.

2011).

Weed management Weeds are probably the single factor which can damage the crop productivity and yield up to the maximum limit. It can reduce the potential sugar yield by 25-90% along with other nutrients. In India, the common weed are Cynodon doctylon, Cyperus rotundus, Echinochloa spp, Saccharum sp. (narrow leaved), Chenopodium album, Solanum nigrum, Convolvulus arvensis, Trianthema sp. Digera arvensis, Anagallis arvensis, Fumania sp. (broad leaved) and Cynodon dactylon, Sorghum halepense, Panicum spp, Dactyloctenium aegyptium (grasses) etc. Since, the sugarcane is a long standing crop: therefore, it is affected by the different weeds in changing climatic conditions. The major reasons for easy susceptibility of the sugarcane are its planting pattern i.e. wide row gap: slow rate of plant growth as the germination phase is of 4-6 weeks followed by 8-10 weeks of full development of canopy: and, comparatively better water and nutrient conditions during plantation. These factors enhance the possibility of weed growth: however, the control of the same is essential for economical sugarcane production. It reduces the yields by competing for moisture, nutrients, and light during the growing season. Various growth phase of the plant are prone to specific weeds, however, the initial 4-6 months of growing phase of the plant need more care as negligence

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during this period will have an adverse affect on tiller growth as well as number and development of millable stalks (Chauhan and Srivastava 2002; Chattha et al. 2007).

The methods for weed control broadly consist of cultural, mechanical, chemical and integrated weed management practices. The cultural method includes the use of high tillering and fast growing cane varieties which reduce the time span of critical period of competition.

Mulching of the trash, inter crop between the row space are also adopted. Mechanical and manual control includes the physical removal of weeds by bullock or tractor-drawn cultivators, harrows and rotavators or by manual labor implements like spade, hand hoe, etc. are very effective in early stages of crop growth. These practices are very effective, but now difficult to be opted because of so many reasons like, non availability of man power, high cost of labor, longer time span of operation etc, therefore, use of chemical methods i.e. use of herbicides are widely being followed. It provides an effective and long duration control as well as economical in a few cases. However, it is also true that chemical methods are only supplementary to cultural practices and as can possibly never replace the later. There are so many herbicides available in the market, however, prior to use, the opinion of expert is suggested for proper selection of herbicide, doses, methodology etc.

Selective herbicides will invariably fail to kill some weeds and furthermore some herbicides will damage the crop because the protoplasm of desirable plants is similar to that of undesirable plants i.e. weeds. It follows that continuous and injudicious use of a particular selective herbicide will encourage a resistant type of weed to flourish and predominate (Stewart 1955).

The herbicides are specific for pre-emergence and postemergence varieties (see Mossler 2008; Odero and Dusky 2010; www.sugarcanecrop.com). Some common herbicides are (i) Atrazine-controls most annual grass and broadleaf weeds, (ii) 2,4-D-spiny amaranth, ragweed, morning glory, and many others, (iii) Ametryn-annual grass and broadleaf weed seedlings, especially effective against Alexander grass, (iv) Asulam- controls Alexander grass, broadleaf panicum, and other annual grasses but response is slow: it is applied only once per season, (v) Metribuzin-controls most annual grass and broadleaf weeds but is often mixed with atrazine or pendimethalin. It is applied at the time of planting or ratooning, but prior to weed emergence, (vi) Pendimethalin-control and time of application are same as previous and often mixed with the same, (vii) Halosulfuron- controls purple and yellow nutsedge as well as some broadleaf species and may be applied to any stage of sugarcane growth. Apart from these, Diuron, Alachlor, Trifluralin, Terbacil, Dalapan, Glyphosate, Paraquat are also in common use. Diuron is less common, though response well to broad leaves than grass. Trifluralin works on annual grasses and small seeded broadleaf weeds.

Glyphosate is a broad-spectrum herbicide patented under the trade name Roundup. It is only effective on actively growing plants: it is not effective as a pre-emergence herbicide (WHO 1994; Duke and Powles 2008). Paraquat have an excellent control on annual weeds and can be used as an alternated to glyphosate. Integrated weed

management is a combination of all the practices i.e. cultural, manual and chemical methods at proper time of the plant growth to get the maximum productivity and yield. A wise combination of various methods will also results to the best and economical way for controlling weed.

Insect/pest control Insects and pests are equally dangerous if not controlled within time. Sugarcane is also very much susceptible to the same and may bear heavy loss due to rapid and enormous growth of the pests in comparatively short time depending upon climate, rain fall, temperature, as well as sufficient food material in the form of crop itself. More than 200 species of insects are known from India, however, a few are considered as most devastating. Some of the common insects of the sugarcane, its time of appearance and controlling measures are as follows: Pyrilla perpusilla. It is a most destructive foliagesucking pest and causes heavy loss in cane yield and sugar recovery. It appears in the months of August-September after heavy rainfall casing high humidity. It attacks mainly on the leaves and leave sheath. Spray of chemicals is the only remedy. Planting in paired row method provides space for supervision and to undertake control measures (Paul 2007).

Termites. These are the underground insects attack the stalk used for the planting as well as shoots, canes. In initial phase, it finds the way from the cut ends of the seed and damage the soft tissue leading to low bud germination and replantation. These include Coptotermes heimi, Odontotermes assmuthi, O. obesus, O. wallonensis, Microtermes obesi and Trinervitermes biformis. They are most active under draught conditions, i.e. April-June and October, however, active in almost all the seasons. Farmers control termites by spraying pesticides over the stalks in the furrow during planting (Cheavegatti-Gianotto et al.

2011). The remedial measures include application of well rotten farmyard manure, removal of stubbles and debris of previous crop, addition of chemicals in the furrows during planting.

Borers. These are the insects which bore young shoots, canes and roots. Significant damage results from the sugarcane borer larvae tunneling within the stalk. This can cause a loss of stalk weight and sucrose yield. The borer's tunneling into the stalk allows points of entry for secondary invaders. If the tunneling is extensive, death of the terminal growing point of the plant may result. Weakened stalks are more subject to breaking and lodging (Cherry et al. 2001).

The shoot borers (Chilo infuscatellus) attacks in the early phase during the months of plant growth i.e. April-June by entering laterally through the holes in the stalk and may even damage complete cane by upward or downward boring producing dead hearts. In early phase, it may damage the mother stem destroying entire stem. Plantation of early crop e.g. before mid March is suggested. Chemical treatment is effective. The internode borer (Chilo sacchariphagus) is one of the major pests of peninsular India (Gupta 1957) and is more active at the time or little after the internode formation, however effective during

SRIVASTAVA & RAI – Impact of climate change on sugarcane production

entire plant life (Ananthanarayana and Balasubramanian 1980). Due to infection, the internodes suffer reduction in length and girth causing considerable reduction in cane yield (David et al. 1979). It also deteriorates juice quality and reduces sucrose content (David and Ranganathan 1960). Immature internodes are normally attacked by fresh borers. The top shoot borer (Scirpophaga excerptalis) attack the youngest part of the plant top, and usually destroy the growing point. Young stalks die, whereas older stalks often die or produce side shoots and sucrose content is usually adversely affected (Sallam 2006). It attacks during March-October and is very serious during JulyAugust. The larvae usually penetrate along the midrib of the leaf into the heart of the plant. Larvae feed to tender leaves within the whorl and damage the growing points which turn dark. The other signs of attacks are shot holes in leaves, white or red streaks on the upper side of the mid rib and bunchy tops from July onwards. Collection and destroy of moth and egg clusters as well as integrated method of cultural and chemical methods are useful. The root borer (Emmalocera depressella) disconnects the conducting tissues of the root from the soil due to which the plant die.

It also paves way for Ratoon Stunning Disease (RSD) (Gul 2007). Plants infested with E. depressella suffer dead hearts and general yellowing of the leaves and may result in poor tillering in mature plants. It infests sugarcane plants at all stages of development (Singh et al. 1996). Chemical and biological managements are effective if done at suitable time.

Black bug. This group of insects are mainly a problem of north Indian Sugarcane formers. It is most destructive for the ratoons. These include Blissus gibbus and Macropes excavates. Both nymphs and adult accumulate in the central whole of the cane shoot and suck the sap as a result the shoot turns pale, yellow in color with brown patches and sickly appearance. These consequently affect the chlorophyll content of the leaves, length, girth and ultimately weight of the stalk. The healthy stalk exhibited comparatively higher length as compared to infested stalk as well as loss in weight occurs. An increase in nitrogen content of infested leaves and decrease in chlorophyll content hampers the growth (Yadav 2003). Nymphs appear in March-April which is also a peak period of infection and from June to October, both nymph and adults are present together. The management needs both cultural and chemical methods. Burning of trash and leaves left behind the harvesting may be done in the months of March-April when the pest go through the early stage of its activity.

Chemical method is the spray of specified insecticides.

Nitrogen deficiency has been reported to invite black bug infestation in sugarcane ratoon crop (Jaipal 1991). Foliar fertilization of black bug infested cane crop with 2.5 percent urea at formative phase has shown to substantially reduce the young nymphal population. The incidence and intensity of black bug in ratoon crop may reduce from 5070 percent with a concomitant increase in shoot height simply by removal of plant crop residue and foliar N applications (Jaipal 2000).

Scale insect (Melanaspis sp.). It is probably a native to North India (Rao 1970) but prevails in other parts also. It is

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a post monsoon pest normally appears in 5-6 months old crop after formation of internodes. The symptom is the presence of approximately circular, smoky-brown or grayish-black scale covers on stems and leaf midribs (Agarwal et al. 1959). The scales are often so closely crowded that it is difficult to distinguish their individual shapes. Infested leaves may show drying of the tip and pale green to yellow coloration. Nodal region is more infested than internodal region. It thrives best between 24°C and 34°C and at high relative humidity: the traditional method of irrigation by flooding fields strongly favors survival of the pest (CPC 2012). Rao et al. (1991) found that a long dry period immediately after the rains favored a rapid build-up of M. glomerata populations. Wind is an important aid to the dispersal of the scale (Tripathi et al.

1985). The control of the pest is to be taken care from selection of setts by avoiding them from infested field. The setts may be treated with insecticide to ensure removal of infestation. Crop rotation with wheat is an effective measure (Varun et al. 1993). Detrashing and burning of the trash and other crop residue helps considerably. Spray of insecticide is quite effective controlling measure provided detrashing is carried out in combination with the pesticide application (Rao et al. 1976).

Mealy bug (Saccharicoccus sacchari). These are found in cluster, on the stalks under overlapping leaf sheaths, below the nodes and spread up and down to the other internodes and buds. The damage mainly occurs by sucking the cell sap, depriving plants of essential nutrients which may result to stunning, yellowing and thinning of the canes. It also plays an important role in virus transmission and the growth of sooty-mould fungus due to large amount of honeydew secreted by the insect (Eid et al. 2011). The pest populations grow fast under drought conditions and ants help in their dispersal to a large extent. Both nymphs and adults (female) suck the juice. The infested plants show a sickly appearance and look pale. Severe infestation may cause drying up of the leaves. Occasionally, cavity like depressions is formed on the internodes under the leafsheaths. Deterioration in juice quality and loss in sucrose content are the late results. Destroying of the affected leaves at harvest, selection of proper and healthy seed canes, spray of insecticides are the controlling measures.

Spray material should be made in a way that it can trickle down the internodes into the underneath leaf-sheath in order to kill the nymphs.

White fly (Aleurolobus barodensis, Neomaskellia bergii). It is the most dreaded pest causing direct as well as independency for sucking cell sap from leaves. Population growth is high and reaches to maximum level under low lying, water logged and nitrogen deficient areas (Mann et al. 2006). It usually becomes active with the onset of monsoons having high humidity which favors its breeding.

September-October is the period of maximum attack which gradually slows down in forthcoming days due to unfavorable climatic conditions. Both adult and the nymphs suck the sap from the leaves and turning them yellow. The adults are small pale yellow, ovate in outline with black and grey coating on the body. Nymphs reside underneath of the leaves and suck the cell sap. Due to the attack, cane

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juice becomes more watery. Reduction of sucrose and less recovery of sugar are other adverse affects. Loss can be minimized by avoiding ratoon in low lying areas, burn all the trash of the harvested crop, destruction of affected parts and foliar sprays White grub (Holotrichia sp.). It is a problem of mainly tropical India, but the name â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;white grubâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; is a collective term for various genus and species reported from sugarcane producing areas of the world. The pest life cycle consists of egg, larval instars, pupa and adult stages, of which, the late larval stage is the most damaging to sugarcane. It feeds on the root of the sugarcane and also damages the underground part of the stem by boring. The visible symptom can be seen in September with yellowing (chlorosis) of the leaves which is usually followed by stunted growth, dense browning, lodging, plant uprooting, and death in heavily infested areas. Symptoms may be seen as early as September. Damage is usually more severe in ratoon crops and is most evident around the edges of a field (Srikant and Singaravelu 2011). It thrives in moist sandy soil. The larval instars can survive for more than three months by remaining dormant inside the earthen cell. The management can be made by collection of beetles and destroying them either the same night or a night after first shower when the emergence is high. Cultural practice includes deep ploughing of field in the month of February well before summer showers. Flooding for 24-48 hours during pest activity period reduces grub population.

Rotation of crop with paddy and sunflower also help to minimize the pest. Biological control is mostly selfsustaining as several vertebrates are natural enemy of the pest. A fungus Beauveria brongniartii infective to all stages of the white grub, penetrates the body wall of larva and multiply, thus killing the insect. The chemical method may be of little use, i.e. spray of insecticides immediately after the first summer shower (Srikant and Singaravelu 2011).

Disease management There are about 50 diseases of sugarcane caused by fungal, bacterial, viral and phytoplasm pathogens (Vishwanathan and Padnabhan 2008). Fungal diseases include Red rot, Smut, Wilt, Eye spot, Yellow spot, Brown spot, Pine apple, Banded scletioal and Pokkah boeng, whereas Ratoon stunting, Leaf scald and Red stripe are mainly caused by bacteria. Viral and mycoplasmal diseases are Mosaic, Grassy shoot and Leaf yellow of sugarcane.

Brief ideas about the symptom of important diseases are as follow: Red rot. It is a fungal disease caused by Colletotrichum falcatum. The growth of this fungus is affected by temperature, pH, nutrition and environmental conditions. It is one of main diseases of Indian subcontinent as well as other parts of the world. It can attack entire plant e.g. stalk, leaf, buds or roots however: the most amazing phase is its attack on stalk. The symptom depends on the susceptibility of the sugarcane variety, time of infection and the environment which may not be apparent in the initial phase but may be fatal in later stage. In the initial phase, the infected tissues show dull red coloration with whitish

patches across the stalk. These white patches differentiate it from other stem rots. In resistant varieties, the infection is largely confined to the internodes. The typical stalk symptoms i.e. presence of white spots in otherwise rotten (dull red) internodal tissues and nodal rotting appear when the crop is at the fag end of the grand growth phase during August-September in subtropical India. In the early stages of infection, it is difficult to recognize the presence of the disease in the field, as the plant does not display any external symptom or distress. At a later stage, some discoloration of rind often becomes apparent when internal tissues have been badly damaged and are fully rotten. At the field level, this may be observed as the death of a few plants or clumps to the failure of entire crop (Duttamajumder 2008). Infected leaf shows small red marks on upper surface of the lamina and midrib. Due to this disease, retardation in the yield and deterioration occurs in juice quantity. The management includes selection of healthy setts treated with heat therapy: cultivate of resistant sugarcane varieties, burning of trash and other residue of the field, rotation of with paddy, onion, garlic, linseed and green manure crops etc.

Precaution should be taken to control the spread of disease through water: hence, water of infected crop field is not to be allowed in other crop grown areas.

Sett rot or pine apple disease. It is caused by Ceratocystis paradoxa, both sett borne and soil borne. It infects in the primary phase of cultivation due to which the internal tissue of the setts turns red and black. The black coloration is due to production of fungal spores within the seed piece. Nodes act as partial barriers to the spread of rotting, but with susceptible varieties, entire seed pieces may become colonized by the fungus. The disease severely retards bud germination, shoot development and early shoot vigor. Pineapple disease can result in young plantcane crops having patchy, uneven appearance germination over large areas (Raid 1990). The disease is much prone in low lying areas and soils having ill drainage. It can be controlled by treating the setts by chemical fungicide before plantation (Vijaya et al. 2007).

Wilt disease. A fungal disease caused by Cephalosporium sacchari, spreads through setts and adversely affects the germination. Poor and weak quality germination ultimately affects the root development and cane formation. The symptoms are visible after 4-5 months of plantation during monsoon and post monsoon periods showing gradual withering. The affected tissue show reddish brown coloration in patches. The leaves turn yellow and dry up. The disease is controlled by selecting healthy, disease free seed setts after treatment with fungicide (Khan 2003; Gupta and Tripathi 2011).

Gummosis or gumming disease (Xanthomonas vasculorum). The symptoms are white leaf stripes with necrotic zones at leaf margins, extensive chlorosis of emerging leaves, vascular reddening and cavity formation in invaded stems, production of side shoots, rapid wilting and death of plants. Prolonged latent infection can occur, necessitating detection by isolation or sensitive molecular assays. The development and spread of disease includes xylem-invading pathogen, transmitted in cuttings,

SRIVASTAVA & RAI â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Impact of climate change on sugarcane production

mechanically, and by wind-blown rain (Birch 2011). The control is mainly the precautions i.e. selection of disease free setts, cultivation of resistant varieties and destroying diseased canes.

Sugarcane smut. The causal organism of smut disease of sugarcane is Ustilago scitaminea, which occurs in most part of the world and spread by windblown spores, infested seed-cane and infested soil (Nzioki 2010). The diagnostic feature is the emergence of a whip which is gray to black, curved, pencil-thick growth which, emerges from the top of the affected cane plant. It arises from the terminal bud or from lateral shoots on infected stalks and may attain the length from a few centimeters to meter. It is composed partly of host plant tissue and partly of fungus tissue. The control measures are hot water treatment of seed canes, rouging out diseased plants, planting resistant or tolerant cultivars, and fungicides (Agnhotri 1983).

There are many other diseases of sugarcane which may affect to some extent in the growth and quality of juice, viz. ratoon stunting, yellow spot, red stripe, rust and genetic variegation of leaf and sheath. black rot, black stripe, brown rust, dry rot, leaf binding, leaf blast, leaf blight, leaf fleck, leaf scorch, leaf splitting, leaf yellows, mosaic range rust etc Soil and nutrient management Soil and nutrient management is the most emphasized aspects of the agro-technology to increase the crop production and sugar yield. Since, all the nutrient management practices are to be applied on the soil over which the crop is to be grown, therefore, the idea of soil condition, texture, composition etc. are the prerequisite.

The soils of the area varies considerably, therefore, the agronomic methods varies from area to area. Land degradation in the tropics has mainly resulted from poor soil management practices. In Korea, despite choosing new sugarcane varieties with improved sugarcane and sugar yields, early maturity, resistance to pests and diseases, good milling qualities and adaptability to local growing conditions, the average yield was low as compared to previous years (Wawire 2006): for which, the decline of soil fertility resulting to depletion of essential nutrients was one of the main reason (Bell et al. 2001: Garside et al.

2003). The yield potentials and other characteristics are specific to a particular sugarcane variety. Soil is one of the main factors which influence the production according to its chemical composition particularly nitrogen and potassium which play a major role in physiology, growth and development (Malavolta 1994: Rice et al. 2002).

Both physical and chemical properties of the soil have an impact on the plant growth. Soil bulk density in the sugarcane field varies considerably as the crop is usually grown on low ridges i.e. rows with tractors and harvesters passing over the interrows making it compact. Because of the compaction, the soil strength gets increased but the porosity is reduced lowering the water intake capacity of topsoil (Srivastava 1984). The good soil structure, i.e. arrangement of soil particles having lots of pores and spaces is good for root development by allowing good drainage and aeration. Excessive cultivation, high irrigation

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may spoil this property of soil. The crusting of soil before development of crop canopy is a phenomenon of both rain fed and irrigated conditions. These crusts develop when the soil surface dries out after rainfall or irrigation. Physical disaggregation of soil particles occurs in response to the impact of raindrops, causing compaction of the surface layer which limits water penetration into the soil. Soil crusting is a precursor to soil loss through erosion and improving water intake rates (Meyer et al. 1996).

Acidity and alkalinity of the soil requires specific treatments. Acid soils are normally recorded in the areas of high rainfall areas and in the soils rich with organic matter.

Under such environmental conditions, soils weather quickly and the basic cations like Ca, Mg, K are leached out from the soil profile, leaving behind more stable materials rich in iron and alumina oxides. This process makes soils acidic and generally devoid of nutrients.

Accelerated acidification of soils under cultivation is most often due to the combined effect of oxidation of ammoniac fertilizers to nitric acid, mineralization of organic matter and leaching of basic cations from the soil. Because of acid soil, the growth of cane may not reach to the optimum: in addition, yield and quality of the juice are also adversely affected. High alumina level damages the root system: as a result, the roots tend to be shortened and swollen, having a stubby appearance. Management is possible by lime and dolomite applications. The solicity or soil salinity is also a common problem of sugarcane growing areas having low rain fall. It may be natural or secondary, developed due to irrigation however, in both cases, the plant is affected. In some areas, the cause of soil salination is due the development of high water tables, which allow capillary rise of saline ground water into the rooting depth of the crop. Occasionally, poor quality irrigation water may be another source of salts (Meyer et al. 1996). Various adverse affect reported are stunted growth, scorched tips and margins of leaves, poor root growth, poor cane quality, deterioration of juice quality etc.

The nutrient management is basically the maintenance of sound soil fertility conditions for the crop. The nutrient condition of the field which was good in the past may become poor in future due to many reasons including cultivation of crops without nutrient management. Each crop requires certain constituents which are taken from the soil resulting to reduce its quantity as per the previous level. Therefore, continuous cropping without proper management of nutrient will result to degradation of soil: hence, the nutrients management is required. Fertilizers are necessity for better management of the soil but at the same time its composition, quantity and time have an important role. Higher quantity of unwanted constituents may act as pollutant and harm the crop. Though, a lot of constituents are required for the sugarcane, however, the management of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium needs special care for good crop.

Nitrogen is an essential part of all plants. Its deficiency in the soil is represented on sugarcane by short and thinner and shorter stalk, paleness of foliage, leaves turn black and die, blade turn light green to yellow, thin roots etc. It also influences the quality and quantity of juice. Phosphorus in

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low quantity reduces sprouting or no tillering, less elongation of stalk, red, greenish violet and purple colorations of leaf tips and margins, slender leaves, delay in canopy development etc. It is essential for cell division responsible for plant growth and also for better root development to support and develop healthy plant. It is a necessary constituent for formation of protein, photosynthesis and plant metabolism. Potassium helps in carbon assimilation and photosynthesis, in addition to providing resistance to sugarcane against pests and diseases. Symptoms of deficiency are yellow-orange coloration of leaf borders and tips, slender stalk. It is the most abundant cation of the cell sap. By acting mainly as an enzyme activator in plant metabolism, it is fundamental to the synthesis and translocation of sucrose from the leaves to the storage tissues in stalks. It also plays a significant role in controlling the hydration and osmotic concentration within the stomata guard cells (Ng 2002).

Sugarcane requires sulfur in relatively large amounts which is used for plant structure and growth. Plants take up sulfur as sulphate which is more mobile in soils. Other natural sources of sulfur are rainfall and irrigation. Calcium is essential for cane growth and for cell wall development.

It is taken up as a positively charged cation from the soil solution. Magnesium is essential for plant photosynthesis as it is the main mineral constituent of chlorophyll. Sodium is required in very small amounts for the maintenance of plant water balance. Copper, zinc, iron, manganese, molybdenum, boron etc. are the micronutrients which are taken up by cane in much smaller quantities and are generally regulators of plant growth (Wood 2003). The deficiencies of micronutrients are also effective and their symptoms are visible either on leaves and stem in the form of odd appearance, different colorations, spots, necrotic leaves, thinning of stalks etc. It is advisable to contact the expert agronomist, because the identification of the deficiency of a particular micronutrient and their exact remedial measure is difficult for a common farmer.

The management starts with enhancement of the suitability of soil by adding organic manure i.e. farm yard manure (FYM), compost, dung etc. which improves the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil.

Apart from these, various other manures like, press mud, vermicompost, green manure can be made with little planning. The fertilizers provide a supplement to the soils depleting in one or more constituents. The requirement of the suitable fertilizer for a particular field can be known by the analysis of soil test result. At the same time, soil type, crop nutrient requirements, past fertilization practices and cropping history should also be taken into consideration.

The traditional methods like mixing of fertilizer with soil, its application in the furrows followed by little irrigation are still widely used. It is also important to retain the nutrient in the field by avoiding the runoff and erosion for which soil and water conservation measures should be followed.

Irrigation management Sugarcane is a high water requirement crop. The lack of water in soil cause the moisture stress which can ihfluence

the crop from the very begning and up to the last.

Reduction in the stalks elongation and leaves in the plant are the primary symptoms of water stress, whereas, the last phase of crop shows decrease in sucrose accumulation.

Irrigation is therefore a major factor for growth of sugarcane which has been a matter of active research from the very begning and will probably continue with more quantum in future as the water is being expansive day by day, so as to the cost of irrigation.

In the present climatic conditions, it is evident that the rain fall is very erratic, unpredictable and uneven. Its stipulated duration is also shifting in some of the regions.

In central India, 2-3 seasons of good rain fall is normally followed by a draught or low rainfall period. Since, the demand of sugarcane is high for the water, as the irrigation is required in almost all the phases of plant growth and cost of irrigation has also increased, therefore, the cost effective management is present need in almost all the sugarcane growing areas. Moreover, it also becomes necessary for the judicious use of the available water as its share for agriculture is also reduced due to high demand and consumption by domestic, private and public sectors in last 2-3 decades. In India, the present demand of irrigation water is between 543-557 billion cubic meter (BMC) as estimated by NCIWARD (1999) which may go to 628-807 BMC in the year 2050 and 826-852 BMC in the year 2065.

However, it is expected that demand for water is likely to exceed the availability much before 2050 (Jain 2011).

Various traditional methods of irrigation followed for the crop are flood irrigation, large furrow system, serpentine method, alternate skip furrow method and contour furrows system which depends upon the availability of water, soil characteristics and topography of the area. In most of the practices, the water used for irrigation is often more than that of the requirement, and a certain amount of water go waste, particularly in the flood irrigation. Therefore, the drip irrigation is now a highly adopted technique. This technique is largely preferred in central India because of mainly low rainfall and high depth of water table. Further, it saves the water, reduces labor cost, save electricity and is suitable for almost all lands.

Besides, free movement of pests and diseases as in case of flood management are automatically prohibited. Sprinklers are also being common.

The irrigation depends mainly upon the climatic condition of the region and type of soil, however, sowing pattern, type of manure and fertilizers are also the governing factors to some extent. The northern India, where the water table is comparatively low, most of the soil spread is alluvial and fertile, may need comparatively less number of irrigations. Water requirement is more in the areas having hot and dry winds. The method of sowing in trench form is little economical. The soil types and cane varieties also restricts the method and number of irrigations to be practiced for the crop. In all the cases, the irrigation is to be carried out to the extent preventing water-logged condition as it adversely affects the crop growth.

SRIVASTAVA & RAI â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Impact of climate change on sugarcane production

Biotechnological approaches Biotechnology plays a pivotal role for the improvement of Sugarcane varieties. Tiwari et al. (2010) suggested biotechnological approaches for sugarcane improvement in the following areas: (i) Cell and tissue culture for rapid propagation genetic transformation and molecular breeding, (ii) Introduction of novel genes into commercial cultivars, (iii) Molecular detection of sugarcane pathogens, (iv) Development of genetic maps using molecular marker technology, (v) Understanding the molecular basis of sucrose accumulation, (vi) Molecular testing of plants for clonal fidelity, (vii) Variety identification, and (viii) Molecular characterization of various traits.

Much focus had been made on development of transgenic plants and marker assisted breeding.

Biotechnological strategies may improve a number of plant traits which may important for adapting to climate change including early vigor, water-use efficiency, nitrogen-use efficiency, water logging tolerance, frost resistance, heat tolerance, pest and disease resistance, and reduced dependence on low temperatures to trigger flowering or seed germination. Research is being conducted into developing molecular markers or GM varieties for these traits. The Genetically modified Sugarcane would really be the answer to cope with the challenges of Climate changes.

Development of new stress tolerant, high yielding verities with the help of biotechnology may open up new avenues in sugarcane in sugarcane production.

CONCLUSION Various climatic factors and agronomic measures required for better growth of sugarcane are specific in local set-up. The change in global climate is a matter of serious concern to sugarcane cultivators for sustainable development of the crop. A review of various climatic factors and agronomic measures strongly suggests for the adaptation of modern techniques being developed at regional level in most of the sugarcane producing areas. In the initial phase, both land preparation and planting material need a careful planning as the further growth of the crop entirely depends on the same. Land preparation requires a thorough study of the soil and climatic conditions of the region which may vary as per the temperature of the region, availability and intensity of rainfall and sun light. The selection of planting material is being suggested for those varieties which can sustain local climatic conditions as well as resist for pests and diseases.

Since, sugarcane is a long standing crop and experiences severe changes in climate, biotic and abiotic factors, therefore, a regular care of soil and nutrient management, pest control, disease management and adequate irrigation are required. It is also advised to the cultivators to take suggestions of the experts to enhance the quality and production of the cane. Such expertises are made available locally by government at agriculture offices and research centers. Besides, all most all the agriculture universities, colleges and research institutes extend their cooperation to the cultivators for good development of crops including

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sugarcane. The same may be availed regularly to ensure good crop.

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A-1

Authors Index Abedi R Adiwibowo A Agus SB Agustini V Arisoesilaningsih A Asgari F Aththorick TA Bayati M Boer C Budiman Fahmi Farhan AR Farida WR Fatimah S Filiz E Finnegan PM Gandjar I Ghasemi A Guharja E Haghgooy T Hariyadi B Hernawan UE Hoshmand K Ikawati V Jafary M Jalilvand H Kartono AP Koc I Kumar A Kusmardiastuti Lense O Madduppa HH Mangunwardoyo W Mawikere NL Mir RA Mohajeri-Borazjani S Munawar A Murtiningrum Nisyawati Norisharikabad V Nugroho TS Nurmeliasari Pala SA

72 46, 56 145 59 18 72 92 190 86 18 200 145 86 151, 205 114 53 34 195 92 7 40 118 135 23 190 195 79 114 107 79 98 145 34 124 65 195 13 124 46, 151, 205 130 23 1 65

Peritika MZ Pharmawati M Pitopang R Pourbabaei H Purwanto Y Putranto HD Rahman DA Rai MK Reif A Reyahi-Khoram M Reyahi-Khoram R Santosa Y Santoso U Sarungallo ZL Setiadi D Setianto J Setiawan A Setyawan AD Sinery AS Srivastava AK Subhan B Suciatmih Sufaati S Sugardjito J Sugiyarto Suharno Suhartoyo H Suhendra D Sulasmi IS Sunarto Sutarno Suwarno Suyatna I Ulumuddin YI Vafaei H Verma N Wani AH Warnoto Wibisono Y Wiryono Yan G Yonvitner Zueni A

140 53 178 7 72 92, 151, 205 1 79 214 72 130, 135, 190 190 79 1 124 92 1 23 161, 172 86 214 145 34 59 23 140 59 13 145 46, 151, 205 140 161 28 161 172 130 107 65 1 23 13 53 200 1

A-2

Subject Index A. muelleri growth accession agroforestry agronomy Amanita Anoxypristis anti-bacterial anti-yeast aquatic Arfak Mountain artificial inlet Avicennia marina biodiversity

burgo Bushehr Central Java chemical

chloroplast SSRs climate change cluster cultivation cuscus Daemonorops draco Darabkola demersal fish Dendrobium crumenatum Dieng Mountain distribution

18, 19, 22 54, 107, 108, 109, 112, 115, 124 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 50, 140, 141, 142, 143, 152, 178, 187 214, 218 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70 161, 164, 165 3, 34, 38, 69, 102 34, 37 130, 131, 132, 133, 138, 145, 204 86, 87, 88, 89, 90 195, 196, 197, 198 195, 196, 198 1, 2, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 16, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54, 65, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 6, 87, 89, 92, 130, 133, 135, 138, 141, 145, 147, 152, 159, 178, 179, 188, 190, 194 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 195, 196, 198 23, 24, 25, 26, 140, 141, 142 11, 16, 49, 100, 102, 105, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 132, 135, 137, 140, 141, 142, 195, 196, 197, 198, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223 114, 115 46, 65, 79, 135, 214, 216, 217, 218, 225 50, 59, 60, 62, 63, 107, 111, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, 145, 148, 172, 175, 211 18, 19, 21, 22, 40, 42, 43, 44, 92, 93, 112, 151, 52, 58, 59, 79, 215, 218, 222, 223 86, 87, 88, 89, 90 46, 47, 48, 50, 151, 152, 153, 156, 158, 205, 206, 207, 210, 211, 212, 205 72, 73 200, 202, 204 34, 36, 38 23, 24, 25, 26 7, 8, 11, 15, 16, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 40, 44, 74, 86, 87, 88, 90, 94, 95, 96, 107, 111, 114, 115, 116, 118, 119, 120, 122, 125, 161, 162, 164, 166, 167, 168, 169, 172, 173, 175, 176, 182, 193, 197, 198, 201, 202, 203, 214, 217, 218

diversity

diversity index dragon blood dry seasons ecological species groups ecotourism endophytic environment

establishment estradiol-17Ă&#x; fecundity fish visual census follicles forest encroachment forest plant species genetic diversity Guilan habitat

harvest

harvesting quota Hirpora hunting area illegal logging

3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 16, 27, 49, 54, 57, 59, 65, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 99, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 114, 116, 124, 125, 126, 128, 129, 130, 133, 137, 138, 140, 141, 142, 145, 147, 150, 161, 163, 173, 179, 180, 181, 187, 188, 190, 192, 194, 211 9, 10, 16, 74, 75, 87, 88, 90, 140, 141, 142, 143, 145, 147, 181 151, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 205 28, 34, 138 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 133, 137, 190 34, 35, 36, 37, 38 2, 7, 11, 12, 13, 18, 19, 20, 21, 31, 35, 37, 40, 59, 73, 75, 76, 82, 92, 96, 126, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 145, 147, 162, 164, 168, 172, 176, 190, 191, 194, 195, 196, 202, 218, 222, 223 11, 13, 14, 26, 27, 195, 196, 197, 213, 219 1, 2, 3, 4 28, 79, 80, 81, 162, 167 145, 146 1, 5 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212 86 7, 89, 107, 108, 109, 112 7, 8 7, 11, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 37, 46, 65, 67, 68, 69, 79, 80, 81, 87, 88, 90, 118, 119, 120, 127, 130, 132, 135, 137, 142, 145, 147, 148, 150, 152, 157, 158, 159, 162, 163, 166, 167, 168, 173, 176, 179, 181, 188, 190, 206, 210 18, 20, 21, 22, 35, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 72, 73, 75, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 94, 107, 126, 151, 152, 154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 172, 192, 193, 195, 217, 219, 221, 222, 223 79, 80, 81, 83 65, 66 135, 136, 138, 190, 194 151, 205, 206, 207, 209, 210,

A-3

in silico analysis income source indigenous people Indonesia

Iran ISSR Jambi Javan gibbon Jebak forest jernang

Kandelat Kashmir katuk lagoon land use types Leucadendron Leuser ecosystem life table local ecological knowledge long-tailed macaque Lore Lindu National Park macrofungi Malay Archipelago management

Manokwari Maratua Island Mazandaran mining Mount Slamet mtDNA Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense nad1/B-C Natuna Sea nature conservation Nusantara Olea

212 114 48, 49, 151, 156, 157, 158 40, 98, 99, 103, 105, 190 1, 2, 3, 5, 13, 23, 28, 34, 35, 40, 41, 43, 59, 60, 79, 80, 86, 98, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 118, 119, 120, 122, 124, 125, 127, 140, 141, 145, 146, 147, 153, 162, 163, 164, 167, 172, 173, 714, 176 178, 179, 188, 200, 205, 206 7, 8, 11, 72, 73, 75, 130, 131, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 190, 191, 192, 195, 196 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112 40, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 517, 158, 159, 205, 206, 207, 208, 213 23, 24, 25, 26, 151, 205, 206, 212 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212 7, 8 65, 66, 69, 70, 71 1, 2 145, 146, 147, 148, 150, 168 178, 79, 82, 87 53, 54, 55, 56, 57 92, 93 28, 29, 30 40 79, 80, 81, 82, 83 178, 179, 187 65, 69, 71 161, 163, 164, 165, 166 18, 26, 40, 41, 44, 49, 50, 72, 75, 76, 79, 86, 87, 112, 131, 134, 136, 138, 140, 150, 151, 152, 157, 159, 191, 192, 193, 200, 202, 214, 216, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225 87, 89, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 124, 125, 126, 127 145, 146 72, 73, 75 13, 16 23, 24, 25, 26, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57 118, 119, 121, 122, 163

olive orchid-mycorrhiza Pandanus conoideus Papilio demoleus Papua

53, 54, 55, 57 172, 173, 176, 177, 200, 204 40, 44, 79 161, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168 114, 115, 116

seasonal wetland secondary forest

parasitoids pasture PCR-RFLP phylogenetic analysis physical plant species diversity plantation

population

predator prediction pristid Pristis prohibited RAPD rattan

red fruit reef fishes regression model restoration Rhizoctonia Rhizophora Riau Archipelago Russula sawfish

sloping land soil

114, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63 124, 125, 127, 128, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33 59, 60, 86, 87, 90, 98, 99, 100, 102, 103, 124, 26, 27, 28, 163, 164, 166, 167 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33 13, 131, 190, 192, 193 53, 54, 55, 57 53, 60, 63, 107, 109 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129 7, 9, 72, 73 18, 19, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 46, 47, 48, 50, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 151, 152, 154, 158, 178, 180, 181, 187, 188, 196, 208, 210, 214, 216, 219, 220, 222 1, 2, 5, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 42, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 108, 111, 112, 114, 118, 126, 129, 130, 135, 136, 137, 140, 142, 151, 152, 155, 157, 158, 159, 161, 162, 166, 168, 172, 173, 190, 195, 196, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 217, 221, 222 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 83, 135, 142, 43, 48, 200 18, 21, 217 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 169 161, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169 43, 44, 135, 162, 190, 194, 224 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 114 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 87, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 179, 180, 188, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129 145, 146, 147, 148, 200 18, 19, 20, 21, 22 12, 13, 14, 16, 33, 195, 196, 199 34, 37, 38, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177 200, 206 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 135, 136, 138, 14, 15, 25, 43, 44, 50, 92, 93, 94, 96, 102, 179, 188, 198 140, 141, 142, 143 7, 8, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 42, 43, 46, 61, 72,

A-4

soil macrofauna Spathoglottis plicata SSR mining structural complexity sugarcane Sulawesi Sumatra supporting tree survival Tambelan taxonomy topography traditional agriculture traditional medicine tree

75, 76, 92, 96, 132, 137, 140, 141, 214 140, 141, 142, 143 59, 60, 61, 62, 63 114, 7, 13, 76, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225 178, 179, 187, 188 13, 14, 40, 41, 44, 46, 47, 92, 93, 151, 152, 153, 163, 167, 172, 178, 187, 205, 206, 210 205, 207, 208, 209, 211, 212, 23, 28, 29, 30, 33, 76, 79, 90, 81, 83, 84, 136, 143, 162, 191, 196, 203, 204, 219, 221 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204 118, 161, 163 7, 11, 24, 65, 92, 140, 142, 172, 198, 218, 224, 92, 93 98, 99, 100, 105, 107, 190, 192 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 40, 42, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54, 56, 57, 59, 62, 63, 67, 68,

tree diversity tribe

Tribulus terrestris Tridacninae tropical forest Tulasnella wet season wetland

wild plant Zarivar

69, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 87, 90, 92, 94, 95, 96, 108, 111, 116, 124, 126, 33, 40, 51, 54, 56, 57, 58, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 87, 88, 95, 97, 98, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 211, 212, 213 16, 178, 179, 187 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 98, 100, 102, 103, 105, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 206, 207, 208 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112 118, 119, 122 92, 93, 96, 178, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63 28, 30, 32, 33 42, 43, 130, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 42, 43, 130, 131, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139 98 130, 131, 132

A-5

List of Peer Reviewers Abdul-Reza Dabbagh Altafhusain B. Nadaf Anath Bandhu Das Brad M. Potts Chao Dai Chuan David R. Bellwood Hari Sutrisno Himmah Rustiami Jean-Luc Legras Jesús Ernesto Arias González Mahdi Reyahi-Khoram Marilyn S. Combalicer Mario A. Tan Matt Gitzendanner Md-Sajedul Islam Milan S. Stanković Mohammad Basyuni Mohammed S.A. Ammar Nelson Rosa Ferreira Prafulla Soni Pulla K. Nakayama Rashid Sumaila Richard C. Gardner Saneyoshi Ueno Shahabuddin Sujitha Thomas Suranto Yaherwandi Youhong Peng Zhengrong Luo

The Persian Gulf Aquatics World Center, Bandar-e-Lengeh Branch, Islamic Azad University, Bandar-e Lengeh, Iran Department of Botany, University of Pune, Pune 411007, Maharashtra, India Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, College of Agriculture, Orissa University of Agricultutre & Technology, Bhubaneswar 751003, Orissa, India School of Plant Science and Cooperative Research Centre for Forestry, University of Tasmania, Hobart 7001, Tasmania, Australia College of Life Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, PR China School of Marine and Tropical Biology & ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld. 4811, Australia Division of Zoology, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong Bogor 16911, West Java, Indonesia Division of Botany, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong Bogor 16911, West Java, Indonesia INRA, UMR 1083 Sciences pour l'Oenologie Bat 28, 2 place Viala, F-34060 Montpellier Cedex 1, France Dpto. Recursos del Mar, Cinvestav-Unidad Mérida, Cordemex 97310, Mérida, Yucatán, México Department of Environment, Hamadan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Hamadan, Iran Nueva Vizcaya State University, Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya, The Philippines Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Espana, Manila 1015, The Philippines Department of Biology and Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-7800, U.S.A. University of Texas-Pan American and USDA-APHIS-PPQ-CPHST, Moore Air Base Building S-6414, Edinburg, Texas 78541, U.S.A. Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science, University of Kragujevac, Radoja Domanovića 12, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia.

Department of Mangroves and Bio-resources, Tropical Biosphere Research Center, University of the Ryukyus. Nishihara, Okinawa 903-0213 Japan National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Attaqa, Suez, Egypt Group of Biotransformations and Molecular Biodiversity, Institute of Exact and Natural Sciences, Federal University of Pará, Belém, Pará, Brazil Ecology and Environment Division, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun 248006, Uttarakhand, India.

Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Nara Institute of Science and Technology 8916-5, Takayama, Ikoma, Nara 630-0192, Japan UBC Fisheries Centre, University of British Columbia, 2202 Main Mall Vancouver, BC, Canada School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand Department of Forest Genetics, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Matsunosato, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8687, Japan Department of Agrotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Tadulako University. Tondo, Palu 94118, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Research Centre Mangalore, Bolar, Mangalore 575001, Karnataka, India Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Sebelas Maret University. Surakarta 57126, Central Java, Indonesia Departmentof Plant Pest and Disease, Faculty of Agriculture, Andalas University, Padang 25161, West Sumatra, Indonesia Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu, P.R. China Department of Pomology, Key Lab of Horticultural Plant Biology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Shizishan, Wuhan 430070, P.R. China

A-6

Table of Contents Vol. 13, No. 1, Pp. 1-51, January 2012 GENETIC DIVERSTY Estradiol-17β hormone concentration and follicles number in exotic Burgo chicken supplemented by Sauropus androgynus katuk leaves extract HERI DWI PUTRANTO, JOHAN SETIANTO, URIP SANTOSO, WARNOTO, NURMELIASARI, AHMAD ZUENI ECOSYSTEM DIVERSTY Plant species diversity in the ecological species groups in the Kandelat Forest Park, Guilan, North of Iran HASSAN POURBABAEI, TAHEREH HAGHGOOY

1-6

7-12

Returning biodiversity of rehabilitated forest on a coal mined site at Tanjung Enim, South Sumatra HERY SUHARTOYO, ALI MUNAWAR, WIRYONO

13-17

Predictive model of Amorphophallus muelleri growth in some agroforestry in East Java by multiple regression analysis BUDIMAN, ENDANG ARISOESILANINGSIH

18-22

Population density and distribution of Javan gibbon (Hylobates moloch) in Central Java, Indonesia ARIF SETIAWAN, TEJO SURYO NUGROHO, YOHANNES WIBISONO, VERA IKAWATI, JITO SUGARDJITO

23-27

Age-specific life table of swallowtail butterfly Papilio demoleus (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) in dry and wet seasons SUWARNO

28-33

Frequency of endophytic fungi isolated from Dendrobium crumenatum (Pigeon orchid) and antimicrobial activity WIBOWO MANGUNWARDOYO, SUCIATMIH, INDRAWATI GANDJAR

34-39

ETHNOBIOLOGY Jambak Jambu Kalko: Nature conservation management of the Serampas of Jambi, Sumatra BAMBANG HARIYADI The relationships of forest biodiversity and rattan jernang (Deamonorops draco) sustainable harvesting by Anak Dalam tribe in Jambi, Sumatra ANDRIO ADIWIBOWO, IIK SRI SULASMI, NISYAWATI

40-45 46-51

Vol. 13, No. 2, Pp. 53-106, April 2012 GENETIC DIVERSTY The conservation of mitochondrial genome sequence in Leucadendron (Proteaceae) MADE PHARMAWATI, GUIJUN YAN, PATRICK M. FINNEGAN Isolation and phylogenetic relationship of orchid-mycorrhiza from Spathoglottis plicata of Papua using mitochondrial ribosomal large subunit (mt-Ls) DNA SUPENI SUFAATI, VERENA AGUSTINI, SUHARNO ECOSYSTEM DIVERSTY Diversity of macrofungal genus Russula and Amanita in Hirpora Wildlife Sanctuary, Southern Kashmir Himalayas SHAUKET AHMED PALA, ABDUL HAMID WANI, RIYAZ AHMAD MIR

53-58 59-64

65-71

Effect of plantations on plant species diversity in the Darabkola, Mazandaran Province, North of Iran HASSAN POURBABAEI, FATEMEH ASGARI, ALBERT REIF, ROYA ABEDI

72-78

Determination of long-tailed macaque’s (Macaca fascicularis) harvesting quotas based on demographic parameters YANTO SANTOSA, KUSMARDIASTUTI, AGUS PRIYONO KARTONO, DEDE AULIA RAHMAN

79-85

The population condition and the food availability of cuscus in the Arfak Mountains Nature Reserve, West Papua ANTON SILAS SINERY, CHANDRADEWANA BOER, WARTIKA ROSA FARIDA

86-91

A-7 ETHNOBIOLOGY Vegetation stands structure and aboveground biomass after the shifting cultivation practices of Karo People in Leuser Ecosystem, North Sumatra T. ALIEF ATHTHORICK, DEDE SETIADI, YOHANES PURWANTO, EDI GUHARDJA The wild plants used as traditional medicines by indigenous people of Manokwari, West Papua OBED LENSE

92-97 98-106

Vol. 12, No. 3, Pp. 107-160, July 2012 GENETIC DIVERSTY A comparative phylogenetic analysis of medicinal plant Tribulus terrestris in Northwest India revealed by RAPD and ISSR markers ASHWANI KUMAR, NEELAM VERMA In Silico chloroplast SSRs mining of Olea species ERTUGRUL FILIZ, IBRAHIM KOC SPECIES DIVERSTY Taxonomy of Indonesian giant clams (Cardiidae, Tridacninae) UDHI EKO HERNAWAN The exploration and diversity of red fruit (Pandanus conoideus L.) from Papua based on its physical characteristics and chemical composition MURTININGRUM, ZITA L. SARUNGALLO, NOUKE L. MAWIKERE ECOSYSTEM DIVERSTY Study of biodiversity and limiting factors of Ag-gol Wetland in Hamadan Province, Iran MAHDI REYAHI-KHORAM, VAHID NORISHARIKABAD, HOSHANG VAFAEI

107-113 114-117

118-123 124-129

130-134

Assessment of biodiversities and spatial structure of Zarivar Wetland in Kurdistan Province, Iran MAHDI REYAHI-KHORAM, KAMAL HOSHMAND

135-139

Diversity of soil macrofauna on different pattern of sloping land agroforestry in Wonogiri, Central Java MARKANTIA ZARRA PERITIKA, SUGIYARTO, SUNARTO

140-144

Fish biodiversity in coral reefs and lagoon at the Maratua Island, East Kalimantan HAWIS H. MADDUPPA, SYAMSUL B. AGUS, AULIA R. FARHAN, DEDE SUHENDRA, BEGINER SUBHAN

145-150

ETHNOBIOLOGY Jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco) management by Anak Dalam Tribe in Jebak Village, Batanghari, Jambi Province IIK SRI SULASMI, NISYAWATI, YOHANES PURWANTO, SITI FATIMAH

151-160

Vol. 12, No. 4, Pp. 161-227, October 2012 SPECIES DIVERSTY Species diversity of critically endangered pristid sawfishes (Elasmobranchii: Pristidae) of Nusantara waters (Malay Archipelago) SUTARNO, AHMAD DWI SETYAWAN, IWAN SUYATNA Species diversity of Rhizophora in Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, Indonesia AHMAD DWI SETYAWAN, YAYA IHYA ULUMUDDIN ECOSYSTEM DIVERSTY Impact of forest disturbance on the structure and composition of vegetation in tropical rainforest of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia RAMADHANIL PITOPANG

161-171 172-177

178-189

Plants and animals diversity in Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) in Hamadan Province, Iran MAHDI REYAHI-KHORAM, MAJEED JAFARY, MOSTAFA BAYATI, REIHANEH REYAHI-KHORAM

190-194

Vegetative characteristics of Avicennia marina on the artificial inlet AKBAR GHASEMI, HAMID JALILVAND, SOHEIL MOHAJERI-BORAZJANI

195-199

Population dynamics of dominant demersal fishes caught in Tambelan Islands waters, Riau Archipelago Province YONVITNER, FAHMI

200-204

A-8 ETHNOBIOLOGY The population of Jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco) in Jebak Village, Batanghari District, Jambi Province, Indonesia IIK SRI SULASMI, NISYAWATI, YOHANES PURWANTO, SITI FATIMAH

205-213

REVIEW Review: Sugarcane production: Impact of climate change and its mitigation ASHOK K. SRIVASTAVA, MAHENDRA K. RAI

214-227

GUIDANCE FOR AUTHORS Aims and Scope ”Biodiversitas, Journal of Biological Diversity” or Biodiversitas encourages submission of manuscripts dealing with all biodiversity aspects of plants, animals and microbes at the level of gene, species, and ecosystem.

Article types The journal seeks original full-length research papers, reviews, and scientific feedback (short communication) about material previously published.

Acceptance The only articles written in English (U.S. English) are accepted for publication. Manuscripts will be reviewed by managing editor, communicating editor and invited peer review according to their disciplines.

Authors will generally be notified of acceptance, rejection, or need for revision within 2 to 3 months of receipt. Manuscript is rejected if the content is not in line with the journal scope, dishonest, does not meet the required quality, written in inappropriate format, has incorrect grammar, or ignores correspondence in three months. The primary criteria for publication are scientific quality and biodiversity significance. The accepted papers will be published in a chronological order. This journal periodically publishes in January, April, July, and October.

Uncorrection proofs will be sent to the corresponding author by e-mail as .doc or .docx files for checking and correcting of typographical errors. To avoid delay in publication, proofs should be returned in 7 days.

A charge The cost of each manuscript is IDR 250,000,- plus postal cost or IDR 150,000,- for SIB members. There is free of charge for non Indonesian author(s), but need to pay postal cost for hardcopy.

Reprints Two copies of journal will be supplied to authors; reprint is only available with special request. Additional copies may be purchased by order when sending back the uncorrection proofs by e-mail.

Submission The journal only accepts online submission, through e-mail to the managing editor at unsjournals@gmail.com; better to forward to one of the communicating editor for accelerating evaluation.. The manuscript must be accompanied with a cover letter containing the article title, the first name and last name of all the authors, a paragraph describing the claimed novelty of the findings versus current knowledge, and a list of five suggested international reviewers (title, name, postal address, email address). Reviewers must not be subject to a conflict of interest involving the author(s) or manuscript(s). The editor is not obligated to use any reviewer suggested by the author(s).

Copyright Submission of a manuscript implies that the submitted work has not been published before (except as part of a thesis or report, or abstract); that it is not under consideration for publication elsewhere; that its publication has been approved by all co-authors. If and when the manuscript is accepted for publication, the author(s) agree to transfer copyright of the accepted manuscript to Biodiversitas. Authors shall no longer be allowed to publish manuscript without permission. For the new invention, authors suggested to manage its patent before publishing in this journal.

Open access The journal is committed to free open access that does not charge readers or their institutions for access. Users are entitled to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles, as long as not for commercial purposes. For the new invention, authors are suggested to manage its patent before published.

Preparing the Manuscript Manuscript is typed at one side of white paper of A4 (210x297 mm2) size, in a single column, double space, 12-point Times New Roman font, with 2 cm distance step aside in all side. Smaller letter size and space can be applied in presenting table. Word processing program or additional software can be used, however, it must be PC compatible and Microsoft Word based.

Names of sub-species until phylum should be written in italic, except for italic sentence. Scientific name (genera, species, author), and cultivar or strain should be mentioned completely at the first time mentioning it, especially for taxonomic manuscripts. Name of genera can be shortened after first mentioning, except generating confusion. Name of author can be eliminated after first mentioning. For example, Rhizopus oryzae L. UICC 524, hereinafter can be written as R. oryzae UICC 524. Using trivial name should be avoided, otherwise generating confusion. Mentioning of scientific name completely can be repeated at Materials and Methods. Biochemical and chemical nomenclature should follow the order of IUPAC-IUB, while its translation to Indonesian-English refers to Glossarium Istilah AsingIndonesia (2006). For DNA sequence, it is better used Courier New font.

Symbols of standard chemical and abbreviation of chemistry name can be applied for common and clear used, for example, completely written butilic hydroxytoluene to be BHT hereinafter. Metric measurement use IS denomination, usage other system should follow the value of equivalent with the denomination of IS first mentioning. Abbreviation set of, like g, mg, mL, etc. do not follow by dot. Minus index (m-2, L-1, h-1) suggested to be used, except in things like “per-plant” or “per-plot”. Equation of mathematics does not always can be written down in one column with text, for that case can be written separately. Number one to ten are expressed with words, except if it relates to measurement, while values above them written in number, except in early sentence. Fraction should be expressed in decimal. In text, it should be used “%” rather than “gratuity”. Avoid expressing idea with complicated

sentence and verbiage, and used efficient and effective sentence. Manuscript of original research should be written in no more than 25 pages (including tables and picture), each page contain 700-800 word, or proportional with article in this publication number. Invited review articles will be accommodated.

Title of article should be written in compact, clear, and informative sentence preferably not more than 20 words. Name of author(s) should be completely written. Running title is about five words. Name and institution address should be also completely written with street name and number (location), zip code, telephone number, facsimile number, and e-mail address.

Manuscript written by a group, author for correspondence along with address is required. First page of the manuscript is used for writing above information.

Abstract should not be more than 200 words, written in English.

Keywords is about five words, covering scientific and local name (if any), research theme, and special methods which used. Introduction is about 400600 words, covering background and aims of the research. Materials and Methods should emphasize on the procedures and data analysis. Results and Discussion should be written as a series of connecting sentences, however, for manuscript with long discussion should be divided into sub titles.

Thorough discussion represents the causal effect mainly explains for why and how the results of the research were taken place, and do not only re-express the mentioned results in the form of sentences. Concluding sentence should preferably be given at the end of the discussion. Acknowledgments are expressed in a brief.

Figures and Tables of maximum of three pages should be clearly presented. Title of a picture is written down below the picture, while title of a table is written in the above the table. Colored picture and photo can be accepted if information in manuscript can lose without those images. Photos and pictures are preferably presented in a digital file. JPEG format should be sent in the final (accepted) article. Author could consign any picture or photo for front cover, although it does not print in the manuscript. There is no appendix, all data or data analysis are incorporated into Results and Discussions. For broad data, it can be displayed in website as Supplement.

Citation in manuscript is written in “name and year” system; and is arranged from oldest to newest and from A to Z. The sentence sourced from many authors, should be structured based on the year of recently. In citing an article written by two authors, both of them should be mentioned, however, for three and more authors only the family (last) name of the first author is mentioned followed by et al., for example: Saharjo and Nurhayati (2006) or (Boonkerd 2003a, b, c; Sugiyarto 2004; El-Bana and Nijs 2005; Balagadde et al. 2008; Webb et al. 2008). Extent citation as shown with word “cit” should be avoided. Reference to unpublished data and personal communication should not appear in the list but should be cited in the text only (e.g., Rifai MA 2007, personal communication; Setyawan AD 2007, unpublished data).

In the reference list, the references should be listed in an alphabetical order.

Names of journals should be abbreviated according to the ISSN List of Title Word Abbreviations (www.issn.org/2-22661-LTWA-online.php).

APA style in double space is used in the journal reference as follow: Journal: Saharjo BH, Nurhayati AD (2006) Domination and composition structure change at hemic peat natural regeneration following burning; a case study in Pelalawan, Riau Province. Biodiversitas 7: 154-158.

Book: Rai MK, Carpinella C (2006) Naturally occurring bioactive compounds.

Elsevier, Amsterdam.

Chapter in book: Webb CO, Cannon CH, Davies SJ (2008) Ecological organization, biogeography and the phylogenetic structure of rainforest tree communities. In: Carson W, Schnitzer S (eds) Tropical forest community ecology. Wiley-Blackwell, New York.

Abstract: Assaeed AM (2007) Seed production and dispersal of Rhazya stricta. 50th annual symposium of the International Association for Vegetation Science, Swansea, UK, 23-27 July 2007.

Proceeding: Alikodra HS (2000) Biodiversity for development of local autonomous government. In: Setyawan AD, Sutarno (eds) Toward mount Lawu national park; proceeding of national seminary and workshop on biodiversity conservation to protect and save germplasm in Java island.

Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta, 17-20 July 2000. [Indonesian] Thesis, Dissertation: Sugiyarto (2004) Soil macro-invertebrates diversity and inter-cropping plants productivity in agroforestry system based on sengon. [Dissertation].

Brawijaya University, Malang. [Indonesian] Information from internet: Balagadde FK, Song H, Ozaki J, Collins CH, Barnet M, Arnold FH, Quake SR, You L (2008) A synthetic Escherichia coli predator-prey ecosystem.

Mol Syst Biol 4: 187. www.molecularsystemsbiology.com

ISSN: 1412-033X E-ISSN: 2085-4722

L

SPECIES DIVERSTY Species diversity of critically endangered pristid sawfishes (Elasmobranchii: Pristidae) of Nusantara waters (Malay Archipelago) SUTARNO, AHMAD DWI SETYAWAN, IWAN SUYATNA Species diversity of Rhizophora in Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, Indonesia AHMAD DWI SETYAWAN, YAYA IHYA ULUMUDDIN ECOSYSTEM DIVERSTY Impact of forest disturbance on the structure and composition of vegetation in tropical rainforest of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia RAMADHANIL PITOPANG Plants and animals diversity in Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) in Hamadan Province, Iran MAHDI REYAHI-KHORAM, MAJEED JAFARY, MOSTAFA BAYATI, REIHANEH REYAHI-KHORAM Vegetative characteristics of Avicennia marina on the artificial inlet AKBAR GHASEMI, HAMID JALILVAND, SOHEIL MOHAJERI-BORAZJANI Population dynamics of dominant demersal fishes caught in Tambelan Islands waters, Riau Archipelago Province YONVITNER, FAHMI

161-171

172-177

178-189

190-194

195-199 200-204

ETHNOBIOLOGY The population of Jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco) in Jebak Village, Batanghari District, Jambi Province, Indonesia IIK SRI SULASMI, NISYAWATI, YOHANES PURWANTO, SITI FATIMAH

205-213

REVIEW Sugarcane production: Impact of climate change and its mitigation ASHOK K. SRIVASTAVA, MAHENDRA K. RAI

214-227

Front cover: Avicennia marina (PHOTO: ABU ABDURRAHMAN)

Published four times in one year

PRINTED IN INDONESIA ISSN: 1412-033X

E-ISSN: 2085-4722