Abbreviated Classical Canon by Brent Paul

A B B R E V I A T E D C A N O N of Selected Written & Physical Works of Classical Architecture

Brent Paul in collaboration with Laurence Keith Loftin III & Christine G. H. Franck

Banqueting Hall – Inigo Jones

University of Colorado Denver, College of Architecture & Planning

2014

CONTENTS DESCRIPTION OF STUDY 1 PART 1: WRITTEN WORKS

3 PART 2: PHYSICAL WORKS

23 CONCLUSION

53 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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DESCRIPTION OF STUDY Purpose The project during the independent study is a production of an abbreviated canon of buildings and books that reflect the classical tradition, with the assistance and collaboration of Christine Franck and Keith Loftin. An increased familiarity with classicism and observing its transmutation through history are the main goals of this project. Study will be done through reading 10-12 written works and analyzing 10-12 physical buildings from the Western World since the Greco-Roman Period. The choice of buildings and books will be canonic or inventive, sampling both ancient and contemporary times. The resultant outcome of the study will be the creation of an ongoing process for continuing education and a database to inform future designs. Outcome The tangible outcome is an annotated bibliography of the referenced books and annotated sketches of the physical buildings. In addition to being an open-ended reference for me, the compiled outcome will aid those who are commencing the study of the classical tradition to enable them to have a broad repertoire to draw from as they design. Process of Study Written Works A – Scan the structure and content of the entire book, then summarize (may include a list of main topics). B – Closely read a chosen portion, including the Introduction, Preface, or other selected parts, then summarize. C – Select an aspect for comparison with another book. Physical Works A – Provide basic information about the building: name, location, major dates, architect (if known), materials used, a description of its composition (physical form), and its use in history. B – Sketch and annotate at a minimum the plan and front elevation of the building (sections and details where available and appropriate).

PART 1: WRITTEN WORKS (arranged chronologically by book subject) Bearers of Meaning – by John Onians The Ten Books on Architecture – by Marcus Vitruvius Pollio The Ten Books of Architecture – by Leon Battista Alberti The Four Books of Architecture – by Andrea Palladio Parallèle de l’architecture Antique avec la Modern – by Roland Fréart de Chambray The Antiquities of Athens – by James Stuart & Nicholas Revett Parallel of the Classical Orders of Architecture – by Johann Matthäus von Mauch & Charles Pierre Joseph Normand A Treatise on the Decorative Part of Civil Architecture – by William Chambers The American Builder’s Companion – by Asher Benjamin The Architect, or Practical House Carpenter – by Asher Benjamin The Study of Architectural Design – by John F. Harbeson New Classicism – edited by Andreas Papadakis & Harriet Watson

Onians, John. Bearers of Meaning: The Classical Orders in Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988. Synopsis Bearers of Meaning is a chronology beginning with ancient Greece and going through Christian Medieval times and ending with the Renaissance. The orders are anonymous until Leon Battista Alberti where they are redefined under Christian architecture. Commencing with Alberti, each architect is discussed through their works and influences. Introduction The orders were codified in the Renaissance and also given names. The orders were generated from natural surroundings like trees and human attributes. They reflected the expressions of humans, communicating character and morality. In practice, the use of the orders sought to reactivate dominant response mechanisms, which are deeply rooted in every human being. Conversely, theory used verbal reasoning without a physical manifestation. It often replaced the instinctive responses, giving reason to doubt your original response. When the orders were given names, there was an attempt to replace the meaning of form with the meaning of words. Treatise writing became disconnected from practice, an act that was not well received until the Christian Middle Ages where treatises began to impact practice again. In short, Bearers of Meaning is a discussion of the orders before they became “the orders”. Chapter 1 – Classical Greece In ancient Greece, colonnades represented the desired qualities found in soldiers creating a parallel between the columns of a building and the youth of society. Variations in temples were minor and standardization was viewed positively. From 600-200 BC all temples looked very much the same, excepting the different orders. The Doric order originated in mainland Greece, the home of the Dorians, and the Ionic order originated in the east, including Asia Minor and the Aegean region. The overall consistency of temples was a result of the implementation of a standard 100ft measure. In using the universal dimension and high quality standardized products as a starting point, many temples shared proportional relationships. The Dorian race contrasted the Ionians and thus their respective orders differed as well. Whereas the Doric order is associated with the man and his tendencies toward athletics and other outside strenuous activities, the Ionic order is more feminine in nature, reflecting luxury and indoor activities. These contrasting attributes determined much of the use and placement of the orders in buildings. For example, Doric columns were used to surround a temple and Ionic columns were placed inside the cella. The Corinthian order first appeared in the Temple of Apollo Epikourious in Bassae. The origin of its capital, according to Vitruvius, was inspired by a tile-covered basket that had been overgrown by acanthus leaves, having been left as a token for a deceased maiden. In the Greek culture acanthus was associated with life, death, and healing, and was therefore used in temples with ties to life and death. Chapter 2 – The Hellenistic World and the Roman Republic Alexander’s conquest of large portions of Asia helped to make Greek architecture widespread. The increased wealth from conquest resulted in a major building patron shift from religious to secular. The Doric order declined in importance and was used externally in ever-smaller buildings, lower levels of buildings, agoras, and private dwellings. The Ionic was increasingly employed in temples and in second level stoas. The Corinthian order continued its use mainly indoors, thus increasing its importance. A few temples utilized the order externally, however, such as the Temple of Zeus Olympius in Athens. The 4

relative importance or hierarchy of the orders can be identified by observing structures where more than one order was used. The consensus was that the Doric order was used in the most common areas and in open courts, being exposed to the public. The Corinthian framed openings leading to rooms of high status and were placed inside the most important parts of a building. Ionic columns were used as an intermediary, directing the visitor to the important areas of the building. This separation created a reflection of the division of classes in society. The general rule became: the further an order is from the public, the more ornate.

Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus., translation by Morris Hickey Morgan. The Ten Books on Architecture. New York: Dover Publications, 1960. Synopsis De Architectura is divided into ten books. Books 1-7 refer to building. These books are split up further into civic and private, where civic divides into defense (book 1), temples (books 3 and 4), building materials (book 2), and public structures (book 5). Private architecture comprises books 6 and 7. Book 8 is an anomaly, dealing mostly with water and its properties. Finally, book 9 speaks of clocks and book 10 of machines. Book 1 Preface Vitruvius starts by addressing the Roman Emperor of his time, Augustus. He says that he is reacting to the amount of building that Augustus is doing. His audience for the book, however, extends further than the emperor of Rome. It includes other contemporary master builders and architects, which reinforces his desire to state rules that define the quality of both existing buildings and also those not yet built. Book 1, Chapter 1: Education of the Architect Vitruvius differentiates his profession from the other arts by saying that the architect is the judge that tests the other arts. Architects should be knowledgeable in many different topics. He says that knowledge is born of both practice and theory. Distinguishing practice and theory has been a recurring theme in history that continues today. There are a myriad of opinions about the process of becoming a well-rounded architect. Vitruvius defines practice as building with materials according to drawings. Theory, he says, is the explanation with words about the dexterity (skill or cleverness) on the principles of proportion. Ch.1.2 - “It follows, therefore, that architects who have aimed at acquiring manual skill without scholarship have never been able to reach a position of authority to correspond to their pains, while those who relied only upon theories and scholarship were obviously hunting in shadow, not the substance. But those who have a thorough knowledge of both, like men armed at all points, have the sooner attained their object and carried authority with them.” Architects need both education and practical experience. He also inserts a code of ethics when he says that architects are not to be high-minded or self-assuming and that honesty naturally leads to good reputation. Along the same theme, Vitruvius explains that the thing signified is the object, whereas significance gives demonstration. Further exploration of the meaning of signified vs. significance is needed. Book 3, Chapter 1: On Symmetry in Temples and in the Human Body Symmetry is the relationship between something's parts (members) and its whole (entire work). Good symmetry, or proportion, is a proper agreement and harmony in a body or structure. Proportion translated into Greek as analogia. The proportions of a temple are sought to compare to a well-shaped man. The parts of the human body are fractions of the whole body. For instance, the distance between the crown of the head and the middle of the chest is 1/4 of the whole height of the body; the head is 1/8 of the body, etc. 6

Alberti, Leon Battista. The Ten Books of Architecture: The 1755 Leoni Edition. Reprint. New York: Dover Publications, 1987. &

Palladio, Andrea. The Four Books of Architecture (Dover Pictorial Archives). New York:Dover Publications, 1965. Synopsis Each of Alberti’s Ten Books covers a different subject in architecture. Many are the similar to what Vitruvius touches on, including materials, manners of building, columns and ornamentation, and cities. Palladio’s written work of four books has focus as well. His first talks about the practice of architecture and what principles architects should use in their designs. It also covers the orders in great detail. Book two is entirely dedicated to houses, many of which are his design. His third book moves into the public realm where the main topics include streets, bridges, and basilicas. Book four is on temples, where Palladio inserts many plates detailing temples that he has visited, measured, and recorded. Comparison The results of this comparison find that Palladio relied on practice throughout his career, whereas Alberti was far more theoretical in his treatise. In comparing the prefaces of each book, it is clear to see the authors’ different approaches to architecture. This may be a result of the manner in which they were introduced to the subject. Palladio, in his first paragraph, gave some reasons for his inspiration. First, he gave credit to Vitruvius and mentions him throughout, who he proclaimed his “master and guide”. Second, he spent much time traveling abroad to observe, measure, and record ancient Roman buildings, including to Rome several times. It is no surprise therefore that Palladio’s personal approach to architecture was very mathematical and also molded through observation and perfected through practice. Alberti by contrast began his first book on the value and rules of design. He said that we can improve upon architecture by our study, application, and labor. Interestingly, he specified that “we can in our thought and imagination contrive perfect forms of buildings entirely separate from matter.” Alberti believed architecture to be an art that is pursuing beauty and delight. Both Alberti and Palladio provided illustrations showing the proper use of the orders so that one may construct them properly. However, the way that they graphically represented the orders followed two different methods. Palladio was faithful in using the basic unit of measure, the module, from which all other distances and projections are described in minutes of a module. This is an arithmetical representation. Alberti, too, began with a module, but when the several parts of an order are divided, each distance was divided into equal parts and shown on the drawing by tick marks. Very few annotated minutes were assigned to the distances. This difference of approach may be a reflection of the manner in which Palladio observed and recorded buildings to learn the orders for himself. Another main and important difference is that Palladio’s four books included extensive self-referenced designs, many of which were actually built. It seems that his expertise resulted from pursuing many iterations on real world projects. Even though Alberti designed and built various building types, his visual examples of building types are very general and are mainly used to illustrate a point. They were not built as drawn. The amount of images used in their books is also note-worthy. Palladio relied heavily on visual communication, having ninety-nine plates in his books. Alberti only had a handful of images and relied on explanation to communicate his ideas. 7

Fréart de Chambray, Roland. Parallèle de l’architecture antique avec la moderne. Paris: Edme Martin, 1650. English translation reprinted by Farnborough, 1970. Synopsis Roland Fréart De Chambrey’s parallel is divided into two parts, the first addressing the three Greek orders and the second part covering the two Latin orders. The English translation by John Evelyn was dedicated to Charles II, “whose majesty will outlast worldly materials.” Roland wrote to John Fréart who was counselor to the king, and also Paul Fréart who was counselor and master of the household of the king. He advocates the study of the ancient architecture of the Greeks and places them above the moderns. Preface Fréart gives reasons for writing the parallel. One reason is to satisfy himself. Another is because “the mind is free, not bound, we have as good a right to invent, and follow our own genius, as the ancients, without rendering ourselves their slaves; since art is an infinite thing, growing every day to more perfection, and suiting itself to the humor of the several Ages, and nations, who judge of it differently, and define what is agreeable, every one according to his own mode.” He states that Greece invented three orders and arrived at their supremest perfection. First Part Chapter 1 – Orders in General Scamozzi is quoted by saying that the use of the orders “is a kind of excellency, which infinitely adds to the shape, and beauty of buildings, sacred, or profane.” Chapter 2 – Doric Order The Doric order is the first-born and belongs on ports of citadels, fortresses, outside of churches and public places. It contains masculine and natural beauty. In his drawings, Fréart uses dimensional minutes (as opposed to using the module, the diameter, thirds etc.) to avoid perplexity and so much writing. The triglyphs on the frieze represent the figure of a lyre. Chapter 3 – The Theater of Marcellus Chapter 4 – Baths of Diocletian Chapter 5 – Albane Pres De Rome Chapter 7 – Palladio compared to Scamozzi He couples Palladio and Scamozzi because both architects measured buildings in Rome. Scamozzi’s Doric is more ornate and taller than Palladio’s. Chapter 8 – Serlio compared to Vignola

Fréart says that these two architects “lose their lustre and come short compared to the two proceeding architects.” Upon visual inspection, the two are very similar except that Serlio’s Doric has two Tori at the base as opposed to Vignola’s one. Chapter 9 – Barbaro compared to Cataneo In Fréart’s opinion, Barabaro’s Doric is ingenious. He uses ornamentation that is military in character which suits the Doric order nicely. For example, Barbaro incorporates shields at the metopes and even has shields wrapping the corners. Chapter 10 – Alberti compared to Viola Alberti’s elongated capital seems out of proportion and Fréart comments on Alberti’s inexperience to the orders that caused his blunder. Chapter 11 – Iean Bullant compared to Philibert de Lorme These two orders are almost identical. One minor exception is the rounded triglyph tops of de Lorme. The rest of the first part goes through the same sequence just mentioned for the Ionic and Corinthian Orders where the same architects are coupled with each other to observe their similarities and differences. Second Part The Tuscan and Composite Orders are paralleled.

Stuart, James; Revett, Nicholas. The Antiquities of Athens. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2008. (Originally published in 1762, London) Synopsis In 1751, two British citizens journeyed to Greece to document ancient sites. This was unprecedented because the region had been controlled by the Ottoman Empire and therefore closed to outsiders. Over the next decades, three volumes were created. All three are a recording of Greek buildings and complexes. Volume three also touches on the Greek cities. The compilation is filled with rendered scenery, plans, elevations, sections, column drawings, and other details for each site that they visited.

von Mauch, Johann Matthäus; Normand, Charles Pierre Joseph. Parallel of the Classical Orders of Architecture. New York: Institute for the Study of Classical Architecture and Acanthus Press, 1997. (Originally published 1830‐36) Synopsis A true parallel book where the intent is to provide visual information on single historic works and orders according to various architects and found in ancient buildings. It is also a comparison of many constructs from Greek and Roman times. The book is arranged: Doric, ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, Composite, other details, mouldings, features, and finally geometric construction. Each order section is presented in rough chronology, beginning with Greece to Roman and finishing with the Renaissance. Introduction ‐ by Donald M. Rattner “Without the orders, classical architecture does not exist; without a knowledge of them, classical architecture cannot be understood. The Doric order is the most formal and has most tectonic severity, the Corinthian order has the most decorative potential, and the Ionic is the mean of the two. Each column has the ability to be as different as each human. The idea of a parallel began with Cesare Cesariano in 1521. Serlio finalized the form of a parallel in his treatise which also includes the Tuscan and Composite orders. The difference between a parallel book and a pre-parallel book is best explored by comparing Vignola’s treatise with Vitruvius’s Ten Books of Architecture. Vignola develops a method of applying orders to any building independent of size, freestanding or engaged, round or square, civic or private. This approach to architecture results in a very rigid and objective system, and has resulted in a common practice of “rote exercise in formulaic calculation”. By contrast, Vitruvius says you can vary the rules of the orders depending on project circumstances. He writes that Greek architects often modified the standard to reconcile human perception, artistic judgment, and manual craft. In other words, many ancient architects made minor tweaks depending on their specific desired outcome of the project. Often, the mind perceives the natural human face as perfectly symmetrical, when in fact no face is ever a direct copy from side to side. Minuscule differences in facial features enable humans to distinguish one human from another. The rules that Vitruvius writes about are in essence subjective and meant to be tweaked. Normand shares his belief of which method yields greater returns in practice, “We have much to be thankful for in Vignola’s research, but his orders have been greatly misused, insofar as they have been blindly followed without regard to mass or proportion and have come to be considered as a standard, while the sources that inspired them have been entirely forgotten. A comparison of Vignola’s order with the examples of the ancient monuments described here will show the variations between them, and will lead to a study of the ancient examples, with beneficial results for the student.” Vignola has no ancient examples in his treatise and so many people use it as a source for all solutions. Normand has taken the effort to provide as many examples as possible from different times, both inspired and uninspired. His aim is to reinforce classicism as a “subtle but demanding dialectic between rule and invention.” Rattner worries that “many architects today prejudicially reject the value of an education in the classical tradition under the mistaken impression that it involves nothing more than the trite memorization of obsolete equations. Even the current generation of classicists has suffered from retrogressive misdirection under Vignola’s influence. On occasion our work merely replicates examples of orders lifted from books, with little attempt to absorb either the principles behind the forms or to reformulate artistically the guidelines set down on the printed page. Stultified by excessive obedience to rule and an oppressive 11

insistence on architectural correctness, the orders become little more than advertisements of architectural style.” Lastly, Rattner speaks of the inventions the Romans made by expounding on the Greek works and issues the same challenge to moderns classical architects, “The Romans and later generations of architects were able to enlarge on the number of planning and spatial effects and expand the narrative possibilities for arranging the orders precisely because they were relieved by their predecessors of the enormous task of inventing an architectural system with which to articulate their buildings. Nonetheless, both the Romans and their successors had to learn how to adapt a system based on the free standing columnar order for their vaulted and mural architecture, resulting in such inventions as the pilaster (in contrast to the anta), the arch order, the superimposed order, the giant order and the Serliana.” A change must happen in classical education in order to benefit from the ideals of the practice of architecture according to the ancients.

Chambers, William. A Treatise on the Decorative Part of Civil Architecture, (Dover Pictorial Series). New York: Dover Publications, 2003. Synopsis First published in 1759, William Chambers’ treatise on civil architecture is both concise and comprehensive. It contains a very clear and deliberate process of laying out the most important parts of architecture. Chambers’ approach is similar to others, where he begins with the prerequisites and origins of architecture then transitions to the parts and proportions of the orders. He includes plates of each of the orders, beginning with the Tuscan and ending with the Corinthian (as opposed to more commonly ending with the Composite). His particular orders are a result of his observance to ancient proportions and a reaction to others’ work before him. After covering the orders, he touches on their ancillary pieces, namely pilasters and pedestals. Chambers is very informed, referencing many other architects regularly, including Blondel, Freart de Chambray, Palladio, Vignola, and Perrault. He also references back to Vitruvius’ treatise many times. The book then touches the subjects of intercolumniation, arches, pediments, balustrades, gates, doors, windows, niches, chimneys (fireplaces), and the proportions of rooms. Lastly, there is a section of the book dedicated to Chambers’ own designs of casines, temples, gates, and doors. There are 50 plates in the book altogether. Preface & Introduction Early in the preface, William Chambers tells of the potential that architecture has and the role it can play in human lives: “Wherever societies are formed, and commodious dwellings are found; in which, well sheltered, they may breath a temperate air, amid the summer’s heat or winter’s cold; sleep, when nature calls, at ease and in security; study unmolested; converse, and taste the sweets of social enjoyments; there they are spirited, active, ingenious and enterprising; vigorous in body, speculative in mind: agriculture and arts improve, they flourish among them; the necessaries, the conveniencies, and soon even the luxuries of life, become there abundant.” In essence, architecture has the ability to help humankind prosper and enjoy life. Built structures are calculated to “promote, extend, and diversify the pleasures of life.” In his introduction, Chambers quotes from Vitruvius the requirements of an architect, stating that both theory and practice are necessary for success. Chambers replaces these words with ‘ingenuity’ and ‘application’. He also echoes Vitruvius’ sentiment that one is never to assume the title of architect until they are perfect masters of the profession. He is a believer that architecture is evolutionary and should be modified through time, and that his architecture caters to the needs and wants of a modern society: “I venture to give an opinion, concerning the requisite qualifications of an architect: differing in some particulars, from those above given; but more adapted, I flatter myself, to the wants, customs, and modes of life of our contemporaries, as well as to the duties and avocations of a modern architect.” Additionally, a celebrated artist, or successful architect, must rise above mediocrity. “The student of a more saturnine cast, unable, or fearful perhaps, of soaring so high; applies his powers to the operative and economical branches of the art, resting satisfied in the parts of design and composition, to imitate or copy others; content, if by borrowing whatever falls in his way, he avoids any striking absurdities; and reaches that state of mediocrity, which though it may escape censure, commands no praise.” He advocates the use of perspective in design and representation, saying that it is a good tool for expressing the distribution of light. Architecture is a very disciplined field which requires both ingenuity and application. According to Chambers, it is necessary to travel to become acquainted with the buildings of those before you. His treatise and work have both become influential in later architects, and a manifestation of English architecture having roots in Greco-Roman tradition. 13

Benjamin, Asher. The American Builder’s Companion. Reprint of the sixth (1827) edition. New York: Dover Publications, 1969. Synopsis The American Builder’s Companion is the first architectural publication in America and is also an example of a builder book for architects and other craftsmen. Firstly, it covers simple geometry, geometric construction of shapes, architectural features, and profiles. It then addresses the orders of architecture, where we get an essence of Benjamin’s approach to drawing the orders. He divides the entire order into equal parts and uses minutes. For example, the Tuscan order is divided into thirty-nine equal parts, the Doric into sixty-five equal parts, etc. This highly prescriptive way of describing the orders tends to encourage copying, rather than give an understanding of an order’s underlying principles. He speaks of the orders in general and his philosophy regarding them. After speaking of the orders he talks about the other parts of architecture including columns, pilasters, mouldings, pediments, pedestals, balusters, urns, fireplaces, doors, etc. He gives a little attention to Grecian architectural profiles, but then quickly shifts to the framing of roofs, stairs, and railings. The book ends with some of his plans and elevations for townhouses, country houses, churches, meeting houses, and a courthouse. The Orders of Architecture The orders are elementary forms and the constituent objects of every composition. The orders are divided into classes. The first class represents parts that are necessary in constructing the primitive huts in ancient times, including beams, columns, and rafters. The second class consists of ornament (mouldings). There are eight regular types of mouldings, “the fillet, the astragal or bead, the cimareversa or ogee, the cimarecta, the cavetto or hollow, the ovolo or corner round, the scotia, and the torus. “The names of these are illusive to their forms; and the forms are adapted to the uses which they are intended to serve. The ovolo and ogee, being strong at their extremities are fit for supports; the cimarecta and cavetto, though improper of that purpose, as they are weak in the extreme parts, and terminate in a point, are well contrived for coverings to shelter other members; the tendency of their outline being very opposite to the direction of falling water, which, for that reason, cannot glide along their surface, but must necessarily drop. The torus and astragal, shaped like ropes, are intended to bind and strengthen the parts on which they are employed; and the use of the fillet and scotia, is only to separate, contrast, and strengthen the effect of the other mouldings; to give a graceful turn to the profile, and to prevent that confusion, which would be occasioned by joining several convex members together. “An assemblage of essential parts and mouldings, is termed a profile; and on the choice, dispositions, and proportions of these, depend the beauty or deformity of the composition. The most perfect profiles, are such as consist of few mouldings, varied both in form and size; fitly applied, with regard to their uses, and so distributed, that the straight and curved ones, succeed each other alternately. In every profile, there should be a predominant member, to which all the others ought to seem subservient; and made, either to support, to fortify, or to shelter it from injuries of weather; and whenever the profile is considerable, or much complicated, the predominant should always be accompanied one, or more, other principal members; in form and dimension, calculated to attract the eye; create momentary pauses; and assist the perception of the beholder. These predominant and principal members, ought always to be of the essential class, and generally rectangular. Thus, in a cornice, the corona predominate; the modillions and dentiles are principals in the composition; the cimarecta and covetto, cover them; the ovolo and ogee, support them.” His explanation of ordering mouldings to communicate support or hierarchy is very helpful for a student learning to assemble profiles.

The orders are the starting point and foundation of classical design, whether or not the orders are literally manifest in the composition or not. “The orders of architecture, as has been observed, are the basis upon which the whole decorative part of the art is chiefly built, and toward which the attention of the artist must ever be directed, even where no orders are introduced. In them, originate most of the forms used in decoration; they regulate most of the proportions; and to their combination, multiplied, varied, and arranged, in a thousand different ways, architecture is indebted for its most splendid productions.”

Benjamin, Asher. The Architect, or Practical House Carpenter (1830). New York: Dover Publications, 1988. Synopsis A major part of Asher Benjamin’s 1830 edition covers the most perfect examples of the orders that he can find. He then includes his own, which is a hybrid of the two prior versions with other modifications. He notes that these changes are customized for his day which reflect the current and available building materials, education, and experience of the builder. • Tuscan order - he states is of Latin origin • Doric o Temple of Theseus in Athens, from Stuart and Revett o Sir William Chambers’s Doric o Asher Benjamin’s composition based on the first two • Ionic o Temple of Minerva Polias in Priene o Sir William Chambers’s Ionic o Asher Benjamin’s composition • Corinthian (little used by the Greeks) o Temple of Jupiter Stator in Rome • Composite (reluctantly included) o Arch of Titus in Rome Preface Asher Benjamin writes this publication because his former publications have been so well received. He says that since his last publication, the Roman school of architecture has changed to Grecian architecture. He states some of the key differences between the Greek and Roman creeds of the orders, “The Roman orders are chiefly composed of small and ungraceful parts, and the mouldings are made up of parts of a circle, which do not produce that beautiful light and shade, so happily effected by the Grecian mouldings. These latter are composed of parts of ellipses, parabolas, hyperbolas, and other conic sections, and consist, mostly, of large, bold parts, which are so strongly marked, that each member of the profile is plainly seen at a very considerable distance; and can likewise be executed with less expense than the former.” Asher Benjamin has laid out the orders so easily that a “workman of ordinary capacity can make himself perfect master of the orders.” In order for carpenters to have a knowledge of the orders, he proceeds to go through parts of the orders: balasters, door casings, windows, cornices, base moulds, chimney pieces, framing, stair design, and construction of railings. The format is similar to his 1827 edition, but with far more Grecian profiles and examples.

Harbeson, John F. The Study of Architectural Design. New York: W.W. Norton. 2008. (Originally published in 1926 by Pencil Points Press) Synopsis The Study of Architectural Design is a text that describes and illustrates the Beaux-Arts method taught in Paris and, ultimately, in the United States. This school of thought was implemented in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The book acts as a learning tool for the student of architecture to tackle and work through architectural problems. By adhering to the process of the esquisse, plan mosaic, analytique, renderings, etc., the student has the potential to produce an intriguing and successful design solution. The Foreword to the book was written by Lloyd Warren in 1922, founder of the Beaux-Arts Institute of Design and first American to receive a diploma from the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. Preface The author notes that one of his main reasons for the creation of the book is to provide students with a handbook containing many of the answers to recurring questions, saving him time to critique individual students’ work. The Beaux-Arts Institute of Design was founded in the United States as a response to the school in Paris. This book illustrates some of the customization that took place in education methodology at the institute in New York. Introduction The Beaux-Arts method as taught in France contained five features that were instituted at the school in New York. They are: “1. The division into ateliers. 2. The tradition of the older pupils helping the younger. 3. The teaching of design by practicing architects (and we might add here the judgment of the competitions by a trained jury of practicing architects). 4. The beginning of the study of design as soon as the student enters the atelier. 5. The system of the esquisse.” The tradition of older pupils helping the younger is really a two-way street. Younger pupils may help older students with production of renderings or simply preparing the next stretching. In return, the younger pupil gains experience by feedback and critique from the mature student on his design. The desired outcome for a student going through the method is a successful work, rather than a simple exercise in decoration or memorization of parts and pieces. The students will get “a well mapped-out training in design – and design is not concerned primarily with ornamentation or detail, but with making an arrangement that will satisfy the practical requirements, with the composition of elements, with the proportion of masses, with the arrangement and disposition of openings, etc., and with producing a building of pleasing appearance.” Foreword – by Lloyd Warren Lloyd Warren advises against overly prescriptive ways of teaching, which will cater to man’s natural instinct. He says, “We love to be instructed how to do things – and the short-cut way, too; we would that mastery of every profession could reach us through definite progressive steps, mechanically, with a minimum of our own brain work, as we have seen a Ford car assume form through successive additions to an infinitesimal beginning.” We naturally look for the path of easy resistance, and must be coaxed out of that mentality in order to achieve great and successful designs. He further explains to the reader that it is necessary to read between the lines of this book, resisting temptation to copy a solution found therein. He says that often a student will not internalize what he is taught, but instead needs to be given “a few examples of good and a few of bad solutions to stimulate the student to search and to learn for himself 17

such variations in the fundamental principles of composition as may be most sympathetic to him, and may give his work that personality which is the basis of all style.”

Papadakis, Andreas, and Harriet Watson. New Classicism: omnibus volume. New York: Rizzoli, 1990. Print. Synopsis New Classicism is a snapshot of where Classicism was and where it was headed in the 1990s. Divided into five parts, it contains articles, designs, and built works in the topics of figurative classicism, abstract classicism, post-modern classicism, and urbanism. It includes some of the most influential names of recent times, reflecting the state of Classicism in practice. Foreword – by Leon Krier Leon Krier’s thought-provoking article is arranged into subtitles, dissecting the argument for Classicism into memorable packets. He begins by stressing to architects their profound power and responsibility in shaping the public world we live in. Architects also have a great influence on how humans live their lives in the home. The responsibility should not be taken lightly or treated arbitrarily. Defining Classicism: Not a style “Classicism embraces all monumental architecture (of all continents) of traditional construction and conception, fulfilling the Vitruvian triad.” When faced with Modernism, all of a sudden the minor distinctions between gothic and classical architecture don’t matter as much anymore. The major issue is to resist the paradigm shifts that invalidate, revolutionize, and replace the previous knowledge and traditions that have been handed down over time. Many Modernist principles decay typological order and hierarchy of buildings, reducing architecture to “uniformity and arbitrariness.” Additionally, there is no Modernist verbal distinction between what a civic, private, industrial, or commercial building should be or look like. Tradition “A classical tradition is never acquired once and for all. It is handed down by individuals, successfully or unsuccessfully, and so it may fall suddenly from the highest peaks or rise in a few years from dark confusion. Like every organism, it goes inevitably towards its death and its very maturity contains the very grain of senility, but interruption is sometimes a necessary condition for reconstruction.” To a large extent, the way information is passed down determines the efficacy of the continuing tradition. In Krier’s words, “Great cultures imitate universal ideas while lesser ones copy particular cultures.” Correct traditional teaching should be more concerned with principles than specific names and dates, which have the tendency to develop into categories of selected works to choose from. Focusing to understand past techniques and principles of remarkable works is a more desirable outcome than simply knowing their historical facts. Mass Society and Placelessness Modernism came in a time when society was concerned about the ever-growing masses of people. It has shown that it is not capable of creating new cities that work well to accommodate human needs, or create spaces that are beautiful. In many cases, zones of usage are created to separate activities. As a result, suburbs take shape, mass transit becomes a norm, and the distance that people must travel to get from place to place dramatically increases. Just because we can drive great distances with the car doesn’t mean

we should design our world so that everyone is obligatory to do so. Traditional architecture has ‘inexhaustible capacity’ to supply the human race with stability and universal principles over its lifespan. Lasting Buildings Traditional buildings are by definition, enduring. Besides having a timeless appearance, they are designed to be of long-term use. The materials and methods for constructing must “transcend fashions and whims.” The Vitruvian triad only holds true for lasting buildings. After all, “there is no more shortterm beauty than short-term wisdom.” The time that it takes to build traditional buildings has been said to take longer than newer building methods. This may only be true because of the ever-fading craft of working traditionally. It is possible, however, to build quickly, traditionally. In 1692, the main square of Brussels was destroyed by artillery. It took only two years to design and rebuild what is now known as the Grand Place. Additionally, the time it takes to build a structure must be measured against its lifetime. Modernist buildings have a poor track record in this regard. Losing the language of Classicism Some say that the classical tradition is old fashioned and, therefore, not worth their time to learn, to which Krier would respond, “language does not lose its ability to communicate, even though some men have lost their will to learn and use it.” For those of us who have found, embraced, and choose to continue the tradition, Jacquelin Robertson says, “If you start walking that path, there is no return or idle wandering possible, you have to go the whole way.” Leon Krier finishes by making a statement about the authors and practitioners included in the book, “When learning a foreign language it is not offensive to have mistakes pointed out. Indeed the critical faculty is the classical architect’s most precious gift. The architects presented here share the conviction that we are all still learning. To an old master’s eye, these works would seem littered with awkward mistakes and obvious absurdities. Too many still look like nice old buildings recently, but too well, restored. We have all been brought up to assume that our works should express our age, but, ironically, the best buildings and art works of the past demonstrate that the opposite is true. True artists free themselves from the too obvious moods and spirits of their age. That is why their work is forever young.” “Great architecture does not embody the spirit of our time but the spirit of all time, an element of eternity.” Article: The Classical Tradition – by Michael Greenhalgh Classicism is a broad tradition that is not simply a continuum, but must be transmitted or handed on. The Roman legal word meant to hand something over for safekeeping. It is a rigorous and disciplined endeavor. The attributes that set Classicism apart are these: “Classicism is an approach to art and, indeed, to life, that emphasizes the ideal (in form and in content) over the everyday; the power of reason over the often misleading emotions; clarity and simplicity (that is, understatement) over prolixity; measurability (as an index of beauty) over intuition.” This is exemplified in the difference between Classic and Romantic. One is objective, the other subjective. The classical tradition has several characteristics: • •

It is composed of agreed values, not styles. It is a cumulative tradition, meaning the art builds off itself. It does not stay consistent over time.

• •

Because it is cumulative, there are few ‘pure’ examples of classical architecture. Instead, the student will find that the “tradition is the accumulation of solutions to artistic problems presented by artists and architects since late Antiquity.” It is an art that is generally rational, which is to say that it can be explained easily using rules and models.

PART 2: PHYSICAL WORKS (arranged chronologically) Building Types – by Bill Westfall Temple of Apollo Epicurius – Bassae, Greece Pantheon – Rome, Italy Maison Carrée – Nîmes, France Santa Maria Novella – Florence, Italy San Giorgio Maggiore – Venice, Italy Palazzo Farnese – Rome, Italy Banqueting House – London, England Louvre (East façade) – Paris, France St. Peter’s Basilica – Vatican City St. Paul’s Cathedral – London, England Kenwood House – London, England University of Virginia Academical Village – Charlottesville, Virginia, USA

CONCLUSION Through the course of the study and creation of this work, I have come to realize the transcendence and endowing power of the classical tradition and its value today. By delving into the written works of architecture’s masters through the ages, one realizes that the tradition, when carefully handed down through generations, is ever‐changing. It is improved and invented upon the last generation’s works, accommodating the society, culture, and issues of the day. It can also be seen that when there is a disconnect in the tradition, the knowledge and experience of the past can be quickly and easily lost or disregarded. My hope for this work is to instill the notion that classicism is a living practice that yields fruitful results when applied with discernment, skill, and appreciation for lessons learned over thousands of years.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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