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The Complete Guide to the World of Grammar Haben Agostino
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Table of Contents Intro…………………………………………………………………………………. 4 I. Parts of Speech……………………………………………………………… 5 a) Nouns………………………………………………………………… 5 b) Pronouns……………………………………………………………… 9 c) Verbs…………………………………………………………………… 12 d) Adjectives…………………………………………………………… 15 e) Adverbs………………………………………………………………… 15 f) Conjunctions…………………………………………………………… 16 g) Prepositions…………………………………………………………… 16 h) Interjections…………………………………………………………… 17 II. Phrases………………………………………………………………………… 23 III. Clauses………………………………………………………………………… 25 IV. Sentences……………………………………………………………………… 28 a) Sentence Parts……………………………………………………… 28 b) Sentence Types…………………………………………………… 29 c) Sentence Patterns……………………………………………… 31 d) Sentence Errors…………………………………………………… 34 V. Paragraphs……………………………………………………………………. 36 a) Example Paragraph……………………………………………… 39 VI. Essays………………………………………………………………………… 41 a) Types…………………………………………………………… 41 b) Strategies/ Planning Tips………………………………………… 43 c) Work Cited Page………………………………………………… 43 d) Example Narrative Story…………………………………………… 44 VII. Capitalization…………………………………………………………………. 47 VIII. Punctuation……………………………………………………………………. 50 IX. Commonly Confused/ Misused Word Choices………………………………. 53 X. About the Author……………………………………………………………… 57 XI. Glossary………………………………………………………………………. 58 XII. Work Cited …………………………………………………………………… 63 XIII. Dedication ……………………………………………………………………… 64
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Introduction This book will give a complete and
comprehensible guide on how to use grammar. It will help you out through your toughest times by even providing examples. The examples will be in the topic of Percy Jackson or Greek Mythology. This will extend your understanding of grammar as well as mythology. 4
Parts Of Speech I.
Nouns
A. Types of nouns: 1. Common Nouns : name a class of people, places, things, or idea. ex: campers, demigods,
dining tables 2. Proper Nouns : give the name or title of a particular person, place, thing, or idea (must be
capitalized). Ex: Zeus, Camp HalfBlood, Olympus, Poseidon 3. Compound Nouns : consist of words used together to form a single noun. Ex: treetops,
underworld, nightmare, saltwater 4. Concrete Nouns : refer to material things, to people, or to places. Ex: swords, spears,
cabins, forest 5. Abstract Nouns : name ideas, quality, emotions or attitudes. Ex: fear, bravery, loyalty,
wisdom, selfcontrol
B. Noun Identifiers : 1. Noun Endings:
Goodness
determina tion
neighbor hood Amaze ment chem ist
char ity favorit ism
eleg ance vict ory
intellig ence adven ture
fores eer Ma ster
2. Following a noun marker (NM) : a, all, an both, each, every, her, his, my, our, several, some, that, their, these, this, those, one, two, three, etc. Emboldened words are pronouns that function as noun markers only when they act as adjectives, i.e. Some boxes are square. (“Some” acts as an adjective, so it's a noun marker). Some are square. (”Some” acts as a noun so it's not a noun marker).
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N. Adj..
N. Adj.
The sea is calm.
The large green sea is tranquil.
3. Plural Form : for example: “campers” or “weapons” or “gods” 4. Possessive Form : for example: “camper’s weapons” or “gods’ weapons” 5. Following a Preposition : N. Adv. V. Prep. V.
The camper cautiously raised his hands above his head to show surrender. (Prepositional) These are some common prepositions: aboard, about, above, according to, across, across from, after, against, along, alongside, alongside of, along with, amid, among, apart from, around, as, as far as, aside from, at , away from, back of, because of, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, but (except), by, by means of, concerning, despite, down, down from, except, except for, excluding, for, from, from among, from between, from under, in, in addition to, in behalf of, including, in front of, in place of, in regard of, inside, inside of, in spite of, instead of, into, like, near, near to, notwithstanding, of off, on, on account, of, on behalf of, onto, on top of, opposite, out, out of, outside, outside of, over, over to, owing to, past, prior to, to, toward, under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon, up to, versus, via, with, within, without. (Sometimes these words are used as adverbs).
C. Functions (How nouns are used): 1. Subject (comes before the verb)
S. V. V.
Zeus threw a tantrum believing he was always right. S.
V. N. N. V. V.
Zeus, the king of the gods, threw his master bolt at the monsters approaching and vanquished them all. 6
2. Direct Object (comes after the verb and answer what or whom) S. V. DO. V. Adv. Poseidon took out his trident and looked at it proudly. S. V. N. V.
Chiron, the camp director, sent out Grover to retrieve some lost demigods who have not been claimed yet. 3. Indirect Object (answers who or to whom) N. V. IO. DO. Percy gave Zeus his lost master bolt. N. V. IO. Adj. The gods offered Percy godhood in return for all the good deeds he had accomplished. 4. Adverbial Object (comes after the verb and answers when) N. V. AO. Percy always trains after breakfast. N. V. AO V. The capture the flag game was to be played afternoons to give the participants more time. 5. Object of the Preposition (follows a preposition) N. Adv. OP V. S. Chiron quickly went to the podium to announce the arrival of a new camper. N. OP V. N. Chiron, the activity director, went over to the arena to supervise the campers’ matches. 6 . Subject Complement (following a linking verb) N. N. SC Percy is the camp’s leader and its most powerful member although he's not so wise.
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N. V. N.
SC
The gods should have been more like parents to their children rather than tyrants. 7. Object Complement (follows a direct object and renames it) N OC N. V. Zeus sentenced his son Dionysus as camp director as penalty for drinking too much wine. N OC. V. N. V. Ares, the god of war, was very much in love with a married goddess and that did not stop him from trying to get with her. 8. Appositives (renames nouns, separated by commas) N. A. Adj. V. Kronos , the Titan King, was not very happy with being defeated by his children. N. A. N.
Chiron, the activities director, was like a father to most of the demigods whose parents would not V. give them any attention. 9. Adjectival (describes noun following it) Adj. N. Adv. V. The orange shirts could easily be bought at the camp store. N V. Adj S. V Most of the campers were afraid of the big and armed Minotaur that would terrorize them in the maze. 10. Noun in Direct Address N.
Adv.
V.
“Chiron, where is this exceptional camper you were eagerly talking about?”
V.
N. V
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“Did you finally learn to use the bow, Percy, or do you need more help from the Apollo campers. 11. Object of the gerund (noun that follows a gerund) V. N. V. V. V. V. Winning the war made many of the campers feel proud and made them realize they were stronger as a family now. V.
N. OG.
V. V
Completing a quest was a challenge new campers had to participate in to learn new lessons. 12. Object of the Participle (noun that follows a participle) V. OP. V. N. N. The sword fighting contest was won by Percy, him being the best swordsman the camp had at the time.
V. OP V.
The training grounds were set so that they would look like the war zone and get the campers prepared. 13. Object of the Infinitive (noun that follows an infinitive) N OI V. N. The campers wanted to live but the only way to do that was to win the war. N. OI V
The point of the game was to steal the other flag and bring it to your side.
II. Pronouns Pronouns take the place of nouns that have been established. 1. Personal : A personal pronoun is a pronoun that is associated primarily with a particular
person, in the grammatical sense. When discussing “person” in terms of the grammatical, the following rules apply: First person, as in “I” Second person, as in “you” 9
Nominative (subjects)
Objective (objects)
I/ We
me/us
You/you
you/you
He, she, it, one/they
him, her, it, one/them Possessive
My, mine
our, ours
Your, yours
your, yours
His, her, hers, its, one’s
their, theirs
N. V. V. PP.
V
Ex: Percy volunteered himself to teach the new campers what he already knew. N. V. PP. V. Annabeth became in charge of all their tactical moves and she would also join the fight. 2. Relative : A relative pronoun is used to connect a clause or phrase to a noun or pronoun. You see them used every day with the most common relative pronouns being: who, whom, which, whoever, whomever, whichever, and that. Nominative
Objective
Possessive
Who
whom
whose
That
that
of that
Those/this
N. PR Adv. V. V. Ex: Percy, whose pants were on fire, casually brought water to himself and soaked himself and the fire. N. NR V. Adv. V. V. Annabeth who just woke up quickly showered and continued to design her plans.
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3. Interrogative : An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun which is used to make asking questions easy. There are five interrogative pronouns. Each one is used to ask a very specific question. Interrogative pronouns can also be used as relative pronouns, which may be found in questions. Who, which, what, whatever, whoever IP N. V.
Ex: Whoever the spy is, they must be a counselor to know that much secrets. N. V. IP V Zeus questioned as to which of his brothers would want to overthrow him. 4 . Reflexive : (personal pronouns plus the suffix self or selves) A reflexive pronoun is a special kind of pronoun. It is usually used when the object of a sentence is the same as the subject, as you will see below. Each personal pronoun (such as I, you, and she) has its own reflexive form. A. When the action verb is directed towards the subject of the construction: B. To intensify a point
N. V. RP V. V
Ex: Percy states to himself, “I can do this alone so the rest don't get hurt.” N IP N V. RP Percy, who was below the water, pulled the sea life close to himself. 5. Demonstrative : Demonstrative pronouns are the same pronouns used for demonstrative adjectives this, that, these and those. The difference is in the sentence structure. The demonstrative pronoun takes the place of the noun phrase. The demonstrative adjective is always followed by a noun. This, these
that, those
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N. V. DP N. V. Ex: Chiron exclaimed, “These are the rules for this game, breaking them will have consequences!” DP Adj
V. N V. Adj
Those that were good at healing stayed in the tents and tended to the wounded. 6. Indefinite : An indefinite pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or amount. It is vague and "not definite". Some of these are: all, another, anybody, anyone, anything, both, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, everywhere, few, many, much, neither, nobody, none, no one, nothing, other, several, somebody, someone, such. IP V. N V
Ex. Everyone was anxious for the game, to prove that they could win a game against the
N.
immortal hunters. N V IP N Dust filled the air showing that many monsters were getting killed everywhere.
III. Verbs Verbs show the time, action and state of being of a subject.
A. How Verbs are Identified: 1. Verbs Ending: s, ed, ing,tate, ive, er,
Ex: Jumped, swam, ran, celebrate, singing 2. Tense: Verbs indicate time via tenses: 1. simple past
6.present
9.present perfect progressive
2. Past
7.present perfect
10. future
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3. Past perfect
8.present progressive
4. past progressive
11. future perfect
5. simple present
3. Forms: a. Forms of “to be”: am, are, is, was, were, be, been, being (these verbs can be used as helping verbs or main verbs. when used as main verbs, they are always linking verbs true linking verbs = all forms of be, become, and seem). b. Forms of “to do”: do, does, did, done, doing (these verbs can be used as helping verbs or main verbs). c. Forms of “to have”: have, had, has, having (these verbs can be used as helping verbs or main verbs). 4. Types: there are at least 11 types of verbs: A. Auxiliary verbs(helping verbs) : the verbs be, do, have, will when they are followed by another verb (the full verb ) in order to form a question, a negative sentence, a compound tense or the passive. B. Linking verbs (verbs that do not describe action, but connect the subject of a sentence to other parts of the sentence usually the predicate) linking verbs C. Lexical verbs (main verbs) typically express action, state, or other predicate meaning D. Dynamic verbs (indicate action) usually describe actions we can take, or things that happen E. Stative verbs (describe a condition) usually refer to a state or condition which is not changing or likely to change. F. Finitive verbs (indicate tense) the locus of grammatical information of gender, person, number, tense, aspect, mood, and/or voice. G. Noninfinitive verbs (infinitive or participles) H. Regular verbs (weak verbs) those whose past tense and past participles are formed by adding a d or an ed to the end of the verb . "To roll" is a good example of a regular verb : roll, rolled, rolled. I. Irregular verbs (strong verbs)
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J. Transitive verbs ( verbs followed by a direct object) takes one or more objects K. Intransitive verbs (verbs that do not take direct objects) that does not need a direct object to complete its meaning. Run, sleep, travel, wander, and die 5. Voice : voice is the form of the verb that indicates how it relates or interacts with the action. Active : When the verb of a sentence is in the active voice , the subject is doing the acting, as in the sentence “Percy stabbed the monster” Percy (the subject of the sentence) acts in relation to the monster. Passive : A verb is in the passive voice when the subject of the sentence is acted on by the verb. For Example, in “The spear was thrown by the camper,” the spear (the subject) receives the action of the verb, and was thrown is in the passive voice. The Same sentence cast in the active voice would be, “The camper threw the spear.” 6. Verbals: (verb forms not used as verbs) A. Gerund : word ending in “ing” used as a noun
N V VG N V N
1. Dionysus enjoys drinking wine while he reads a magazine.
B. Participle : word ending in “ing” or “ed” used as an adjective
VP N V V
1. The raining outside the dome did not bother or interfere with the campers’ daily routine. C. Infinitive: verbs preceded by the word “to” (to go, to jump) used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
N V VI
1.
Percy wanted to win the war with as less casualties as possible.
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IV. ADJECTIVES: Adjectives: modify, describe, limit, and identify nouns and pronouns. 1. Kinds : Demonstrative (The demonstrative adjectives are this, that, these, and those. They
are used to point out specific people or things), Common (A common adjective is an adjective that is not written with a capital letter . Most adjectives are common ones that are written with a capital letter are proper adjectives ), Proper ( an adjective, typically capitalized, derived from a proper noun) EX: these children, those armies, this sword. Talented, welldesigned, terrified. Roman, American, Titan 2. Endings : al, ary, ful, ic, ical, ish, less, like, ly, ous, y, able, ible, ant, ent, ive,
ing, ed, en. EX: exciteful 3. Conversions : usually by adding ing to verbs, 4. Article : Put simply, an article is a word that combines with a noun. Articles are actually
adjectives because they describe the nouns that they precede. In English, there are only three articles: the, a, and an. However, the three are not interchangeable; rather, they are used in specific instances. 5. Comparative/ Superlatives : A comparative adjective is used to compare two things. A
superlative adjective is used when you compare three or more things. For example, looking at apples you can compare their size, determining which is big, which is bigger, and which is biggest. The comparative ending for short, common adjectives is generally "er"; the superlative suffix is generally "est."
V. Adverbs An Adverb is a word or phrase that modifies or qualifies an adjective, verb, or other adverb or a word group. A. Endings : ly, ily, ally, wards, wise ex: quickly, wisely, 15
B. Conversions : by adding one of the suffixes into the word. C. Types : Manner, Frequency, Degree, Place, Time D. Intensifiers : Adverbs often have words called intensifiers that denote or describe the quality of the action how strong or weak it is. There are several types of intensifiers: those that show emphasis, those that amplify and those that play down or downtone the actions of verbs. In addition there are premodifiers which are words that modify or change the meaning of an adverb. E. Comparatives/ Superlatives: add er to comparatives and est to superlatives.
VI. Conjunctions A. Coordinating : a conjunction placed between words, phrases, clauses, or sentences of equal rank, e.g., and , but , or , for, nor, yet, so B. Correlative : A correlative conjunction is a coordinating conjunction that pairs up with other words to connect elements in a sentence. They help indicate the relationship between elements they connect in a sentence. Ex: either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also, both/and, whether/or. as/so C. Subordinate : after, though as, as if, as long as, as tough, because, before, in, in order that, provided that, since, so, so that, that, though, till, unless, when, where, whereas, while. D. Relative Pronouns: A relative pronoun is used to connect a clause or phrase to a noun or pronoun. You see them used everyday with the most common relative pronouns being: who (refers to people), whom, which (refers to non living object or animals), whoever, whomever, whichever, and that (may refer to animals or non living objects).
VII. Prepositions Prepositions link nouns, pronouns, and phrases to the other parts of the sentence. Prepositions are NEVER followed by verbs.
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These are some of the common Prepositions: aboard, about, above, according to, across, across from, after, against, along, alongside, alongside of, along with, amid, among, apart from, around, as, as far as, aside from, at , away from, back of, because of, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, but (except), by, by means of, concerning, despite, down, down from, except, except for, excluding, for, from, from among, from between, from under, in, in addition to, in behalf of, including, in front of, in place of, in regard of, inside, inside of, in spite of, instead of, into, like, near, near to, notwithstanding, of off, on, on account, of, on behalf of, onto, on top of, opposite, out, out of, outside, outside of, over, over to, owing to, past, prior to, to, toward, under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon, up to, versus, via, with, within, without. N. V P N N Ex: Percy ran towards the entrance of the labyrinth. N. V. N V
N. V P P
As soon as Percy heard a wild screech emitting from the woods, he ran towards the entrance of
N
Adj
N V
P.
the labyrinth knowing that the scream came from inside it.
VIII. Interjections A
G
L
Q
U
aah
gadzooks
la
quite
ugh
ack
gah
ladidah
R
uh
agreed
gangway
lo
rah
uhoh
ah
g'day
look
rats
um
aha
gee
look here
ready
ur
ahem
gee whiz
long time
right
urgh
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alas
geez
lordy
right on
V
all right
gesundheit
M
roger
very nice
amen
get lost
man
roger that
very well
argh
get outta here
meh
rumble
voila
as if
go on
mmm
S
vroom
aw
good
most certainly say
W
ay
good golly
my
see ya
wah
aye
good job
my my
shame
well
B
gosh
my word
shh
well done
bah
gracious
N
shoo
well, well
blast
great
nah
shucks
what
boo hoo
grr
naw
sigh
whatever
bother
gulp
never
sleep tight
whee
boy
H
no
snap
when
brr
ha
no can do
sorry
whoa
by golly
haha
nooo
sssh
whoo
bye
hah
not
sup
whoopee
C
hallelujah
no thanks
T
whoops
cheerio
harrumph
no way
ta
whoopsey
cheers
haw
nuts
tada
whew
chin up
hee
O
ta ta
why
come on
here
oh
take that
word
crikey
hey
oho
tally ho
wow
curses
hmm
ohoh
tch
wuzzup
D
ho hum
oh no
thanks
Y
dear me
hoo
okay
there
ya
doggone
hooray
okeydokey
there there
yea
drat
hot dog
om
time out
yeah
duh
how
oof
toodles
yech 18
E
huh
ooh
touche
yikes
easy does it
hum
oopsey
tsk
yippee
eek
humbug
over
tsktsk
yo
egads
hurray
oy
tut
yoohoo
er
huzza
oyez
tuttut
you bet
exactly
I
P
you don't say
F
I say
peace
you know
fair enough
ick
pff
yow
fiddledeedee is it
pew
yum
fiddlesticks
ixnay
phew
yummy
fie
J
pish posh
Z
foo
jeez
psst
zap
fooey
just kidding
ptui
zounds
just a sec
zowie
just wondering
zzz
K kapish
Milder
Stronger
Addition
a further x
further
and
furthermore
and then
moreover
then
in addition
also
additionally
too
besides
next
again 19
Comparison
another
equally important
other
first, second
nor
finally, last
just as ... so too
similarly
a similar x
comparable
another x like
in the same way likewise
Contrast
but
however
yet
still
and yet
nevertheless
still
on the other hand
otherwise
on the contrary
or
even so
though
notwithstanding
but another
for all that
rather
in contrast alternatively at the same time though this may be otherwise instead nonetheless conversely
Time
then
meanwhile
now
at length
soon
presently
afterward
at last
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later
finally
shortly
immediately
earlier
thereafter
recently
at that time
first, second, third subsequently
Purpose
next
eventually
before
currently
after
in the meantime
today
in the past
tomorrow
in the future
to do this
to this end
so that
with this object for this purpose for that reason because of this x
Place
there
at that point
here
opposite to
beyond
adjacent to
nearby
on the other side
next to
in the front in the back
Result
so
hence
and so
therefore
then
accordingly consequently thus thereupon
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as a result in consequence Example
that is
for example
specifically
for instance
in particular
an instance of this
for one thing
this can be seen in
Summary and Emphasis in sum
in short
generally
on the whole
after all
as I said
by the way
in other words
in general
to be sure
incidentally
in fact
naturally
indeed
I hope
clearly
at least
of course
it seems
anyway
in brief
remarkably
I suppose
I think assuredly definitely without doubt for all that on the whole in any event importantly certainly
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Phrases
2. Phases a group of words that function as a part of speech. A. Prepositional : a group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun, and is used as an adjective or an adverb.
N
V
N
Prep
Basic: Percy took Annabeth below the sea. V N V N
V N Prep
Advanced: Since she could not swim, Percy created an air bubble and took Annabeth below the sea . B. Appositive : a group of words that include all the words or phrases that modify an appositive.
N
App.
V
N
N
V
Basic: Percy, the new camper , looked out of place.
N.
App
V
N
Advanced : Percy, the new camper , looked out of place compared to the Hephaestus campers near him. C. Verbal : a group of words that begin with a verbal and ends with a noun. 1. Gerund word ending in “ing” used as a noun
VG
V
N
Basic: Reading is hard if you have dyslexia.
VG
Adj
V
Advanced: Climbing is very difficult and time consuming and not to mention a bit Adj. mundane. 2. Participle word ending in “ing” or “ed” used as an adjective
N.
Adv
VP
N
N
Basic : Percy quietly sat in the back crunching popcorn during the entire movie. 23
N
Adv VP
N V
V N
Advanced : Blackjack gracefully trotted to Percy hoping to receive sugar cubes. 3. Infinitive verb preceded by the word “to” (to go, to jump) used as noun, adjective, or adverb.
N V VI N Prep
Prep
V
Basic: Leo tried to lick the grease from his shiny fingers despite the disapproving glances of his friends.
N
V VI
N N
V N
Advanced : Percy hopes to win the approval of Athena to let him marry her daughter.
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CLAUSES 3. Clauses – groups of words with a subject and a verb. A. INDEPENDENT – CAN stand alone as a complete sentence, known as a simple sentence pattern.
N
V
N
Basic : Camp HalfBlood is open to all demigods.
N
V V IC V Adj N
Advanced: Annabeth revealed she wants to travel the world and see wonderful designs . B. SUBORDINATE (Dependent) – CANNOT stand alone as a complete sentence and MUST begin with a SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTION. 1. Noun Clause: Used as a the noun in a sentence and may function as a subject, a predicate noun, a direct noun, a direct object, an object of a preposition, an indirect object, or an appositive.
N V N V
DC
Basic: Chiron gave the campers a chance to do whatever they want .
N
V
Prep Adj N N
Advanced : Campers were advised to pack excessive snacks and supplies when they go on missions. 2. Adjective Clause: used to modify a noun in an independent clause. A. Some adjective clauses begin with an introductory word: B. Some adjective clauses begin with relative pronouns but note that relative pronouns have two functions; it introduces the clause and it is used as a sentencepart within the clause.
N
AdjC
V
N
Basic: The people whose names were called had to go on missions.
N
V
Adv
AdjC
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Advanced: Mrs. O'Leary was sitting pretentiously when her sense of smell escalated. 3. Adverb Clause: used to modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs in an independent clause, introduced by a subordinating conjunction and used to indicate time, place, cause, purpose, results, a condition, and/or concession. a. Modifying verbs:
Adv C
N
V
N
When the horn blew three times, everyone ran to get their weapons for war. b. Modifying adjectives: N
Mod Adj
V
N
Percy, who is just a demigod , can control the sea as great as his father Poseidon. c. Modifying adverbs: N
V N Adv V N
Percy ran out of the cabin quickly and ran to the night house. 4. Relative Clauses: Dependent clause that begins with a relative pronoun.
N RC V
N
Basic: The group who has the most flags wins the game.
N
Adj
v
RC
Advanced: Zeus was so egotistical that he didn't notice who was making the real calls in Olympus. 5. Elliptical Clauses: Adverb clauses in which part of the clause is omitted.
N V N N Adj N N
Basic: Percy has a sword; Annabeth, invisible cap and a knife.
N
V
V
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Advanced: Percy, being the son of the sea god, swims better and faster than them. 6. Essential Clauses: Clauses necessary to the meaning of the sentence.
N V
V
EC
Basic: Percy hopes to return to when he was happy and clueless.
N
V
N
EC
Advanced : Kronus was locked in tartarus for a millennia until w hen Luke came and freed him. 7. Nonessential Clauses: Clauses that are NOT necessary to the meaning of the sentence.
N NC
Adv
V N
Basic: Nico, who just woke up , was savagely looking for food.
N
NC
Adv
Advanced: Percy, whose mom recently got a new boyfriend , was extremely
V
N
V
overjoyed to see his mom smiling so much again.
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Sentences Sentence Parts 1. Subjects (3)
A. Complete N
V
N
Prep
The force field ’s job was to protect the campers from the outside environment.
N
V
V
V
N
Prep
The invisible barrier around the camp was used to deflect or delay attacks from enemies. 1. Simple
Adv
N V N V
When Percy goes into the water, he breathes as if he’s on land.
N N V Prep
N
V
N
Percy and Annabeth took the bus in order to get started on their quest which was at Los Angeles. 1. Compound
N
Adj
V
N
V
Percy was happy to find out who his father was, but it worried him even more.
N V N V N V V
Zeus, thinking that one of his brothers stole his master bolt, decided to go to war against
N V
N
V
them, but Percy retrieved the stolen weapon and saved the world from war. 2. Predicate (3) t he part of a sentence or clause containing a verb and stating something about the subject (e.g., went home in John went home ). 28
A. Complete
N V Prep V
The sword f lew through the air and landed 10 feet away.
N
V
N
V
Prep
V
The sword,which was beaten out of Luke’s grasp, flew through the air and landed a couple of feet out of his reach. 1. Simple
N N V
N
Percy and Annabeth swam to the shore on the other side of the island.
N
V N Prep V
Thalia summoned lightning from the sky as if she was pulling it out of thin air. 1. Compound
N
V Prep
V Adv
Percy flew through the air, and landed perfectly on his feet.
N
Adv
V
N
N Adv
V Percy made a perfectly aimed blow going for Luke's fatal flaw, but Luke easily deflected
V Prep
it and attacked with a technique of his own
Sentence Types 1. Declarative: make a statement to relay information or ideas. They are punctuated with a
simple period.
N N
Percy is the son of Poseidon , the sea god. N V N V
Percy was claimed by Poseidon, the sea god, and was acknowledged as one of the 29
Adj V strongest demigods of all time. 2. Interrogative: always ask a question and end in a question mark. N V Adv V
Kronos asks, "Do you really think you have a chance?"
N
V N Prep Adv
Annabeth: If Hades is the oldest of three, shouldn't he be the king of the gods instead of
Adj N
the dramatic Zeus? 3. Imperative: issue commands or requests or they can express a desire or wish. They are punctuated with a simple period or they can be exclamations requiring an exclamation mark. It all depends on the strength of emotion you want to express.
V Pron
Adj Adj N V Adj
Prepare yourselves for a long and bloody war that will make you extinct.
N V Adj Adj N V
Chiron having heard the loud and chaotic argument slammed hooves on the floor and V
ordered, "ENOUGH!!!" 4. Exclamatory: doesn’t really matter what the emotion is, an exclamatory sentence is the type of sentence needed to express it. Exclamatory sentences always end in an exclamation mark, so it’s pretty easy to spot them.
Pron V
Adj N
V
N
YOU THINK THAT YOU, A PUNY DEMIGOD, CAN BEAT A GOD LIKE ME!!!!
V Pron
Adj
N Adj Prep N
SHOW YOURSELF!! NO MORTAL SHALL LIVE ENOUGH TO SEE THE WRATH Prep. N OF A GOD!!!
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Sentence Patterns
1. Simple: a sentence consisting of only one clause, with a single subject and predicate.
N V
Adv Prep.
Adj.
N
Basic : The tree stood proudly upon the magnificent hill.
N N
V Adv
Adv Prep Adj N
Advanced : The tree, Thalia’s tree, stood strongly and proudly upon the magnificent hill also known as the entrance to camp. 2. Complex: a sentence containing a subordinate clause or clauses (independent not dependent)
Adv N
V V Adv
Basic : When the king of the gods spoke, the others listened intensively.
Adv
N V V Adv
Advanced : When Zeus, the King of the Gods, spoke then the rest listened attentively to what he
v
had to say. 3. Compound : a sentence with more than one subject or predicate.
N V N Adv V Prep V N
Basic : Percy won his match, and then went to finish his training.
N Adv V N V Prep V N
Advanced : Percy easily dominated the practice matches, and went on to break records. 4. Complex/Compound: contains two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
N
V V N V N
Basic : Because the campers prepared, they will win the war and get their happy ending.
N V Adv
V Adj N
Advanced : Because the campers practiced endlessly, they will win the bloody war, and get to V
Adv
live their lives normally.
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5. Loose Sentences: (also called a cumulative sentence) is a type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) is elaborated by the successive addition of modifying clauses or phrases
N Adj
Prep
Basic : Percy’s team was victorious, despite the mood, and the injuries.
N
V Prep. N Adj
Prep Adj
Adj
Advanced : Percy’s team came out of the war victorious, despite the harsh and moody weather, and the fatal injuries. 6. Periodic Sentences: the main clause or predicate at the end. This is used for emphasis and can be persuasive by putting reasons for something at the beginning before the final point is made.
Prep N N V
N V
Basic : Despite the weather, injuries, and being outnumbered, the campers won.
Prep Adj N Adj N Adv
Advanced : Despite the horrible weather, devastating casualties, and being completely V N V outnumbered, the campers won. 7. Balanced Sentences: a sentence consisting of two or more clauses that are parallel in structure. Basic : Clarisse doesn't like washing dishes or doing chores. Advanced : Clarisse, the daughter of the war god, doesn't like washing dishes, or doing camp chores. 8. Parallel Structure: using the same pattern of words to show that two or more words or ideas are of equal importance.
N V V V Prep N
Basic : Percy wanted to study, work hard, and go to college.
N V Adj N V V
Advanced : The demigods wanted to be normal and do what normal teenagers do: study, work
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Adj V Prep N hard, and go to college. 9. Chiasmus : a rhetorical device in which two or more clauses are balanced against each other by the reversal of their structures in order to produce an artistic effect
Adj N V Adj N Adj V
Basic : A hard man is good to find, a good man is hard to find.
N Adj N N Adj N
Advanced : Gaea’s life is full of children; her children are full of life. 10. Asyndeton : conjunctions are omitted in a series of words, phrases or clauses.
Prep V Prep V Prep V N V Adj N
Basic : Without looking, without talking, without making a sound he stole the golden apple.
Prep V Prep V Prep V N N N Adj
Advanced : Without looking, without talking, without making a sound Jason stole the golden N
apple of immortality. 11. Polysyndeton : conjunctions (e.g. and, but, or) are used repeatedly in quick succession, often with no commas, even when the conjunctions could be removed.
N V N N N N Adj N
Basic : Percy picked up a sword and a knife and a bow and arrows and hunting blades and a N shield.
V
N
V N Adv V N
Advanced : Hearing that the camp was under attack, Percy quickly got up to grab a sword and N N Adj N bow and arrow and hunting knives. 12. Anaphora : features the purposeful repetitive of a word, words, or a phrase at the beginning of several successive clauses in order to place emphasis and draw attention.
Adj N
Adj N Adj N
V N
Basic : Every second, every minute, in every hour, I am getting more power.
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N
V
Adv
N V
Adj N Adj N Adj
Advanced : Kronos chuckled evilly at Percy and stated, “Every second, every minute, in every N
V N
hour, I am getting more power.” 13. Epistrophe : a sentence featuring several phrases or clauses ending with the same word or words.
Pron Adv Pron Adv Pron Adv
Basic : What now ? Why now ? Where to now ?
Sentence Errors (Incomplete/ Incorrect Types) 1. RunOn/Rambling: a sentence containing two or more clauses not connected by the
correct conjunction or punctuation.
N V P rep N Adv Adj
Incorrect : Percy stood upon the building it was very tall.
N V Prep Adj N
Correct : Percy stood upon the tall building. 2. Fused : also called a runon, occurs when a writer has connected two main clauses with no punctuation. 3. Fragment : a word group that is attempting to function as a sentence but lacking an independent clause
N V N V
Prep Adj V
Incorrect : Chiron watched as his students practiced among themselves trying to push their limits, the same campers and limits.
N V N V Prep V
Correct : Chiron watched as the same campers practiced among themselves to overcome these same limits. 4. Misplaced Modifier: when it is unclear what the modifier is modifying. 34
Adj N N V N N V
Incorrect : A big amount of food stood on a table that Percy sat on.
Adj N N V N N
Correct : A big amount of food stood towering over Percy’s table. 5. Double Negative: nonstandard usage of two negatives used in the same sentence so that they cancel each other and create a positive.
V
V V Prep N
Incorrect : You don't not want to be there to witness the rise of the titans.
Prep V V N
Correct : You don't want to be there to witness the rise of the titans. 6. Comma Splice: another common error that create runon sentences. A comma splice occurs when two or more independent clauses are joined by a comma without a coordinating conjunction.
N
V
N N V
Incorrect : Hermes reported, “Percy’s in his room, he is sleeping.”
N V N
N V
Correct : Hermes reported, “Percy's in his room sleeping.”
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Paragraphs 1. INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH
a. Hook(lead) I. Anecdotal: (brief story to set the mood and intro the topic) Ex. When Kaku was young he watched the shows such as Star Wars and Star Trek. These shows made him think about the future. This got him involved in SciFi science and further down the physics path. He made many people question what is possible and what is impossible. ii. Query based: (questions that bring the reader to the topic) Ex. Is it possible to have the power of a god? b. Thesis statements (the purpose of a piece of writingusually one sentence in length and something that is arguable). i. Assertion: (claim). Ex. Nothing is permanently impossible, just temporarily impossible. ii. Fact: (empirically verifiable) Ex. Transportation is possible at the moment but at an atomic level. iii. Opinion: (personal position on a topic) Ex. Transportation will never be a possibility; the only transportation is the one we have right now. iv. Belief: (social, religious or political in naturean opinion held by many to be a fact, though it is not necessarily). Ex. Considering that a person would have the power of a god is sinfully wrong. v. Generalization: (uses absolute or statistical pronouns: all, always, every, never, none, most, halfavoid using these types of thesis statement). Ex. Everything that is written by Kaku is correct, considering that he is a futurist. vi. Document based: (cites a specific source and its position on a topic). Ex. In Physics of the Impossible , Michio Kaku argues that even if a smart and elderly scientist states that something is impossible then he is certainly incorrect. vii. Theory: (statement that can be tested and potentially proven). 36
EX. The impossible can become possible through the progress of new inventions in technology. 2) BODY PARAGRAPHS: (must have echoes of the thesis in each and present evidence to support or expand on the thesis).
a. Topic sentence: (must specifically indicate the topic of the paragraph and focus on one subject and area of evidence or support). Ex. The advancement in technology can make what we now consider to be impossible possible. b. Evidence from quotations: (quotes should never be used as individual sentencesquotes should be embedded within sentences). I. Ex. As Sir William Osler once said, “The philosophies of one age have become the absurdities of the next, and the foolishness of yesterday has become the wisdom of tomorrow.” (Kaku 135) II. Ex. “The philosophies of one age have become the absurdities of the next, and the foolishness of yesterday has become the wisdom of tomorrow,” according to Sir William Osler (Kaku 135). III. EX. Fortunately for humans, “The philosophies of one age have become the absurdities of the next, and the foolishness of yesterday has become the wisdom of tomorrow,” according to Sir William Osler (Kaku 135). IV. Ex. Fortunately for humans, “The philosophies of one age have become the absurdities of the next, and the [egotistical] foolishness of yesterday has become the wisdom of tomorrow.” (Kaku 135) V. Ex. Fortunately for humans, “The philosophies...become the absurdities... and the foolishness…become the wisdom...” (Kaku 135) VI. Paraphrase: (rewording of a quote into other words of the same length without quotation marks, but still citing the source). 1. Original quote: “If time travel is possible, then where are the tourists from the future?” 2. Ex. Paraphrase: If time travel really is possible in the future then how come nobody from
the future has come to our time? VII. Summary (condensing larger quotes or sections)
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Original Quote: If time travel is possible, then where are the tourists from the future? –STEPHEN HAWKING Summary: Time travel will not be possible in the future. VIII. Abstract examples: (hypothetical, “what if” examplesavoid). Ex. Time travel can be possible if technology improves drastically. IX. Concrete Examples: (actual, referenceable examples). Ex. In fact, according to Albert Einstein's famous equation, E = mc² , time travel is possible, at least in one direction. Going the other way — back to the past — presents a trickier challenge. c. Closing sentence: (must end the discussion of the topic within the paragraph with a transitional or culminating wordPossibly an adverband should echo the thesis of the essay). 3. CLOSING PARAGRAPHS: (conclusionshould not be mere summaries of the previous paragraph of your essay). a. Statements of extension: (extending) the thesis statement using the consequences of disregarding the implications of the thesiscould be one or more sentences). Ex. The impossible can become the possible if a person was to try out the limits of possibility for himself instead of believing others and using advanced technology which is like magic. b. Final sentence: (connects to the hook). Ex. Telekinesis is the power to move things with your mind, although it is not possible at our current time it will be in the future. The real problem with that is, if we all have it then who is in charge...
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EX :
LAUSD gets an Armored Vehicle
Schools all over America have been given the chance to receive an armored vehicle along
with a grenade launcher and a couple of other weapons. Most school districts have declined the offer except for LAUSD and SDUSD. These two school districts accepted everything that came with the armored vehicle. While having an armored vehicle would come in handy in case of an emergency, parents do not see why school police should be handling such equipments. Most parents argue that people should have proper training before they are allowed to handle these weapons.
The school police should have at least two year training with these weapons before they
use them in public. Most parents concern is that the school police would not know how to use these weapons and an accident might happen. As we have seen over the years the police like to show off their power. Police brutality reports have been filing all over the place and the police say they will look into it but they never do because if it is their fault it would put them to shame. The school police might use these weapons to fire on students that are unarmed and claim that the student was “reaching behind his pack for something.” We have all heard these accusations and most times it is too late to just say sorry and leave it alone.
Having the school police walk around with heavy weaponry will cause the students to be nervous. Think of it this way: If u were treated like a prisoner, wouldn’t you want to act like a prisoner? Not all criminals just wake up one day and decide to be criminals. They are like that because that us how we see them and they are giving us exactly what we asked for. So if the students were to be watched like they were prisoners they would start to fight in schools and continue to fight the power ruling over them. Most students think of school police as someone who is there to keep them safe, not a personal warden.
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Having weapons like grenade launchers is meaningless. The grenade launchers would not help in any way; they can only be used to wreak havoc. What the district has forgotten to include is that not all student follow rules and almost all students can be overcome by curiosity. They will become curious as to see how these weapons work in real life and nothing can stop them from getting their hands on one of them. Most teenagers like to play video games and not just any video games but video games involving weapons such as the ones the school is getting. Bringing these weapons would be like making their dreams come true, they will be tempted to get their hands one just to see how it feels to hold a real gun.
Most citizens are astonished as to why the LAUSD accepted these weapons while a minor part think it is a good benefit. The SDUSD has already agreed to send everything back to where they got it from. The school police chief said that the trust of the citizens was more important to them than having meaningless weapons lying around. The LAUSD has also agreed to send back three of the grenade launcher but they have decided to keep the rest saying it would come in handy if a building collapses or someone tries to bomb the schools. L.A. Unified says that the M16 automatic rifles, which were modified to semiautomatic, are "essential lifesaving items" and will continue to be available to trained officers. Not only are these weapons a waste of space, they will also be a waste of money. Think of all the money that will go into training the school police and keeping the weapons in a state where they are usable. The armored vehicle will be the biggest hassle of them all; it will need lots of gas and gas prices are soaring these days. LAUSD should reconsider the offer and send it back to be used in the battle front instead of the place where people come to learn and feel safe.
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Essays A. Types I. Persuasive (Argumentative) : the goal of the persuasive essay is to convince the reader to accept the writer’s point of view or recommendation. The writer must build a case using facts and logic, as well as examples, expert opinion, and sound reasoning. The writer should present all sides of the argument, but must be able to communicate clearly and without equivocation why a certain position is correct. II. Expository (Informative) : The expository essay is an informative piece of writing that presents a balanced analysis of a topic. In an expository essay, the writer explains or defines a topic, using facts, statistics, and examples. Expository writing encompasses a wide range of essay variations, such as the comparison and contrast essay, the cause and effect essay, and the “how to” or process essay. Because expository essays are based on facts and not personal feelings, writers don’t reveal their emotions or write in the first person. 1. Definition or Description: a descriptive essay paints a picture with words. A writer
might describe a person, place, object, or even memory of special significance. However, this type of essay is not description for description sake. The descriptive essay strives to communicate a deeper meaning through the description. In a descriptive essay, the writer should show, not tell, through the use of colorful words and sensory details. The best descriptive essays appeal to the reader’s emotions, with a result that is highly evocative. 2. Process/Howto: Process writing can be classified into two types according to its
purpose. 3. There are two types of process writing. One type explains how to do something. 4. The other type explains how something works. 5. Compare and Contrast: Compare and contrast essays describe the similarities and
differences between two things. The two primary ways are to block, in which the writer discusses either similarities or differences first and the other second, or to alternate similarities and differences between paragraphs 41
6. Cause and Effect: Cause and effect essays describe the cause and result of a situation or
issue. When writing this type of essay, research all possible outcomes and ensure that you can logically support your thesis with information on how a particular cause led to a specific effect. iii. Analytical/Critical: analyze, examine and interpret such things as an event, book, poem, play or other work of art. 1. Evaluative: basically a review of something. As the name suggests, the evaluative essay
presents a value judgment based on a set of criteria. 2. Interpretative: gives a text or texts meaning. This essay explains not only what a text is
about (summary) and how it works (critique), but asks why the analysis is compelling. The thesis of an interpretive essay answers a what and how question. iv. Narrative (Tells a story): Narratives tell a story, so narrative essays have a beginning, middle and an end. Whether the story is truth or fiction will depend upon the assignment. 1. Personal Anecdote: can be about childhood, marriage, schooldays, siblings,
embarrassing moments, love affairs and friendship. Using personal anecdotes within an essay is a creative way to draw your audience's attention. v. Research: Research papers usually begin with a topic or problem that needs to be researched. Often research essays and term papers are usually described as being the same thing. A research essay should lead the reader to the works of others as it guides the reader to compare previous research to the current research essay. MLA format would be used to show your sources and to show that the work is actually your own. Use APA format in research papers to organize your content, achieve an active, firstperson writing style and format intext citations, endnotes, footnotes and reference pages. vi. Timed Times essays as the name suggest are times. You have an X amount of time to write about whatever topic you are assigned. Document Based Question (DBQ) requires that you read a couple of articles or documents and write about it. Prompt Based essays are much simpler. The longer the prompt, the easier the essay. Prompt based essays will give you a prompt or a quote
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and ask you to state your position. Then you must support that position by using your past readings, current events, etc...
B. Strategies/ Planning Tips/ Steps I. Pre Writing/ Prompt Analysis/ Outlining: analyze the prompt which will allow you to discover the structure/format of the essay. Use a bubble map to come up with main points. If you don’t want to use it you can just set your thesis then the main topic of the body paragraphs. The conclusion should not be a summary of your essay. It should be a last chance to make your stang stronger, more firm. II. Research/ Evaluation of sources: start by doing research for a topic of your choice. Then analyze and criticize the article on that topic.
C. Work Cited Page I. MLA Format: Whenever you incorporate outside sources into your own writing, you must provide both intext citations (within the body of the paper) and full citations (in the works cited page). The intext citations point your reader toward the full citations in the works cited page. II. APA Format: Contributors' names (Last edited date). Title of resource. Retrieved from http://Web address 43
Narrative (Tells a story)
Henry and the Evil Queen Once upon a time there was a boy named Henry. Henry was a normal teenager. He was always thinking of school and how the world would be like if there was magic in it. On one Saturday afternoon, Henry’s mom came to his room and told him that his grandfather just died. The day after the funeral, the mailman knocked on the door and gave Henry a box when he opened the door. Henry went to his room and opened the box. Inside the box was something that looked like a watch and a letter that said, “Dear Henry, This watch will make all your wishes come true. Love, Grandpa.”
Without thinking Henry put the watch on and it started to glow blue. In a couple of
seconds, Henry was in a place that was not his room and all he could see was tall mountains and a cabin that was 50 yards away from him. Henry walked to the cabin and knocked on the door and to his surprise the door opened by itself. Inside the cabin was dark except for the dim fire and the outline of someone sitting in front of it. Just when Henry was about to say something, a deep voice said, “Come and take a seat.” Then a chair appeared out of thin air. Henry went in and sat down. Then Henry saw the old man, and said, “Where am I?” The old man looked at him and said, “It took you a long time to find that watch.” Henry was about to ask where he was when the old man said, “No need to ask twice. You are in Atlantis, a world of magic and mystical creatures. By the way my name’s Richard.”
Richard told Henry that he doesn’t have time, in fact the old man was going to die
that night. Then Richard said, “You are the hero of Atlantis and I’ve been waiting a long time for you. Since I don’t have time to explain I’ll give you all my memories and powers.”And with that he took Henry’s hand. When Henry woke up, Richard was nowhere to be seen and Henry could feel a new kind of power surging through his body. Henry closed his eyes and saw a woman on a dragon and some monkey looking creature attacking villages.
Henry was filled with rage and he understood that he was brought to Atlantis to save the
villagers and kill the evil queen, Cora and her dragon, Saphira. The next day Henry went outside and when he stepped on some mud an idea formed in his head. Richards’s memories showed him 44
how to use his powers. Henry gathered the mud and made something that looked like a dragon. When he touched it, it came to life. The dragon was golden with black stripes on its tail. Henry decided to call it Killer Bee. Henry could read Killer Bee mind and he knew that Killer Bee could read his mind too.
Using Richard’s memories Henry found Queen Cora’s castle which was on the other side
of the mountains. Henry got on Killer Bee’s back and the journey to the castle took two days. Henry went to the villages that were attacked by Cora and asked them to help him kill her and many of them said ok. The next day Henry and the villagers went to Cora’s castle. Henry asked the villagers to kill the monkey looking creatures while he goes inside and kills Cora.
Then out of the sky came the queen’s dragon, Saphira, and she started to attack the
villagers. But then Killer Bee came and started to fight her, both dragons took to the air. Henry transformed himself into a cheetah and ran as fast as he could into the castle but he didn’t get far because he was surrounded by the monkey looking creatures. Henry transformed back to normal and opened his fists and the two swords appeared in them. He started slashing through the creatures. Henry was so strong that one slash could cut the creatures in half and one kick could break all the bones in the creatures’ bodies.
After a couple of minutes, he was outside the queen’s room. The moment he stepped
inside, a big ball of fire hit him and he was knocked down. When he looked up Cora was over him and he could see that she was laughing. Henry kicked her and then threw balls of flame at her but none hit her. After an hour of fighting, Cora started to get tired. Henry used his powers to make himself grow really big. From the corner of his eye he saw Killer Bee start to grow as well. He also saw Killer Bee extend his claw and cut Saphira’s head right off her body. Henry looked back at Cora and saw that she was concentrating all her energy on one last ball of flame but Henry blew it away with just one breath. He reached down and held Cora in his fist. Henry asked Cora, “If I give you a second chance, will you change your ways?” As a response Cora threw one last ball of flame at his face and it burned his right cheek. Henry was so angry that he crushed all Cora’s bones with his fist.
When he went outside he saw that all the monkey looking creatures were dead and the
villagers were cheering. Henry used his powers to turn the villages back to the way they were
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before Cora attacked them. All the villagers thanked him and Killer Bee. Then he went over and thanked Killer Bee for everything he had done but it was time for him to go home but he would come back to visit. When he was done talking to Killer Bee his watch started to glow blue again and in two seconds he was back in his room. He thanked his grandpa and hoped that he was having a good time in heaven. He thanked his grandpa for the watch because now he knew magic was real and he could go back to Atlantis anytime he wants and that’s everything he ever wished for.
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Capitalization 1. Rule 1 : Capitalize the first word, the last word, and all important words in a title.
A. Always capitalize verbs. Example: Percy Jackson and the lightning Thief. B. Capitalize prepositions of five or more letters. 2. Rule 2 : Capitalize Mother, Dad, and other titles when they serve as a replacement for the person’s name. A . Capitalize the title if it appears with a name. Example: My new Dad, Uncle Dave 3. Rule 3 : Capitalize the name of organizations Examples: The Hunters of Artemis.
4. Rule 4 : Capitalize names of day, month, holidays, and special days Examples: Friday, March, Thanksgiving
5. Rule 5 : Capitalize a proper adjective but not the noun it modifies unless the noun is part of a title. A. Specific titles are capitalized following the rule: Capitalize the first word, the last word, and all important words in any title. B. Do not capitalize a, an, the, and, but, or, nor, or prepositions of four or less letters unless those words are the first or last word. Examples: Los Angeles, Empire State building 6. Rule 6: Capitalize brand names but not the product(s). Example: Nike shoes, Adidas shirt 7. Rule 7 : Capitalize business names. Example: Taco Bell, Walgreens 8. Rule 8 : Capitalize institution names. Examples: Stanford University 9. Rule 9: Capitalize names of particular geographic places. Examples: Red Sea, Africa, Gulf of Mexico 47
10. Rule 10: Capitalize historical events, periods of time, and historical document Examples: Prehistoric Age, Civil War, Declaration of Independence
11. Rule 11: Capitalize religions, religious denominations, religious documents, names of churches, and names of a supreme being. Examples: Christianity, Buddhism, Roman Catholic Church
12. Rule 12: Capitalize languages
Examples: English, Spanish, French
13. Rule 13: Capitalize specific names of structures. Examples: Empire State Building, Eiffel Tower 14. Rule 14: Capitalize names, initials, and titles appearing with names. Example: Professor X, Luke Castellan, Percy Jackson 15. Rule 15: Capitalize the first letter of the first word in a sentence. Example: The campers were herded back into their respective cabins. 16. Rule 16: Capitalize the pronoun I. Example: I am the one who shall lead you to victory. 17. Rule 17: Capitalize the first letter of the first word in most lines of poetry. “When the coolness, my brother, is falling.”
But I whispered: “O Darling, I falter with pain!”
And the thirsty leaves rustled, and hissed for the rain,
Where a wayfarer halted and slept on the plain;
And dreamt of a garden of Roses!”
18. Rule 18: Capitalize Roman numerals and the letters for the first major topics in an outline. Capitalize the first letter of the first word in an outline. Examples: I. Energy A. Types
19. Rule 19: Capitalize the first letter of the first word in a direct quotation. Examples: Percy asked, “Who are you?” A. In a split quotation, do not capitalize the first letter of the word in the second part unless a new sentence is begun.
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20. Rule 20: Capitalize government bodies and departments.
Examples: Legislative, Governor, President
21. Rule 21: Capitalize races and ethnic groups.
Examples: White, African Americans, Hispanic
22. Rule 22: Capitalize North, South, East, West, Northeast, Northwest, Southeast, and Southwest when they refer to a region of the country or world. Examples: We will be heading west towards Los Angeles. 23. Rule 23: Capitalize political parties and their members. Examples: Republican Party, Democratic Party 24. Rule 24 : Capitalize the first letter only in most hyphenated words that being a sentence. Example: Fifty dollars is all I have left in my wallet after buying a Birthday presents. A. Capitalize both parts of a hyphenated word in titles. 25. Rule 25: Capitalize a specific, wellknown area or event. Example: Do you think Hillary Clinton is fit to be president?
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Punctuation 1. [ ] Brackets are used to enclose words or figures so as to separate them from the context.
EX. Poseidon ran over to [his son] Percy. EX . Chiron has been the trainer [of the campers] for over 500 years. 2. ( ) Parentheses :a word, clause, or sentence inserted as an explanation or afterthought into a passage that is grammatically complete without it, in writing usually marked off by curved brackets, dashes, or commas. Ex . Zeus accused his brothers (Poseidon and Hades) for stealing his weapon which was missing. Ex . The new prophecy (spoken by the Oracle) spoke of seven heroes that would travel to the old lands and save the world. 3. . Period : It ends a sentence. Ex . Percy is the only son of Poseidon. Ex . Kronos ate all his children because he was afraid that one of them would overthrow him. 4. , Comma : The comma is the punctuation mark most likely to cause angst. This is largely the result of the many different ways the comma is used. Sometimes, the comma indicates a pause that would occur if the sentence were spoken aloud. Other times, the comma separates grammatical components of the sentence. Finally, there are mechanical and stylistic uses of the comma that are simply conventional. Ex . Kronos ate all his children, because he was afraid that one of them would overthrow him. Ex . Percy, Annabeth, and Grover were sent on a quest that would change the world forever. 5. Hyphen : the hyphen’s primary function is the formation of certain compound terms. The hyphen is also used for word division. Ex . Percy looked up from the water and there he was the same man that appeared to him in his sleep. Ex . They made eye contactPercy and Annabeth and that was all they needed to make their move.
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6. — Honger hyphen: Depending on the context, the em dash can take the place of commas, parentheses, or colons—in each case to slightly different effect.
Ex . Swords, bows, arrows, daggers, spears— all the greatest weapons.
Ex . When you vote for me as your new praetor—and I know you will—remember what I have promised, and I will deliver what I promise. 7. : Colon : The colon is used to introduce a list of items. Ex . Percy needed a couple of items: a sword, shield, breastplate, and a helmet. Ex. The quest consisted of seven people: Percy, Annabeth, Jason, Leo, Hazel, Nico, and Frank. 8. ; Semicolon : semicolon is used between two independent clauses (i.e., clauses that could stand alone as separate sentences) when a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) is omitted. 9. ! Exclam : usually used after an interjection or exclamation to indicate strong feelings or high volume (shouting), and often marks the end of a sentence.
Ex. YOU DARE BETRAY YOUR OWN FATHER?!!!!!!
Ex. THE TIME IS NOW!! THIS IS THE PERFECT CHANCE WE'VE BEEN WAITING FOR!!! LET US BE THE FIRST TO TAKE ACTION!!! 10. ‘ Apostrophe : sometimes a diacritical mark. It serves three purposes: [1] The marking of the omission of one or more letters (as in the contraction of do not to don't). [2] The marking of possessive case (as in the eagle's feathers, or in one month's time). [3]The marking by some as plural of written items that are not words established in English orthography (as in P's and Q's). (The use of the apostrophe to form plurals of proper words, as in apple's, banana's, etc., is universally considered incorrect.) Ex. Percy’s sword would always appear back in his pocket in pen form. Ex. Annabeth was seen as the wisest person in the camp because she was Athena's daughter 11. “ Quotation marks : used to indicate material that is being reproduced word for word, as well as some other important uses.
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Ex. “ My name is Percy Jackson. I'm twelve years old. Until a few months ago, I was a boarding student at Yancy Academy, a private school for troubled kids in upstate New York. Am I a troubled kid? Yeah. You could say that.” Ex. Chiron states in a serious manner, “Percy, take this to defend yourself. It's a powerful weapon. Guard it well. Only use it in times of severe distress.” 12. … Ellipsis : usually indicates an intentional omission of a word, sentence, or whole section from a text without altering its original meaning and sometimes hesitation. Ex. Chiron screamed, “Where's percy? Go out and...oh here he comes.” Ex. Percy stumbled into Annabeth and muttered, “Oh sorry. Good mor...i mean afternoon.”
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Commonly Confused Words 9. Commonly Confused/Misused Words Choices Show the differences between each of these common errors and give example sentences of the proper usage for each variant. One (1) advanced sentence that relates to your subject per word. A. Who/Whom “Who” (and the same for “whoever”) is always subject to a verb, and that “whom” (and the same for “whomever”) is always working as an object in a sentence. B. Their/There/ They’re
There is an adverb specifying place; it is also an expletive. Their is a possessive pronoun. They're is a contraction of they are . If you are using there to tell the reader where , both words have here. Here is also a place. If you are using their as a possessive pronoun, you are telling the reader what "they own. Their has heir, which also means heir , as in someone who inherits something. Both words have to do with ownership. They're is a contraction of they are. Sound out they are in the sentence and see if it works. If it does not, it must be one of the previous versions C. Lie/ Lay
Lie is an intransitive verb meaning to recline or rest on a surface. Its principal parts are lie, lay, lain . Lay is a transitive verb meaning to put or place. Its principal parts are lay, laid. 1. Laid/Lain
Lay is the present tense of a verb whose basic meaning is ‘place something in a more or less horizontal position’, with the past tense and participle laid. 53
Lay is also the past tense of the verb lie (‘assume a horizontal or resting position’); while lain is the past participle. 1. Affect/ Effect
Affect is usually a verb meaning to influence. Effect is usually a noun meaning result. The drug did not affect the disease, and it had several adverse side effects . Effect can also be a verb meaning to bring about. Only the president can effect such a dramatic change. 1. Accept/Except
Accept is a verb meaning to receive. Except is usually a preposition meaning excluding. I will accept all the packages except that one. Except is also a verb meaning to exclude. Please except that item from the list. 1. C/W/Should have vs. C/W/Should of
The phrase should have indicates a missed obligation or opportunity in the past. In informal speech, it is contracted to should’ve, not "should of." 1. Loath/Loathe
Loathe is a verb meaning to dislike greatly. For example, if you have a mean boss, you might say that you loathe him. Loath is an adjective meaning unwilling or reluctant. For example, you might say that you are loath to spend time with your mean boss outside work. 1. Infer/Imply
Imply is a verb that means to convey meaning subtly or indirectly. Infer is a verb that means to reach a conclusion as the result of an experience or circumstance. 1. Weary/Wary
To be wary is (1) to be on guard against something, or (2) to be watchful or cautious. Weary means physically or mentally fatigued. It’s a synonym of tired.
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1. Proceed/Precede
The verb to precede means to come before (usually in time). The verb to proceed means to go forwards, or to continue. The noun proceeds (always in the plural) means the profit arising from an event or sale. 1. Discrete/ Discreet
The adjective discreet means prudently selfrestrained or tactful. (The adjective discreet is related to the nouns discretion and discreetness .) The adjective discrete means distinct or separate. (The adjective discrete is related to the noun discreteness .) 1. Conscience/Conscious
The noun conscience means "the sense of what is right and wrong." The adjective conscious means "being aware" or "deliberate." 1. Can/ May
Can means to be physically or mentally able to do something. May means to have permission to do something. 1. At least five (5) others
1. Allusion, Illusion: An Allusion is an indirect reference. An illusion is a misconception or false impression. Did you catch my allusion to the movie? Mirrors give the room an illusion of depth. 2. Than, Then : Than is a conjunction used in comparisons; then is an adverb denoting time. Than is used to compare; both words have the letter a in them. Then tells when; both are spelled the same, except for the first letter.
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3. To, Too, Two: To is a preposition; too is an adverb; two is a number. If you are trying to spell out the number, it is always
two. Two has a w which is the first letter in word. The opposite of word is
number. Too is usually used as also when adding or including some additional information. Whenever you want to include something else, think of it as adding; therefore you also need to add an extra o. 4. Your, You're: Your is a possessive pronoun; you're is a contraction of you are . Sound out you are in the sentence. If it works in the sentence it can be written as you're . If it sounds awkward, it is probably supposed to be Your . 5. Adapt, Adopt The verb adapt means to take something and make it suitable for a specific use or situation. The verb adopt means to take something and make it one's own.
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About the Author The author, Haben M. Agostino, was born on March 27, 1998 in a small country called Eritrea, Africa. He is the fourth child and second male. He has three sisters whom he persistently holds hatred for and a brother that likes to quarrel for fun. Growing up without ever seeing his father he had a great education and was often at the top of his class. As a child he never read seeing as there was no such thing as a public library in his home land. At the age of eleven he left Eritrea with his family and moved to Kenya. For about seven months he lived in Kenya and watched English shows in hopes of learning the language. In May 2009 he came to America and met his father. That th following year he started 5 grade in America. He did not know English so often times he did not say anything. It was during that class that he found out people actually read for fun and that books were available to everyone. During the reading tests he began at the bottom of the class, barely reading 4060 words per minute. He aspired to be the best and improve himself so he found a way to get a library card and started reading from the children's books and moving up as he understands even more. Over time he started checking out up to 79 books every other day. When he could not sleep at night he would go to the window and use the light from outside to write a short story in his notepad, which he would often rip before anybody got a chance to see. In sixth grade he published his first book which was about a new discovery he just made, Greek Mythology. He began to read deeper into mythology all over the world as well as fantasy. He enjoys spending time alone with his significant other getting to know each other better and playing video games. Now with books being available online he can read anywhere on the go as well as publish amateur stories on websites such as Wattpad. When Haben gets older he hopes to become a doctor and if that doesn’t work out his second choice would be to become an author. His advice for young authors, like him, is that don’t be afraid to share your creativity even if you get criticized. Criticism is just someone telling you what you need to improve on. Use that to push yourself harder and create a masterpiece that will capture the world’s attention.
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Glossary
A Absurdities : the quality or state of being ridiculous or wildly unreasonable Annabeth Chase : Daughter of Athena Angst : a feeling of deep anxiety or dread, typically an unfocused one about the human condition or the state of the world in general Apollo : Greek and Roman god of poetry, prophecy, medicine, and light. Apollo represents all aspects of civilization and order. Ares : Greek god of war. He is one of the Twelve Olympians, and the son of Zeus and Hera. Artemis : Greek goddess of the moon and hunting, the twin of Apollo and the daughter of Zeus and Leto. She was known as Diana to the Romans. Athena : Also called Pallas, Pallas Athena. the virgin deity of the ancient Greeks worshiped as the goddess of wisdom, fertility, the useful arts, and prudent warfare. At her birth she sprang forth fully armed from the head of her father, Zeus. Auxiliary : providing supplementary or additional help and support. C Camp Half Blood : a Greek demigod training facility located on the Long Island Sound, directed by Dionysus, who the campers call “Mr.D,” and Chiron, a centaur who is activities coordinator Chiron : a wise and beneficent centaur, teacher of Achilles,Asclepius, and others. Clarisse : Daughter of Ares Correlative : having a mutual relationship; corresponding Counselor : a person trained to give guidance on personal, social, or psychological problems Critique : a detailed analysis and assessment of something, especially a literary, philosophical, or political theory. D Demigods : a being with partial or lesser divine status, such as a minor deity, the offspring of a god and a mortal, or a mortal raised to divine rank.
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Diacritical : (of a mark or sign) serving to indicate different pronunciations of a letter above or below which it is written. Dionysus : the god of the grape harvest, winemaking and wine, of ritual madness, fertility, theatre and religious ecstasy in Greek mythology. Dynamic : (of a process or system) characterized by constant change, activity, or progress. Dyslexia : a general term for disorders that involve difficulty in learning to read or interpret words, letters, and other symbols, but that do not affect general intelligence. E Egotistical : excessively conceited or absorbed in oneself; selfcentered. Embedded : fix (an object) firmly and deeply in a surrounding mass. Emitting : produce and discharge (something, especially gas or radiation) Empirically : based on, concerned with, or verifiable by observation or experience rather than theory or pure logic. Encompasses : surround and have or hold within. Equivocation : the use of ambiguous language to conceal the truth or to avoid committing oneself; prevarication. Excessive : more than is necessary, normal, or desirable; immoderate. F Fatal Flaw : a literary device that can be defined as a trait in a character leading to his downfall and the character is often the hero of the literary piece. This trait could be the lack of selfknowledge, lack of judgment and often it is hubris (pride). Futurist : a person who studies the future and makes predictions about it based on current trends. G Gerund : a form that is derived from a verb but that functions as a noun, in English ending in ing , e.g., asking in do you mind my asking you? . Grover : a Styr who became the Lord of the Wild H Hades : The Greek and Roman god of the underworld and the ruler of the dead. Also called Dis.
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Hephaestus : the Greek god of blacksmiths, craftsmen, artisans, sculptors, metals, metallurgy, fire and volcanoes. Hephaestus' Roman equivalent is Vulcan. Hermes : an Olympian god in Greek religion and mythology, the son of Zeus and the Pleiad Maia. He is the second youngest of the Olympian gods. Hermes is considered a god of transitions and boundaries. I Infinitive : the basic form of a verb, without an inflection binding it to a particular subject or tense (e.g., see in we came to see , let him see ). Intransitive : (of a verb or a sense or use of a verb) not taking a direct object, e.g., look in look at the sky J Jason Grace : Son of Jupiter and brother to Thalia Grace K Kronos : Ruler of the Titans, the Titan of time. His parents are Gaia (the Earth) and Uranus (the sky). L Labyrinth : a complicated irregular network of passages or paths in which it is difficult to find one's way; a maze. Lexical : of or relating to the words or vocabulary of a language. M Millennia : a period of a thousand years, especially when calculated from the traditional date of the birth of Christ. Minotaur :a monster, the offspring of Pasiphaë and the Cretan Bull, that had the head of a bull on the body of a man: housed in the Cretan Labyrinth, it was fed on human flesh until Theseus, helped by Ariadne, killed it. Mundane : lacking interest or excitement; dull. N Nico di Angelo : Son of Hades O
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Olympus :a mountain in NE Greece, on the boundary between Thessaly and Macedonia: mythical abode of the greater Grecian gods. 9730 feet (2966 meters). Omitted : leave out or exclude (someone or something), either intentionally or forgetfully Oracle : a priest or priestess acting as a medium through whom advice or prophecy was sought from the gods in classical antiquity. P Participle : a word formed from a verb (e.g., going , gone , being , been ) and used as an adjective (e.g., working woman , burned toast ) or a noun (e.g., good breeding ). In English, participles are also used to make compound verb forms (e.g., is going , has been ). Percy Jackson : Son of Poseidon Poseidon : The god of the sea, water, earthquakes, and horses, son of Cronus and Rhea and brother of Zeus. He is often depicted with a trident in his hand. Roman equivalent Neptune. Praetor : each of two ancient Roman magistrates ranking below consul. Predicate : the part of a sentence or clause containing a verb and stating something about the subject (e.g., went home in John went home ). Pretentiously : attempting to impress by affecting greater importance, talent, culture, etc., than is actually possessed. Prompt : (of an event or fact) cause or bring about (an action or feeling). S Semiautomatic : partially automatic Stative : (of a verb) expressing a state or condition rather than an activity or event, such as be or know , as opposed to run or grow . Superlative : (of an adjective or adverb) expressing the highest or a very high degree of a quality (e.g., bravest , most fiercely ). T Tartarus : the deep abyss that is used as a dungeon of torment and suffering for the wicked and as the prison for the Titans. Telekinesis : the supposed ability to move objects at a distance by mental power or other nonphysical means.
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Thalia Grace : Daughter of Zeus and sister to Jason Grace V Verifiable : capable of being verified W Wayfarer : a person who travels on foot. Z Zeus : the king of the gods and husband of Hera in Greek mythology; the supreme deity of the ancient Greeks, a son of Cronus and Rhea,brother of Demeter, Hades, Hera, Hestia, and Poseidon, and father of a number of gods, demigods, and mortals; the god of the heavens,identified by the Romans with Jupiter.
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Work Cited " FREE Online English Usage Rules." Grammar and Punctuation . N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Dec. 2015. "Grammarly Handbook | English Grammar Rules." Grammarly Handbook | English Grammar Rules . N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Dec. 2015. "Clauses and Phrases." Clauses and Phrases . N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Dec. 2015. "The Essential Clause." Grammar Bytes! :: . N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Dec. 2015. "Prepositions: Locators in Time and Place." Prepositions: Locators in Time and Place . N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Dec. 2015. "Conjunctions." Conjunctions . N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Dec. 2015. "1. Sentence Fragments." Twelve Common Errors: An Editing Checklist . N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Dec. 2015. "Common Sentence Errors." Time4Writing . N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Dec. 2015.
"Khan Academy." Khan Academy . N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Dec. 2015. "4 Sentence Types Use Them And Help Your Writing Sing!" Reading Worksheets Spelling Grammar Comprehension Lesson Plans . N.p., 10 Feb. 2010. Web. 01 Dec. 2015. "Sentence Patterns." The Writing Center Sentence Patterns Comments . N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Dec. 2015. "Guide to Different Kinds of Essay." Gallaudet University . N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Dec. 2015. "CAPITALIZATION RULES." CAPITALIZATION RULES . N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Dec. 2015. "Capitalization." Grammarly Handbook . N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Dec. 2015. "Punctuation Rules." Punctuation Rules . N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Dec. 2015. "Commonly Misused Words and Phrases." Commonly Misused Words and Phrases . N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Dec. 2015. "39 Incorrectly Used Words That Can Make You Look Bad." Inc.com . N.p., 11 Feb. 2015. Web. 01 Dec. 2015. 63
Dedication I would like to dedicate this book to my lovely and caring girlfriend Trisha. Thank you for staying up with me on those sleepless nights and telling me when to get to work. You put an end to my procrastination and for that I am grateful. And most importantly thank you for being the artistic and creative side of me and my stress reliever. I love you with all my heart. Ami tomake bhalobashi.
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