European Science in the Age of Galileo

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European Science in the Age of Galileo 伽利略時代的歐洲科學 撰文及考題設計 British Council 英協教育中心 Brian Welter 中譯 陳怡君 （中央社編譯）

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Italian scientist Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was as famous for his struggles with the authorities of his day as for his scientific discoveries, which included the nature of the physical universe. An able inventor, he also significantly improved the telescope and used it to prove his theories about astronomy. He faced controversy in part because science was undergoing profound upheaval. 義大利科學家伽利略（1564-1642）與當代政府 的對抗，和他的科學發現─包括對於物理宇宙本 質的研究同樣聞名。伽利略是個了不起的發明家， 他大幅加強望遠鏡的功能，並用此證明他的天文 學理論。然而伽利略受到廣泛質疑的部分原因在 於，當年的科學正處於深刻動盪的狀態。

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Much of t h is dee p cha nge was related to

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cosmology, which is the study of the universe,

伽利略肖像畫。（取自WIKIMEDIA COMMONS）

including the Earth’s place in relation to the Sun

other words.

and the stars. Up to Galileo’s day, people commonly

這項巨大的變化大多與宇宙論有關。宇宙論即

assumed that, while the Earth was indeed spherical,

是研究宇宙的科學，包括地球與太陽、其他星體

the Sun orbited the Earth rather than the other way

的關係。在伽利略的年代，縱使地球是顆球體，而

around. The Earth was the centre of the universe, in

人們卻仍大多相信太陽是環繞著地球運轉的；換

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句話說，地球是宇宙的中心。

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that the Earth actually revolved around the Sun, many people thought it was foolish, or at best only

Two g re at a ncie nt t h i n ke r s st i l l st rong ly

a mathematical theory. The Greek word for Sun

influenced European science in the early seventeenth

being helios, this model became known as the

century: Aristotle (died 322 BC) and Ptolemy (died

heliocentric, or Sun-centred, theory. Despite the

170). Concerning cosmology, Aristotle believed

initial lack of enthusiasm for the Copernican system,

in an unchanging universe. Stars, comets, planets,

as decades passed it became more and more obvious

and the Sun revolved around the Earth in perfectly

that the Earth did indeed revolve around the Sun.

circular patterns; each element in the sky belonged

The growing body of knowledge on the universe,

to a certain level or sphere. Unfortunately, this failed

especially in Galileo’s day, would eventually prove

to explain irregularities in the sky such as why

Copernicus right.

new stars or comets appeared from time to time or

儘管 有這 些缺陷，兩套學說仍從 此根深蒂固

why planets did not in fact follow perfectly circular

於歐洲人的想像。當波蘭科學家尼可拉•哥白尼

paths. Attempting to explain such irregularities

（1473-1543）撰寫一本書解釋地球其實是環繞太陽

made it a complicated system. Ptolemy several

而運行，許多人認為他愚蠢至極，或頂多是個數學

centuries later endeavored to simplify the system,

理論。希臘文稱太陽為Helios，因此這套學說被稱

but because it was a faulty model to begin with, he

為Heliocentric（太陽中心理論）。儘管哥白尼的理

ended up making it even more complicated.

論系統起初並不受青睞，數十年後地球環繞太陽

在17世紀初，兩位偉大的古代思想家：亞里斯 多德（逝於西元前322年）與托勒密（逝於公元170

的種種證據逐趨明朗。對於宇宙的知識體系，尤其 在伽利略的年代，終究證實哥白尼是正確的。

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年）對歐洲科學具強大影響力。針對宇宙論，亞里 斯多德深信一個恆定的宇宙。恆星、彗星、行星與

Many of these theories were hotly debated in

太陽皆以完美的圓形軌道環繞地球；天空中的每

Rome, an important centre of European science at

個元素皆屬於某氣層或球體；然而不幸地，這個理

the time. A group of religious men there, the Jesu-

論無法解釋天空中的不規律性，如為何新興星體

its, had heavily invested in science because they

或彗星的隨機出現？為何星球並未以完美的圓形

believed that the universe could be logically under-

軌道運行？為了嘗試解釋這些不規律性讓學說變

stood. Surprisingly, these researchers themselves

得相當複雜。數個世紀之後，托勒密曾嘗試簡化

did not always act logically when they debated Co-

這套系統理論，但因這理論即根據在錯誤的命題

pernicus’s theory.

上，他最後僅讓理論更為複雜。

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許多類似的理論在羅馬受到熱烈爭辯，羅馬在 當時是歐洲科學的重鎮。一群稱做耶穌會士的宗

Despite these shor tcom i ngs, both these

教人士重金投資於科學研究，因為他們深信宇宙

systems were deeply entrenched in the European

是可以透過邏輯去理解。然而令人訝異的是，這些

imagination. When a Polish scientist Nicholas

研究人員在爭論哥白尼的理論時並不總是依照邏

Copernicus (1473-1543) wrote a book explaining

輯行事。

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Thus when Galileo saw through one of his telescopes that the moon’s surface was not shiny and smooth as Aristotle said it was, but rocky and full of peaks and valleys just like on Earth, many people disbelieved him. His supporters in Rome or Florence would hold gatherings with him as the guest of honour so that he could show the skeptics the moon through his telescope. Both he and his telescope were the wonders of the time. Because night conditions were not always favourable to viewing the moon’s surface, many people still continued to follow the old ways, unconvinced of the fresh insights

在伽利略的時代，當他透過望遠鏡發現月亮的表面如地球般布滿岩 石、高峰與山谷，許多人並不相信他。圖為1971年美國阿波羅15 號登陸月球。（美聯社）

about the moon. In fact, those people felt threatened

by Galileo’s findings. Instead of modifying their

科學百家爭鳴莫衷一是的情況。科技上的成就促

perspective, they wanted to stop and even punish

成了新的發現，不停地挑戰人們的想法。

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Galileo. 因此當伽利略透過他的望遠鏡發現月亮的表面

What did unite the scientists and authorities of

其實如地球般布滿岩石、高峰與山谷，並非如亞

Galileo’s time, whether they were on the great sci-

里斯多德所描述的光亮與平滑時，許多人並不相

entist’s side or not, was the search for the truth. All

信他。他在羅馬與佛羅倫斯的支持者為了他舉行

of the individuals involved believed that the laws of

集會，邀請他向質疑論者提供他望遠鏡去觀察月

the universe could be known. People were willing

球。在當時，他與他的望遠鏡都是奇觀。由於並非

to make sacrifices for this quest. In Galileo’s case,

每晚的情況都適合觀測月球表面，許多人們仍持

this meant a limitation on his liberty of movement,

續相信古老學說，拒絕相信對於月球新理論。事實

social interaction, and work, as his insistence on the

上，那些人因伽利略的發現而感受到威脅。與其修

heliocentric model of the universe meant that the au-

正他們的觀點，他們選擇阻止並懲罰伽利略。

thorities tried to silence him. He spent the last years

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The famous trial of Galileo in Rome reflected not

which largely came from the stress of fighting pow-

only some people’s narrow views, but also how vi-

erful figures. The science of his time benefited from

brant yet unsettled Italian and European science was

his sacrifices. Scientists the world over regard him

at the time; new discoveries, often due to techno-

as a model and hero, but they often forget that his

logical achievements, ceaselessly confronted people.

work is known only because of the respect science

伽利略在羅馬接受審判的著名例子，不僅反映

was given by many people at that time, even those

部分人士狹隘的觀點，也顯現當時義大利和歐洲

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of his life in limited freedom and declining health

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who opposed him.

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在伽利略的年代，無論政府是否真的站在科學

工作。他的晚年自由受限，健康惡化的主因來自

家這邊，真正使科學家與執政當局團結一起的，

與當權者對抗的壓力，然而他所處的當代科學因

是追求真相的信念。每個參與的個體深信宇宙定

他的犧牲而受益。世界各地的科學家視他為典範

律是可以被了解的，而人們願意為了追求真相而

與英雄，但他們往往忘記，伽利略的成就為人所

犧牲。以伽利略來說，他因堅持太陽中心說，當

知，是因為當時許多人敬仰科學，即使是反對他

局為讓他噤聲而限制他的遷徙自由、社會互動與

的人。

雅思考試粉絲團： www.facebook.com/ielts.testcentre

雅思考試模擬試題 IELTS questions

True, False, or Not given 1. Galileo was born in Pisa.

2. People in Galileo’s age generally thought that the Earth was flat.

3. Ancient science still played an important role in the early seventeenth century.

4. Copernicus described a Sun-centred system.

5. One common view in Galileo’s time was that the moon was glassy.

6. Galileo was able to convince everyone when he allowed them to see the moon through his telescope.

7. Galileo gave some telescopes as presents to powerful people.

Write no more than 3 words and/or numbers: Scientist

Century

Scientific Theory or Discovery

Aristotle

4th BC

The universe doesn’t 8.____________________.

Ptolemy

2nd

Attempted simplification of Aristotle’s theory.

9. _____________________

16th

Heliocentric

17th

Heliocentric; Moon was rocky; it has 10.___________________.

8.change Answers: 1.Not given

9.Copernicus 2.False

10.peaks and valleys

3.True

4.True

5.True

6.False

7.Not given

Galileo

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