Tokyo - The Urban Laboratory by Caitlin Latimer-Jones

TOKYO: THE URBAN LABORATORY CAITLIN LATIMER JONES JON

The birth, death and legacy of Metabolism, with a case study of the Capsule Tower as an emblematic microcosm.

認めます ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to take this opportunity to thank Zhongjie Lin for introducing me to to the world of Metabolism. Originally gaining insight through his publication ‘Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement’, I was fortunate enough to interview him in late 2015. The discussion proved to be a key motivation for writing my dissertation, invaluably helping me construct an explorative response to how Metabolism has influenced contemporary design and planning. Thank you to my dissertation tutor Martin Beattie, for his insight and encouragement. Discussions with 2015 RIBA Stirling Prize winning architect, Paul Monaghan, and Sustainable Urbanist, Jonathan Smales, supported my research further. Thank you for sharing your extensive knowledge. I would also like to express my gratitude to Maja Zafirovska, Heather Sutcliffe and Owen Pritchard, your inspiring guidance and constructive criticism has been pivotal in the development of my dissertation. This project would have been impossible without Linda LatimerJones and Peter O’Shea. Travelling Japan for two months was incomparable to anything I’ve done before, it enlightened my independent study and let me experience firsthand, the allure of Metabolism and the Capsule Tower. Thank you for making the adventure possible.

説明します ILLUSTRATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

[Figure 1: Ariel view of Tokyo, destroyed after 1945 bombings] National Archives, College Park, Maryland, USA. RG-342-FH-289973 (http://www.japanairraids.org/?page_id=213) [Figure 2.1: Ariel of Tokyo’s grid system, Caitlin Latimer-Jones ©] [Figure 2.2: Ariel of London’s grid system, Caitlin Latimer-Jones ©] [Figure 2.3: Ariel of New York’s grid system, Caitlin Latimer-Jones ©] [Figure 3: Shibuya Crossing, Tokyo, Caitlin Latimer-Jones ©] [Figure 4: Koenji Street Festival, Tokyo, Caitlin Latimer-Jones ©] [Figure 5: Koenji Street Festival, Tokyo, Caitlin Latimer-Jones ©] [Figure 6: Koenji Street Festival, Tokyo, Caitlin Latimer-Jones ©] [Figure 7: 1960 World Design Conference, Tokyo] Asada Collection, Tohoku University of Art & Design, Library Taschen [Figure 8: ‘Metabolism: The Proposals of New Urbanism’ Cover, 1960] https://plusacne.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/metabolism_01.jpg [Figure 9: Kikutake’s Ocean City, Kiyonori Kikutake, 1960] http://www.domusweb.it/en/news/2011/05/03/metabolism-thecity-of-the-future.html [Figure 10: Tange’s Plan for Tokyo Bay, Kenzo Tange, 1960] http://arquiscopio.com/archivo/page/9/?lang=en [Figure 11: Collective Form diagram, Maki] https://archcritik.wordpress.com/2015/05/24/fumihiko-maki-and-

collective-form-three-paradigms/ [Figure 12: Key members of Metabolism, Caitlin Latimer-Jones ©] [Figure 13: Approaching the Nakagin Capsule Tower, Caitlin LatimerJones ©] [Figure 14: Nakagin Capsule Tower, Caitlin Latimer-Jones ©] [Figure 15: Nakagin Capsule Tower, Caitlin Latimer-Jones ©] [Figure 16: capsule construction] http://www.ananasamiami.com/2011/05/nakagin-capsule-tower1720-by-kisho.html [Figure 17: Capsule construction] http://www.ananasamiami.com/2011/05/nakagin-capsule-tower1720-by-kisho.html [Figure 18: Detail of Capsule joint] http://socks-studio.com/2011/03/26/michael-vlasopoulos-justbought-a-capsule-in-k-kurokawa%E2%80%99s-nakagin-capsuletower/ [Figure 19: Building the Nakagin Capsule Tower] http://www.ananasamiami.com/2011/05/nakagin-capsule-tower1720-by-kisho.html [Figure 20: Drawing of Nakagin Capsule Tower] http://www.ananasamiami.com/2011/05/nakagin-capsule-tower1720-by-kisho.html [Figure 21: Axonometric of Capsule interior] http://www.ananasamiami.com/2011/05/nakagin-capsule-tower1720-by-kisho.html [Figure 22: Net covering, Nakagin Capsule Tower] http://www.domusweb.it/en/architecture/2013/05/29/the_metab olist_routine.html [Figure 23: Interior of derelict Capsule] http://www.postwarconcretepostscript.com/2014/11/07/nakagincapsule-tower-tokyo/ [Figure 24: Nakagin Capsule Tower, Caitlin Latimer-Jones ©]

[Figure 25: Lockers for Capsules] http://www.domusweb.it/en/architecture/2013/05/29/the_metab olist_routine.html [Figure 26: Expo ’70 postcard] http://dispokino.blogspot.co.uk/2014_12_01_archive.html [Figure 27: Roof, Expo ’70 ] http://www.frieze.com/issue/article/past-futures1/ [Figure 28: Isozaki’s Robots, Expo ‘70] http://cyberneticzoo.com/robots/1970-expo70-osakademonstration-robot-arata-isozaki-japanese/ [Figure 29: Metabolism timeline, Caitlin Latimer-Jones] [Figure 30: Vertical Forest, Boeri Studio] http://www.archdaily.com/777498/bosco-verticale-stefano-boeriarchitetti [Figure 31: City scape surrounding Shanghai Tower, Gensler] http://du.gensler.com/vol6/shanghai-tower/ [Figure 32: Landscaped atriums, Shanghai Tower, Gensler] http://du.gensler.com/vol6/shanghai-tower/ [Figure 33: Habitat 67, Safdie] http://dzinetrip.com/habitat-67-montreal-prefabricated-city-bymoshe-safdie/ [Figure 34: Habitat 67, Safdie] http://thefabweb.com/43163/30-best-architecture-pictures-of-theweek-may-10th-to-may-017th-2012/attachment/43184/ [Figure 35: Diagram of changing façade, Vertical Forest, Boeri Studio] http://www.archdaily.com/777498/bosco-verticale-stefano-boeriarchitetti [Figure 35: Maintenance of façade, Vertical Forest, Boeri Studio] http://www.archdaily.com/777498/bosco-verticale-stefano-boeriarchitetti [Figure 36: Context of high riser, Vertical Forest, Boeri Studio] http://www.archdaily.com/777498/bosco-verticale-stefano-boeriarchitetti

[Figure 37: Diagram showing influence of low rise dwellings and high risers, Rødovre SkyVillage, Adept, MVRDV] http://www.dezeen.com/2008/11/04/r%C3%B8dovre-skyscraperby-mvrdv-and-adept/ [Figure 38: Rødovre SkyVillage, Adept, MVRDV] http://www.dezeen.com/2008/11/04/r%C3%B8dovre-skyscraperby-mvrdv-and-adept/ [Figure 39: External space, Rødovre SkyVillage, Adept, MVRDV] http://www.dezeen.com/2008/11/04/r%C3%B8dovre-skyscraperby-mvrdv-and-adept/

TOKYO: THE URBAN LABORATORY The birth, death and legacy of Metabolism, with a case study of the Capsule Tower as an emblematic microcosm. CAITLIN LATIMER â&#x20AC;&#x201C; JONES UNDERGRADUATE DISSERTATION

市街研究室の東京 TOKYO: THE URBAN LABORATORY

導⼊ INTRODUCTION Japan experienced devastating destruction following World War Two and multiple natural disasters. With financial and technical assistance from global superpowers during the 1960s, Tokyo underwent unprecedented urban growth and 1 infrastructural and industrial progress. Japan needed urban housing that preserved the self-sufficiency of the citizens, while maximising the city’s efficiency and functionality. ‘Metabolism’ can be defined as: “the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in 2 order to maintain life.” The movement advocated a utopian approach to urban planning, promoting the image of a city as organic: sharing the ability of living organisms to adapt, grow and respond to their 3 environment. Metabolism was born at the start of a new frontier of scientific and technological development. By 1959, 4 the scanning-electron-microscope (SEM) was capable of 5 magnifying cells by a million times. Such advancements

Raffaele Pernice, ‘Images of the Future from the Past: The Metabolists and the Utopian Planning of the 1960s’, JCEA, 8 (2014), pp. 761–71 <http://dx.doi.org/10.17265/1934-7359>. 2 ‘Metabolism’ (TheFreeDictionary.com) <http://www.thefreedictionary.com/metabolism> [accessed 17 January 2016]. 3 Zhongjie Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan (New York: Taylor & Francis, 2010). p.1 4 First invented in 1931 in Germany, the SEM magnified objects 8,000 times, considerably superior than previous light microscopes. 5 Aurel von Richthofen, ‘3m’s of Metabolism’, 2012 <http://aurelvr.com/content/3m%E2%80%99smetabolism> [accessed 15 January 2016].

created a new visual language to inspire architecture, kindling innovative ideas of growth and life. Tokyo became an urban laboratory for Metabolist Megastructures. However, Megastructures never achieved the intended global success, experiencing the same demise as the movement by the 6 1970s. This paper explores Tokyo’s mid 1900s landscape, the rise and fall of Metabolism and how the Capsule Tower, scarcely surviving in 2015, became the emblem of the movement. Concluding chapters will further explore how Metabolism has enlightened contemporary urban design and planning. There is a general consensus that today’s design should be led by concerns related to sustainability, green spaces and user’s interconnectivity with the metropolis. The 7 “metabolic development” of the world’s societies should continue to evolve, to ameliorate and surpass the 1960s utopian proposals.

Zhongjie Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan (New York: Taylor & Francis, 2010). pp. 226-229 7 Kawazoe, Metabolism: The Proposals for New Urbanism. Preface.

東京解剖学 TOKYO’S ANATOMY Ruins

[Figure 1]

Tokyo’s resilience is unparalleled. It is the “perfect example of 8 the fluid, regenerating city.” A fifth of the world's 9 earthquakes of magnitude 6 or higher are in Japan. Since 1868, Tokyo has endured two of the world’s most devastating earthquakes, in 1923 and 1945. The 1923 Great Kanto 10 earthquake claimed over 140,000 lives. At the beginning of 1945, American bombers destroyed three-quarters of a million houses, 100,000 people killed and 3,000,000 made 11 homeless. Architect Takamitsu Azuma, fittingly describes 12 Tokyo as a “seismic graveyard.” It is somewhat surprising that by 1960, Tokyo had a population of 17.8 million (Post war 13 1945 population was 9.4 million). Nowadays, London’s 2015 14 population is 8.6 million. Tokyo’s rapid modernising regeneration is in polar opposition to the West’s more 15 enduring and coherent cityscapes. A city of predictably dangerous wood has been replaced by concrete and steel. Tokyo continues to transform, requiring inventive solutions to the city’s framework, housing design and quality of life. 8

Yoshinobu Ashihara, The Hidden Order: Tokyo through the Twentieth Century (Japan: Kodansha International, 1992). p. 58 9 Justin McCurry, ‘Tokyo “Has 70% Chance of Powerful Earthquake within Four Years”’, The Guardian (The Guardian, 11 January 2016) <http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jan/23/tokyopowerful-earthquake-four-years> [accessed 10 January 2016]. 10 Peter Popham, Tokyo: The City at the End of the World (United States: Kodansha America, 1986). p.17 11 ibid. p. 17 12 ibid. p. 37 13 ‘Tokyo-Yokohama Metropolitan Area Population from 1920’, Demographia <http://www.demographia.com/db-tok1920.htm> [accessed 7 January 2016]. 14 BBC, ‘London’s Population Hits 8.6m Record High’, BBC London (BBC News, 2 February 2015) <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-31082941> [accessed 23 December 2015]. 15 Popham, p. 20

A New Beginning

TOKYO’S ANATOMY

In 1919, Japan was powerful enough to have status at the Treaty of Versailles, yet after World War Two, was in a critical 16 condition. Post WW2, through mass industrial, infrastructural and residential development, Tokyo and Japan demonstrated social buoyancy and economic strength. Japan transformed from poverty to prosperity, agriculture to industry, a rural to urban population, all within half a century. To consider the changing elements of Tokyo and what the Metabolism was responding to, it is necessary to explore the city’s socioeconomic climate and physicality. Governing a city of ruins, Tokyo’s municipal authority was bankrupt and in crisis. The priority was the economy, hence drastic improvements of the industry and infrastructure were 17 needed. In 1952, Japan’s independence from the USA allowed for financial and technical assistance from the new ally. However, the government remained unstable, hampering mass reconstruction of the capital. The authorities provided the infrastructure, but citizens would rebuild the city. Tokyo quickly repopulated and citizens migrated from the impecunious countryside, bringing with them traditional 18 construction methods and skills, and a resilient work ethic. Consequently, the accumulative reconstruction of a dilapidated country begun – more than 11 million new homes were built between 1950 and 1970, exponentially increasing 19 housing stock by 65 percent. Architect Yoshibonu Ashihara, summates Tokyo’s self-motivated and vigorous iterations as:

[Figure 2.1: Ariel of Tokyo’s grid system]

[Figure 2.2: Ariel of London’s grid system]

[Figure 2.3: Ariel of New York’s grid system]

“The result of a healthy – if somewhat hyper – metabolism, 20 making the city the scene of constant renewal and change.” 16

Popham, p. 66 Matias Echanove and Rahul Srivastava, ‘When Tokyo Was a Slum’, Informal City Dialogues <https://nextcity.org/informalcity/entry/when-tokyo-was-a-slum> [accessed 16 December 2015]. 18 ibid. 19 ibid. 20 Ashihara, p. 58 17

東京解剖学

Compared to the West’s Rationalism and implicit order, Tokyo’s rate of change is attributable to Japan’s apparent paradox of being one of the world’s industrial superpowers, yet in the urban context, maintains an almost contradictory, rather chaotic semi-autonomous network of neighbourhoods, adapting at varying rates to facilitate such a unique and 21 successful urban landscape. Street Life Tokyo is portrayed as a chaotic high density city, lacking a coherent aesthetic sensibility. However, at a density of 11,300 per square mile, it is surprisingly less dense than London, with 22 a density of 13,700 per square mile. Tokyo mainly consists of low-rise residential areas. During a visit to Tokyo in August 2015, one experienced a sense of intimacy: ground floors of dwellings often house a craftsman studio, small boutiques and bakeries. Even the busiest areas of Shinjuku and Shibuya feel innocuous. However, Tokyo lacks public outdoor space. “With its amorphous sprawl… like the pulsating body of an organism… [Tokyo] grows and flourishes in fits and starts without any kind of long term urban planning… one section may be burned out by the fire here, but another will flourish 23 next to it."

TOKYO’S ANATOMY

An amoeba is a “type of cell or organism which has the ability 24 to alter its shape, primarily by extending and retracting.” For a city comparable to organic entities, there are few hints to

the natural environment as one explores. Tokyo has a 25 “physical integrity and capacity for growth,” but needs to undergo a green change to promote wellbeing, either by utilising voids, or incorporating public and private green spaces in future design proposals. Nonetheless, Tokyo has 26 1/14th of the parkland per capita compared to London and citizens have adapted with “narrow and crooked lanes [with] 27 different rhythms.” Despite public spaces hosting overcrowded street festivals, one experiences a feeling of anonymity, yet paradoxically blending in, experiencing Japanese community and culture. Metamorphose The redevelopment of Tokyo, meant the metropolis yielded clusters of neighbourhoods. The landowner focused on the dwellings function much more than the building’s interaction with the roadside, resulting in incoherent sidewalks and 28 alleyways having a fragmented quality. The Western notion of naming streets and numbering houses is almost nonexistent in Japan – instead, citizens chose their house number 29 based on personal preference. With no numerical order of houses, one has the ability to get, almost undoubtedly, lost. Kurokawa, who became a key member of Metabolism, describes the capital as a potpourri of 300 cities: “I think that all cities should actually be considered conglomerations of smaller cities. [They] possess their own

Echanove and Srivastava, ‘When Tokyo Was a Slum’ ‘Demographia World Urban Areas: (Built-Up Urban Areas or World Agglomerations)’, by Demographia, 11th Annual Edition (2015). p. 20 23 Ashihara, p. 58 24 ‘Amoeba’, Wikipedia (Wikimedia Foundation, 2016) <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoeba> [accessed 17 January 2016]. 22

Ashihara, p. 58 Popham, p. 44 ibid. p. 48 28 Echanove and Srivastava, ‘When Tokyo Was a Slum’ 29 Popham, p. 48 26 27

東京解剖学

[Figure 3: Shibuya Crossing, Tokyo, Caitlin Latimer-Jones]

[Figure 5: Koenji Street Festival, Tokyo, Caitlin Latimer-Jones]

[Figure 6: Koenji Street Festival, Tokyo, Caitlin Latimer-Jones]

TOKYO’S ANATOMY

[Figure 4: Koenji Street Festival, Tokyo, Caitlin Latimer-Jones]

10 東京解剖学

histories, and physically they merge and separate, changing 30 shape to match the local topography.”

TOKYO’S ANATOMY

This chapter has illustrated the composition of post World War Two Tokyo, and how such prerequisites motivated the rise of Metabolism. Proposals responded to the capital’s shortage of land and lack of efficient planning guidance, as well as improved automobile infrastructure. The movement believed man, technology and science should coexist in order 38 to regain the comprehensibility of the modern city. The next chapter will detail the growing prominence of Metabolism, and the increasing critique of their iconic Megastructure.

Stimuli

Metabolism materialized during financial stability, the Great Economic Growth of Japan between 1955 and 1960 provided 33 overseas technologies, promoting the expansion of industry. Metabolism followed an ethos that transitioned from the 34 mechanical to biodynamic age. Metabolism believed that innovation and experimentation on both land and sea was 35 necessary to create the desired techno-utopian cityscape. Change and ephemerality are at the foundation of Metabolism, and the movement’s use of Japanese tradition 36 highlights their ethos of “50% past, 50% future.” The group’s revolutionary approach to city planning and design was 37 arguably the “last movement that changed architecture.”

A city is not a single entity, interpreting it as a process of networks, permits a better understanding of how 31 neighbourhoods evolve and gradually integrate. Tokyo rebuilt with loose zoning regulations, and the random fusion of mixed-use, low-rise and high-rise communities arose 32 without a clear design. Salvaged by its inhabitants, metamorphosis from a city of rubble occurred.

結論

Kisho Kurokawa, The Philosophy of Symbiosis, 2nd edn. (London: Academy Editions, 1994). p. 44 Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. p. 2 Echanove and Srivastava, ‘When Tokyo Was a Slum’ 33 Raffaele Pernice, ‘Metabolism Reconsidered. Its Role in the Architectural Context of the World’, Journal of Asian Architecture and Building, 3 (2004), pp. 357–63 <https://www.academia.edu/1477295/Metabolism_Reconsidered._Its_Role_in_the_Architectural_Co ntext_of_the_World> [accessed 6 December 2015]. 34 ibid. 35 ibid. 36 Rem Koolhaas and Hans-Ulrich Obrist, Project Japan... By Rem Koolhaas and Hans Ulrich Obrist: An Oral History of Metabolism (Cologne: TASCHEN GmbH, 2011). p. 12 37 ibid.

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31 32

von Richthofen, ‘3m’s of Metabolism.’

代謝誕⽣ METABOLISM’S BIRTH Tange the Facilitator

[Figure 7]

The 1960 World Design Conference, Tokyo, was an international platform that facilitated the birth of 39 Metabolism. Kenzo Tange was fundamental to the formation of the movement, condensed by Project Japan 40 author, Rem Koolhaas: “without Tange, no Metabolism.” While working as an Assistant Professor at Tokyo University, he conceived the Tange Laboratory. His students included Fumihiko Maki, Koji Kamiya, Arata Isozaki, Kisho Kurokawa and Taneo Oki, all of whom either became affiliated to or part 41 of Metabolism. Tange’s role in the formation of the Metabolist movement is described as omnipresent and nurturing: “Tange creates a milieu, a mixing chamber for artists, intellectuals, and architects…Talents are discovered, nourished, (re)programmed, embedded, married, in an almost domestic intimacy that gives Tange invaluable insights – professional and personal – into the strengths, weaknesses and potential of those who would eventually bond together as 42 a “movement,” Metabolism.”

Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. p. 16 Koolhaas and Obrist, p. 12 Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. p. 19 42 Koolhaas and Obrist, p. 13 40 41

In 1959, Tange left to be a visiting professor at MIT, USA, inciting Asada, Kawazoe and Tange Lab graduate, Kurokawa, the task of finding talented architects, to prepare the protégés for the group’s pivotal meeting, with the world’s avant-garde 43 talents. Otaka and Kikutake joined the ambitious Japanese enterprise. Otaka had recently completed the design for a mass housing project in Tokyo Bay and Kikutake was well 44 known for his futuristic Sky House. 250 architects attended, representing 27 countries. Among the participants were significant architects of the era, including Alison and Peter 45 Smithson, Ralph Erskine and Louis Kahn. Included in the manifesto are the essays: Kikutake’s “Ocean City,” Kurokawa’s “Space City,” Kawazoe’s “Material and Man” and Otaka and Maki’s “Towards Group Form.” ‘Metabolism 1960: Proposals for a New Urbanism’, was a collection of projects and theories 46 that solidified Japan’s role in modern architectural history. The Revolution

METABOLISM’S BIRTH

Metabolism’s protagonist’s unveiled their visionary concepts th to the world stage, on 11 May, 1960. ‘Metabolism: The Proposals of New Urbanism,’ the sole publication the group produced, printed in English and Japanese, including four 47 essays. The combination of “revolutionaries, cosmopolitans, 48 thinkers, doers, fanatics [and] mystics” gained global interest. After the World Design Conference, Kikutake and Kurokawa were invited to showcase their unrealised work at “Visionary Architecture,” an exhibition held at the Museum of Modern Art (MOMA). It was also published in the British

Koolhaas and Obrist, p. 13 Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. pp. 19-25 ibid. 46 ibid. 47 ibid. 48 Koolhaas and Obrist, p. 13 44 45

[Figure 8]

Journal, Architectural Design. Following Tange’s involvement with the Western movement CIAM and subgroup 50 Team 10, in 1962 Maki and Kurokawa were invited to meet with the latter team of architects, led by Alison and Peter 51,52 Smithson. Becoming the new generation of Japanese architects, Metabolists creatively utilised innovative technologies and developed schemes at an unmatched scale. Aquatic Architecture

METABOLISM’S BIRTH

Kikutake’s “Ocean City” covered 36/89 pages, consisting of three projects: ‘Tower-shaped City,’ ‘Marine City’ and ‘Ocean City Unabara.’ Kikutake perceived the infinite horizons of the 53 sky and ocean as inspiration , claiming: “my protest, as a former landlord, against the dismantling of the entire 54 landowning system.” Japan was a post war wasteland and 55 his well established proprietor family, was left ostracised. He 56 embraced mutability, and from “atom to nebula” , Towershaped City and Marine City utilised minor and major structures, a key theme of Metabolism. Tower-shaped City was a 300m tall cylindrical major structure of concrete, and the minor structure comprised of alterable steel dwelling units. The tower housed the city’s infrastructure for 5,000 people, including: transportation infrastructure, public services, pipelines and even a manufacturing plant for 57 prefabricated houses. The latter was key to the self

Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. pp. 24-25 Originating from the Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM), Team 10 consisted of Western architects, such as Aldo van Eyck and Jacob Bakema, who championed new urban reforms following World War Two. 51 Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. pp. 24-25 52 ‘Congrès International D’architecture Moderne’, Wikipedia (Wikimedia Foundation, 2015) <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congr%C3%A8s_International_d%27Architecture_Moderne> [accessed 16 January 2016]. 53 ibid. p. 25 54 Koolhaas and Obrist, p. 133 55 ibid. 56 Kawazoe, Metabolism: The Proposals for New Urbanism. Preface. 57 Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. pp. 25-28 50

maintenance, as the prefabricated modules were made in the core and then attached to the exterior. The units were intended to be replenished every fifty years. The project was a protest to the disarray of the city, a counter proposal to the 58 habitual street and blocks. [Figure 9: Kikutake’s Ocean City] 58

Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. pp. 25-28

代謝誕生

METABOLISM’S BIRTH

Floating Cities

Plan for Tokyo Bay

The second proposal, Marine City, was a product of Kikutake’s interest in a new artificial environment. The architect viewed the war and other human evils as falsification, which he theorised must be severed from mankind. The Marine City proposed a liberating utopian society, floating unconnected to 59 the past terrors of civilisation. The buoyant city would be used for agriculture, industry and entertainment. Juxtaposed to Le Corbusier’s fundamentals – sun, air and green – Kikutake replaced foliage with water, residential towers would reach as deep as 200m. Cities would float, and like an organism that reaches inevitable death, sinking to the bottom of the ocean 60 when it was no longer suitable for living. Kikutake’s final proposal was a manifestation and development of the others. Ocean City Unabara contended an industrial city of 500,000 inhabitants, with water facilities for fish farms as well as recreation. Imperatively, the scheme understood the city as a biological process, with the marine city’s population growth comparable to cell division. Housing structures were triangular megastructures, each dwelling pivoting around a 61 central mast. Kikutake’s designs were at an unprecedented

Tange envisioned a new Tokyo. The scale of his designs and technological involvement, were a paradigm of urbanism that 62 diverged from some members, such as Maki. The 1960 Plan for Tokyo Bay proposed a solution to Tokyo’s lack of uniformity, traffic congestion and shortage of central living space. The enormous linear series of interlocking loops extended thirty kilometers across Tokyo Bay, with an elevated highway system as the central spine of the planned redefinition of Japan’s capital. The spine started as a loop around the existing city center and then protracted onto the sea, where a new civic center and port would occupy the third, 63 fourth and fifth loops. The rest of the loops would be office and public buildings. On the spine were inhabitable bridge trusses, each arranged on a rectangular bridge at 200m intervals. Secondary clusters of residential space were positioned at right angles. Tange’s abolishment of the city’s 64 circular configuration led to his proposal of “pivotal cities”. He believed cities of population ten million of more were in a state of confusion and paralysis, with an exhausted structure, 65 no longer able to cope.

scale of both physicality and creativity. Themes of artificial environments, changeable systems and temporality embody many Metabolist designs.

Radical and uncompromising, Tange’s unrealised 1960 Tokyo Bay, proposing a new model of urbanism encroaching on the existing capital, on a scale that ironically diminished the human users. The scheme embodied the flaws inherent in many Megastructure projects: a vision of an architect

Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. p. 228 ibid. pp. 146-148 ibid. 65 Michael Franklin F. Ross, Beyond Metabolism: The New Japanese Architecture (New York: McGrawHill Companies, The, 1978). p.36 63

Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. pp. 25-28 ibid. ibid.

Inverted Hierarchy

代謝誕生

consumed by a technocratic naivety. Tange comments, saying: “In Tokyo, where movement is increasing by the day, it is urgent that a new system of transportation be constructed. And a new system which will bring city, buildings and 67 transportation into a single organic entity”

METABOLISM’S BIRTH

Tange placed the automobile before the human user in his design and such a hierarchy is bound for failure in a world conceived by and sustained for people. In The Exploding Metropolis, Jane Jacobs, describes how “no logic… can be superimposed on the city; people make it, and it is to them, 68 not buildings, that we must fit our plans.” The predetermined lifespans of components and the consequent rigidity of the Megastructure substantiate Jacob’s stance. To invoke a biological analogy as the foundation of the postwar movement, yet ignore the requirements of humanity and the essence of the metropolis, highlights the reductive aesthetic of Metabolist utopia.

[Opposite: Figure 10: Tange’s Plan for Tokyo Bay] 66

Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. pp.158-160 Popham, p. 157 Jane Jacobs, The Exploding Metropolis (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1958) p. 160

67 68

Megastructure vs. Maki Kikutake and other Metabolists, favoured new technology, envisioning megastructures that bore no connection to existing society. Polarised, was Maki and Otaka’s focus on the building’s relationship with the urban landscape. Maki studied at Cranbrook and Harvard, working various architectural firms 69 in New York. He injected an international perspective and was the first to use the term ‘megastructure,’ defining it as: “A large frame in which all the function of a city or a part of a city are housed. It has been made possible by present day technology. In a sense, it is a human-made feature of the landscape... inherent in the megastructure concept, along with a certain static nature, is the suggestion that many and diverse 70 function may be beneficially concentrated in one place.”

METABOLISM’S BIRTH

The design strategy was incisively understood and conceptualised, however, the Maki’s Manifesto essay, “Toward the Group Form,” covertly critiqued the vast utopian structures, instead focusing on the growth of human scale environments. After receiving the Graham Foundation fellowship in 1958, Maki travelled to the Middle East, Europe, Southeast Asia and India. Captivated by the recurring patterns 71 and order in vernacular urban settlements, such observations were intrinsic to the concept. “Towards Group Form” questioned the rigidities of modernist urban planning, arguing that society was exemplified by the array of divergent institutions and individuals. Maki and Otaka aimed for a cohesive image through the repetition of its components. In conventional buildings, it’s entirety is determined by adding up its components; when an element is taken away, the

Cyclic Order Maki and Otaka believed that the new concept would facilitate unpredictable events, stimulating the city to adapt.

In Chinese philosophy, the principle of Yin and Yang is the concept of seemingly oppositional, yet complementary parts, creating a cyclical duality. This approach differs from the Gestalt relationship between figure and ground whereby the whole has more significance than the parts. When yang 74 reaches its culmination, it gives way to yin and vice versa. This application to the built environment allows for a “cosmic harmony produced by the spontaneous transformation of one 75 into the other… a world apart from Cartesian dualism.” Eastern interpretation of cyclic change and being part of a greater whole is comparable to Otaka and Maki’s thesis for group form. Abstraction can be defined as “the quality of 76 dealing with ideas rather than events.” Applying this to individual elements of the built environment gives way to a

Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. pp. 32-34 Ashihara, p. 64 ibid. p.33 75 ibid. p. 33 76 ‘Abstraction’, Oxford Dictionary (Oxford University Press) <http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/abstraction> [accessed 17 January 2016]. 73 74

Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. pp. 31-32 Fumihiko Maki, ‘Investigations in Collective Form’, 1964. Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. p.32

“Parts make up the whole of an individual structure, but that whole is a part in a higher level of order. The city is an organic entity, which undergoes constant change and development, 73 even to severing and discarding unnecessary parts”

overall condition is changed. Comparatively, group form aimed to create a link between the part and whole, shifting emphasis from the physical structure to the hidden order of 72 the city as it evolves.

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new typology – the whole does not change, even if an element 77 does. In addition, the cyclic nature of yin and yang is congruent to Metabolism’s notion of impermanence. However, the concept behind the different lifespans of the minor and major parts of the movements’ proposals triggered critical analysis. The realities of constructing such plans on mass scales, as well as opinions on the criteria of long-term and short-term elements, showed flaws in the movement’s 78 focus on the technocratic dream.

vast skeleton of concrete and steel as an encumbering 80 reminder of a utopian dream. The incoherence of what metabolism, growth and adaptability mean to even the members of the movement, questions the plausibility of Megastructures and paradoxically how representative the schemes were in controlling urban growth and facilitating change.

Unpredictable Change Responding to exponential change in population, urban sprawl and socioeconomic conditions, Metabolist proposals were based on a predetermined interpretation of what needed to change and when. Maki questions the role of megastructures: “Sometimes, the impact and momentum of technology become so great that a change occurs in the basic skeleton of social and physical structure. It is difficult to predict which part of a pond a stone will be thrown and which way the ripples will 79 be spread.”

METABOLISM’S BIRTH

A smaller organizational approach to structure allows better flexibility, thus questioning the entirety of a Megastructure when applied to a real society. The main structure could be superseded, making the changeable secondary structure instantly redundant. For this to occur in reality, a ghost city would succeed the lifespan of the Megastructure, leaving its

[Figure 11: Compositional Form / Mega Form / Group Form

Collective Form, Maki]

Supersize + Superficial Megastructural design was questioned in the 1960s. Many critiqued the schemes as substituting the traditional structure of a neighbourhood, with an inhumane scale of integrated services, and a hierarchal emphasis on infrastructure and the automobile. By 1971, Maki had diverged from the original movement drastically. “[We] have not questioned the menace of unlimited expansion of large metropolises… At what level can we be most effective?... Architects are most useful and effective in restructuring our physical environment at a scale… of several 81 thousand inhabitants… buildings in one block.”

Zhongjie Lin, ‘Nakagin Capsule Tower: Revisiting the Future of the Recent Past’, Journal of Architectural Education, 65 (2011), pp. 25 78 Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. pp. 163-165 79 ibid. p. 164

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Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. p. 164 ibid. pp. 228

By proposing mass schemes inhabiting the sky and the sea, “unlimited expansion” of the city is ironically what Metabolism tried to avoid. Similar to the cyclic analogy of 82 ephemerality - which conceived both the rise and inevitable fall of Metabolism - the impractical and idealistic scale of the Megastructure, languished the survival of the movement. 結論 This chapter has explored how Metabolism gained international recognition, and evaluated the major proposals of the movement, detailing the construction and immense scale of Metabolist schemes. Through this chapter, it has been made evident that criticism for the inhumane structures was gaining momentum, particularly from group member Maki and the urbanist theory expressed in ‘Towards Group Form.’ The ironic unmalleability of the Megastructure and issues with hierarchy of the automobile has also been addressed. The following chapter will investigate the Nakagin Capsule Tower and how, being one of the few built projects, it embodies Metabolist ideologies, and the movement’s fatal flaws of being too idealistic and dismissive of the human user.

METABOLISM’S BIRTH

Raffaele Pernice, ‘Images of the Future from the Past: The Metabolists and the Utopian Planning of the 1960s’ [Figure 12: Key members of Metabolism, Caitlin Latimer-Jones] [Overleaf: Figure 13 + Figure 14, Caitlin Latimer-Jones]

細胞⽣活

CELLULAR LIVING Response to Urban Sprawl

[Figure 15]

Metabolism responded to the urban needs of post war Japan, with Nakagin Capsule Tower being an archetype of such 83 reconnoitres. Kurokawa’s scheme embodies Metabolist ideas of adaptability and replaceability. The population of Japan’s metropolises declined in the 1960s, as office buildings, banks and commercial architecture engulfed residential areas. Tokyoites were decentralising and creating clusters of 84 neighbourhoods, expanding the urban sprawl. The restoration of central housing units was crucial; the Nakagin 85 Capsule Tower was one intended solution. It took 30 days to complete in 1972, and was a pioneering example of micro, 86 prefabricated living, created as a ‘pied-à-terre’ for 87 commuters living in remote suburbs of Tokyo. Interestingly, for a movement premised on an ethos of adaptability of buildings, the building’s users also evolved. The occupants became artists using it as atelier space, and long standing 88 residents, attracted to the idiosyncratic building.

Zhongjie Lin, ‘Nakagin Capsule Tower: Revisiting the Future of the Recent Past’, Journal of Architectural Education, 65 (2011), pp. 13–15. 84 Echanove and Srivastava, ‘When Tokyo Was a Slum’ 85 Popham, pp. 58-62 86 A pied-à-terre is a small living unit usually located in a large city, some distance away from an individual's primary residence. 87 Kisho Kurokawa, Metabolism in Architecture (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1977). pp. 105-109 88 Anas Luis Soare and Filipe Magalhaes, ‘A Year in the Metabolist Future of 1972 — Failed Architecture’, 2014 <http://www.failedarchitecture.com/nakagin/> [accessed 3 April 2015].

Prototypic Construction

Micro Living

Kurokawa developed prototypical modules that could be constructed at a price competitive with existing housing. Working with manufactures of shipping containers, he uncovered the most economical methods for manufacturing, transporting and transforming the modular units into inhabitable spaces. Initially, he experimented with precast concrete units, proving too cumbersome. A more feasible, flexible solution was a welded steel frame enclosed in an 89 insulating jacket. Although futuristic, the design represents an interpretation of traditional Japanese culture. The capsules’ area calculation originated from the scale of a traditional tea ceremony room and the large circular window was an elucidation of the ‘Enlightenment Window’ from Kyoto’s Genkoan Temple. In 2013, 40 out of 140 capsules were 90 inhabited, the rest derelict. The capsules plug into two steel frame and reinforced concrete towers – one eleven and the other thirteen stories with connected bridges – accommodating elevators, equipment piping and circulation. Each capsule measures 2.3 x 3.8 x 2.1 metres and is constructed of steel trusses and sheeting. The shipping container inspired structures are independently cantilevered, to theoretically allow for any capsule to be easily removed and 91 updated. The building was Kurokawa’s reaffirmation of the viability of large scale urban structuring methods, proving that such innovations could be produced and marketed within the 92 density of Ginza, downtown Tokyo.

In ironic contrast to the movement’s notion of a metamorphic living structure, the capsules were never refurbished. Architects Soares and Magalhaes lived in capsule B807 for almost a year, suitably describing the building as an “utopian structure… a fascinating yet wholly anachronistic remnant of 93 a past future.” The couple focus on minute details of cellular living – a bookshelf, table, closet, a TV, radio, fridge sink and bathroom. The later is described as an “entrance to a 94 submarine… even more ergonomic.” With the soap dispenser, towel holder and lamp attached to the walls, no cabinet is needed. The clinical white walls and surfaces, sparse furniture and circular window perceive an image of a futuristic environment. For Soares and Magalhaes, the capsule fulfils the role of a ‘machine for living’ and collaborates successfully 95 with their quotidian Tokyoite lifestyle.

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Michael Franklin F. Ross. p. 37 Anas Luis Soare and Filipe Magalhaes, ‘A Year in the Metabolist Future of 1972 — Failed Architecture’ 91 Kisho Kurokawa, Metabolism in Architecture (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1977). pp. 105-109 92 ibid. p. 105 90

Metabolic Lifespan Kurokawa’s capsule is a self sufficient component, a functioning entity with its own life cycle. Similar to a living cell, it was meant to undergo constant change and replicate the 96 evolving city. Kurokawa’s utmost concern was flexibility and ease of interchange-ability of parts, impermanence heavily influenced design and construction. The core towers and secondary capsules were split into their basic components according to their ‘metabolic cycles.’ The main shafts would last sixty years, while the capsules had a predicted lifespan of twenty-five to thirty-five years – a direct allusion to the Ise 93

Anas Luis Soare and Filipe Magalhaes, ‘A Year in the Metabolist Future of 1972 — Failed Architecture’ 94 ibid. 95 ibid. 96 Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. pp. 235-236

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[Figure 18: Detail of Capsule joint] [Figure 19: Building the Capsule Tower]

[Figure 16: Capsule construction]

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[Figure 17: Capsule construction]

細胞生活

Shrine, rebuilt every 20 years. The capsules’ shorter life span was for social reasons rather than mechanical, changing the capsules would prolong its survival for 200 years, an example of sustainable architecture. Periodic replacement, which never transpired, was intended to facilitate changing human needs and the building’s shifting social relationship with 98 Tokyo’s evolution. Experiencing the Capsule Tower During a personal encounter with the Capsule Tower in August 2015, the geometric capsules are hinted at, on approach. The building appears to have a straight vertical perimeter. A safety net now encases the façade – after decaying debris littered 99 the street below - while the angular staggering and rotation of capsules create the building’s outline. The tinted glass door has English and Japanese trespassing signs and emblazoned across – “Access to building impossible!” Positioned opposite the tower’s convenience store, sat drawing and writing, one woman watches for over ten minutes, equally bemused and intrigued. Delivery trucks and men in suits pass by, not once looking up at the tower above. Reiterating its unassuming position in the Tokyo skyline, few are able to see the brilliance of the unconventional hero of architectural innovation.

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100

Considered a “unique architectural beacon” of avant-garde Japan, a 2007 report from ‘Architectural Record’ drew global attention, speculating the tower was scheduled to be 101 demolished. Japanese building regulations state that after 30 years’ buildings are scheduled for demolition. After 50 102 years, it qualifies as a building of public interest, currently leaving the Capsule Tower to lie in limbo. Tokyo is the pinnacle of urbanization, being nearly one-half larger than any other urban area in the world. Between 1955 and 2000, it became the largest urban area by adding more than 20 million people, more people than had lived in any other municipality 103 worldwide. Tokyo is metamorphosing at a rate even unsustainable for Metabolism, needing renewal on a much greater scale than the capsules of the archaic tower block. The Tower’s Future The Capsule Tower, albeit for its voyeuristic appeal or unusual heirloom, has residents unresolved about if or when, the building should meet its final demise. Replacing the existing units is unfeasible due to logistical, financial and time 104 constraints. Several owners have refurbishing the interiors, improving air conditioners, flooring and bathrooms. DoCoMoMo, an international organisation dedicated to preserving modern architecture, has listed the tower as an architectural heritage since 1996. In 2007, the World

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Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. pp. 235-236 ibid. pp. 223-237 Anas Luis Soare and Filipe Magalhaes, ‘A Year in the Metabolist Future of 1972 — Failed Architecture’

Threat of Demolition

Blair McBride, ‘Nakagin Capsule Tower: Architecture of the Future’, Architecture (PingMag : Art, Design, Life - from Japan, 2008) <http://pingmag.jp/2008/12/22/nakagin/> [accessed 15 January 2016]. 101 Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. pp. 233 102 Anas Luis Soare and Filipe Magalhaes, ‘A Year in the Metabolist Future of 1972 — Failed Architecture’ 103 Wendell Cox, ‘The Evolving Urban Form: Tokyo’, 2014 <http://www.newgeography.com/content/002923-the-evolving-urban-form-tokyo> [accessed 10 January 2016]. 104 Anas Luis Soare and Filipe Magalhaes, ‘A Year in the Metabolist Future of 1972 — Failed Architecture’

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[Figure 20: Drawing of Nakagin Capsule Tower]

[Figure 21: Axonometric of Capsule interior] [Figure 22: Net covering, Nakagin Capsule Tower]

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[Figure 23: Interior of derelict Capsule]

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Architecture News, gathering tens of thousands of signatures 105 calling for the tower’s preservation. Kurokawa Architects & Associates have been working on a ‘Nakagin Capsule Tower Renovation Plan’ since 1998, proposing updated service equipment and replacing capsules, while keeping original core 106

shafts. Discussing the tower in a Tokyo Art Beat interview, the architect explains how Nakagin had gone bankrupt. The tower is now overshadowed by an American hedge fund’s 107 plan to replace it as a new fourteen-storey tower , which would be more profitable, thus significantly increasing the area’s usability. Kurokawa claims: “It is no longer an architectural debate. It’s about Kisho 108 Kurokawa fighting against the American hedge fund” However, after Kurokawa’s death in 2007, the renovation campaign lost its impetus, the fate may be similar to other Metabolist’s – Kikutake’s Sofitel Tokyo building, a tree shaped conceptual emblem demolished in 2007. Even Kurokawa’s capsule building, Sony Tower in Osaka, was demolished in 109 2006. Conservation

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The dichotomy of the Capsule Tower riddles its existence: the permanently closed window inhibits natural ventilation, asbestos pollutes the insulation, prohibiting the use of the ventilation system, and all surfaces are directly interacting

with the exterior, causing uncontrollably fluctuating temperatures. Summated by Soare and Magalhaes: “The idea of mutation never took root: reality deviated from the anticipated future, both that of the building and of society. It seems that today, its cultural-historical value is not widely appreciated, making the next few decades all the more 110 uncertain for Nakagin.” Demolition threat shrouds the Nakagin Capsule Tower. Many would argue it is ironic to protest, when a building’s shorter lifespan is at the heart of Metabolism. However, perhaps its humble permanence could be emblematic of the movement’s 111 position in avant-garde world architecture. Following the 112 principle of architecture-by-addition , this building is clearly created from a core. The intended adaptability of the capsules is unrealised; instead stands a rusting, peeling and stained 113 exterior, servicing cables hang freely. Perhaps, the building should grow with the users and die like them. As organisms are preserved, perhaps the Capsule Tower should be conserved, captivating those who go looking for such a modest, yet iconic building. Flawed Assumptions The Capsule Tower is a valiant expression of Metabolism. Potentially naïve in its objective, such idealistic methodology has unfortunately left the structure almost redundant, highlighting that Metabolism’s utopian shortcomings and lack 114 of humane interface are lessons to be learnt. If metabolism

105

Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. p. 233 ibid. p. 241 ibid. 108 Tokyo Art Beat, ‘Kisho Kurokawa Pt. 2: Nakagin Capsule Tower’ (YouTube, 2007) <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9roy5mbz5fk> [accessed 18 December 2015]. 109 Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. pp. 240-242 106

110

107

111

Anas Luis Soare and Filipe Magalhaes, ‘A Year in the Metabolist Future of 1972 — Failed Architecture’ Zhongjie Lin, ‘Nakagin Capsule Tower: Revisiting the Future of the Recent Past’ p. 29. Ashihara, pp. 130-134 113 Personal visit, Nakagin Capsule Tower, August 2015. 114 Zhongjie Lin, ‘Nakagin Capsule Tower: Revisiting the Future of the Recent Past’ pp. 29-30. 112

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is defined as “the chemical processes that occur within a living 115 organism in order to maintain life” then it is questionable whether the Metabolist movement will be survived by the Capsule Tower. Metabolist schemes unaccounted for the dynamism of the human user, resulting in an ironically unyielding design approach. Adaptable modules on an inhumane scale, meant regeneration was impossible to 116 orchestrate. People are the city, both spatially and socially. Kurokawa’s and Metabolism’s subsequent flawed assumptions of adaptability and renewal, are impractical in the realities of the metropolis. 結論

CELLULAR LIVING

Through this chapter, it has been made evident that the Capsule Tower demised for a number of reasons, including its failure to regenerate, unrealistic living conditions, in terms of material choice, insulation and ventilation methods, and the lack of global interest in Capsule architecture. As an embodiment of the entire movement, the tower’s ongoing demise reflects flawed assumptions and Metabolism’s lack of humane interface. However, the futuristic building prophesised prefabrication construction and use of shipping container inspired design. The succeeding chapter will comprise of why Metabolism experienced such short lived success, in depth analysis of Megastructural criticism, and why a more realistic, humane and holistic approach to the design and planning of high risers’ is necessary, to produce a successful built environment. [Opposite: Figure 24: Nakagin Capsule Tower, Caitlin Latimer-Jones] [Following Page: Figure 25: Lockers for Capsules] 115

Metabolism’ (TheFreeDictionary.com) Anas Luis Soare and Filipe Magalhaes, ‘A Year in the Metabolist Future of 1972 — Failed Architecture’

116

代謝剖検 METABOLISM’S AUTOPSY The Beginning of the End [Figure 26]

The Expo ’70, themed ‘Progress and Harmony for Mankind, was dominated by the iconic megastructural and capsule forms. The exhibition encompassed the pinnacle of Metabolism and its consequent demise. Tange, having gained national respect for high-profile projects, such as the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park, was the mastermind behind 117 for the 1970 World Exposition in Osaka. Tange envisioned it as a cultural gathering space, stating: “The Expo must be more than a display of past traditional achievements and present technological progress of the world… contributing to the development of this festival of 118 human harmony.” The 330-hectare exhibition consisted of Tange’s main pavilion, the Festival Plaza, and experimental capsules in the roof were designed by Kurokawa, Kawazoe and Maki. Kikutake designed the Expo Tower; Otaka created the main gate; Kurokawa conceived two pavilions; and Isozaki fabricated the giant robots. The linear axis, circulation spine and civic components

117

Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. p. 200 Kenzo Tange, ‘The Expo ’70 Master Plan and Master Design’, Japan Architect, June 1970.

118

of the Expo’s master plan, made strong references to Tange’s 119 1960 Plan for Tokyo. Consumerism’s Attack Influenced by Buckminster Fuller, the Expo’s steel roof was capable of infinite extension, acknowledged as the largest 120,121 single structure worldwide. Successful on an unprecedented scale, drawing 64 million visitors in just six months, the technological involvement and concept of Expo ’70 flaunted the group’s creativity and specifically Japanese 122 psyche. However, fierce competition between pavilions and commercialistic prominence arose. Metabolist expert Zhongjie Lin, explains: “[The movement’s] revolutionary concepts of urban form and building systems were divorced from their initial social intent. With this transition, Metabolists found their novel design ideas suited for the prevalent faith in technology and industrial 123 power.” The movement became dismissive of social considerations, and the ubiquitous belief in technology, emblematic of the 124 entire movement itself, thwarted Metabolism’s success.

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[Opposite: Figure 27: Roof, Expo ’70] 119

Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. pp. 214-222 ibid. p.217 The Expo roof was 290 metres length and 110 metres wide. 122 Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. pp. 214-222 123 ibid. p. 202 124 ibid. pp. 224-226 120 121

Techno-Utopian Downfall

METABOLISM’S AUTOPSY

Modular systems and prefabrication technology were utilised to create a cohesive environment, yet their objective became 125 “an object of commercial fantasy.” Although admired for their enthusiasm for innovation, the focus on modern techniques and materials presented at the Expo seemed to dwarf the social agenda. J.M. Richards, then editor of Architectural Review, cited “the ambiguity between trade 126 promotion and cultural exposition” as a main criticism of why it’s goals were unachieved. Takabumi Sasaki, contributor to Japan Architect magazine, was disparagin, saying the Expo had been “removed from that of the world of humanity 127 suggesting Dys-topia.” Metabolism’s transition from social idealism to technocratic disillusionment reflected a worldwide shift. Megastructural projects could be viewed critically - with their rigidity and inhumane design scale - as having 128 subconsciously authoritarian intentions. The Expo coincided with the collapse of the Japanese Miracle, a period of economic growth. Advancement of technology was widely acknowledged as a destructive force by proponents of the ecology movement, as well as activists appalled by the misuse of technological advances in the Vietnam War. Furthermore, 129 the 1973 oil crisis hit hard. A country dependent on imported oil and its export-orientated industry, the worldwide economic recession left little financial support for the movement. Begun as a symbolic representation of utopia, Metabolism ended consumed by the contradictions of 130 capitalism, redundant as the 1970s ensued. [Opposite: Figure 28: Isozaki’s Robots, Expo ‘70] 125

Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. p. 225 J.M. Richards, ‘Expo 70’, Architectural Review, August 1970, p. 67. Takabumi Sasaki, ‘A Passage through the Dys-Topia of Expo ’70’, Japan Architect, 1970. 128 Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. pp. 225-227 129 ibid. pp. 227 130 ibid. pp. 225-227 126 127

Global Gain

Literary Appraisal

Ironically, Metabolism gained international momentum, after the group had become almost dormant at home. The Middle East and Africa entered a period of globalisation and decolonisation, while the rest of the world was experiencing 131 economic instability, post 1973 energy crisis. Kikutake proposed floating factories for the Tigris and Euphrates rivers on Iraq and Libya’s coast, and designed floating hotels for Abu Dhabi. However, historical factors hindered project’s 132 realisation. For Okinawa’s 1975 Expo, Kikutake collaborated with the Japanese Government to exhibit a prototypic floating city. The Aquapolis stood 18m above water and had an area 2 of 10,000m . It contained power generators, sea-water convertor apparatus and even its own sewage-disposal 133 system. Now, over half a century after Metabolism discovered the architectural opportunities in the Middle East, the area is developing at an astronomical scale, becoming iconic for aquatic architecture that is reliant on cutting-edge technology. Even OMA’s 1996 Hyperbuilding for Bangkok, was originally instigated by Kikutake and his Hyperbuilding 134 Research Committee. With five of the today’s ten largest 135 artificial islands in Japan, the movement’s exploitation of off-shore locations has undoubtedly influenced the country’s leading engineers.

High risers, a realistic development from Megastructures, are a viable solution to the lack of urban space. JG Ballard’s 1975 ‘High Rise,’ is a fictional portrayal of a high riser as an arena, an isolated space where anything can happen. Within a 40floor apartment building with communal areas, the book charts the lives of several protagonists through the building, as iniquitous series of events unfold. A power cut plunges everything into darkness, the tower block descends into chaos: elevators fail and access to the exclusive higher apartments are blocked by mobs. A Darwinian survival-of-thefittest world arises, questioning humanity and implying 136 psychopathy. Antithetical to Metabolist utopia, Ballard is paradoxically idealistic in his dystopian world. However, during New Years Eve, 2015, a fire engulfed a 63-storey luxury 137 hotel in Dubai, and a man was crushed by a falling elevator 138 in Manhattan. Perhaps Ballard’s vision wasn’t so far from the truth?

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Vertical Living: Pros + Cons Nonetheless, high risers’ viability in the dense urban environment, is an agreeable solution to both master planners and users. After conducting a survey of 47 people, 43.14% said, living in a high riser would enhance their alienation from the city, compared to the surprisingly greater 45.10% that

136 131

Koolhaas and Obrist, p. 591 ibid. pp. 591-599 133 Michael Franklin F. Ross, pp. 190-191 134 James Westcott, ‘Obit> Kiyonori Kikutake, 1928-2011 - the Architect’s Newspaper’, 2014 <http://www.archpaper.com/news/articles.asp?id=5888#.VpuDRpOLR-U> [accessed 19 December 2015]. 135 ‘Artificial Island’, Wikipedia (Wikimedia Foundation, 2016) <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_island> [accessed 18 January 2016]. 132

Blake Butler, ‘Underappreciated Masterpieces: J. G. Ballard’s “High Rise” (VICE, 2014) <https://www.vice.com/en_uk/read/underappreciated-masterpieces-jg-ballards-high-rise-1975> [accessed 28 December 2015]. 137 Martin Chulov and Kareem Shaheen, ‘Massive Fire at Dubai Skyscraper Interrupts New Year’s Eve Fireworks’, The Guardian (The Guardian, 1 January 2016) <http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/31/dubai-skyscraper-fire-ablaze-new-years-evefireworks> [accessed 3 January 2016]. 138 Joseph Stepansky and others, ‘Man Killed in NYC Elevator Saved Woman Before Being Crushed’ (NY Daily News, 1 January 2016) <http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/manhattan/man-killed-nycelevator-saved-woman-crushed-article-1.2482728> [accessed 3 January 2016].

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METABOLISM’S AUTOPSY

disagreed. Many believed they would be “happily isolated” from the “hustle and bustle” of the city below. However, concerns over: lack of community, mobility reliant on elevators, fire hazard, old age and lack of connection to the 139 natural environment arose. Compact cities provide proficient transport, promote energy efficiency and social equality. Simultaneously, dense environments are accountable for urban heat island effects, pedestrian casualties and reductions in our physical and mental 140 wellbeing. Metabolist hierarchy of automobile over user, and sequestered vertical dwellings, disregarded the “human 141 dimension” of planning. For contemporary high risers to learn from Metabolism’s megastructural failures, environmental and social considerations must be embedded throughout proposed schemes.

“Tall buildings are the inevitable solution to high density growing cities like London, New York and Tokyo. There simply is no other option in the center of these cities… In the rest of the world high rise living is considered desirable. Over here [UK] it still has a stigma due to the poor quality cheap high rise towers built post war as social housing. That said, all cities should have strong guidelines on the location of towers and there should be a strong emphasis on outstanding design and 144 good quality materials on the outside.”

Metabolism emerged as a reaction to Tokyo’s mass urbanisation and the consequent urban sprawl across the prefecture. With London’s population forecast to grow to 10 145 million by 2030, perhaps Metabolism’s drive and ambition is exactly what is needed. However, Monaghan’s comments on the guidelines and locations of high risers is vital.

Prefab Prophet, Contextual Failure

The Humane City

Metabolism revolutionized prefabrication construction methods, nationally and globally. Concrete and steel utilised new production and manufacturing skills, in an era of industrial and economic growth and undoubtedly influencing 142 contemporary methods. Chinese construction company, Broad Sustainable Building, completed T-30 in 2011, a 143 prefabricated 30 story hotel built in just 15 days. Discussing high risers’ role in dense environments, 2015 RIBA Stirling Prize winning architect Paul Monaghan, of AHMM, explains:

139

Caitlin Latimer-Jones, Online Survey, Appendix [2015] Miko Betanzo, ‘Pros and Cons of High-Density Urban Environments’, BRANZ Build, April 2007, pp. 39–40. 141 Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. p. 149 142 Raffaele Pernice, ‘Metabolism Reconsidered. Its Role in the Architectural Context of the World’ 143 Lauren Hilgers and Wired Staff, ‘Meet the Man Who Built a 30-Story Building in 15 Days’, Magazine (WIRED, 2012) <http://www.wired.com/2012/09/broad-sustainable-building-instantskyscraper/> [accessed 10 January 2016].

Sustainable Urbanist, Jonathan Smales, holds a similar belief to Monaghan, personally discussing the issue: “Random towers, no thought given to the way they meet the ground and so kill the street life… the truly public realm – on the ground – is where society lives and thrives. And we need 146 society.” There should be a fine balance between the advantages an additional high riser could bring to a city, and its effect on the context. Almost all Metabolist proposals lacked relation to the

140

144

Paul Monaghan, Interview: Undergraduate Dissertation, 2016. Dave Hill, ‘London’s Booming: How the City’s Population Surged Past Pre-War Peak’, The Guardian (The Guardian, 9 January 2015) <http://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/jan/09/londonbooming-population-growth-success-challenges> [accessed 10 January 2016]. 146 Jonathan Smales, Interview: Undergraduate Dissertation, 2015. 145

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existing city, with minimal consideration to humane design. Most urban settlements will continue to metamorphose beyond a building’s existence. Humans created the evolving metropolis, and like metabolising cells, we alter city-life. Some would argue, this humanist emphasis on how a space is designed and used is overly idealistic; yet, it is these concepts of renewal and sustainability we see today, that ironically got lost during Metabolism’s evolution. 結論 The penultimate chapter has documented the rise and fall of Metabolism: detailing the overzealous belief in technology and consequent dismissal of the human user, embodied by the Expo ’70, the short lived success in the Middle East, and literary criticism of tower blocks. The chapter also discussed the sustainable agenda contemporary high risers should have - ensuring interconnectivity between the user, built environmental and urban ecology. The final chapter will explore how Metabolism’s successes and failures have enlightened today’s solutions to high density living, evaluated by several case studies.

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Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. p. 228

[Figure 29: Metabolism timeline, Caitlin Latimer-Jones]

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THE EVOLUTION

Precedent

[Figure 30]

Evolution is “the process by which different kinds of living organism are believed to have developed from earlier 148 forms.” This premise connects Metabolism to not only contemporary design, but also the movement’s predecessors. 149 Following clashes in opinion, the CIAM disbanded in 1959, motivating Tange to utilise technology and the developed 150 notion of growth, to create a new philosophy of change. The significance of the precedent to Metabolism, is important in understanding how, over a half a century after the group demised, elements of Metabolism are still alive and influential today. The Irish novelist and poet, Samuel Beckett, famously 151 said “Try again. Fail again. Fail better.” Following CIAM’s fall, Metabolism continued to strive for post war urban reforms with Megastructural proposals. They disputably failed, however, the movement pioneered new construction 152 methods and urbanist theories, with a vitality and ambition. In this sense, they may have failed, but they did so graciously. The rise and fall of Metabolism, is analogous to how past architectural movements became stimuli to successors, evolving and becoming stronger with each iteration. 148

‘Evolution’, Oxford Dictionary (Oxford University Press) <http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/evolution> [accessed 29 December 2015]. 149 ‘Team 10’, Wikipedia (Wikimedia Foundation, 2016) <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team_10> [accessed 16 January 2016]. 150 von Richthofen, ‘3m’s of Metabolism.’ 151 Samuel Beckett, Worstward Ho (New York: Random House, 1979). p.7 152 Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. pp. 7-11.

Extreme Urbanisation

Metabolism + The Urban Fabric

Metabolism advocated the organic image of the city, sharing the ability of living organisms to adapt, evolve and respond. Enthralled by mass urbanisation, the group’s megastructural proposals were intended to progressively evolve. In response to the overcrowding, more finite resources and strained infrastructure, cities need to be regenerated to evolve and be 153 sustainable. Landscape Urbanism, Green Skyscrapers and Eco-Cities, are all urban developments, focussing on a commitment to sustainability and the myriad of ways humans 154 engage with cities. The Urban Age Programme, is an “international investigation of urban spatial and social dynamics, centred on an annual conference, research 155,156 initiative and publication.” Herzog and de Meuron, Rem Koolhaas and other international experts contributed to the programme, giving a complex view on how government, economics, law, sociology and planning entwine with architecture and urban planning – and how these disciplines 157 need to be accommodated for in future urban design.

Megastructures are arguably intrinsic to the methodology behind contemporary high risers. With the majority of the 158 global population projected to be urbanites by mid-century, flaws in urban design and planning will be detrimental, creating “slums, exacerbate[ing] climate change and 159 encourage[ing] social instability.” Peter Weingarten, of Gensler, justifies vertical living as being “symbols of the city in which they’re located. As highly visible beacons, they present an incredible opportunity to promote more sustainable ways 160 of living.” Metabolism envisioned their titanic structures to be “beacons” for Japan, instilling a new urban landscape with an innovative set of values.

50% Past, 50% Future

“Such an ‘architectural tradition’ that had informed Metabolism is not limited to ‘traditional architecture’, but an architectural culture that is still alive in the present… ‘Vertical

THE EVOLUTION

Resurrecting Metabolist ideals would be redundant. However, the process of appropriation and application of the past, like Metabolism’s use of Japanese traditional aesthetic values, 161 enlighten visions of the future. Zhongjie Lin, author of Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement, has interviewed key members during his research. Questioning Lin, about Metabolism’s utilisation of Japanese tradition, he explains:

153

Steffen Alex, ‘Introductory Essay | Urban Planning | TED Studies | Read’ (Google+, June 2010) <https://www.ted.com/read/ted-studies/urban-planning/introductory-essay> [accessed 28 December 2015]. 154 Jodi Summers, ‘GREENING OUR CITIES WITH SKYSCRAPERS’, 2011 <http://www.socalgreenrealestateblog.com/greening-our-cities-with-skyscrapers/> [accessed 18 December 2015]. 155 ‘Urban Age’, LSE Cities <https://lsecities.net/ua/> [accessed 28 December 2015]. 156 The Urban Age Programme: Over ten conferences have been held in rapidly urbanising areas of Africa and Asia since 2005, in addition to settled urban regions in Americas and Europe. 157 Deyan Sudjic, ‘The Urban Ultimatum: What Should Our Future Cities Be Like?’, The Guardian (The Guardian, 5 January 2016) <http://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/nov/16/what-should-futurecities-be-like-lse-urban-age> [accessed 15 December 2015].

158

Mark Anderson and Achilleas Galatsidas, ‘Urban Population Boom Poses Massive Challenges for Africa and Asia’, The Guardian (The Guardian, 20 August 2014) <http://www.theguardian.com/globaldevelopment/2014/jul/10/urban-population-growth-africa-asia-united-nations> [accessed 28 December 2015]. 159 Nicola Davison, ‘China’s Obsession with Vertical Cities’, The Guardian (The Guardian, 20 July 2015) <http://www.theguardian.com/cities/2014/oct/30/china-obsession-vertical-cities-skyscrapersurbanisation-megacity> [accessed 19 December 2015]. 160 Jodi Summers, ‘GREENING OUR CITIES WITH SKYSCRAPERS’, 2011 161 Anas Luis Soare and Filipe Magalhaes, ‘A Year in the Metabolist Future of 1972 — Failed Architecture’

ザ・進化

Urbanism’, which basically refers to the compact yet complex urban form stemming from Asian urban culture… goes beyond 162 simply promoting tall buildings.” Metabolism endeavored to revolutionise urban Japan. The “Asian urban culture” Lin details, is a plethora of inhabitants - residents, commuters, immigrants and visitors - moving through the spatial environment of a megacity (urban areas with over 10 million inhabitants, only four are in North 163 America and Europe). In an age of radical urbanization, “compact yet complex urban form,” is vital in efficaciously resolving issues of urban density.

[Figure 31: City scape surrounding Shanghai Tower, Gensler]

Shanghai Tower: The Successor

[Figure 32: Landscaped atriums, Shanghai Tower, Gensler]

THE EVOLUTION

Zhongjie Lin further addresses the movement’s errors, summating that “the systems approach that underlined Megastructures, should include not only technology and 164 space, but also ecological and social structure.” Today’s solutions to urban environments have ingrained “ecological and social structure”, with an evolved and stronger connection to the urban fabric than Metabolism. Gensler’s iconic Shanghai Tower - 121 stories-high - is one of the most successful contemporary responses to high density environments. Consisting of nine vertical zones, 12 to 15 stories high, each “neighbourhood” is enclosed by public 165 space. The clustering of communities makes for highly effective liveability. Being part of a smaller municipal within a larger vertical city, reduces anonymity by promoting a healthy

162

Zhongjie Lin, Interview: Undergraduate Dissertation, 2015. Bos Caroline, ‘Phenomenology and Topography of the Megacity’, Architectural Design, 219 (2012), pp. 136–41. 164 Zhongjie Lin, Interview: Undergraduate Dissertation, 2015. 165 ‘Gensler Design Update | Shanghai Tower’ (Gensler Design Update) <http://du.gensler.com/vol6/shanghai-tower/#/vertical-urbanism> [accessed 23 December 2015]. 163

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difference between zones, creating a communal identity within the high rise macrostructure. With mass glazing spirals around the concrete core, and landscaped atriums 166 throughout, Shanghai Tower is an ideal compromise between lack of floor space, and ecological and social inclusion. Compact + Complex High rise high-density living, with walkable access to mass transit, quotidian facilities and external spaces, can sustainably engage with the city. With this agenda, they are a 167 green concept. Lin supports holism needed in contemporary architecture, which is intrinsically linked to Maki’s group form concept, further explaining:

THE EVOLUTION

“By proposing a holistic urban design methodology, taking into account complex contemporary urban systems, ranging from underground mass transit to futuristic urban farms in the air, the result is an integrated organization of infrastructure, programmed spaces, and ecology in a three-dimensional 168 framework.”

desired, as new developments would eat into the green spaces left. Symbiosis Based on inclusion rather than exclusion, Kurokawa renewed previous Metabolist ideologies in the 1991 publication The Philosophy of Symbiosis, a new way of interpreting culture. The book cultivated and evolved the biological metaphor into a much more humane realm, applying traditional Japanese philosophy and culture, while also acknowledging and respecting the contemporary world’s cultures and societies. Taken from the ecological and biological concept, ‘Symbiosis’ is “interaction between two different organisms living in close 170 physical association, typically to the advantage of both.” Globally, cities need to focus on creating and maintaining a green environment. Kurokawa summates: “We cannot simply rely on the natural environment left to us by our ancestors. In exchange for developing valuable existing sites, we must also work to create new, manmade nature to 171 leave to our descendants.”

Vertical urbanism impels these desired qualities into a “threedimensional framework.” By 2050, the global population is predicted to top nine billion, and once population growth is 169 factored in, amounts to 2.5 billion city dwellers. Perhaps, low density low-rise residential areas will no longer be

166

Gensler Design Update | Shanghai Tower’ (Gensler Design Update) Peter Head and David Singleton, ‘Green Cities of the Future’, The Guardian (The Guardian, 23 December 2015) <http://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/cities-self-sufficient-new-urbanenergy-centres> [accessed 19 November 2015]. 168 Zhongjie Lin, Interview: Undergraduate Dissertation, 2015. 169 Sam Jones and Mark Anderson, ‘Global Population Set to Hit 9.7 Billion People by 2050 despite Fall in Fertility’, The Guardian (The Guardian, 30 July 2015) <http://www.theguardian.com/globaldevelopment/2015/jul/29/un-world-population-prospects-the-2015-revision-9-7-billion-2050fertility> [accessed 19 December 2015]. 167

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170

‘Symbiosis’ <http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/symbiosis.aspx> [accessed 21 November 2015]. Kisho Kurokawa, The Philosophy of Symbiosis, 2nd edn (London: Academy Editions, 1994). p. 120

171

Precedent Cyclically, for Metabolism to have died, another entity must precede Kurokawa’s Capsule Tower. Moshe Safdie’s Habitat 67 undoubtedly guided Metabolisms belief of organic, 172 interconnected webs of modular architecture. However, Safdie’s adaptable intent was conceivably more successful, due its humane scale and ecological inclusion. 158 apartments became 146, ironically morphing better than Metabolist visions. Although thirteen floors, it is not an intrusive high riser 173 above Montreal’s skyline. The scheme intended to to be affordable housing integrating the benefits of suburban 174 homes – gardens, fresh air and privacy. Relationship between city inhabitants and nature is pivotal to its success. It 175 gained heritage status in 2007, a successful example of modular architecture, fruitfully combining the built and natural environment within the urban milieu.

[Figure 33: Habitat 67, Safdie] [Figure 34: Habitat 67, Safdie]

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172

Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. p. 220 David Friedlander, ‘Habitat 67 and the Future of Edited Architecture’ (LifeEdited, 2013) <http://www.lifeedited.com/habitat-67-and-the-future-of-edited-architecture/> [accessed 27 December 2015]. 174 Genevieve Paiement, ‘Habitat 67, Montreal’s “Failed Dream” – a History of Cities in 50 Buildings, Day 35’, The Guardian (The Guardian, 27 May 2015) <http://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/may/13/habitat-67-montreal-expo-moshe-safdie-historycities-50-buildings-day-35> [accessed 27 December 2015]. 175 ibid. 173

ザ・進化

Adaptability + Sustainability Kurokawa was as prophetic in the 1990s, as the original movement was decades earlier, claiming “I have a feeling that st the 21 century will see a dynamic symbiosis of the city and 176 nature.” Boeri Studio designed the first example of a 177 ‘Vertical Forest,’ built in Milan in 2014. The building mirrors Kurokawa’s symbiotic vision: promoting an urban ecosystem and repopulating the city’s flora and fauna. A 17-year study by Exeter University found that UK householders living in greener urban environments, are likely to have lower mental stress 178 and improved wellbeing. The Boeri Studio design has the 2 equivalent of 20,000 m of forest and undergrowth, and in terms of urban density, each tower constituting the equivalent of a peripheral area of low rise buildings of around 2 50,000m . Furthermore, the concept of adaptation, rooted in Metabolism, is apparent in the buildings façade. Relying on vegetation, the polychromic change in the leaves follow the season’s cycle, moving from a vivacious green to burnt 179 umber. Kurokawa fittingly described contemporary urbanites as experiencing “the city as a part of nature and 180 concrete as a kind of earth.” However, with realised examples of ever-evolving bio diverse landmarks, Metabolist biological and ecological theories have undoubtedly enlightened contemporary architecture.

[Figure 35: Diagram of changing façade, Vertical Forest, Boeri Studio]

[Figure 35: Maintenance of façade, Vertical Forest, Boeri Studio] [Figure 36: Context of high riser, Vertical Forest, Boeri Studio]

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176

Kisho Kurokawa, The Philosophy of Symbiosis, 2nd edn (London: Academy Editions, 1994). p. 119 ‘Bosco Verticale / Boeri Studio’ (ArchDaily, 2015) <http://www.archdaily.com/777498/boscoverticale-stefano-boeri-architetti> [accessed 18 December 2015]. 178 Oliver Balch, ‘Garden Cities: Can Green Spaces Bring Health and Happiness?’, The Guardian (The Guardian, 20 April 2015) <http://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2015/apr/20/gardencities-can-green-spaces-bring-health-and-happiness> [accessed 15 December 2015]. 179 ‘Bosco Verticale / Boeri Studio’ (ArchDaily, 2015) 180 Kisho Kurokawa, The Philosophy of Symbiosis, 2nd edn (London: Academy Editions, 1994). p. 119 177

ザ・進化

Cells + Pixels Huge skyscrapers planned worldwide, particularly in Asia, have the capacity to become as alienating as the 181 Megastructural “dinosaur of the Modern movement.” Banham criticised the structures for their colossal inhumane size, and contemporary solutions to urban issues should learn 182 from, and avoid Metabolism’s mistakes. High density lower rise development is certainly viable anti-sprawl methodology. An equilibrium needs to be reached between towers of extortionate height and low-rise domestic buildings. Dutch architects MVDRV and Danish co-architects ADEPT, won a competition to design the Rødovre Skyscraper in Copenhagen, Denmark. The shape reflects Copenhagen’s historical spire, 183 the single family home and the present day sky scraper. The tower comprises of a public plaza with retail and restaurants on the lower floors, the middle part are offices, with sky gardens staggered along the south side. Similar to Metabolist ‘capsules’ and ‘move-nets,’ the stacked village uses 60 metres square ‘pixels’ that are arranged around the core area and can be re-designated function. The cluster of three separate cores allows for a change in programme and separate access. The scheme integrates the latest technologies, including a grey water circuit, recycled concrete in the foundation and a 184 variety of energy producing devices. It is directly comparable to the idealistic intent of Kurokawa’s Capsule Tower.

[Figure 37: Diagram showing influence of low rise dwellings and high risers, Rødovre SkyVillage, Adept, MVRDV]

[Figure 38: Rødovre SkyVillage, Adept, MVRDV] [Figure 39: External space, Rødovre SkyVillage, Adept, MVRDV]

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181

Reyner Banham, Megastructure: Urban Futures of the Recent Past#(icon Editions) (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1977). p. 7 182 Lin, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. pp. 9-10 183 Matylda Krzykowski, ‘Rødovre Skyscraper by MVRDV and ADEPT’, All (Dezeen, 2008) <http://www.dezeen.com/2008/11/04/r%C3%B8dovre-skyscraper-by-mvrdv-and-adept/> [accessed 19 December 2015]. 184 ibid.

ザ・進化

Void Metabolism Metabolist schemes disregarded their immediate context and favoured the core and plug-in design. Conversely, contemporary Void Metabolism sees this growth and change on a greater scale. The movement was created by Atelier Bow Wow, a Tokyo based practice, led by Yoshiharu Tsukamoto 185 and Momoyo Kaijima. “Metabolists are the most important reference. Our work can be a critique of Metabolism. The situation is really different… now the power and capital of making the city is not concentrated in one part; it is segregated and dispersed. It is very important to use this fragmented energy to make the city 186 and bring the meaningful production of urban space.” Post war Japan had a different situation, however, influence has taken root: Void Metabolism is focused on void/grain – the metabolism of empty spaces – rather than the notion of 187 core/capsule. Today, the group focus on the residential, breaking down the barriers between private and shared space in the city. The group’s 2010 Venice Biennale focused on how 188 Tokyo has transformed since Metabolism. Void Metabolism is more analytical of city and users. Atelier Bow Wow has been highly influenced by the original movements acceptance of change, adaptation and uncertainty, as well as the role of 189 technology. 185

Quaderns, ‘Critical Metabolism. Interview with Yoshiharu Tsukamoto – Atelier Bow-Wow’, Quaderns D’arquitectura I Urbanisme <http://quaderns.coac.net/en/2014/04/atelier-bow-wow/> [accessed 15 October 2015]. 186 ‘Atelier Bow-Wow: Tokyo Anatomy | Features’, Archinect, 2007 <http://archinect.com/features/article/56468/atelier-bow-wow-tokyo-anatomy> [accessed 3 April 2015]. 187 Yoshiharu Tsukamoto, ‘Void Metabolism’, Architectural Design, 219 (2012). 188 ‘Japanese Pavilion at Venice Biennale 2010’, Architecture (designboom, architecture & design magazine, 2010) <http://www.designboom.com/architecture/japanese-pavilion-at-venice-biennale2010/> [accessed 21 November 2015]. 189 Tsukamoto, pp. 89-93

Void Metabolism

Evolved Urban Theory

Metabolist schemes disregarded their immediate context and favoured the core and plug-in design. Conversely, contemporary Void Metabolism sees this growth and change on a greater scale. The movement was created by Atelier Bow Wow, a Tokyo based practice, led by Yoshiharu Tsukamoto 185 and Momoyo Kaijima.

Twenty-first century ideas, of green space and sustainability are not new, they were once seen as utopian. Many would argue that environmental factors need to be embedded in 190 future design. No space is static, especially not within the fluid metropolis. Distinguishing objects from a background, especially the ambiguous context of the chaotic city, Void Metabolist Tsukamoto explains:

“Metabolists are the most important reference. Our work can be a critique of Metabolism. The situation is really different… now the power and capital of making the city is not concentrated in one part; it is segregated and dispersed. It is very important to use this fragmented energy to make the city 186 and bring the meaningful production of urban space.”

“We cannot make a strategy of the growth of the city just from a figure-ground understanding. We should focus on the principles of this growth… we can push this logic and principle and we can push the way to grow the city towards a better 191 living environment.”

THE EVOLUTION

Post war Japan had a different situation, however, influence has taken root: Void Metabolism is focused on void/grain – the metabolism of empty spaces – rather than the notion of 187 core/capsule. Today, the group focus on the residential, breaking down the barriers between private and shared space in the city. The group’s 2010 Venice Biennale focused on how 188 Tokyo has transformed since Metabolism. Void Metabolism is more analytical of city and users. Atelier Bow Wow has been highly influenced by the original movements acceptance of change, adaptation and uncertainty, as well as the role of 189 technology.

Understanding growth and change, are the humane dimensions of urban spatiality and temporality, contemporary Void Metabolism strive to explore. Tsukamoto describes how, “through walking around the reality of everyday life, we can 192 start to see an urban micro-ecosystem.” This organic interpretation of the city is why Metabolism failed. Comparable to Kurokawa’s reference to ‘symbiosis,’ the need for contemporary schemes to engage and find a balance within the myriad of city networks is vital for life.

185

Quaderns, ‘Critical Metabolism. Interview with Yoshiharu Tsukamoto – Atelier Bow-Wow’, Quaderns D’arquitectura I Urbanisme <http://quaderns.coac.net/en/2014/04/atelier-bow-wow/> [accessed 15 October 2015]. 186 ‘Atelier Bow-Wow: Tokyo Anatomy | Features’, Archinect, 2007 <http://archinect.com/features/article/56468/atelier-bow-wow-tokyo-anatomy> [accessed 3 April 2015]. 187 Yoshiharu Tsukamoto, ‘Void Metabolism’, Architectural Design, 219 (2012). 188 ‘Japanese Pavilion at Venice Biennale 2010’, Architecture (designboom, architecture & design magazine, 2010) <http://www.designboom.com/architecture/japanese-pavilion-at-venice-biennale2010/> [accessed 21 November 2015]. 189 Tsukamoto, pp. 89-93

190

Carla Novak, Ecological Metabolism: In Pursuit of Landscape’s Equality in the Urban Realm (United Kingdom: Lulu, 2012). 191 ‘Atelier Bow-Wow: Tokyo Anatomy | Features’, Archinect, 2007 192 ibid.

ザ・進化

結論

Behaviorology Tsukamoto’s hypothesis, ‘Behaviorology,’ claims that behaviour is central to the understanding of links between human life, nature and the built environment. The Void Metabolist describes how “function” in contemporary architecture has manifested from understanding of 193 “anatomical systems.” Analogising architectural theory to “investigating an animal in its natural habitat, as well as its 194 relationship to other animals within a larger network.” Tsukamoto and Kaijima advocate a “critique of 195 Metabolism,” supporting how the original movement has developed, explicitly regenerating into a stimulus for the contemporary. The combination of biology, sociology and anthropology apparent in ‘Behaviorology,’ fittingly summates how contemporary architects and planners should conceptualise the nature of the city.

Throughout this chapter, topics covering the evolution of Metabolism, and the importance of holistic design and planning, have been addressed and evaluated in comparison to contemporary case studies. Key member Kurokawa further acknowledged the necessity to forge a sustainable relationship between user and nature in the urban realm, documented in his work ‘The Philosophy of Symbiosis.’ The significance Metabolism has had on Void Metabolism, is also vital when concluding the extent of the the avant-garde group’s demise, and how important the movement’s existence has been in influencing new urban paradigms of growth and change. The final chapter also detailed Metabolist predecessors, analogising how aspects of Metabolist theory, design and construction, have evolved and developed beyond the movement’s lifespan, becoming intangible in contemporary compact and complex vertical living.

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193

Atelier Bow-Wow, Yoshiharu Tsukamoto and Momoyo Kaijima, The Architectures of Atelier BowWow: Behaviorology (New York: Rizzoli International Publications, 2010). 194 ibid. 195 Atelier Bow-Wow: Tokyo Anatomy | Features’, Archinect, 2007

ザ・進化

結論 CONCLUSION With hindsight, Metabolism was a catalyst for change. It hoped to instil a new philosophy in urbanist theory, and in that respect, Metabolism was a success. However, despite the movement’s biological analogy, no immediate metamorphosis occurred. Projects remained unbuilt: employing Megastructures of giant geometric shapes, with no connection to Japan’s social reality. Proposals perceived humans as infinitesimal, lost in the huge mechanical assembly of utopian projects. Metabolic cells are compelling in many ways: at the crux of life, the anabolic and catabolic actions of 196 cells dictate our entire existence. Perceiving regeneration as cyclic; with growth comes decay, with life comes death. Metabolism decomposed and dissipated into architectural history. The movement enlightened contemporary construction, urbanism and high rise structures. Cyclically moving from death to life, intangibly part of modern architecture and planning. The city is a vibrant patchwork of socioeconomic, political, cultural and environmental factors. With 66% of the world’s 197 population to be urbanites by 2050, sustainable high risers, 196

‘Cell Metabolism | Tocris Bioscience’ (Tocris Bioscience) <http://www.tocris.com/pharmacologicalBrowser.php?ItemId=187887#.VpOKhZOLSu4> [accessed 16 January 2016]. 197 ‘World Population Projected to Reach 9.6 Billion by 2050’, The United Nations <https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/un-report-world-populationprojected-to-reach-9-6-billion-by-2050.html> [accessed 27 December 2015].

with megastructural elements of a compact vertical city, are a credible option, when tackling high density urban living. The city is one of humanity’s most complex creations, and it is us, as creators and the fundamental users, that Metabolism neglected. A panacea, is defined as “a remedy for all 198 difficulties or diseases.” Megastructures were envisaged as a solution to inefficient high density environments and to control urban growth. A city is an organic being, that architects, planners, politicians and the plethora of other urban facilitators, must achieve equilibrium. However, no predetermined parameters can truly govern the city. There must be a dynamic balance between different scales of buildings and external spaces, to facilitate the sustainable and spontaneous development. Perhaps high risers will become a panacea to urban congestion, as Metabolism prophesised. Or, citing Samuel Beckett once more - “You're on earth. There's 199 no cure for that.”

198

‘The Definition of Panacea’ (Dictionary.com, <http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/panacea> [accessed 30 December 2015]. 199 Samuel Beckett and Rónán McDonald, Endgame (London: Faber & Faber Plays, 2009).

2010)

TOKYO: THE URBAN LABORATORY The birth, death and legacy of Metabolism, with a case study of the Capsule Tower as an emblematic microcosm. CAITLIN LATIMER â&#x20AC;&#x201C; JONES

参考⽂献 BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS Ashihara, Yoshinobu, The Hidden Order: Tokyo through the Twentieth Century (Japan: Kodansha International, 1992) Banham, Reyner, Megastructure: Urban Futures of the Recent Past#(icon Editions) (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1977) Beckett, Samuel, and Rónán McDonald, Endgame (London: Faber & Faber Plays, 2009) Beckett, Samuel, Worstward Ho (New York: Random House, 1979) Bow-Wow, Atelier, Yoshiharu Tsukamoto, and Momoyo Kaijima, The Architectures of Atelier Bow-Wow: Behaviorology (New York: Rizzoli International Publications, 2010) Gehl, Jan, Cities for People (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2010) Kaijima, Momoyo, Junzo Kuroda, and Yoshiharu Tsukamoto, Made in Tokyo: Guide Book, 7th edn (Tokyo: Kajima Institute Publishing, 2001) Koolhaas, Rem, and Hans-Ulrich Obrist, Project Japan... By Rem Koolhaas and Hans Ulrich Obrist: An Oral History of Metabolism (Cologne: TASCHEN GmbH, 2011) Kurokawa, Kisho, Metabolism in Architecture (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1977) Kurokawa, Kisho, The Philosophy of Symbiosis, 2nd edn. (London: Academy Editions, 1994)

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Novak, Carla, Ecological Metabolism: In Pursuit of Landscape’s Equality in the Urban Realm (United Kingdom: Lulu, 2012) Popham, Peter, Tokyo: The City at the End of the World (United States: Kodansha America, 1986) Ross, Michael Franklin F., Beyond Metabolism: The New Japanese Architecture (New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, The, 1978) Schilders, Petra, Michelle Provoost, Wouter Vanstiphout, and Brent Annable, The Organic City: Method or Metaphor? The Meaning of ‘Organic’ in Architecture and Urban Planning (Almere: International New Town Institute, 2010) Yoshiharu, Tsukamoto, ‘Void Metabolism’, Architectural Design, 219 (2012) JOURNALS + ESSAYS Betanzo, Miko, ‘Pros and Cons of High-Density Urban Environments’, BRANZ Build, April 2007, pp. pp. 39–40

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‘Tokyo-Yokohama Metropolitan Area Population from 1920’, Demographia <http://www.demographia.com/dbtok1920.htm> [accessed 7 January 2016] ‘Urban Age’, LSE Cities <https://lsecities.net/ua/> [accessed 28 December 2015] ‘Vertical Urbanism and the Livable Cities of Tomorrow | in Focus | Design Thinking’ (Gensler) <http://www.gensler.com/designthinking/in-focus/vertical-urbanism> [accessed 18 December 2015] Westcott, James, ‘Obit> Kiyonori Kikutake, 1928-2011 - the Architect’s Newspaper’, 2014 <http://www.archpaper.com/news/articles.asp?id=5888#.Vpu DRpOLR-U> [accessed 19 December 2015]

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付録 APPENDIX INTERVIEW [APPENDIX A] ZHONGJIE LIN [21/12/2015] Dr. Zhongjie Lin is an Associate Professor of Architecture and Urbanism and the Director of the Master of Urban Design program. He is a 2013 Guggenheim Fellow and co-founder of Futurepolis, an award-winning design practice. Dr. Lin’s research focuses on modern architectural avant-garde movements, theory and practice of urban design, and contemporary architecture and urbanism in East Asia. Zhongjie Lin = ZL Caitlin Latimer-Jones = CLJ CLJ: In my opinion, Metabolism’s failure has been instrumental in its influence as a stimulus for contemporary design and planning. Megastructures run too independently from the existing city and lose the humane connection to the myriad of networks within a metropolis. Also, the movements proposal of creating core and secondary structures that can be changed over time was too utopian in its intent, especially on the scale of their projects. This is why I think Metabolism’s organic intent ironically failed, especially when it came to the Nakagin Capsule Tower. However, building up will always be a viable solution to particularly dense parts of a city and indispensable in some parts of urban Asia. The high risers should be dense enough to build a community, but not so dense that people become isolated and anonymous residing above the city. In my view it is imperative that ‘green skyscrapers’ and ‘eco-cities’ refine the metabolism metaphor while also incorporating the movements use of prefab, concrete and steel. These are the most cost effect mediums to safely build vertically while providing fire protection and seismic safety. The dynamism of

the development of a city must incorporate the human needs of an individual as well as the demands of the infrastructure. Metabolism was futuristic and utopian in its goals, but also utilised traditional Japanese building techniques, forms and measurements in their proposals in a manner that respected local traditions and identity. However, their schemes often lacked any integrated connection to the existing cityscape. What is your current thinking about contemporary urban design and the need for master-planning to be responsive to the specifics of cultural and environmental context to ensure success? ZL: I agree, but I want to argue such a "architectural tradition" that had informed Metabolism is not limited to "traditional architecture", but an architectural culture that is still alive in the present. In recent years, I have been studying what I called "Vertical Urbanism", which basically refer to the compact yet complex urban form stemming from Asian urban culture… Vertical compact city design goes beyond simply promoting tall buildings. By proposing a holistic urban design methodology taking into account complex contemporary urban systems ranging from underground mass transit to futuristic urban farms in the air, the result is an integrated organization of infrastructure, programmed spaces, and ecology in a threedimensional framework. CLJ: It seems clear that a more realistic, humane and holistic approach to design and planning is necessary to produce a successful built environment. A key critique of the effectiveness of the Nakagin Capsule Tower is that it isolated the inhabitants in these ‘machines for living’? How far do you agree with this view? ZL: I wrote an essay dedicated to Nakagin, from which you can see my point of view. It is titled "Nakagin Capsule Tower: Revisiting the Future of the Recent Past", published in Journal of Architectural Education in 2011. I am enclosing a digital copy. CLJ: It could be argued that utopian design is likely to be most meaningful in a theoretical realm and therefore its success can be determined through its inspirational conceptual influence. This is

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arguably why most Metabolist designs remained unbuilt proposals, yet still such an important movement. However, smaller-scale buildings such as the Sky House and Shizuoka Tower incorporate key themes of the movement and have been acclaimed by the architectural world. What place do you think ideas of changeable modules (albeit ‘capsules’ or ‘move-net’) have in contemporary architecture? ZL: This question was also answered in my article on Nakagin. CLJ: One of the key limitations with Megastructures seems to be their rigidity and inability to respond to changes in use and user as a city evolves over long periods. What do you see as the key factors for Megastructures to successfully respond to ‘urban morphology?’ ZL: The systems approach that underlined Megastructure should include not only technology and space, but also ecological and social structure. This idea is also articulated in Vertical Urbanism. CLJ: Aldo Rossi believed Metabolism’s utopia overlooked social complexity and human nature and Fumihiko Maki criticised Megastructures lack of ‘real urban order,’ wanting a more ‘micro scale’ approach to planning. Maki’s concept of group form and influence on contextualist urbanism could be regarded as an improved stance on Metabolism theory and more influential on contemporary design and planning? What is your view? ZL: See my Nakagin article. Maki's approach is quite different. CLJ: Could you recommend any recent completed designs that you feel incorporate refinements to Metabolic principles effectively? ZL: There are some new megastructures, like Vincent Callebaut's Dragonfly Wing and Kevin Schopfer's NOAH Project. Ropoggi Hill and Maki's Singapore Polytechnique also inherited some metabolism quality.

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INTERVIEW [APPENDIX B] PAUL MONAGHAN [03/01/16] Paul Monaghan, of AHMM, is the 2015 RIBA Stirling Prize winning architect. The firm won the award for the redevelopment of Burntwood School. He is chairman of the Young Architect of the Year awards and is also a RIBA Client Design Advisor. Paul Monaghan = PM Caitlin Latimer-Jones = CLJ CLJ: What is your current thinking about contemporary urban design and the need for master-planning to be responsive to the specifics of cultural and environmental context to ensure success? PM: Successful master plans always respond to local context both physical and cultural. At AHMM we begin by auditing the physical aspects of the site and exam the constraints. The audit would include the following; 1. Appraisal of existing buildings. We try not to demolish older buildings because they add texture and history. We also enjoy adding new elements to older buildings to refresh/reboot them. 2. Look at the the heights and materials of the surrounding buildings. Our designs should compliment this context. Only public buildings like libraries, schools, health centers etc. can be more prominent to represent their importance to the community. 3. Examine the brief given to us by our client. These days they are normally mixed use including houses, offices, shops and community facilities. See how we get get activity at the ground level so that the street is a lively environment. 4. Examine existing connections across the site and desire lines. Our master plan should reinforce these routes. Quite often the key connections lead to public transport links like tube stations or bus

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stations. 5. Design well scaled streets and always use a good landscape architect. 6. Research who the key local interest groups and stakeholders are and then engage with them. As an architect you need to balance listening with designing. The constraints studies would be; 1. Examine the movement of the Sun. None of the living rooms must be North facing. 2. Examine traffic, refuse pick up, parking and delivery. Quite often these key factors define a master plan and narrow down the design options. 3. Height is key in generating master plans. Knowing how high you can build is normally defined by your design concept, local planning guidance and the analysis of local context. 4. Check there are no unusual ground conditions. Sometimes there are tube lines going under sites where you cannot build. Others have soil that need very deep and expensive foundations. Once all this is examined we would start to prepare design options which encompass the above. CLJ: It seems clear that a more realistic, humane and holistic approach to design and planning is necessary to produce a successful built environment. How important do you think it is to incorporate green public and private spaces in design proposals? PM: It is vital that all master plans incorporate generous areas of public, semi public and private outdoor space.

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Green space is often separated into different categories and there are often statutory allocations of this area by local authorities. In housing you would have the following allocations; 1. Toddler space- for 1-5 year olds. This needs to be near a living room or visible from the house/ apartment. 2. Spaces for 6-11 year olds- this is normally playground space. Nowadays good landscape architects can integrate play space into their designs and create playful landscape rather than swings etc. See our space in Barking Central on our website. 3. Green play space for teenagers. This can be more remote and can include local playing fields etc. Obviously on bigger schemes you would also incorporate more formal public/ civic space too. Again this should be well designed. In particular, it is important to consider its on going maintenance cost. Green space is expensive to maintain. Hard/ paved space is cheaper to maintain but dearer to build. Important to balance the two. Again any public space needs to be well integrated with the buildings, particularly on the ground floor. Quite often we would locate the public buildings onto these spaces so that we have active frontages. Alternatively, it's a good place for cafes and restaurants. CLJ: High risers should be dense enough to build a community, but not so dense that people become isolated and anonymous residing above the city. A connection with the existing networks of the city is vital for the building to correspond with the evolving urban realm. How far do you agree with this? PM: Tall buildings are the inevitable solution to high density growing cities like London, New York and Tokyo. There simply is no other option in the centre of these cities. There are other cities and places to live in if people do not desire high rise living. In the rest of the world high rise living is considered desirable. Over here it still has a stigma due to the poor quality cheap High rise towers built post war as social housing.

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That said all cities should have strong guidelines on the location of towers and there should be a strong emphasis on outstanding design and good quality materials on the outside. I also believe that it is important that towers are designed without gimmicks and do not attempt to be fashionable. The best towers are more classic and timeless like Centrepoint or the John Hancock Tower in Chicago. I believe the best new one in London is the Cheesegrater designed by Rogers Stirk Harbor. Another important solution is to build high density lower rise developments. These could be more like 8-10 storey buildings with generous squares and boulevards (see the Athletes Village in London). There are cities like Madrid that are full of this type of scaled buildings and are beautiful places.

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INTERVIEW [APPENDIX C] JONATHAN SMALES [17/12/15] Jonathan Smales is the founder of Beyond Green UK. The company set up the Remarkable Cities programmes in response to the rapid growth of city populations, promoting sustainable regeneration of the public realm.

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Jonathan Smales = JS Caitlin Latimer-Jones = CLJ CLJ: I am currently writing my dissertation on how Metabolism was an experimental movement that tried to solve the problem of rising urban density in post war Japan, and what contemporary urban planners can learn from their utopian failures when trying to tackle high density environments today. JS: Great subject, but not sure why urban density per se is a problem…Isn’t it only when it’s combined with the absence of amenity that it becomes problematic? For instance, central Paris is Europe’s densest city, manifestly stunning and sought after/expensive; the urban blocks are 7 storeys but they are superb creation, amazing amenity in a stone’s throw from every tiny flat. Similarly, if less than half the density, Kensington & Chelsea is UK’s densest neighbourhood. Not bad, except for the people who live there. I guess Tokyo took it all several notches higher. CLJ: I am exploring Tokyo’s planning and the possibility of whether a more humane approach to tackling urban density would be more successful than Metabolism’s mega structures. Schemes need to be in connection with the cities growth, change and the external environment. The high risers should be dense enough to build a community, but not so dense that people become isolated and anonymous residing above the city. How important do you find outdoor/community space in large multi use schemes? JS: Axiomatically, public/open space is key to the quality of urban places. However, their quality and context are the key factors. If the urbanism is poor no amount of open space will save it. Take Harlow

New Town as an example (or any New Town for that matter). Tons of open space but the town was such a slave to a Corbusian Machine Age planning ideology that it could never recover. You can’t walk anywhere. Everything is so separated. Steet-Block-Plot is the mantra. And streets are the principal open space in most/any city in terms of total space; not parks or squares. But when the urban block structure is deficient as is often the case in new ‘developments’ (see almost any new large scale London scheme) the streets struggle to be good enough. If the block structure is sound, by which I mean compact, typically not more than 6/7 storeys (on average) and has a finely-grained rhythm of plots (some narrow some wider - think Old Amsterdam), then the streets have a chance. We want a hierarchy of streets: primary to tertiary. In modern developments everything is perpendicular geometry, sharp edges, big pseudo-boulevards (which sound like a good idea) and everything is over-sized and flabby. In more traditional - older - places, we have more organic forms, narrow streets, softer edges, variation in heights between plots, fascinating corner conditions, front doors onto streets, good views and regular pocket spaces/squares. This combination makes all the difference. In Tokyo, which I don’t know, I imagine the principal challenge was/is that the blocks are poor in the first place. Random towers, no thought given to the way they meet the ground and so kill the street life. See everything written by Jan Gehl but especially ‘Life Between Buildings’. Therefore, it would need something radical. CLJ: Incorporating larger outdoor private and community space above ground, on multiple levels of a high riser JS: Don’t know much about this. But imagine it can only be a poor form of compensation for crappy ground floor conditions. Architects love this kind of thing. They, sorry, think they can solve any kind of problem with ‘streets in the skies’ but the truly public realm - on the ground - is where society lives and thrives. And we need society.

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CLJ: Living in a mega structure with all facilities within the building, how feelings of isolation and anonymity would effect the resident’s connection with the cities communities JS: See JG Ballard. CLJ: 'Urban ecology' and how important it is that mega structures can, to an extent, facilitate a change in use and user as the city adapts and regenerates JS: Again, I don't know the thinking on this, sorry, so in extreme conditions like Tokyo it might leaven an otherwise awful condition for people. But as the Irish say, ‘if I was going there, I wouldn’t start from here.’See the Massive Small movement in the UK and ‘Create Streets’. The latter is a bit Tory and inherently anti-Modernism in any form but both have interesting things to say and offer.

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URBAN LIVING SURVEY [APPENDIX D] Created using www.sogosurvey.com, I made the survey with the intention of referencing the research in my dissertation. However, with hindsight the feedback was slightly bias (most people lived in low rise dwellings, everyone who completed it had mutual connections to myself). Question 8 also discusses personal meaning of sustainability, which is very subjective. Nonetheless, the survey proved valuable as it gave me the opportunity to understand a wide amount of people’s opinions on my dissertation topic, and progressed my independent study methods. The varying views on high rise living and micro living, in terms of the Capsule Tower, further developed my comprehension of the viability of high risers, which influenced and strengthened my argument, particularly in the latter chapters. The questions are listed on the next page, with the 47 responses detailed in the successive pages.

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1. Please select your gender and age group 2. What type of dwelling(s) have you lived in? (Tick both if applicable) 3. Would you prefer to live in a high rise tower block or smaller domestic house? 4. What are your 3 priorities for comfortable / positive city living at this stage of your life? How might these change and why? 5. If you lived in a high riser, with all amenities available in the tower block, do you think you would feel isolated from the rest of the city below? Please explain. 6. How important do you think it is to have open spaces / community spaces in mass housing schemes? Why? 7. What are your 3 priorities for creating a sense of community within a city? 8. What does the term â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;sustainabilityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; mean to you? 9. In what ways do you think individuals and communities need to change and develop to meet the challenges of city living in the 21st century? 10. Could you buy a high rise flat knowing that the lifespan of the building was 30 years? Note that at the end of the 30 years, the building and site would be redeveloped with high quality materials, using some of the newest technology. 11.[Definition of 'Metabolism' - 'The chemical processes that occur within a living organism, resulting in growth, production of energy and elimination of waste'] Do you agree that the the activities, movement and change within a city could be compared to that of a metabolizing cell? Briefly comment for or against

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Sr.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47

Response No Q1 Female 1 2 Female 3 Female 4 Female 5 6 7 Female 8 Female 9 10 11 Female 12 Female 13 Female 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Female 21 Female 22 23 24 Female 25 Female 26 Female 27 28 Female 29 30 Female 31 32 Female 33 Female 34 35 36 37 38 Female 39 Female 40 Female 41 42 Female 43 Female 44 Female 45 46 47 Female

Male Male

12-17 years old 18-24 years old 25-34 years old 18-24 years old 18-24 years old 18-24 years old 18-24 years old

Male

18-24 years old 18-24 years old

Male Male

12-17 years old 18-24 years old

Male 18-24 years old

Male Male

25-34 years old 25-34 years old

18-24 years old 18-24 years old

Male Male Male

18-24 years old 18-24 years old

Male

25-34 years old

Male 12-17 years old 12-17 years old

18-24 years old

12-17 years old 12-17 years old Male

SoGo Export Survey Title: Urban Living Copyright (c) 2002-2015 SoGoSurvey Inc. All rights reserved Confidential Information - Do Not Distribute Data Downloaded by: Caitlin LJ Date of Export: 12/27/2015 09:32 Newcastle University

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Q2 35-54 years old 55+ years old Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses 55+ years old Low Rise Houses 55+ years old Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses 35-54 years old Low Rise Houses 35-54 years old Low Rise Houses 35-54 years old Low Rise Houses 55+ years old Low Rise Houses 55+ years old Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses 35-54 years old Low Rise Houses 35-54 years old Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses 55+ years old Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses 35-54 years old

55+ years old

35-54 years old 35-54 years old 35-54 years old

55+ years old

35-54 years old 35-54 years old

55+ years old

35-54 years old 55+ years old 35-54 years old 35-54 years old 35-54 years old

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High Rise Tower Blocks

High Rise Tower Blocks High Rise Tower Blocks

High Rise Tower Blocks

Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses

Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses Low Rise Houses

High Rise Tower Blocks

Smaller House Smaller House Smaller House Smaller House Smaller House Smaller House Smaller House Smaller House Smaller House Smaller House Smaller House Smaller House Smaller House Smaller House Smaller House Smaller House Smaller House Smaller House Smaller House Smaller House

proximity to work, garden, community... might want more space when older Big ish house, good location with transport links, a garden. Probably stay the same ( although my expectations will probably get lower) Greenery, clean streets & good public transport A garden, having a car space , living near the centre Access to green spaces, security of tenure, safety and cleanliness of dwelling area. These would would change in terms of green spac Familiarity, facilities and friends Close to transport , access to shops and feeling safe. When i am older i may think of somewhere near work as important Warmth, parking, modern: my standards will probably increase with agr affordability, space, transport

Smaller House High Rise Building Smaller House Smaller House Smaller House High Rise Building Smaller House

Outside space, a reasonable amount of internal space and ease of access to major transport links. As I've got older, my desire to be le tranquility, a garden, easy access to public transport/ shops. I might want to move to the seaside when I retire. 1. The local community: vibrant and diverse. 2. A house which can accommodate grandchildren (when they arrive), 3. A house where m Being close to my school, being not to far away from say a tube station or a park for the dogs (services) and having a comfortable frien outside space, parking, local convenience of shops. space, good neighbours, accessibility.

affordable, accessible to and from works, family and leisure, and space (being an artist and teacher) I need room for personal study- Se (1) Closeness to transport links, (2) closeness to services and retail, (3) closeness to open space. Safety, comfort, quiet. I'm not sure these will change.

Safe, secure, clean and comortable accommodation. Public open space and parklands. Leisure activities. Good transport/ easy access to open spaces/ easy access to amenities Close to travel links. Close to a big green space. Close to local shops. This will probably change to wanting to be near where I am work Feeling Safe, close to transport and shops At the moment, close to work and friends with good transport links, not too crowded- good amount of green space. As I change jobs I m space, storgae, light low noise level; convenient transport links; safe neighbourhood. Safer area will become a priority once I have a family and transport link space and quietness . it may change because of road works/developments . 1. Somewhere I don't need to listen to other people's noise (i.e. flats with flimsy walls/ceilings) 2. A house with more space for entertain Nearby shops, Low crime rate or evident policing, transport. Transport and crime rate will definitely increase in importants as grow up, t Space, Parking and Location. I think it is unlikely these will change, though in order to get 1&2, 3 may have to change as my needs cha For comfortable/positive city living , my 3 main priorities would be area, price and space. The area of choice may change as I gain for fi Location space and shops Security , community and space Be near the tube, family, restaurants & theatres. As I age I need to be near good medical care i have no priorities for city living

locations, size, garden space shops around house, transport to school this might change when i get older as i might need to be closer to work closeness to nature, good public transport, pleasant community. More settlements are made so there will be more urbanization. Natural environment/settings (commons, parks,etc.); Transportation system; Nearby Amenities Decent size propert, easy access to city centre, good restaurants/ bars close by Secure housing, accessible area, low traffic. a good environment, agood air quality, green space, good schools and other amenities, GP etc. and good transport links.

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not really- you would still leave the block every day hugely important for well-being of the community. space for leisure, social events, sport Yes, because you are physically above everyone Very important for aesthetics, makes it feel less crowded and more social No because would still need to venture out into the surrounding areas for fresh air and shopping Very important, place to socialise and get fresh air No, I would find the practicalities useful and wouldnt mind being isolated from the city noise and stress Very important. Good for kids to play. Nice to have somewhere to go and relax that is asthetically pleasing Yes, becuase in this country there are no facilities for shared or communal areas and you are unlikley to know your neighbours. The Swedish and American models usually allowVery. for laundry areas common sometimes roof terrace garden area forfrom residents It means youincan have aplus socialising area aotherwise youorare very isolated neighbours. Yes - neighbourhoods work best at ground level not vertically Very important. People need space for children to exercise, people to meet and interact. No because i would still want to go out and explore different parts of the city. Important as it makes it more communal Not really, but I don't like the idea of a high rise Very important they make you feel better. yes. to feel part of the City you must engage with it through recreation and shopping physical social interaction is critical to a happy life very important to have open spaces in a housing estate so you dont feel close in plus having greenery makes the mind and body feel be Yes, because I wouldn't want my home to be everything. Being out in my local community is equally as important. Community is important to develop social skills, and have a sense of belonging. I wouldn't like to live on a high riser. If the lift is broken, I'd be scared in case of fire. But I wouldn't feel isolated should I be unfortunate to have to live there. To avoid the 'rat cage' look, noise pollution etc....to give it more prestige with green spaces (not to mention somewhere for kids to play). Yes. I'd miss our communal garden + I like being able to walk out the door and to the local shops Hugely. We're losing touch with nature and need reminding of the natural world. There is enough research to show the positive effects Potentially not, however I feel I'd prefer to be on ground level for the sake of simply walking out my front door and being on the street. Very important, as a why of creating community unity within a borough and within a city, as well as allowing young children to be able to not sure. yes, because kids and families who live in these places, need safe places to visit and spend time. yes very important, especially for kids to interact

completely - ease abd comfort would make it hard to leave. resulting in a mini world children to explore it is fundamental for their development. it also helps with sanity. being stuck indoors would make you feel depressed Probably not. Very important. It's a need for spiritual as well as physical free breathing. Yes. It would feel like I was miles away looking down at distance people rather than among the crowds. Somehow put up and out of site rather than fully in society. It would feel so unnatural. I get Nature is vitalAnd in the cityvertigo! for health and wellbeing of everyone. People should be able to be outside

No Massively important providing they are maintained for and by the people who they are designed to serve. Probably. Need to have reasons to leave your immediate environment Very. For peace of mind and improved health I feel like I probably wouldn't feel the need to leave if all my amenities were there. I think this would ened uop with me feeling isolated as I wouldn't have a reason to leave and see other parts of the city. I think it is really important! It creates a space for people to meet and spend time with one another and therefore can develop a commun It would depend on how close my family and friends are from me Space for childrens playground and possibly for garding are good to get to make and be with friends No not necessarily, because I would have the option to venture out to the City, and as my work would probably be further afield, I could pick and choose if I wanted to use the amenities or not. Very important- for young people living there especially to have somewhere to enjoy open space. So long as there were opportunities for mixing with other residents designed into the building, no. Crucial. This prevents the isolation and silo living that otherwise diminishes the quality of life afforded to such residents. No, I liked feeling removed from the hustle and bustle It's important to have open spaces so that we have some nature in an industrial environemnt. I don't believe a community spaces in a la yesi might . a bit like being in a bubble . cut off. it is crucial not to feel alienated and they would be good for children/youngsters to interact. Once I'm in my home, I feel happily isolated. The issue is being isolated with antisocial people. Open spaces allow people and cities to breathe. They are vital. In a way you may become isolated if you have no reason to leave the high rise, for example older people who have retired or people who are unemployed so have no work place. If these are removed then the ability to comunicate with the city on a personal level would be damaged. Largely important. These large places are needed for any family centered housing scheme and lowers the need for other facilities to be No, I would enjoy living up higher as you can see more / further, that makes me feel more connected. Very important - it makes you feel less 'boxed in' and happier to see green spaces. Also good for those with pets and to stop flooding. Yes. I would grow used to only socialising with those i have to, in the tower block. I wouldnt see the necesity to travel further for say a convenience store when theres a sainsbury local at the bottom of my block.(like some i have seen) very important. It allows you to meet different people. and if theyre not different, then at least a sence of belonging to those who have co I would feel cut off from nature if not people and amenities Vital - social lungs I think perhaps as they are their own spaces it might make you feel less of a part of the rest of the community Very important , to ensure people of all ages, cultures and degrees of mobility can live in a social way Yes, Read Kirkegaard, reflect on the Italian jabit of "communal promenading" in the evening. Very, but they need to be well maintained and supervised. People benefit from being outside. no because of the noise very important, good to talk

No, it depends on the shared areas and their condition Very - for children to have some ownership of the land around them. no, becuase i would live where i want to live i think its quite important becuase people get to know eachother as well as with open spaces you can spend time with friends amd family No, since it is important to become active and look for a suitable community where you can feel comfortable is out veryinto important, I think that I would feel isolated from the rest of the city as the majority of my existence would revolve around that one small living space, rather than it being necessary for me toItgo society.only in this way you can breathe freely and avoid aggressivity It is incredibly important as it gives people the space human beings require, particularly when living in such close proximity to one anoth Yes Very- essential for well being and happiness No, because i would still need to go out and about for work etc Extremely important as it gives a sense of community and encourages neighbourly love I don't think so. I have friends who live like that (in Penthouses), they enjoy the positives of not being overlooked, good views of the City etc. I chose to live in Streatham because of the Common and open space, so it's really important to me. I think that community spaces are fu

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safety, good high street, parks Community spaces, community events And pride in the community Social places eg restaurants, open spaces and greenery Social scene , green spaces, Neighborhood feel Have spaces which are inviting, safe and encourage all ages of a community to feel a sense of belonging and having a space where they can interact. Community areas, integrated living and good policing. Diversity, good local schools and open spaces Parks, community centres, events space, venues for interaction, shared ownership and responsible for outdoor spaces

to not live beyond our means. to consume less and to share more Something which doesn't destroy the environment but can power itself working with the environment at satisfying the needs of today without sacrificing the needs of tomorrow Meeting the needs of today whilst mainting them for the future in terms of the environment , social and economic actions Sustainablility means being able participate in reusing and recycling materials wherever possible to combat a throw away culture. Things are not one offs, but can be protected to be available on a long term basis. Not wasting what we have Creating a maintainable environmentally friendly lifestyle a model that can work in the long term

Something that will grow, develop and evolve with time and the people who access it. Open space, accessible activities and dedicated community space for young people it means to survive as long as possible with the minimum consumption of energy. small streets supporting little businesses, a communal function room, a cinema, restaurants, shops. Anything that will continue into the future - environmentally, socially, economically Local shops. Local shared spaces for children eg play grounds. Local facilities for all ages eg pubs, community centres To sustain grow lovingstores community spirit between theareas. people living there, revolves around the area being kept safe and maintaing Media outputs and channels which didn't discriminate against any minority or majority of the public. Closing the gap between the rich and the poor. Finally making the city feel alive. Greenand parks anda local and shops, community living harmony with environment, and not living beyond needs... The ability to survive within the means we live in. Ie not using more resources than you create Encourage engagement with others, local activities, local events

local council, community project's and strong support systems (1) Feeling of common interest with neighbours, (2) Ease of transport (walking or public transpoprt) to reach friends, (3) Affinity with the local government. Lots of parks and open spaces. Supporting local businesses so community can grow. Supporting the arts and culture so that people can gather together.

something that has a healthy durational Affordability, now and in the foreseeable future, at a local (micro) as well as national and international (macro) level. It means creating systems and abiding by practices that do not add to the damage already created by mankind on this planet. Instead,

not having to replace before its intended life cycle or being able to make use of it beyond its life cycle the integration of individuals and race groups within areas of a city as opposed to enclaves. Mixed social and community activities to support the previous point. Not wasting resources by using them unecessarily Services/ communal amenities/ a particualr identity for the area in a way thatto can Gives a sense of safety (neighbours can look out for one another). Provides a network of support (can borrow ingredients from neighbours/ask for childcare help etc) Making it aLiving nice atmosphere livebein!sustained over a long period of time (i.e. renewable energy sources etc) to last and fall apart within a short period of time Childrens playground, spare for gardening and maybe pop up resturants So that people don't feel isolated, so that young people feel a part of a community outside of family and school, so that vulnerable people can feel comfortable seeking help. Something that can contnue to run/ grow in a natural way, something that everybody involved has a role in maintaining. Systems that have a long term future and minimise the consumption of resources. Systems that reuse resources. diversity, space and amenity a lifestyle that can be maintained by a large number of people for a long time without negative side effects having a provision for elderly people in the community; outreach programme for disadvantaged teens; good daycare facility when all criteria is met for healthy good living. good neighbourly contacts .respect for others. helpfulness . Something that will last without being a burden to people, community or environment in the future. No huge estates that are poorly kept. Low rise housing. Amenities where people can mix: schools, community centres etc. Sustainability is the ability to keep itself running without having to have numerous fund raisers or have the government fund it more mo Interaction between young and old, Social events for all ages, open areas so that people can see who they live near. Planning for the long term future of people and place. Facilities, Transport, Amenities to keep going in whatever form it takes. Muliticultrulism, tolerance and interaction Physical and spirit Green spaces and quality builds is fairas in libraries the long or term for all those involved from supplier purchaser and can continue to be so. Local businesses that are relevant to the community, social places such as restaurants , coffee shops etc that are reflective of the community and affordable, community spacesIt such galleries that can be enjoyed and usedtoby all. That whatever is provided is affordable and maintainable and not unduly damaging of the environment Transport; usable, pleasant open spaces; affordable entertainment last the distance communication, communication, communication

opportunities to meet neighbours, clean streets and local amenities, good local transport and facilities make sure there are places for everyone, have festivals and stuff like that to bring people together creating a sense of responsibility for the environment - respect for one another - cleanliness - no pollution through being too loud Safety, trust and equality. Good schools, fetes etc, charity events Safe, respective and organised. shared spaces, inside and outside; an enironment and neighbourhood that is valued and schools and other services with an outreach element.

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That it can be maintained with a minimum of cost, effort and damage to the environment. to me it means using what we have but to make sure that we dont waste it and that people in the future can still use it Keeping the air and surroundings clean, engaging in groups to spread the idea of responsibility for posterity To support something, such as the environment by protecting the Earths resources to prevent them from depleting. Good life span, uses small amount of materials in its manufacture The ability to not run out of a certain thing Ensuring that we don't compromise the value of the planet and all that implies for future generations.

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Q10

No think holistically about problems and share out responsibility No Need to have more community events, more human contact Yes Use public transport more and more green areas Yes Be more environmentally friendly to stop pollution in cities. Yes We need to have a sense of responsibility, pride and belonging, coupled with being able to express our views on matters affecting us and having our concerns taken seriously. No Support anti gentrification campaigns in order to protect communities. No We all need to produce less waste, and waste less electricity Yes learn to live together in a more efficient and harmonious way No No We need to rely less on being isolated via where we live and social media, and have more spaces where we can interact and relax outside of home. No I think we are overcrowded in cities and should go back to ecological living. No, Why build something with only a 30yr old lifespan? People need to feel it is worth investing in their local communities - more permanence (for those in social housing or tenants of private landlords). Overseas buyers should beNo taxed heavily / prevented fromrise buying that stand empty whilst in creasing in value. locally. completely private. because I don't want a high flat.properties I don't believe I would be comfortable within the settingShop of something They need to be more unified. Already we're seeing evidence of people being pushed away, simply for being classified as "in league" with an individual minority, even when they No clearly do not represent the majority of that classification. cities that thrive tend to be ones with lots of green spaces, excellent public transport and cost effective places and convenient shops and community clubs / spaces. . No Encourage people to buy/shop locally. Engage with others. No affordable housing to keep a mix within boroughs No one should undertake an open-ended commitment of that kind. (1) Go out and meet people, (2) Use the local library, (3) Read thew local press or newsletters, (4) Participate in local politics, or local interest groups. No We need to spend less time in front of the TV and more time getting to know our neighbours. Yes No Allowing people to have a sense of their worth/ affordable decent housing/ No, I would need to know the expense of the place - would it be significantly cheaper if I would only own it for 30 years? Think less about what helps them as an individual and more as what helps society as a whole. No, It would mean all the friendships that have been built up could be lost Yes Be accepting of positive change, try to maintain a sense of closeness and community Yes Respect and enthusiam for public space increases the space we feel is available to us without the need for extensive private gardens. However, planners and architects needYes to create public spaces over which residents will feel a sense of ownership. preserve the gardens and natural spaces and stop constantly developing new sites; be more caring of each other - people should look after each other in the streets and not Yes walk by when viloence may be occurring there should be a sense of care amongst residents of a community. involvement too. No, I am looking to buy freehold which will not involve the complexitties of landlords, free holders, managing agents etc. People being more considerate of each other - living in any century. Less social segregation through pricing people out of an area. Yes Communities need to develop in a way that supports local business and local people, so supporting individual stores or long standing shops in the community. Yes Yes We need to take into account the myriad beliefs and cultures that comprise a community, and listen to their needs. Yes stop marginilising people. No Better spread of wealth so older people can work less and there are more spaces for younger people Yes Individuals need to become less materialistic and communities need to consider what will benefit the people who are a part of it and therefore encourage people to really utilise community schemes or businesses. If no, briefly explain why.:whats in it for me, if return was ok then ok Accept less space and more equitable distribution of wealth. Move away from teh notion that oonly economic growth equates to success respect Yes No, becuase that would be a waste of my money, I would rather but a small house knowing i can live in it for a long time Cars need to be reduced and therefore outr transport infrastructure must be improved and our attitude to having our own cars must change i think they need to make sure there is more places people can meet up from the same community and also that there is places where people can be away from all the noise Yes like a quite park or something No They need to adopt their working lives in an harmonious way to their private lives They need to think about the fact that the ways in which they live will affect the stability of future and try to alter their lifestyles by doing simple things such as recycling, using No energy efficient devices, etc., particularly as cities affect global warming the greatest. No, It would be a waste of my money No, I have children and my life expectancy isexpected to be longer than 30 years. I would like to pass my assets to my child. They need to take care of their spending and also be friendlier towards those they live amongst. I think that the projected population rise provides a real challenge, not only for the availability of resources (where communities have a role to play in using resources wisely, some of this is about good design. It needs to be easy to use resources wisely.

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Q12

Q11

yes- works well as a metaphor 1 year Yes. Cities are living spaces 1 month Yes, as change occurs within a city and a city develops a lot of waste is also created through the destruction of past constructions 1 month Partially yes but the elimination of waste doesn't really happen as there is so much waste in the city. THe production of energy does happen thoigh Never For. Even in the 18th century Robert Louis Stevenson described London as "the procession of the town's life was still rolling in through the great arteries" so that metaphor has long been in use.

Never

No i think developments in city living are profit led. Yes we need a city to have a high metabolism yes, both are complex systems

1 year Never 1 year In some ways, but mainly not. Humans tend to get bored quickly, and want something new. Never Yes it can but I think the quality of this cell is poorer and poorer. Never This is not a helpful metaphor. It is unscientific and I have no idea why this comparison could be deemed helpful Never I'd say the "elimination of waste" is pushing it a bit far, I can't think of examples within a city where we just destroy things completely- even building sites which are knocked down are rebuilt. But in terms of growth and production of energy, yes I'd agree. Never no , there will always be waste whenever people occupy space. 3+ years yes 1 month 1 month hmmm 1 month No. This is a handy hobbyist's idea, but there's no genuine, useful or reliable analogy along those lines. Yes, although not sure it's such a graceful process in a city Never Never Never The worry would be that the city is in decline, rather than growing Yes - everything is connected and impacts one another.

Never

Never However if a city/community is not working well together it could have the opposite effect and result in hostility. Yes when the community is working well together. People help eachother and become better individuals as a result. Community recycling, larger projects, working to help the vulnerable. Yes. However, unlike the body, which generally is unified in its purpose, a city is often a contested space with power not always equally distributed. The power dynamic will needNever to be accounted for before a truly metabollic system can exist. 1 year No, I believe the movement and change in a city is resulting in the creation of waste and is draining the energy from both the earth and people yes it can. like living cells we live a span of time during which we evolve organitly with our surroundings Never This is an oversimplification as people have different agendas and rules to that of a cell. 1 year Yes it could be argued this way because as the society changes the types of requirements would need to change and develop too, however the elimination of waste would have to be highly scrutinised so that it was waste to the community not to an outside eye e.g really good for community. 1 year I agree, the ways a city changes are very similar to the way a cell metabolises 1 month For. 3+ years Yes - but are we the waste? 1 year Depends on what is considered elimination of waste and who is instigating change for what reason. 1 month Yes. There are clear parallels. Never all cities evolve this way but depends on investment to ser which way they tilt 1 month Never Never Yes - a city develops, grows, takes on a life of itself - it sprawls and speads. It has a past that profoundly affects the present and the future - ie - the geography of a city is difficult Never to change.

Not quite, because there are many more factors influencing city life than in a cell. Major influences are nature as such, but more complex seems to be human nature regarding individual and group interaction I agree that it could be compared to the growth rate of cities' populations over time and their production of energy (e.g. the National Grid in this country), however, I do not think that cities eliminate the waste that they produce, as it is stored in landfill sites spanning ths globe.

1 year I agree, as positive changes result in growth, economical and social. Well, in some ways. But cells are in stasis, ie the inputs and outputs balance, a City like London has a massive environmental footpront, about the size of Spain and growing. So 1 wemonth need to think about how all this squares internationally and ensure that people adopt life styles that equate to one planet living. 1 month 1 month 1 month 1 month Never

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