Questioning Permeance/Diploma Research Report

Questioning Permanence

Caitlin Jakusz Paridy

“1980s film photo of permafrost melting the interior of an abandoned Arctic coal mine”

DALL-E AI generated image September 27, 2022

Questioning Permanence: Permeating the temporal-material assemblages of Longyearbyen’s underground permafrost through design

Caitlin Jakusz Paridy

Pre-Diploma Report Course Responsible: Mari Bergset

UiT + AHO Fall 2022

Table of Contents

i. Abstract 7

I. What is Permafrost? 9 deconstructing permanence distribution across the Arctic formation in Svalbard relevance to landscape architecture

II. Permeating the Underground 23 literature review reference projects: approach reference projects: spatial qualities

III. Permafrost and Svalbard 53 lexicon of conditions design intent and research question

IV. Reflections and Process 71 interviews with experts methods of exploration diploma timeline reflecting forward

ii. Appendix 85 lexicon of conditions (continued) geosphere & cryosphere mapping glossary of permafrost terminology references

Abstract

Covering 22.8 million km 2, permafrost connects the landscape of the Arctic through its fluid, messy, and complex assemblage of organic and inorganic materials. This so-called permanently frozen ground goes through numerous cycles throughout the year, creating unique landscape conditions both above and below ground.

As climate change is set to increase ground temperature and precipitation in the Arctic, these dynamic conditions will expand as well, thus awakening this sub-surface permafrost and the dynamic material assemblages present within. Consequentially, landscape architects will need to embrace the fluidity and agency of the underground to respectfully design for these variable conditions set to increase.

As an island in the high-Arctic, Svalbard is covered in a layer of continuous permafrost which runs as deep as 500m below the surface. This landscape thus presents itself as a nexus of engagement with sub-surface permafrost through its coal mines, monitoring boreholes, seed vault, and foundations.

To understand and develop a landscape architectural vocabulary for the Arctic’s fluid, frozen ground, this diploma will design a lexicon of Longyearbyen’s temporalmaterial underground permafrost conditions through drawings, animations, and models. This expanded literacy of the underground will then be applied to a landscape architectural design proposal for the after-life of the soon to be decommissioned Mine #7.

This proposal imagines how specific design interventions within and above the mine, might encourage/reveal permafrosts increasingly fluid state as climate change alters landscape conditions above and below ground. The design’s intention is to prioritize more-than-human processes and beings, while also developing ways to reveal the realities and temporalities of underground permafrost within the coal mine to human visitors. In this way, this work will propose a method for how to plan, remediate, engage with and address the Arctic’s frozen ground, through landscape architecture.

I. What is Permafrost?

Deconstructing Permanence Distribution across the Arctic Formation in Svalbard Relevance to Landscape Architecture

(references)

1. Stuart A. Harris et al. Geocryology: Characteristics and Use of Frozen Ground and Permafrost Landforms, (London: Taylor and Francis Group, 2018): 3.

2. Yuri Shur et al. “Permafrost,” in Singh V.P, Sing P., Haritashya, Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers (Dordrecht: Springer, 2011): 841.

3. Ibid.

4. Celine Granjou, and Juan Francisco Salazar. “The Stuff of Soil: Belowground Agency in the Making of Future Climates.” Nature and Culture 14 no.1 (2019): 39-60.

5. Jane Bennett. Vibrant Matter: A Political Ecology of Things (Durham: Duke University Press, 2010).

(notes)

The following chapters unpack this approach to permafrost through literature exploring the agency of the underground, spatial analysis of underground permafrost landscapes, and a compilation of permafrost conditions (their materials, duration, uses, depths...) present in Longyearbyen. This research and approach to understanding frozen ground inspired and will provide the structure for my final design proposal for the afterlife of Mine #7.

Deconstructing Permanence

In comparison to other soil or ground types, permafrost is always defined through its temperature state. The most common definition within the Western context is that permafrost is soil, bedrock, or other earth materials, whose temperature remains below 0°C for at least 2 consecutive years.1 The Russian definition on the other hand maintains that permafrost is simply “soil which remains frozen (has ice as its component) for years.”2

In this way:

“Permafrost is synonymous with perennially cryotic ground; it is defined on the basis of temperature. It is not necessarily frozen, because the freezing point of included water may be depressed several degrees below 0°C; moisture in the form of ice may or may not be present. In other words, perennially frozen ground is permafrost, but not all permafrost is perennially frozen.”3

This is all to say that a specific picture of permafrost is difficult to capture, as there exists no singular state, and it is in fact far from permanent (as its name denotes). Within this diploma, I have therefore used the more nuanced definition of permafrost according to the landscape architect Leena Cho, in her text Permafrost Politics: Toward a Relational Materiality and Design of Arctic Ground:

Permafrost [is a] geo- and biosocial strata where various things across earth’s time—including ancient microbes, hydrocarbons, roots, toxins, scientific probes and building foundations—have been accumulated, separated and reconstituted.

These strata are formed by, or in reaction to, myriad thermal constitutions wherein a slight offset from a freezing temperature produces vastly different material realities and future climates within and above ground (p.30).

With this definition in mind, my own approach to permafrost appropriates the aspect of temperature state over periods of time, but views them through the lens of material agency 4 or vibrant matter. 5 In doing so, other underground materials - beyond organic matter - become an actor within permafrost as well. Thus creating a temporal-material framework for this frozen ground.

Permafrost conditions and distribution across the Arctic Circle

The division of permafrost territorial is based on the coverage amount (from continuous coverage to isolated patches). Across the Arctic Circle, permafrost is the primairy ground condition, meaning those who design in this part of the world must understand its dynamics.

Continuous Discontinuous Sporadic Isolated

What is permafrost?

Distribution across the Arctic

Permafrost covers some 25% of global areas (roughly 22.8 million km 2): nearly one half of Canada, two thirds of Russia, most of Svalbard, parts of China, large portions of Alaska, U.S.A., Mongolia, Greenland, and the Antarctic. 1

Territorially, it is categorized according to its distribution (see image left): “ continuous (where permafrost exists everywhere and can be interrupted by taliks under big water bodies), discontinuous (where permafrost is interrupted or alternates with areas of unfrozen soil), sporadic (where permafrost occurs as separate masses surrounded by unfrozen soil), isolated (which occurs mainly in peat mounds and ridges surrounded by unfrozen bog).” 2

The categorization of permafrost from the surface does little to reveal its nuances. It is instead the sectional reading of this ground where the dynamics and processes which shape this landscape become more clear (see page. 15).

1. Yuri Shur et al. “Permafrost,” in Singh V.P, Sing P., Haritashya, Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers (Dordrecht: Springer, 2011): 842.

2. Ibid: 843.

Distribution of continuous permafrost across Svalbard and elements which penetrate it Continuous permafrost layer hatched in black + Points of engagement with the underground across Svalbard (mining + boreholes) Mine Sites Permafrost Boreholes

What is permafrost?

Idealized temperature and spatial profile of permafrost depicting the various levels, processes, and influences Image by author with temperature information adapted from Strand (2016).

Diagram of Permafrost Conditions in Longyearbyen (to be built upon as more conditions reveal themselves)

Boreholes

UNIS East (-8m)

Old Auroral Station 2 (-10m) Breinosa (-10m) Endalen (-19m) Janssonhaugen (-20m)

Historical Longyearbyen Graveyard (-0.3m) Various infrastructural elements(-1m)

Infrastructure

Various conditions above ground (+) Foundations (1-5m) Airport (1-4m) Seed Vault (-130m) Arctic World Archive (-300m)

Mining

Various conditions above ground (+) Entrance to mines (0) Mine 7 under Foxfauna Glacier (-100m) Mine 3 coal seam (-300m)

Organic Active layer (0 to -20m) Depth along coasts (-100m) Average depth in valleys (-100 to -150m)

Average depth in mountains (-400 to -500m)

Geology

Carolinefjellet Formation (190m to 1200m thick)

Helvetiafjellet Formation (12m to 155m thick)

Rurifjellet Formation (110m to 400m thick)

*groundwater would be included but it is very difficult to assess in continuous permafrost areas. Most water is runoff in Svalbard (see conversation with Amanda Post).

(references)

1. Ole Humlum, Arne Instanes and Johan Ludvig Sollid, “Permafrost in Svalbard: a review of research history, climatic background and engineering challenges,” Polar Research 22, no. 2 (2003):199.

2. I. Hanssen-Bauer, et al. Climate in Svalbard 2100: a knowldge base for climate adaptation (Oslo: Miljodirektoratet, 2019): 113

4. Stefanie Cable, Bo Elberling and Aart Kroon, “Holocene permafrost history and cryostratigraphy in the High-Arctic Adventdalen Valley, central Svalbard,” Boreas 47 (2018): 424.

4. Ole Humlum: 192.

5. Ibid: 192.

6. Graham Lewis Gilbert, “Cryostratigraphy and sedimentology of high-Arctic fjord-valleys,” Masters thesis, University of Bergan (2018):iii.

7. Hanne H. Christiansen: 237.

8. Ole Humlum:199.

9. Ibid: 199.

10. Hanne H. Christiansen: 237.

11. I. Hanssen-Bauer: 117.

12. Ibid: 117-122.

13. Hanne H. Christiansen: 247.

14. I. Hanssen-Bauer: 122 * see Appendix for definitions

What is permafrost?

Formation in Svalbard

The island of Svalbard is covered up to 25,000km2 with a continuous layer of permafrost.1 This extent of frozen ground typically measures -100m to -150m below the surface in valleys, and up to -500m in the mountains.2 This high altitude permafrost was likely formed during the Pleistocene era (2,580,000 to 11,700 years ago), whereas the valley developed throughout the Holocene (11,500 years ago to present).3

The first official record of permafrosts presence in Svalbard was in the First International Polar Year (1882).4 With the introduction of coal mining activities (beginning in 1890), ground temperature analysis began to occur as well. These initial studies found a variation in ground temperature up to 2m (document by Ekholm in 1890 in Observations Météorologiques).5

Typically, permafrost manifests itself on Svalbard’s landscape in multiple ways: pingos, ice wedges, sorted circles, rock glaciers. These formations occur within the syngenetic * permafrost and the uppermost part of epigenetic * permafrost as they contain the highest quantities of ice, and thus are most impacted by thaw, erosion, and settling.6

As captured by the six permafrost observation sites in Adventdalen, ground temperature (-10m depth) has increased by 0.15°C each year since 1990, resulting in the active layer growing in depth by 0.6cm/per year in sediments, and 1.6cm/per year in bedrock since 2000. 7 These fluctuating conditions are further amplified by the sporadic nature of permafrost in Svalbard, as a slight variations in “slope, aspect, altitude, topographic shading, and redistribution of winter snow cover by wind,” 8 can alter its composition.

With increased temperatures and precipitation, the thawing period is likely to increase as well, 10 causing the active layer to expand and even disappear completely in some parts by 2100.11 This will result in more landslides, slope instability, coastal erosion, solifluction, slush flows and structural failures.12 Hanne Christiansen et al. argue for the importance of monitoring the base of permafrost to better understand the source of these instabilities.13 Subsequently, new planning and design strategies which consider this fluid, multi-level, impermanent frozen ground must be considered as well.14

Arctic greening due to increased climate and ground temperatures

Graphic based on IPCC 5th assessment report of the areas within Svalbard that are expected to increase in vegetation as global temperatures increase less vegetation more vegetation

Bjørnøya

What is permafrost?

Increasing ground temperature and precipitation will likely increase slope instability and glacial thaw Areas at risk for landslides in black, glaciers and morraines in grey, coal mines dashed

Estimate of permafrost distribution in 2100

Projected permafrost extent in 2100 per IPCC’s 5th Assessment Report + Ground temperature in 2100 per Arctic Monitoring Aassessment Program

RCP 4.5 RCP 8.5

What is permafrost?

Relevance to landscape architecture

Given the significance of permafrosts scale and distribution across the Arctic, landscape architects working in these areas will address frozen ground at some time or another. To date, many designed infrastructural elements have been impacted by permafrosts fluctuating conditions (see III. Permafrost in Svalbard). As presented before, these conditions will only increase across the Arctic.

Given these changes, the scientific community has recommended a deeper reading of permafrost (physical and metaphorical) with new approaches to planning and design which consider this fluidity. Leena Cho, echoes this call within landscape architect given permafrosts agency and ability to shape spatial, temporal, and cultural landscapes above and below ground. In speaking of the materials which designers modify/place/remove within permafrost she describes the following:

“[they] further reconfigure thermal exchange between the active layer and permafrost, not only by the presence or structures or atmospheric interactions but also by the ephemeral yet lasting imprints of equipment and vehicles that repeatedly reshape the ground.

All of these biological, chemical, geological, human and machinic dimensions that impact the permafrost landscape, directly or indirectly, are essential and underused design media for landscape architecture in the Arctic and can lead to socioecologically meaningful design principles through a creative choreography and reinterpretations of their interrelations.”

Given this context;

What would a landscape architectural approach to understanding permafrosts above and below ground conditions look like?

How do you draw, model, and design for the fluid assemblage of materials present within sub-surface permafrost?

How do underground materials such as coal, slate, siltstone.. react to water, ice, heat, vapor.. through natural (thawing, settling, eroding, dispersing) and artificial processes (moving, breaking, adding)?

What would landscape architecture which considers permafrost following Cho’s definition look like? How would this design alter underground spaces embedded in permafrost? How would these manifest on the surface?

II. Permeating the Underground

Literature Review

Reference Projects: theoretical approach Reference Projects: spatial analysis

Reflecting a very specific period and way of relating to the underground, images like this one of an archaeological dig relate to the European fascination at that time with discovery and exploration as a means of conquering the underground. What I appreciate from this image are the exaggerated bones, and reflective torch light. These create a sense of whimsy, and juxtapose the scientific with the imaginary.

Vertical section of the cavern at Gaylenreuth in Franconia, frontispiece from George Cuvier’s Essay on the Theory of the Earth (Edinburgh: William Blackwood, 1827)

Literature Review

Responding to the call for permafrost to be better understood through its sub-surface conditions, I decided to engage specifically with the underground realities of frozen ground (i.e not just the way permafrost manifests on the surface). To do so, I have looked into literature which discusses the agency of the underground and the ways humans have related to it - including how landscape architects work with it.

The human-underground relationship is equally as nuanced as permafrost itself, being a site for burial, fear, spirituality, safety, industrialization, extraction, growth... This has triggered a plethora of stories centering life underground. Minerals found underground for instance, were once considered to be “living organisms that grew inside the earth”1, propagating and spreading in veins like a tree’s trunk. “Mining was therefore an enterprise of dubious morality, comparable to mutilation and violation.”2 This discussion surrounding the penetration and extraction of the earth has come to the surface again, as mechanisms such as the Capitolocene3 and the Green Shift4 require massive amounts of minerals to be taken from the ground.

How these minerals, processes, and memories buried underground, are engaged with through landscape architecture was a large part of my initial research for this diploma. The following works were selected for their specific approaches in understanding the agency, fluidity, and evolution of the underground.

1. Rosalind Williams, Notes on the Underground, (Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2018), 24.

2. Ibid: p. 24.

3. Jason W. Moore, “The Capitalocene, Part I: on the nature and origins of our ecological crisis” The Journal of Peasant Studies, 44, no. 3, 2017.

4. Aniella Sophie Goldinger and Caitlin Jakusz Paridy, “Re-assessing the assessment: Impacts of green colonialism in Sápmi” KERB Journal, 30, 2022 (in print).

(key quotes)

‘...there is a recognition that coal is the product of compressed climate events too, and its burning unleashes the geologic compression of those events.”

“Coal is a constellation of an intense material expression that is simultaneously: solar repository, underground physicality, social bond, form of solidarity, modes of communication with geologic time, colonial force, a mode of political subjectification, geomaterial, a form of social and biological reproduction, an expressive sensibility, a sexuate object, an inhuman and historical force.” (p. 216)

*

“ Numerous mining accounts suggests that it is a mistake to think of the mine as dead rock or inert matter instead of a living thing. This shift in register changes everything, the relation between the surface and what is below: it is a change of geography and a change of material relation, with the seams and the rock and the corpeal knowledge of formations as nontheoretical movements of the earth. Knowing the life of coal, its folds and its flows, as one knows the other bodies - intimately, through touch rather than language - is what drew an attachment to the otherworldliness in the heart of the word, in the “black velvet” embraces of the pit.” (p. 222)

(notes)

As discussed throughout the Territorial Studio visit to Longyearbyen this Fall, there is an identity crises present within the community. As a town built from and around coal mining, the subsequent closure and erasure of this legacy has left a void in the type of town Longyearbyen wants to be. While the coal mining heritage is protected, the movement of permafrost, pushes its foundations to become damaged, while filling up mine shafts with ice and water.

While many of the inhabitants now are not directly affiliated with the coal mines, the above and below ground landscape surrounding them is. As the landscape changes is there a way for these memories of and in coal to evolve as well?

Queer Coal: Genealogies in/of the Blood by

Kathyrn Yusoff

resource type: literature field of study: inhuman geographies, philosophy journal: Philosophia, vol. 5, no. 2, (2015): 203-229.

Exploring the nuances and intricacies of our human relationship to and from coal, Yusoff presents a “genealogical account of coal in the Anthropocene” in two directions: “the specificities of bodies, sites, and political formations in which coal comes to matter and through inhuman agency and its continuance notwithstanding the human” (p. 203). She presents this narrative of the Anthropocene through the “inter-implications of substances and subjects in coal mining: explicitly mining is considered as an aesthetics, method, and epistemology that elaborates on an inhuman sociality of the blood.” This sociality is explored through the 1984-1985 coal miners strike in the UK, as then prime-minister Margaret Thatcher worked to privatize the coal industry, cut government subsidies, and break up unions.

Coal, coal miners, and this geological intimacy: “has underwritten the bodies politic of the country and its specific forms of reproduction - in colonialism, where coal effectively operationalized the infrastructure of empire..., and even judicial powers... but also in the corporeality of miners’ bodies, coal dust under the fingernails, accidents and blood spilt in the earth, the blood work of toil, workers socialized in solidarity through their labour, because such conditions demand solidarity. A seam cannot be worked alone and the mutual exposure of the work along the line meant that vulnerability was/is shared regardless of individual intent. Knowledge was passed along the coal seam .” (p. 218)

What Yusoff concludes with, is that this severing of coal mining communities divided families and towns, while also disconnecting humans to this deep relationship with the underground and the geological processes within.

“Turning against the inheritance of coal without proper consideration of what was inherited, turns against the sociality of the blood that it enabled; after the closure of the pits, the geosocial relations of fossil fuels went underground, hidden from view and inner experience, in pipelines and shipping containers, entombed in a zombie Anthropocene body politic and fetishism of energy.” (p. 227) Thus reorienting our human relationship to the underground is critical to discussions around the future of this earth: our methods of energy production, and the manners we build/extract/fill.

(key quotes)

“Efforts to penetrate and disturb the ground and penetrate into the subsurface have long been represented as transgressive, risky, and masculine.” (p.49)

*

“...proposals for deep geological burial function by creating both a spatial and temporal disjuncture between the sites of waste production, temporary storage and the ultimate fate of radioactive material. As illustrated by the science of stratigraphy... distance from the surface carries connotations of literal separation from human activities and a temporal projection into a distant past or seemingless timeless future .” (p.52)

*

“Indeed it is not without irony that in proposals for the burial of radioactive waste the geological features of proposed disposal sites, made visible by expert assessments, have served to destabilize visions of subsurface stability and permanence . Research in the fields such as paleoseismicity and the reconstruction of historic climate change and geologic dynamism is increasingly problematizing whether bedrock might ever be considered a stable repository for waste disposal (Morner, 2001).” (p. 53)

*

“The proposed burial and subterranean storage of radioactive waste and carbon depends upon concentrated social work to tame and secure these unruly passengers and their geological environs , imaginatively as well as materially. These labours to realize the future promise of subterranean burial is but one indication of the need for accounts of underground political ecologies to dwell more thoroughly below the surface.” (p. 56)

(notes)

*Deep geological deposits for nuclear waste are a growing “solution” to dispose of toxic nuclear waste for varying durations. In Finland for instance the construction of 60-70km’s worth of tunnels underground for the storage of nuclear waste for 100,000 years is on going(Gordon H, 2017). In England the practice is similar where facilities across the North are being built to house million’s of tonnes of nuclear waste for a finite period of time in geological terms (Greene T, 2021). The hope in both cases being that at some time in the future, some technological revolution will have been made to deal with these materials.

**When Svalbard’s mines are closed for instance, their life is not finished. The underground remains hollowed or filled with toxic materials, lingering below the surface. Sealing them up and leaving (see page 34-35) permits the disassociation of space; erasing the heritage, and ingrained reciprocity which is owed to this land and the people who worked within the ground. How might the landscape create markers of sites of “ongoing obligations and care”?

(references)

Helen Gordon, “Journey deep into the Finnish caverns where nuclear waste will be buried for millennial,” Wired, last modified April 24, 2017, https:// www.wired.co.uk/article/olkiluoto-island-finland-nuclear-waste-onkalo.

Tommy Greene, “Nuclear storage plans for north of England stir up local opposition,” The Guardian, last modified August 23, 2021, https://www. theguardian.com/environment/2021/ aug/23/nuclear-storage-plans-fornorth-of-england-stir-up-local-opposition.

Earthly graves for environmental futures: Techno-burial practices by

Matthew Kearnes and Lauren Rickards

resource type: literature field of study: social, cultural, and human geographies journal: Futures vol. 92 (2017): 48-58

This article stood out to me from the beginning due to its unique comparison of traditional ritual burial practices with that of nuclear waste disposal and CO 2 storage. These burial practices are one manner that humans have engaged or used the separation of surface and underground as a space of transition. As they describe, these “waste disposal practices often entail ongoing relations of care and obligation,” (p. 51) “[enabling] the liberation of soul from the body, and conversely the liberation of the living from the dead, while marking the continuing obligations that living have to the deceased.”

In relation to the burial of radioactive waste however, this marked transition is not apparent, as nuclear deposits in underground storage facilities transition from temporary to semi-permanent spatial arrangements and responsibilities to this material repeatedly shifts hands over time (p.52)*. With these disposal practices, the stability of the underground is appropriated; lulling the public into a false sense of security around the storing of materials like nuclear waste below the surface.

The authors conclude with the point that a false sense of security of the stability of the underground is created through the schematization of these nuclear waste disposal projects, reducing the geology to a black hatch or void. Additionally, geospatial imagery presents “a space that is static, stable, and transparent site for waste disposal” (p. 55). These practices might be challenged with the consideration of tombstones or other architectural designs to identify “sites of ongoing obligations and care, whilst also locating these sites in webs of cultural meaning and significance” (p. 55). In this way, the connection to the underground and these spaces of disposal might be related to in a different manner, as symbols of our ongoing human relationship to extraction and sense of responsibility to land which has been impacted**.

(key quotes)

“Underlying bedrock, soils, infrastructure, and the biotically active rhizosphere form complex assemblies that deceptively read as a singular “ground.”” (p. 119)

*

“Legacies of soil modification or contamination, while invisible to the eye, prompt landscape strategies that arrest or exploit time: capping or diffusing, attenuation or remediation, or complete displacement of toxic soil.” (p. 121)

*

“‘Light, water, wind, and weathering, these are the agents by which [building] is consummated,’ Frampton writes of the markings of time on buildings. These same elements alter landscape surfaces, but also catalyze vegetation growth, erosion, and other entropic change, through addition and subtraction—and are part of the palette of available design considerations.” (p. 123)

*

“Curation’s root in cura, “to care” resonates with one of landscape architecture’s underpinnings- the idea of stewardship. Further, the contemporary use of “curation” as a practice of organizing and exhibiting also relates to landscape architecture’s potential to reveal and amplify aspects of the landscape.” (footnote #23, page 179)

(notes)

*I particularly appreciate this idea of landscape architect as weaver. It denotes this idea of taking care in the organization of individual elements into a whole.

**Within the Arctic these underground assemblages, and fluctuations are even more important to consider as landscape architects. As seen in permafrost, it is not just through tree canopies which the geological forces are made present but through rock slides, foundations sinking, coasts eroding and exposing layers of geological time...

Substance and Structure I: The Material Culture of Landscape Architecture

by Jane Mah Hutton

resource type: literature, spatial analysis field of study: landscape architecture journal: Harvard Design Magazine, vol. 36 (2013): 116-123.

Using the 1960s definition of tectonics which arose out of plate tectonic theory, Hutton reflects on its relevance within landscape architecture as it “describes the structure of the earth’s surface in relation to the large scale, long-durational processes that form it” (p. 118). She remarks that this definition relates fundamentally to “the material culture of landscape architecture: while shaped with design intention, landscapes are pre-conditioned, tempered, and altered by on-going action outside of human control” (p. 118).

This manifests within landscape architecture through “the role of non human forces in the making of form, the illegibility of the ground, the coalescence of extant and introduced materials, and finally the on-going energetic inputs of maintenance regimes” (p. 118).

In the case of the ground and its illegibility, she describes the assemblage of materials woven and stacked* by landscape architects. Referring to the ground conditions of Central Park, “the ground is assembled of differentially permeable, intricately bound systems, which characterize its resistance to water, gravity, load, and wind” (p. 119). In this landscape over one hundred miles of sewer and water management infrastructure was weaved into varying layers of sub-soils, and subsequently sealed with gravel and pavers. Even though time, resources, and care is put into these resources, their visibility is only “revealed above the surface through the density and expanse of tree canopy, the orchestration of wetness and dryness, and the friability or cohesion of slopes” (p. 120).

This below ground temporal-material reality is therefore a part of what landscape architects must curate;** “...it is through engagement with geological and biological action and the non-linear yet powerful relationships between structures and formal expression where landscape tectonics finds its poetics of construction” (p. 123).

Reference Projects: Approach

The following reference projects were selected for their ways of approaching the underground; be it in their theoretical exploration of the underground through imagination and theory, their attempts to bring vegetation, light, and flows into sub-surface infrastructure, or a critic of the separation between visible and invisible when working on landscape remediation efforts.

Each project contains a summary and reflection on its relevance to this diploma work.

In Jobst drawings the Underground stations are heavily annotated and layered, reflecting the dynamism of being within its stations and tunnels. I think the use of architectural drawings and theories which are specific and precise creates an interesting juxtaposition with highly imaginative or future theories of these spaces.

I intend on balancing my lexicon of permafrost conditions in a similar way with the use of technical drawing conventions, specific scales and terminology, alongside the imagination of how these more-than-human processes take place and how they will appear as climate change increases their fluidity.

and bottom image)

(top

Mark Jobst, A Ficto-Historical Theory of the London Underground, architectural drawings (2017)

A Ficto-Historical Theory of the London Underground (2017)

by Marko Jobst

resource type: representation + method field of study: architectural history/spatial analysis

Using fictional story telling and academic writing, this book explores the London Underground through architectural histories, theories, and imagination. As one of the busiest underground spaces, Jobst argues that it has remained largely unacknowledged within the world of architectural theory, as a novel building type or nuances of movement which “ brings together the built environment, technologies of transportation, and the techniques of the body in a high specific conjunction .” 1 To counteract this, he documents, describes, reflects and draws out the spaces of the Underground as nuanced, complex, and full of movement through this ficto-theoretical lens.

*

I am particularly drawn to this project as an exploration of an underground space through architectural theory and imagination. The balance of these two spheres is something I hope to work with in my own diploma. As the underground has historically been a source of imagination within science fiction writing I hope to keep this legacy in mind within the representation of sub-surface permafrost conditions and the conceptual design development for mine #7 into the distant future.

While I greatly appreciate the drawings completed with this book, I hope to challenge the representation of underground space as a void. Instead, I plan on representing the underground as full of texture, movement, and life and hope to avoid using solid black to fill in the gaps between temporalmaterial conditions.

1. Marko Jobst, “A Ficto-historical Theory of the London Underground,” Site-Writing, last accessed October 17, 2017, https://site-writing.co.uk/a-ficto-historical-theory-of-the-london-underground-2017/.

(top image)

The light vaults allow for low light growing plants, like moss, to grow underground. The openings permit the exchange of air, moisture, and water from above to below.

Rasmus Hjortshoj, photograph, N.D, https://coastarc.com/c-i-s-t-e-r-n-e-r-n-e

(bottom image)

Mirrors and water create reflective surfaces for the light to bounce off of, creating an ephemeral atmosphere and connection between the surface and the subterranean.

Jens Markus Lindhe, photograph, N.D, https:// www.dinesen.com/no/inspiration/the-cisterns-x-sambuichi/.

The Cisterns x Sambuichi

by: Hiroshi Sambuichi

resource type: project example field of study: installation/spatial design

“The various characteristics of the cisterns that could be considered problematic — the constant flow of water, the extremely high humidity level, the 17 seconds of echo and the absence of daylight — were to sambuichi the best possible starting point for a project...”1

The Cisterns is a multipurpose exhibition space located under the Frederiksberg Hill in Copenhagen2. Once the primary source of water for the city, its now used to host various exhibitions and events. It’s collaboration with the Japanese architect Hiroshi Sambuichi resulted in an exhibition where water, natural light, mirrors, and walkways juxtaposed the hard, dark, concrete features of the cistern.

*

When I first found this project I began to imagine the potentials for landscape architecture underground. Manipulating light, shadow, atmosphere, vegetation, textures, and water can transform a dark subterranean cistern into a space for the fluid dynamics of the underground to be on display.

What openings are needed to let light in while revealing conditions below? How do you angle walls, use materials or surfaces to distribute light and shadow? What species of moss, lichen, fungi can survive and thrive in these spaces? What environments do underground pools create for species? How does water dripping across a rock shape the surface in a few days, years, centuries?

1. Astrid La Cour, in Philip Stevens, “hiroshi sambuichi brings nature to subterranean copenhagen with cisternerne installation,” Designboom, last modified July 31, 2017, https://www.designboom.com/art/hiroshi-sambuichi-cisternerne-installation-water-copenhagen-rasmus-hjortshoj-07-31-2017/.

2. “The Cisterns x Sambuichi,” Dineseen, last accessed October 31, 2022, https://www.dinesen.com/no/inspiration/ the-cisterns-x-sambuichi/.

(top image)

This 3D scan of the Svea mine reflects the disconnect present between the surface and underground as the details presented are only that of the exterior - not the boreholes and chambers excavated within the mountains.

Store Norsk, Screenshot of Svea 01 3D Scan, image, December 13, 2021, https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=cKoqDmrXYwE.

(bottom image)

An interior image of Svea mine whose chambers were sealed up; left to be a marker of the extractive actions of the Anthropocene. Will these chambers collapse? Permafrost is present in this area and therefore as global temperatures increase some of these chambers might flood, potentially creating underground pools.

Rolf Stange. Inside Svea Mine. Image. December 2019. https://www.spitsbergen-svalbard.com/ photos-panoramas-videos-and-webcams/spitsbergen-panoramas/sveagruva-area/svea-nord.html

Svea Mine Remediation

by Various (LPO, Store Norsk, Svalbard Government...)

resource type: project example field of study: landscape architecture

“ Shortly thereafter, it was decided [the mine] would be shut down for good; the place and the landscape would be returned to nature. Only four buildings will remain in the former Svea community, three of which will be used as a research base for the University Centre in Svalbard (UNIS).”1

Within the remediation plan of the Svea mine, the goal was to return the site to a version of what it might have looked like prior to mining activities. This required plans for the removal of anything on the surface which might draw attention to the fact that humans were here2. However nothing was completed to remediate or address the interior of the mountains.

*

I have included this project less for its approach or location but because of a question raised by Anatolijs Venovcevs (a contemporary archaeologist) to the LPO team during the 2022 Return to Nature? symposium; “what happened to the inside of the mine?”3 As it stands today, the exterior of the mountain appears completely untouched but the 4 million metric tones of coal which were extracted have left the mountains carved out like an ant hill. This interiority of the underground and questions regarding the future of these underground spaces has haunted me throughout this term and was a primary motivation in my decision to develop a design for the after-life of mine #7 through this expanded understanding of permafrost.

What would the after life of a mine look like if its interior cavities were considered? What openings, infrastructure, vegetation, incisions might be done to allow for permafrost to reclaim this landscape? How might the walls collapse, hold back, let in... as the ground thaws around and new species return to this place? How might these conditions engage the underground to be more present to human spectators?

1. Ingvild Sæbu Vatn and Lilli Wickström. “Svea Post Mine.” Arctica Svalbard. Last modified August 18, 2022, https:// www.articasvalbard.no/artica-writings-2022/svea-post-mine

2. “Returning Svalbard to its Natural State.” AF Gruppen. Last accessed October 31, 2022. https://afgruppen.com/projects/miljo/rydder-opp-pa-svalbard/.

3. LPO Presentation. “Artica Listens 2022: Return to Nature? The Transformation of a Post-Coal Mining Landscape.” Arctica Svalbard (Tromsø: UiT Kunstakademiet, 2022)

Permanance

Engagement with underground continuous permafrost across the Arctic

Continuous permafrost layer in black hatch + Points of engagement with the underground across the arctic (mining + boreholes)

Mine Sites Permafrost Boreholes

Coal Mining Production

Coal Mining Development

Reference Projects: Spatial

Building on my literature and reference projects relating to my approach, I decided to map out where humans were engaging directly with underground permafrost. This largely came down to mapping out different underground mine sites and permafrost monitoring boreholes as two direct methods of interacting with underground permafrost in the Arctic.

To further understand the temporal-material conditions of these underground dynamics, I selected three projects: Fox Tunnel in Alaska, Giant Mine in the Northwest Territories, and the permafrost craters in Siberia. Through photographs, drawings, and texts, I was able to unpack some of their spatial qualities and reflect on the way humans and more-thanhumans are relating to underground permafrost within these landscapes.

In compiling information on each of these projects I was able to develop the initial categories I would then apply to my analysis of permafrost conditions in Svalbard. These categories include: depth, time spans, events, materials, users/uses, relevance, and activities taking place. Additionally, the spatial analysis of these underground permafrost conditions began to generate different ways of thinking about the design for sub-surface permafrost, as different methods begin to hide, reveal, preserve, fill, or penetrate the underground.

(top image)

The Fox tunnel entrance situates itself below a thick area of active permafrost. Initially constructed for engineering and military purposes it now hosts a vast amount of research and educational activities. As noted within the Smithsonian Magazine article, the permafrost in Alaska is expected to thaw completely in 80 years following climate change models. Consequentially, the activities taking place are very important in understanding and documenting these underground realities.

Whitney McLaren, Entrance to Fox Tunnel, photograph, Smithsonian Magazine, May 4, 2020, https:// www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/tunnelbeneath-alaska-180974804/.

(bottom image)

While not as deep as many of the permafrost conditions in Svalbard, the underground conditions of the tunnel capture the permanently frozen qualities of permafrost without the seasonal thaw occurrences.

Mikhail Kanevski et al. Sectional drawing of Fox Tunnel, 2008. In Mikhail Kanevski et al, Late-Pleistocene Syngenetic Permafrost in the Crrel Permafrost Tunnel, (Ninth International Conference on Permafrost: Fairbanks, 2008).

1. Madeline Ostrander, “In a tunnel beaneath Alaska, scientists race to understand disappearing permafrost,” Smithsonian Magazine, last modified May 4, 2020, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/tunnelbeneath-alaska-180974804/.

(references)

Margaret Cysewski, Kevin Bjella, and Matthew Sturm, The History and Future of the Permafrost Tunnel near Fox, Alaksa, (GEO2010: Calgary, 2010)

Mikhail Kanevski, Y.L Shur, H.M French, Late-Pleistocene Syngenetic Permafrost in the Crrel Permafrost Tunnel, (Ninth International Conference on Permafrost: Fairbanks, 2008).

U.S Army Corps of Engineers Research and Development Center, “Permafrost Tunnel Research Facility,” USACE, last modified November 19, 2012.

Fox Tunnel; Permafrost Research Facility

Fox, Alaska

“There is this sense that the underground is not stable.”1

Depth: 15m below the surface

Timespan of infrastructure: 1968 - present Timespan of ground: 45,000 years ago, permafrost in Alaska expected to dethaw completely in 80 years1.

Geological Strata: 0-17m below surface = silt layers, top layer dates from 3,500 to 10,000 years, lower layer dates from 10,000 to 30,000 years. 17m below surface = gold bearing fox gravels 22m below surface = bedrock of weathered schist

Relevance: one of only two research facilities in the world allowing for the study of permafrost below ground.

Materials found: organic material, bacteria, bones (mammoth, bisons, horses), peat, ice wedges, ice lenses, metal boardwalk, fluorescent lights, wires, artifical cooling units (maintain temperatrure at -4 degrees Celsius), leaves, seeds, beetles,butterflies, moths, snail shells, human researchers, iron structural components...

Activities taking place: Mars rover test runs, bioprospecting, paleontological work with fossils, engineering tests on the mechanical properties and soil sensitivity, military shelter or storage, learning facility...

Events: 1993 - flooding resulting in tunnel collapse 2014 - flooding from outside creating frozen puddles 2016 - flooding which almost collapsed entire tunnel as a “house-sized piece of ice wedge” was eroded by the water.

Routinly: sublimation (transformation of ice to dust) requires regular maintenance of walls to allow for studying Future: additional expansion proposed

Users/uses: Humans, research

*

Within this landscape, one is able to engage with the underground in a safe environment. However, much of its purpose centers on the artificial preservation of permafrost as they have introduced A.C units to maintain the below 0 temperature. If research is conducted on permafrost it might be interesting to let one of the tunnels “dethaw” to track the impact of climate change on this underground landscape.

Questioning Permanance

The exposed wall set to be excavated, presents a herringbone-like pattern of ice crystals. Were these conditions existing or did the machinery used to excavate the tunnel leave behind these traces? None the less they show the beauty within ice underground.

Permafrost mining face in Fox Tunnel, photograph, US Army Corps of Engineers, April 17, 2020, https://www.erdc.usace.army.mil/Media/News-Stories/ Article/2154246/discovering-the-mural-in-permafrost/.

Main tunnel shaft within the permafrost. One could imagine the echoes of footsteps on the metal walkway as your breath appears in front of you. The soft light creates a cosy environment, while the proportions of the tunnel avoid being too narrow and claustrophobic.

U.S Army Corps of Engineers, The Tunnel, photograph, Atlas Obscura, 2016, https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/permafrost-tunnel

(top image)

Arsenic has been buried below the surface since operations began. Connsequentially the water, soil, and groundwater have been contaminated in areas surrounding the mine. This has severly impacted the traditional land of the Dene First Nations.

SRK Consulting, Chambers of Arsenic Trioxide Management, Entire Landscapes, last accessed October 18, 2022, https://entirelandscapes.space/ Giant-Mine-Yellowknife.

(bottom image)

3D VR method of visualizing and engaging with the underground chamber infrastrucutre

No Author, BGC Engineering Community engaging with Giant Mine, Canadian Mining Magazine, November 7, 2018, http://canadianminingmagazine.com/bgc-engineering-fosters-community-engagement-at-giant-mine-with-ada/.

1. Ootes, Luke, et al. “The Timing of Yellowknife Gold Mineralization: A temporal relationship with crustal anatexis?” Economic Geology 106, no. 4 (2011).

(references)

“Freeze Remediation: plain language summary,” Government of Canada, lastmodified July 23, 2019, https:// www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1563905 637880/1618400628948.

Giant Mine Remediation Project: Underground Design Plan, (Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affaris Canada: Yellowknife, 2021).

Jimmy Thomson, “This is Giant Mine,” The Narwhal, last modified June 9, 2018, https://thenarwhal.ca/this-is-giant-mine/.

“The Remediation Project’s Frozen Block Method,” Government of Canada, last modified April 13th, 2018, https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/ 1100100027422/1617999507283.

Giant Mine Gold Mine: Underground Remediation

Yellowknife, North West Territories, Canada

Depth: up to 350m below surface

Timespan of infrastructure: 1948 - 2004, restoration from 2018 - present Timespan of ground: 2700 million years ago the bedrock which shaped the gold deposits in Yellowknife was formed1

Geological Strata: Yellowknife greenstone belt

Relevance: mine remediation within permafrost with a focus on the underground through the sealing of arsenic within the mines chambers.

Materials found: arsenic trioxide, slag cement, thermosyphons (metal tubes), CO2, pipes,

Activities taking place: “remediation,” filling, abandonment, forgetting

Events: Arsenic trioxide dust produced through the heating of arsenopyrite rock to separate the gold.

Underground chambers were made to store the dust inside, these were sealed once full, preventing leaching into surface or ground water.

Decision made in remediation to artifically freeze arsenic chambers. Climate change warming taken into account to ensure freezing continues.

Users/Uses: post-human *

One component of this mine remediation is the sealing of mine tailings containing arsenic into the underground tunnels buried in the permafrost. As permafrost in this area will likely experience deeper and longer thaw periods an artificial system of maintaining the temperature has been created as well (p.49).

I have included this project as an effort to come to terms with the extent and scale of mine remediation within permafrost. In this work they are literally creating anthropogenic strata of geological material as the concrete filling will be forever sealed underground. As this ground will be consistently frozen for more than 2 years they are by definition creating a permafrost filled with arsenic mine tailings, concrete from materials likely brought in to Yellowknife, and intensive thermosyphons. In this way we relate to the underground.

Pipes drilled down to the chambers removed the risk of people entering the chambers filled with Arsenic Tioxide. The aggregate used to fill the chambers was a mixtured of gold tailings and sand, which fully stabilized in 28 days, filling the chambres and sealing the arsenic.

LafargeHolcim, Pipe in Underground, digital drawing, Slag Cement Association, April 14, 2020, https://www.slagcement.org/casestudies/id/87/ giant-mine-underground-stabilization.aspx#prettyPhoto.

Thermosyphons pipes filled with CO2, draw cold area underground to maintain the permafrost conditions. If all infrastrucutre were to be removed they would stand as the sole markers of what once was, actively maintaining the permafrost conditions even if the surrounding ground thaws completely. Do they then serve as markers of “ongoing social obligation and care” (p.55) to the ground as presented by Kearnes and Rickards?

Thermosyphon pipes, photograph, Government of Canada, July 23, 2019, https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1563905637880/1618400628948.

(top image)

Whereas the first two case studies are artificially constructed this example demonstrates the shear force of permafrost’s processes themselves through the creation of this massive tunnel into the underground. Researchers from the Russian Academy of Sciences Oil and Gas Research Institute completed 3D scans of the crater in Yamal. It is only through imagery of this nature or the cliff edge itself that one can engage with the underground.

Vasily Bogoyavlensky, 3D model of exploded permafrost heaving mound, The Siberian Times, February 25, 2021, https://siberiantimes.com/other/others/news/drone-flies-inside-giant-yamal-permafrost-crater-for-firsttime-dipping-15-metres-below-the-surface/.

(bottom image)

Humans are circled in pink for scale.

Evgeny Chuvilin, Yamal Crater from above, photograph, BBC, December 1, 2020, https:// www.bbc.com/future/article/20201130-climate-change-the-mystery-of-siberias-explosive-craters.

1. Heiner Kubny, “Oldest permafrost in Siberia discovered,” Polar Journal, last modified June 18, 2021, https://polarjournal.ch/en/2021/06/18/oldest-permafrost-in-siberia-discovered/.

(references)

Richard Gray, “The mystery of Siberia’s exploding craters,” BBC, last modified December 1, 2020, https://www.bbc. com/future/article/20201130-climatechange-the-mystery-of-siberias-explosive-craters.

Anna Liesowska, “Drone flies inside giant Yamal permafrost crater for the first time, dipping 15 metres below the surface,” The Siberian Times, last modified February 25, 2021, https:// siberiantimes.com/other/others/news/ drone-flies-inside-giant-yamal-permafrost-crater-for-first-time-dipping-15metres-below-the-surface/.

Permafrost Craters: More-than-human agency Siberia, Russia

Depth: -10m to +/-300m (varies)

Temperature: -4 in summer, -10 in winter

Timespan of infrastructure: N/A Timespan of ground: nearby region home to permafrost 650,000 years old1

Geological Strata: tabular ice, deep oil and gas deposits, methane, CO2

Relevance: large scale geological modification occuring as permafrost thaws, exposing the underground.

Materials found: methane, earth, ice, water

Activities taking place: geological process, water flows, vegetation growth, research, methane release

Events: Surface air temperature increases Rapid swelling of ground Gas pressure build up below surface Instant uplift Crater left behind Fill with water creating a deep pond

Users/uses: more-than-humans, human researchers *

These craters are formed as methane and CO2 build up in de-thawed permafrost pockets underneath the ground. This gas pushes against the surface until it explodes, creating massive craters in the Siberian landscape.

As the only case not specifically created by humans, these craters reflect the shear power of permafrost to alter landscape conditions. Through these craters one can look into the underground from above. In some of these craters, rain and snow melt has created deep wells of water, creating ponds across Siberia. Over time, as the surrounding permafrost thaws one can imagine the sides potentially softening or caving in, leading to the establishment of shoreline species.

III. Permafrost and Svalbard

Lexicon of Permafrost Conditions Design Intent and Research Questions

Engagement with the underground and permafrost in Longyearbyen

Various conditions of permafrost appearing above and below ground in Longyearbyen coal mine footprints permafrost boreholes lexicon conditions potential site of design proposal

Lexicon of Conditions

Building on the literature and reference projects I have explored throughout this term, I have begun to compile a lexicon of sub-surface permafrost conditions within Longyearbyen, Svalbard. Through mapping, and documentation while visiting the site in September 2022, I have compiled some of the manners in which frozen ground is found/used/’dealt with’, in an attempt to present the fluidity of the underground. In the end I found ten potential conditions to develop further next term.

Following the framework of my spatial reference projects, I have documented the temperatures, depths, material compositions, and temporalities for each of the nine conditions. For this report I have expanded on three of the nine conditions through drawings and spatial analysis from photos (see appendix for rest). The three selected are the Longyearbyen Graveyard (-0.3m), the Svalbard Seed Vault (-150m), and a segment of Mine #3 (-300m).

I hope to build on this lexicon throughout the diploma term, through drawings, animations projecting into the future, and models which explore the assemblage of materials while adding textures and dimensions to those conditions (see page 78-79).

An

interpreation of the thermo-material permafrost conditions within the Longyearbyen Graveyard (+1 to -2m)

The graphics were largely inspired by the text “Introducing Solid Fluids”, by Tim Ingold and Cristian Simonetti. What I took away most from this paper was the idea of ‘volumes’ to represent these dynamic conditions of strata, vorteces, and processes. I have attempted to add depth to the ground through the overlaying of textures, annotations, and warped perspectives.

1. Alan Heginbottom, “Excavating the Spanish Flu,” Government of Canada, last modified 2019, https://definingmomentscanada.ca/wp-content/ uploads/2019/05/Higgenbottom-English.pdf.

2. Ole Humlum, “Permafrost, Endalen borehole,” UiO Climate4you, last accessed October 22, 2022, https:// www.climate4you.com/index.htm.

(references)

“Norwegian cemetary may hold clues to Spanish flu,” Canadian Medical Association News and Anslysis, 158, no. 2 (1998).

Per Kyrre Reymert, Longyearbyen: from company town to modern town, (Longyearbyen: Governor of Svalbard, Environmental Protection Department, 2013), p. 16-17.

Longyearbyen Cemetery: Spanish influenza graves

78°12’52.5”N 15°36’25.5”E

Depth: 30cm to 1m (active layer burial not permafrost)1

Temperature: at 30cm from Endalen borehole in central Spitsbergen2 2008 max: 4°C 2015 max: 14°C 2008 min: -10°C 2015 min: -4°C

Timespan of infrastructure: 1917 to present Timespan of ground: Aptian - Albian Era, 100 to 113 million years ago

Geological Strata: Carolinefjellet Formation comprised of “mudstones and siltstone with thin interbeds of very fine- to fine-grained sandstones.”1 Covered up to 150m with mudstone.

Relevance: Cemeteries are a fundamental way humans engage with and through the underground. In frozen ground however these processes are often interrupted and thus challenge the connection to the ground in places such as Longyearbyen.

Materials found: bodies, influenza bacteria, wooden coffins, sediments, water...

Activities taking place: remembrance, decomposition, stasis, story-telling...

Events: 1917 cemetery established replacing the one in Hotellneset, two buried 1918 seven miners buried after passing away from Spanish Influenza 1980 replacement of wooden crosses and addition of fence surrounding plots 1998 excavation on influenza plots to assess if virus is still present - results inconclusive 2004 site restoration complete

Users/uses: the dead, microbes, visitors, *

The graveyard presents a clear spatial example of what happens when the dynamics of frozen ground are misunderstood. As a combination of practicalities (difficulty digging in frozen ground) and processes (permafrost pushing foreign objects to the surface), some of the graves are only 30cm from the surface. The influence of the active layer is much more present and its future conditions as permafrost thaws completely will be interesting to explore.

The realities of the underground were much easier to imagine or relate to in this instance, as processes of decomposition and a site visit to Svalbard made this shallow sub-surface permafrost more evident than others.

The Longyearbyen graveyard stands out across the valley due to the contrast between the white crosses and the muted backdrop. As full body burials are not allowed on the island, the cemetery stands as a marker to the extremes of this place and risks which have faced those living in the Arctic. The cemtery itself is surrounded by mining infrastrucutre, reflecting the cycle of life and death in the underground of Svalbard.

Bjoertvedt, Longyearbyen graveyard, photograph, Wikipedia, September 10, 2011, https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Longyearbyen-Gruve-1-cemetery.jpg.

In contrast to the Longyearbyen cemetery the permafrost conditions of Likneset preserved the graves of many whalers from the 17th-18th century. This preservation in shallow ground may be why the graves in Longyearbyen were thought to be deep enough at 1m, however the thicker active layer in the valley resulted in fluid conditions (which Likneset appears to have less of).

Lise Lokuto, Likneset excavation, photograph, Twitter, February 16, 2020, https://twitter.com/brearkeologi/status/1229008868472238082/photo/1.

Thermo-material permafrost conditions of part of the Svalbard Global Seed Vault Interpretation of some of permafrost’s processes within -100m to -160m of permafrost

1. Sten-Andreas Grundvag, et al, “Sedimentolofy and palynology of the Lower Cretaceous succession of central Spitsbergen,” Norwegian Journal of Geology 99, no.2 (2019), p. 253.

2. “Svalbard Global Frøkvelv,” Statsbygg, last accessed October 19, 2022, https://www.statsbygg.no/prosjekter-og-eiendommer/svalbard-globalefrohvelv.

(references)

“The Facility,” Svalbard Global Seed Vault, last accessed October 19, 2022, https://www.seedvault.no/about/ the-facility/.

“More about the physical plant,” Government.no, last updated February 23, 2015, https://www.regjeringen. no/en/topics/food-fisheries-and-agriculture/svalbard-global-seedvault/mer-om-det-fysiske-anlegget/ id2365142/.

“Frøhvelvet er rustet for fremtiden,” Statsbygg, last modified October 21, 2019, https://www.statsbygg.no/ nyheter/frohvelvet-er-rustet-for-fremtiden.

“Major deposit for the Svalbard Global Seed Bank,” Statsbygg, last modified February 24, 2020, https://www.statsbygg.no/nyheter/major-deposit-forthe-svalbard-global-seed-vault-storinnrykk-til-svalbard-globale-frohvelv.

Svalbard Global Seed Vault

78°14’08.2”N 15°29’27.9”E

Depth: 130m below surface

Temperature: -3 to -4°C ground temperature, -18°C in chamber

Timespan of infrastructure: 2004-present Timespan of ground: Aptian - Albian Era, 100 to 113 million years ago

Geological Strata: Carolinefjellet Formation comprised of “mudstones and siltstone with thin interbeds of very fine- to fine-grained sandstones.”1 Covered up to 150m with mudstone.

Relevance: “doomsday” vault for seeds embeded in permafrost to extract its temporal-material properties. Symbolic conquering of the undergound and signaling to coming planetary disasters.

Materials found: +/- 4000 seed varieties, waterproof concrete walls, freezer pipes along corridor and chambers, metal storage shelves, storage boxes, sealed seed packets containing roughly 500 seeds, energy...

Activities taking place: seed storage, events, active artifical cooling, melting, protecting

Events: 2004 commissioned to build vault 2008 construction was completed 2016 water leaking as “permafrost failed to surround the tunnel”2 2018 metal tunnel structure replaced with concrete, all equipment which generates heat to be moved to new building outside 2019 renovations completed with artifical cooling system

Users/uses: seeds *

While the media surrounding this project highlighted its use of the ‘natural’ cooling properties of permafrost, poor engineering and assumptions made that it would automatically surround the tunnel reflect a poor understanding of frozen ground in Svalbard. Additionally, the sterilized walls and new concrete tunnel fail to respectfully engage with the underground dynamics of permafrost. It’s complete seperation from human view also creates a hyper secretive and elite approach to seed storage - something which, in my opinion, should be accessible to all. Due to its inaccessibilty and concrete materials this condition relates to the concrete infilling occuring in Yellowknife through a combination of artifical and ‘natural’ means. How might it have been designed to not require artifical cooling or complete obstruction from view?

(top image)

One of the three seed vault chambers. The rough cieling marks the landscape of the underground. What is yet to be revealed is if the white is frost or an insulating spray.

Jim Richardson, Seed Vault, photograph, The Guardian, Feb. 25, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/feb/25/newly-waterproofed-arctic-seed-vault-1m-samples-climatechange .

(bottom image)

One can see from this photo how the tunnel was replaced. All of the earth on top was simply moved to the side (circled), while the walls were reinforced. Having visited the site in Fall of 2022, that entire section was re-covered. One might assume that the construction of the tunnel initially was completed in a similar way, while the chambers were potentially drilled in from the exposed face.

Statsbygg, Repairs to Svalbard Seed Vault in May/ June 2018, photograph, High North News, Feb 27, 2019, https://www.highnorthnews.com/en/svalbard-seed-vault-reparations-nearly-complete.

(top image)

The interior of the tunnel post-flood. The architecture of the tunnel removes any signs of the underground, creating a sterile environment. On the one hand this helps with the potential mental concern of descending some -150m underground but it also does little to appreciate or engage with the permafrost which it is manipulating.

Entrance Svalbard Seed Vault, photograph, Norwegian Ministry of Agriculture and Food, N.D, https:// www.seedvault.no/about/the-facility/

(bottom image)

Interior of the tunnel pre-flood. Metal sheet walls connect more to the coal mining, adhoc realities of building in Longyearbyen.

Global Crop Diversity Trust, Svalbard Global Seed Vault Steel Tunnel, 2018, photograph, Flickr, Feb 11, 2018, https://www.flickr.com/photos/croptrust/3852310318/in/photostream/

Thermo-material ground conditions of part of the Svalbard Global Seed Vault Interpretation of some of permafrost’s processes within -

Per Kyrre Reymert, Longyearbyen: from company town to modern town, (Longyearbyen: Governor of Svalbard, Environmental Protection Department, 2013), p. 18-20.

“Mine #3,” Spitsbirgen, Svalbard, last accessed October 23, 2022, https:// www.spitsbergen-svalbard.com/ photos-panoramas-videos-and-webcams/spitsbergen-panoramas/mine-3. html.

“Van Mijenfjorden Group,” Time Scale Foundation, last accessed October 23, 2022, https://timescalefoundation.org/ resources/NW_Europe_Lex/litho/ svalbard/mijen.htm.

“Dark beer from the deep,” Svalbard Bryggeri, last accessed October 23, 3033, https://www.svalbardbryggeri. com/gruve3/

Mine #3: Decomisioned Mine 78°14’17.4”N 15°26’38.3”E

Depth: +300m below surface Temperature: -1.2°C to -4°C

Timespan of infrastructure: 1906 to present Timespan of ground: 66 to 56 million years ago

Geological Strata: Firkanten Formation and Grumantbyen and Hollendardalen formations

Relevance: As one of the only mines accessible to the general public through tours, mine #3 presents a unique infrastructure for people to experience the underground. Additionally, it is now home to a variety of programs - from the Arctic World Archives to the local brewer using its chambers to mature beer.

Materials found: coal seam of 80 to 90cm deep, 1900m of sandstone with layers of siltstone, shale and coal (Firkanten Formation), steel structures, electrical wires, machinery, people, concrete, rail tracks, wooden piles...

Activities taking place: tourism, settling of ground, waiting, parties, archiving, holding memories, extraction, maturing beer....

Events: 1906 initial investigation of coal seams 1969 mine properly prepared for extraction 1981 most productive year with 321,000 tons of coal extracted 1984 fire inside mine plant 1990 tourist visits began 1996 closed for mining

*

The infrastructure of Mine #3 is one of the only examples in Svalbard where the underground infrastructure has been re-purposed. Inside, tours are offered, events hosted, and one of the chambers holds the Arctic World Archives (pg. 89). In contrast to the Seed Vault, the mine has no sense of sterilization, as the underground is revealed and embraced within the small tunnels. As you begin to unpack the materials present inside these chambers you are aware of the extent of objects which must have been brought in from the mainland and subsequently buried underground. Will these just stay there forever? Are there ways to re-purpose them?

Within this condition as well, the vastness of the underground is not reflected on the surface, as a few small buildings mark the opening. How can the underground reveal itself? Is it a matter of having a massive whole down to the center like the Siberian craters? How will the landscape of these spaces and the surface above them transform as permafrost thaws?

(top and bottom image)

Inside Mine #3 one can see the jumble of materials (likely brought in from the mainland or repurposed from other mine’s on the island) which shape the architecture. Rust is covering the steel cieling supports and what looks like some osrt of lichen covers the rocks, both present from thermo exchanges within the underground.

N.A, 360 view of Mine #3, photograph, Spitsbergen-Svalbard, N.D, https://www.spitsbergen-svalbard.com/photos-panoramas-videos-and-webcams/spitsbergen-panoramas/mine-3. html#160411c_Gruve-3_073HDR.

(top image)

While there are some 50km of tunnels within mine #3 the entrance does not reflect the shear scale of the underground infrastrucutre. Consequentially, when remediation occurs it is only the outside which is considered (as seen in the Svea mine remediation).

Bjoertvedt, Exterior entrance to Mine #3, photograph, Wikipedia, August 10, 2010, https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gruve-3#/media/Fil:Longyearbyen-Gruve-3-IMG-6874-rk-136717.JPG.

(bottom image)

Mine #3 is known for its incredible narrow coal seam (80 to 90cm) making extraction tight and risky.

N.A, Interior of Mine #3, photograph, Visit Svalbard, N.D, https://en.visitsvalbard.com/activity-planner/ coal-mine-3-visit-gruve-3-as-p2523693.

Design Proposal for the Underground Chambers of Mine #7

Encouraging/prioritizing more-than-human processes, considering manners for humans to engage with the underground as permafrost modifies the conditions above and belowground

Design Intent

Throughout this report I have begun to address my initial research questions:

What would a landscape architectural approach to understanding permafrosts above and belowground conditions look like?

How do you draw, model, and design for the fluid assemblage of materials present within sub-surface permafrost?

How do underground materials such as coal, slate, siltstone.. react to water, ice, heat, vapour.. through natural (thawing, settling, eroding, dispersing) and artifical processes (moving, breaking, adding)?

What would landscape architecture which considers permafrost following Cho’s defintion look like? How would this design alter underground spaces embedded in permafrost? How would these be reflected on the surface?

Moving into the diploma term I have decided to respond to these questions with the development of a landscape architectural vocabularly for this fluid, frozen ground. This will be created through visuals and text within the Lexicon of Longyearbyen’s Permafrost Conditions

Building on this, I intend to propose a method for how landscape architects might engage/design/restore underground permafrost. This will be done through the afterlife design of Mine #7*, whereby an imagined means of considering the anthropogenic remains embedded in permafrost is developed.

This proposal intends to imagine how specific design interventions within and above the mine, might encourage/reveal permafrosts increasing fluid processes as climate change alters landscape conditions above and below ground. The design’s intention is to prioritize more-than-human processes and beings, while also developing ways to reveal the realities and temporalities of underground permafrost within the coal mine to human visitors. In this way, this work will propose a method for how to plan, remediate, engage with and address the Arctic’s frozen ground, through landscape architecture.

* I have decided to work with Mine #7 given its location below the Foxfonna glacier, and current discussions surrounding its future decomissioning. While operations are likely to continue into the near future, it has been very publicly presented that the mine will be closed at some point. Given its past flooding events, layering between glacial and permafrost ground I think it will provide an interesting site for this proposal. See Appendix for additional information on the mine.

IV. Reflections and Processes

Conversations with Experts Methods of Exploration Diploma Timeline Reflecting Forward

Method examples for lexicon and exhibition purposes

(left to right, top to bottom) Frozen ground stratigraphy models by Jason McMillan (MArch thesis, 2019); Bark Studies by Vogt Landscape Architects (Studio work, N.D); Cloud Studies by Forensic Architecture (Exhibition, 2020); Dissolved soil morphology by George Malliapropoulos (Studio work, 2021); Index of building foundations in permafrost by Kat Kolveck (MArch thesis, 2018); Allium bulb detail by Andreea Vasile-Hoxha (MLA thesis, 2021); Permafrost sound installation by Adam Basanta & Gil Delindro (Art installation, 2017); Estuary display by Xandra Van Der Eijk (Installation, 2017)

Methods of Exploration

Within this diploma I envision the delivery of three main components: the lexicon of permafrost conditions, the design for the afterlife of mine #7, and a record of my fieldwork in Svalbard. Throughout, I hope to experiment with different technics to convey texture and movement over time.

1) Lexicon

I intend on exploring a selection of the permafrost conditions I have presented in further detail within the diploma. I invision that each condition will include a written description and detailed information. This research will support the drawings (as I have done to date). These drawings will be presented as animations, moving from present to future conditions based on the atmospheric changes Svalbard will experience. Alongside each animation, I intend to experiment with different model making technics to best represent the conditions, determine how different materials react to various processes (coal and ice, coal in water etc), and allow for 3D, tactile method of engaging with the lexicon.

2) Mine #7 afterlife design

Following the method developed with the lexicon, I plan on continuing to experiment with animation and videos as my primary way of communicating the afterlife of the mine. These will be juxtaposed with technical, imaginative sections showing the conditions over long spans of time, as well as the necessary plans, sections/elevations to properly convey the design. Additionally, I will experiment with materials to understand how the geological composition of these spaces reacts to permafrosts processes.

3) Fieldwork

Over the course of the term and specifically throughout my fieldwork, I intend on documenting through video, photographs, and notes the processes and conditions of permafrost coal mining landscapes. I hope to compile these into a final video at the end to represent my thesis journey.

- Arctic Field Work Grant Deadline; complete fieldwork plans 11/ 16

- Visit State Archives Tromsø for Store Norsk artifacts

- Finish Notes on the Underground

- Follow up with Svalbard museum archives for additional documents

- Follow up with Store Norsk regarding mine plans + sections

- Continue reading on research themes; more work by Kathryn Yusoff, Solid Fluids, and Lorraine D’Aston

- Familiarize with After Effects

- Update portfolio and resume

- Make excel sheet with firms to apply to in the Spring

- Create website for diploma dissemination

- 200 word prompt about what I think my project is about*

- Visit Scott Polar Research Institute, Cambridge UK

- Expand permafrost lexicon; develop animation for atleast 5 conditions, looking at past, present, and future evolution of the ground.

- Experiment with model making as a method of engaging with solid fluids; complete 5 models for each of the index animations.

- Find out inside of mine #7 conditions; draw detailed plans + sections

- Timeline for climate change impact on Svalbard; depths of thaw, when is greening going to occur, what species will be present...

- Continue and complete lexicon work (drawings and models), develop conclusion/reflection

- Compile equipment for fieldwork

- Complete schematic design for mine intervention (long term, matrix plan)

- Prep job application emails + materials to send out

- Svalbard fieldwork* 03/ 01

- Dissemination of fieldwork; make a film compilation of permafrost fluidity + my experiences on the site

- Additional model experiements based on fieldwork findings

- Complete schematic design for mine intervention (site plan, 1:100)

- Send out job applications

- Design development of mine intervention

- Animation of the mine’s landscape evolution

- Make site model

- Exhibition layout design

- Send out job applications continued

- Finish design

- Finish lexicon and fieldwork graphics

- Compile findings in publication

- Exhibition material building

- Present - Exhibit

- Summarize work

- Publish where possible

*Complete this self reflection at the end of every month

**Arctic Field Work Grant only approves travel from March 1st, if I do not recieve this funding travel may happen earlier.

Diploma Timeline

Phase 1: Research And Reflection

Here I hope to begin my lexicon of permafrost conditions (animation and model work), while also collecting a solid base of information regarding Mine #7 and the projected climate conditions for Svalbard in order to develop a timeline and spatial understanding of climate change’s impacts on the landscape.

Phase 2: Exploration

Here I hope to complete my lexicon of permafrost conditions, while also completing the schematic design for the mine intervention. Within this period I will also complete my fieldwork (timeline and opportunity depending on grants received).

Phase 3: Development

Here I will primarily focus on the design for the mine in tandem with the animation I intend on creating, to reflect the mines transformation over time.

Phase 4: Representation

Here I will refine my drawings while finishing my design. During this phase I will also develop my exhibition layout and design to ensure my project is presented in an animated and convincing way.

Phase 5: Presentation

Here I will set up my work and present!

Questioning Permanance

“A 1980’s film photo of the inside of an arctic coal mine with permafrost melting its interior chambers to reveal vegetation, water, and sunlight from above” (top images) DALL-E AI generated images, November 5, 2022

Reflecting Forward

Over the course of this term, I have begun to unpack some of the temporal-material processes within permafrost from the perspective of the underground. This approach began with the Lexicon of Permafrost Conditions, which I will develop in further detail in the coming term.1

The decision to work with the afterlife of Mine #7 came out of readings on the agency of the underground, fluidity of these spaces, and the intimate understanding of geology which miners possess. More directly though, it evolved from a question raised in the Return to Nature Symposium: what happened to the inside of the mine?2 If a mine is just sealed, it does little to remind people of the shear scale of our extractive practices on this earth, but also the cultural legacy of coal mining in Svalbard3. Is there a way to close a mine without ignoring its insides? To remediate in a way which does not erase?4

Alongside this cultural severing, the cryogenically fluid landscapes of the Arctic are disappering as well, leaving behind large voids to be filled with unknowns. Is there a way to make this disapperance less traumatic? To reveal the ephemeral qualities of permafrost while curating new landscapes for beings to relate to in the future?5 It is these elements of mining, permafrost, and time -their processes, materials, and cycles- that I will design with and for in the coming term.

1. See pages 74-77

2. See pages 34-35.

3. In reference to Yusoff’s text “Queer Coal” (p. 26-27)

4. In reference to the Svea Mine restoration (p. 38-39)

5. In reference to Hutton’s use of curation (p. 30-31)

VI. Appendix

Lexicon of Permafrost Conditions (continued) Geosphere + Cryosphere Mapping Glossary of Permafrost Terminology References

Lexicon of Permafrost Conditions (continued)

A compilation of some of the other permafrost conditions present in Longyearbyen, Svalbard.

Questioning Permanance

surface terrain Gruve-7 main corridor depth of Foxfonna glacier estimate of permafrost thickness

Mine 7 is nestled within permafrost and the Foxfonna glacier making it susceptible to landscape changes as temperatures and precipitation increases

“Distance(m) from entrance along main corridor in Gruve 7,” graph from Christiansen H, et al. “Permafrost in Gruve-7 Mine, Adventdalen, Svalbard,” Norwegian Journal of Geography 59, no.2 (2005): 114.

Mine #7 78°08’16.7”N 16°05’25.9”E

(references)

Hanne Christiansen, Hugh M French & Ole Humlum, “Permafrost in the Gruve-7 mine, Advantdalen, Svalbard,” Norwegian Journal of Geography 59, no. 2 (2005).

Peter Danilov, “Mine 7 on Svalbard is Bac in Operation After the Flood,” High North News, last modified Novemeber 3, 2020, https://www.highnorthnews. com/en/mine-7-svalbard-back-operation-after-flood.

(image)

Relatively sparce from the outside, Mine #7 extends 6km into the mountain and under the Foxfanna glacier. The main chambers are 3-4m tall while the off shoot branches are 1-2m. As the ground below and the glacier above thaws this mine will be an interesting nexus point of geological, hydrological, biological... processes.

Nagell Ylvisaker, Mine #7 from the outside, High North News, November 2, 2020, https:// www.highnorthnews.com/en/mine-7-svalbard-back-operation-after-flood.

“The 3-dimensional nature of the permafrost body is indicated by the fact that the higher permafrost temperatures occur at deeper locations within the massif below the Foxfonna ice cap and glacier, while the lowest temperatures occur where the mine extends beneath ice-free terrain.” (Christiansen, et al. 2005)

Depth: 300m - 400m below the surface, 6km into the mountain Temperature: -12°C to +1°C Timespan of infrastructure: 1976 - present - 2028 (closure) Timespan of ground: 66 to 56 million years ago Geological Strata: sandstone, Askeladd coal seam (1.4m), 3m sand and mudstone, Svarteper coal seam (0.5m), 13m sand and mudstone, Longyear coal seam (1.7m high); Grumantbyen and Hollendardalen formations + Foxfanna glacier

Relevance: final coal mine in operation in Longyearbyen it is set to be decommisioned leaving a vast array of chambers underground.

Materials found: coal, workers, equipment, wood, steel, machinary, pantodont footprint fossils, glacier...

Activities taking place: extracting, monitoring, moving, preserving way of life, transporting...

Events: 2020 flooding due to permafrost thaw 2028 set to be decommisioned depending on global energy issues

Mine #3: Arctic World Archive

78° 14’17.9”N, 15° 26’49.5”E

Depth: 300m below surface Temperature: -5°C to -10°C

Timespan of infrastructure: 1972 - 2017 - present - 1,000 years in the future Timespan of ground: 66 to 56 million years ago

Geological Strata: Firkanten Formation and Grumantbyen and Hollendardalen formations

Relevance: Program currently extracting the properties of permafrost via the underground mining chambers. In this way its reflective of one way the abandoned underground architecture can be used. Like the seed vault however it is off limits for most people and seeks to freeze the underground in its past/present state.

Materials found: Coal mining infrastrucutre, steel transport container, digital archive, digital data converted to QR codes and printed on 35mm film from countries and governments across the globe, temperature monitoring devices...

Activities taking place: storing, preserving, freezing, securing, monitoring, ...

(references)

“About Arctic World Archive,” AWA, last accessed October 26, 2022, https:// arcticworldarchive.org/about/.

Andrea Sievers, “Arctic World Archive: Data storage in ice,” Spitsbergen, Svalbard, last modified April 11, 2017, https://www.spitsbergen-svalbard. com/2017/04/11/arctic-world-archive-data-storage-in-ice.html.

(image)

While the facade of the AWA presents as a hyper-tech vault, in reality it is just a shipping container inside of a mine chamber. In this way extracting the properties of permafrost, while also presenting an exclusionary image of the Arctic’s underground.

Primary storage facility for the AWA, photograph, Inside Over, https://www.insideover.com/gallery/ arctic-world-archive.html.

Larsbreen Glacier

78°10’59.5”N 15°34’00.9”E

(references)

1. Andreas Alexander, Jaroslav Obu, Thomas V. Schuler, Andreas Kaab, and Hanne H. Christiansen,” Subglacial permafrost dynamics and erosion inside subglacial channels driven by surface events in Svalbard,” The Cryosphere 14 (2020): 4217-4231.

Ole Humlum, “Glaciers,” Svalbard Museum, last accessed Novemeber 10, 2022, https://svalbardmuseum.no/en/ natur/isbreer/.

(image)

Subglacial landscape conditions inside the Larsbreen and Tellbreen ice caves. These show the subglacial systems during the winter months (November to March).

Larsbreen and Tellebreen cave systems, photograph, Andreas Alexander et al., https://www.researchgate. net/figure/Pictures-of-the-Tellbreen-and-the-Larsbreen-subglacial-drainage-system-after-the-summer_fig4_341509095

“Increased precipitation and [glacial] surface melt, as expected for future climate, will therefore likely lead to increased degradation of subglacial permafrost, as well as higher subglacial erosion of available sediment around the preferential hydrological paths. This in turn might have significant impacts on proglacial and fjord ecosystems due to increased sediment and nutrient input.”1

Depth: 120m deep, extending 300 to 800m above sea level Temperature: -5°C to -10°C

Timespan of ground: 3000 to 4000 years old (glacier)

Geological Strata: Ice on top of Eocene marine sandstones and shales from Van Mijenfjorden Group

Relevance: Valley glacier located close to Longyearbyen. These cold glacier beds are expected to have permafrost underneath which experience numerous thaw cycles over the years, creating unique underground landscapes for ice and sediments.

Materials found: Frozen water, sandstone, shale, fossil, monitoring equipment, lateral supraglacial streams,

Activities taking place: melting, cooling, eroding, monitoring, draining, feeding...

Questioning Permanance

UNIS East Monitoring Borehole 78°13’17.4”N 15°39’29.6”E

(references)

Hanne Christiansen et al., Permafrost thermal snapshot and activelayer thickness in Svalbard 2016-2017, (Longyearbyen: SESS Report, 2018).

Hanne Christiansen et al., Permafrost thermal snapshot and activelayer thickness in Svalbard 2017-2018, (Longyearbyen: SESS Report, 2019).

(image)

The surrounding landscape presents a scaled down version of the thaw condition of permafrosts active layer.

Permafrost monitoring borehole beside UNIS, photograph September 7th, 2022.

Depth: 8m

Temperature: -1.3°C to -3°C

Timespan of infrastructure: 2017 - present Timespan of ground: Aptian - Albian Era, 100 to 113 million years ago

Geological Strata: Carolinefjellet Formation comprised of “mudstones and siltstone with thin interbeds of very fine- to fine-grained sandstones.”1

Relevance: One of the many permafrost monitoring stations littered throughout Longyearbyen this one sits directly beside UNIS and the main path into the center. This directly measures the increasing active layer and ground temperature over the years.

Materials found: marsh vegetation, gravel, fluorescent markers, steep rod, metal casing, plastic visible tube, sensors, active layer muck, goose guano...

Activities taking place: monitoring, passing, flooding, freezing, growing

Events: 2017 construction 2018 -2022 annual data readings

Runway

78°14’46.8”N 15°27’36.0”E

(references)

A. Instanes and D. Mjureke, Svalbard airport runway. Performance during a climate-warming scenario, (Trondheim: Bearing Capacity of Roads, Railways, and Airfields Conference, 2005).

(image)

Alexey Reznichenko, Svalbard Airport, Longyearbyen, photograph, Airliners, June 20, 2013, https://www.airliners.net/ photo//2442905/L.

Depth: 1 to 4m

Temperature: -1.3°C to -3°C

Timespan of infrastructure: 1975 - present Timespan of ground: Holocene Era

Geological Strata: Marine Sediments

Relevance: Due to a lack of understanding of sub-surface permafrost the runway has faced numerous repairs and continuous to have surface stability issues. With an expanded literarcy of frozen ground this might have been avoided.

Materials found: asphalt, filling, sensors, gravel, concrete, frost stable fill

Activities taking place: leaving, arriving, driving, flying, monitoring...

Events: 1973-1975 construction occured 1989 reconstruction due to surface instability caused by permafrost 2005-2006 additional reconstruction needed Daily/weekly routine of incoming and outgoing flights

Foundations varies

Questioning Permanance

(references)

Christian Katlein and Kristoffer Hallberg, Foundation of infrastructure in Pyramiden and Longyearbyen (Longyearbyen: UNIS, 2009).

(image)

A newer structure with wooden piles and glulam beams for lateral load holding up the pipe system which runs along Longyearbyen.

Pipeline structure, photograph September 7th, 2022.

Depth: 0-8m (structure depending)

Temperature: varies

Timespan of infrastructure: 1596-present Timespan of ground: varies

Geological Strata: varies

Relevance: One of the many permafrost monitoring stations littered throughout Longyearbyen this one sits directly beside UNIS and the main path into the center. This directly measures the increasing active layer and ground temperature over the years.

Materials found: wood (imported), steel (imported), concrete (imported), insulation (imported)...

Activities taking place: holding, stabilizing, securing, structure, pressing...

Mounds varies

(image)

Naturally forming mounds are created as ice underground piles, before thawing and the land inbetween giving way to valleys.

Permafrost landscape outside of Longyearbyen, photograph, September 9, 2022.

Depth: active layer (no more than 20m below surface)

Temperature: varies

Timespan of ground: varies

Geological Strata: varies

Relevance: One of the many permafrost monitoring stations littered throughout Longyearbyen this one sits directly beside UNIS and the main path into the center. This directly measures the increasing active layer and ground temperature over the years.

Materials found: marsh vegetation, bird guano, bird nests, muck, mud, minerals, insects, moss...

Activities taking place: nesting, freezing, thawing, draining, compiling...

Events: Annual freeze thaw cycle

Mapping the Geosphere and Cryosphere

To relate to the landscape of the Arctic as a whole and to understand the materials which comprise permafrost I have worked to map and compile important layers of information regarding the geological formation of the Arctic, Svalbard, and Longyearbyen, in addition to the Arctic ice coverage, main rivers and waterbodies at these same scales.

Questioning Permanance

Geosphere

Continuous permafrost layer + Geological layers of the Arctic classified based on geological era

Hydrosphere/Cryosphere

Main rivers throughout arctic + Sea ice + Sea ice extents + Continuous permafrost

Questioning Permanance

Geology

Geological conditions of Svalbard above and below sea level categorized according to era

Hydrosphere/Cryosphere

Rivers, Moraines, Glaciers throughout Svalbard + Sea ice extents (top left)

Questioning Permanance

Geosphere

Geological layers sorted according to era

Hydrosphere/Cryosphere

Rivers, moraines, and glaciers of Longyearbyen

Figure 9. Cryostratigraphic map of part of the main shaft of the CRREL Permafrost Tunnel, right side (viewed from entrance) of the tunnel. (From Bray et al. 2006).

Prepared for Ninth International Conference on Permafrost, June 29-July 3, 2008 This report has not been reviewed for technical content or for conformity to the editorial standards of DGGS.

One method of mapping the cryosphere is through cyrostratigraphy which maps the movement of ice and sediment

Mikhail Kanevski et al. Cryostratigraphic map of the main shaf of the Fox Tunnel, 2008. In Mikhail Kanevski et al, Late-Pleistocene Syngenetic Permafrost in the Crrel Permafrost Tunnel, (Ninth International Conference on Permafrost: Fairbanks, 2008).

NICOP Local Field Trip Guidebook—Site #13, CRREL Permafrost Tunnel, Fox, Alaska 55

This report has not been reviewed for technical content or for conformity to the editorial standards of DGGS.

Prepared for Ninth International Conference on Permafrost, June 29-July 3, 2008

Figure 11. Cryostratigraphic map of the left wall of the winze, interval 31-37 m. 1 – silt; 2 – sand, gravel inclusion; 3 – in situ peat layers; 4 – inclusions of retransported organic matter; 5 –lamination in silt; 6 – erosion boundary; 7 – approximate position of active layer at the periods of slower sedimentation; 8 – ice wedge; 9 – composite wedge (ice/silt); 10 – isolated ice vein; 11 – ice layer (‘belt’), thickness in cm; 12 – reticulate-chaotic cryostructure; 13 – thermokarst-cave ice; 14 – radiocarbon date, yr BP. (From Kanevskiy et al. 2008).

58

NICOP Local Field Trip Guidebook—Site #13, CRREL Permafrost Tunnel, Fox, Alaska

Mapping of ice, sediment, and movement within the Fox Tunnel

Mikhail Kanevski et al. Cryostratigraphic map of the left wall of the winze, 2008. In Mikhail Kanevski et al, Late-Pleistocene Syngenetic Permafrost in the Crrel Permafrost Tunnel, (Ninth International Conference on Permafrost: Fairbanks, 2008).

Glossary of Permafrost Terminology

Types and Conditions of Permafrost from the Cryosphere Glossary assembled by the National Snow and Ice Data Centre

Active Construction Methods In Permafrost special design and construction methods used for engineering works in permafrost areas where permafrost degradation cannot be prevented.

Altitudinal Limit Of Permafrost the lowest altitude at which mountain permafrost occurs in a given highland area outside the general permafrost region.

Altitudinal Zonation Of Permafrost the vertical subdivision of an area of mountain permafrost into permafrost zones, based on the proportion of the ground that is perennially cryotic.

Construction Methods In Permafrost special design and construction procedures required when engineering works are undertaken in permafrost areas.

Continuous Permafrost geographic area in which permafrost occurs everywhere beneath the exposed land surface with the exception of widely scattered sites, such as newly deposited unconsolidated sediments that have just been exposed to the freezing climate; mean annual soil surface temperatures are typically below -5 degrees Celsius (23 degrees Fahrenheit).

Continuous Permafrost Zone the major subdivision of a permafrost region in which permafrost occurs everywhere beneath the exposed land surface with the exception of widely scattered sites.

Discontinuous Permafrost permafrost occurring in some areas beneath the exposed land surface throughout a geographic region where other areas are free of permafrost.

Discontinuous Permafrost Zone the major subdivision of a permafrost region in which permafrost occurs in some areas beneath the exposed land surface, whereas other areas are free of permafrost.

Disequilibrium Permafrost permafrost that is not in thermal equilibrium with the existing mean annual surface or sea-bottom temperature and the geothermal heat flux.

Dry Permafrost permafrost containing neither free water nor ice.

Epigenetic Permafrost permafrost that formed through lowering of the permafrost base in previously deposited sediment or other earth material.

Equilibrium Permafrost permafrost that is in thermal equilibrium with the existing mean annual surface or sea-bottom temperature and with the geothermal heat flux.

Extensive Discontinuous Permafrost (1) (North American usage) permafrost underlying 6590% of the area of exposed land surface (2) (Russian usage) permafrost underlying 70 - 80% of the area of exposed land surface.

Friable Permafrost permafrost in which the soil particles are not held together by ice.

Ice-Bearing Permafrost permafrost that contains ice.

Ice-Bonded Permafrost ice-bearing permafrost in which the soil particles are cemented together by ice.

Ice-Rich Permafrost permafrost containing excess ice.

Intermediate Discontinuous Permafrost (1) (North American usage) permafrost underlying 3565% of the area of exposed land surface (2) (Russian usage) permafrost underlying 40 - 60% of the area of exposed land surface.

Intrapermafrost Water water occurring in unfrozen zones (taliks and cryopegs) within permafrost.

Isolated Patches Of Permafrost permafrost underlying less than 10% of the exposed land surface.

Latitudinal Limit Of Permafrost the southernmost (northernmost) latitude at which permafrost occurs in a lowland region in the northern (southern) hemisphere.

Latitudinal Zonation Of Permafrost the subdivision of a permafrost region into permafrost zones, based on the percentage of the area that is underlain by permafrost.

Mountain Permafrost permafrost existing at high altitudes in high, middle, and low latitudes.

Onshore Permafrost permafrost occurring beneath exposed land surfaces.

Partially-Bonded Permafrost ice-bearing permafrost in which some of the soil particles are not held together by ice.

Passive Construction Methods In Permafrost special design and construction methods used for engineering works in permafrost areas where preservation of the frozen condition is feasible.

Permafrost layer of soil or rock, at some depth beneath the surface, in which the temperature has been continuously below 0*C for at least several years; it exists where summer heating fails to reach the base of the layer of frozen ground.

Permafrost Aggradation a naturally or artificially caused increase in the thickness and/or areal extent of permafrost.

Permafrost Base

the lower boundary surface of permafrost, above which temperatures are perennially below 0 degrees Celsius (cryotic) and below which temperatures are perennially above 0 degrees Celsius (noncryotic).

Permafrost Boundary (1) the geographical boundary between the continuous and discontinuous permafrost zones (2) the margin of a discrete body of permafrost.

Permafrost Degradation a naturally or artificially caused decrease in the thickness and/or areal extent of permafrost.

Permafrost Extent the total geographic area containing some amount of permafrost; typically reported in square kilometers.

Permafrost Limit outermost (latitudinal) or lowest (altitudinal) limit of the occurrence of permafrost.

Permafrost Region a region in which the temperature of some or all of the ground below the seasonally freezing and thawing layer remains continuously at or below 0 degrees Celsius for at least two consecutive years.

Permafrost Table the upper boundary surface of permafrost.

Permafrost Thickness the vertical distance between the permafrost table and the permafrost base.

Permafrost Zone a major subdivision of a permafrost region.

Planetary Permafrost permafrost occurring on other planetary bodies (planets, moons, asteroids).

Poorly-Bonded Permafrost ice-bearing permafrost in which few of the soil particles are held together by ice.

Relict Permafrost permafrost existing in areas where permafrost can not form under present climatic conditions; reflects past climatic conditions that were colder.

Saline Permafrost permafrost in which part or all of the total water content is unfrozen because of freezing-point depression due to a high dissolved-solids content of the pore water.

Seasonally-Active Permafrost the uppermost layer of the permafrost which undergoes seasonal phase changes due to the lowered thawing temperature and freezing-point depression of its pore water.

Sporadic Discontinuous Permafrost (1) (North American usage) permafrost underlying 1050% of the exposed land surface (2) (Russian usage) permafrost underlying 5 - 30% of the exposed land surface.

Subglacial Permafrost permafrost beneath a glacier.

Subpermafrost Water water occurring in the noncryotic ground below the permafrost.

Subsea Permafrost permafrost occurring beneath the sea bottom.

Suprapermafrost Water water occurring in unfrozen ground above perennially frozen ground.

Syngenetic Permafrost permafrost that formed through a rise of the permafrost table during the deposition of additional sediment or other earth material on the ground surface.

Thaw-Sensitive Permafrost perennially frozen ground which, upon thawing, will experience significant thaw settlement and suffer loss of strength to a value significantly lower than that for similar material in an unfrozen condition.

Thaw-Stable Permafrost perennially frozen ground which, upon thawing, will not experience either significant thaw settlement or loss of strength.

Two-Layer Permafrost ground in which two layers of permafrost are separated by a layer of unfrozen ground. Well-Bonded Permafrost ice-bearing permafrost in which all the soil particles are held together by ice.

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