Battle of Zama

Battle of Zama 202 BC

1. Introduction 2. Carthage versus Rome according to Polybius Sabela, 1ยบ Bachillerato, IES de Poio

3. Polybius, Cornelius Nepos, and Titus Livius on the Battle of Zama. A short Comparison Orestis, 1st Grade, Experimental Senior High School of Agioi Anargyroi/Athens

4. References

1. INTRODUCTION The greatest naval power of the Mediterranean in the third century BC was the North African city of Carthage near modern day Tunis. The Carthaginians were originally Phoenicians and Carthage was a colony founded by the Phoenician capital city of Tyre in the ninth century BC. The Phoenicians, however, were conquered by the Assyrians in the seventh century BC, and then conquered by the Persians.

Since Phoenicia no longer existed as an independent state, that meant that Carthage was no longer a colony, but a fully functioning independent state. While the Romans were steadily increasing their control over the Italian peninsula, the Carthaginians were extending their empire over most of North Africa. By the time that Rome controlled all of the Italian peninsula, Carthage already controlled the North African coast from western Libya to the Strait of Gibraltar, and ruled over most of southern Spain—and the island of Corsica and Sardinia in Europe as well. Carthage was a formidable power; it controlled almost all the commercial trade in the Mediterranean, had subjected vast numbers of people all whom sent soldiers and supplies, and amassed tremendous wealth from gold and silver mines in Spain.

These two mighty empires came into contact in the middle of the third century BC when Rome's power had reached the southern tip of Italy. The two peoples had been in sporadic contact before, but neither side felt threatened by the other. The Romans were perfectly aware of the Carthaginian heritage: they called them by their old name, Phoenicians. In Latin, the word is Poeni, which gives us the name for the wars between the two states, the Punic Wars. These conflicts, so disastrous for Carthage, were inevitable. Between Carthage and Italy lay the huge island of Sicily; Carthage controlled the western half of Sicily, but the southern tip of the Italian peninsula put the Romans within throwing distance of the island. When the Sicilian city of Messana revolted against the Carthaginians, the Romans intervened, and the first Punic War erupted.

HANNIBAL

He was born in 247 a. C. in Carthage in North Africa. He was the son of the Carthaginian general Hamilcar. Hannibal was a great general who overcame the ability of many commanders of the time.

Hannibal, whilst even yet a child, swears eternal hatred to the Romans, image by John Leech, from: The Comic History of Rome by Gilbert Abbott A Beckett.

Since he was young, his father had taught him to hate the Romans, a legacy that continued until his death. He declared the war to the Romans even when he was exiled from his country.

He was taken to Spain by his father when he was only 10 years old.

After his death, his brother Asdrubal transformed Hannibal to become a Carthaginian army officer.

When Asdrubal was killed, the military gave him supreme command, and when he received public approval, was appointed commander.

Hannibal Crossing the Alps; detail from a fresco ca 1510, Palazzo del Campidoglio (Capitoline Museum), Rome

In the Second Punic War, he defeated the Romans in some battles to the conquest of northern Italy, but he failed to conquer Rome. His country was short of resources and wanted to sign an agreement to cancel the war for a while, but he refused to accept all conditions, and Scipio led him to a battle in which Hannibal was defeated.

He was betrayed by the Carthaginians and was forced to escape because he didn't want to surrender to the Romans.

However, they found him and disposed to surround his fort. A slave informed him about this. Realizing that there was no escape, he drunk the poison he used to carry with him.

Hannibal, Vienna, SchĂśnbrunn gardens

Thus died the great Carthaginian general in the age of 70. Respected even by his enemies, as Cornelius Nepos, who devoted to him these words after his death: “Sic vir fortissimus, multis variisque perfunctus laboribus, anno acquievit septuagesimo.�

Nepope. Hann. 13, 1 "Thus this bravest of men, after having gone through many and various labours, found repose in the seventieth year of his age"

2. CARTHAGE VERSUS ROME ACCORDING TO POLYBIUS

The government of the republic of Carthage closely resembled those of Rome and Sparta: there were kings in their government, together with a senate; people enjoy the exercise of certain powers.

Dido building Carthage; or the Rise of the Carthaginian Empire, Joseph Mallord William Turner (1815)

However, by the time the Hannibal war began, the government of Carthage was in a complete different situation respect the Roman state. Having reached the highest point of vigor and perfection much sooner than Rome, Carthage now declined from it in the same proportion, whereas Rome had just raised their constitution to the most flourishing and perfect state.

Location of Carthage and Carthaginian sphere of influence prior to the First Punic War (264 BC)

The effect of this difference was that among the Carthaginians the people possessed the greatest sway in all deliberations, but the senate among the Romans. And as, in the one republic, all measures were determined by the multitude; and, in the other, by the most eminent citizens; of so great force was this advantage in the conduct of affairs, that the Romans, though brought by repeated losses into the greatest danger, became, through the wisdom of their counsels, superior to the Carthaginians in the war. The government of Rome is far preferable to that of Carthage. Because, while the Carthaginians rely on the preservation of the troops, the Romans rely on their own courage and the help of their allies. This indicates that the Romans, although defeated at first, always able to renew the war, and the Carthaginian armies are not easily repaired.

As far as the military science is concerned, the Carthaginians, in the management and conduct of a naval war, are more skilful than the Romans. . But the Romans, on the other hand, are far superior in all things that belong to the establishment and discipline of armies. The Carthaginians employ foreign mercenaries; and that on the contrary the Roman armies are composed of citizens, and of the people of the country. Therefore, the Romans, fight for their country and their children and remain consistent with their spirit, until they become superior to their enemies.

Carthaginian empire during the Punic wars

Even in actions on the sea, the Romans, though inferior to the Carthaginians, earn success through the sheer bravery of their forces.

Punic war chariot, as printed in Theodore Ayrault Dodge's A HISTORY OF THE ART OF WAR AMONG THE CARTHAGINIANS AND ROMANS DOWN TO THE BATTLE OF PYDNA, 168 B. C., WITH A DETAILED ACCOUNT OF THE SECOND PUNIC WAR Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston & New York (1891).

While the Carthaginians entrust the preservation of their liberty to the care of venal troops; the Romans place all their confidence in their own bravery, and in the assistance of their allies. From hence it happens, that the Romans, though at first defeated, are always able to renew the war; and that the Carthaginian armies never are repaired without great difficulty In things that regard the acquisition of wealth, the manners also, and the customs of the Romans, are greatly preferable to those of the Carthaginians. Among the Carthaginians, money is openly employed to obtain the dignities of the state: but all such proceeding is a capital crime in Rome.

The Romans have among them certain institutions by which the young men are greatly animated to perform acts of bravery. It is a proof of the attention that is shown by the Roman government, to infuse such a spirit into the citizens as shall

lead them to encounter every kind of danger for the sake of obtaining reputation in their country.

Carthage Electrum Coin 250 BCE, British Museum

Carthage punique et romaine, Collection particulière Bertrand Bouret

3. POLYBIUS, CORNELIUS NEPOS, AND TITUS LIVIUS ON THE BATTLE OF ZAMA

POLYBIUS (ΠΟΛΤΒΙΟ΢), I΢ΣΟΡΙΩΝ ΙΕ

1. CARTHAGINIANS FORCE HANNIBAL TO RETURN Carthaginians press Hannibal to engage in a battle. Hannibal answered that he himself would make his decision when he should fight but a few days later, he moved his camp from Hadrumentum to Zama, about five days march to the west of Carthage.

Hannibal, bust found in Capua 2. CARTHAGINIAN SPIES ARE CAPTURED Hannibal sent 3 spies to the Roman encampment but they were captured. Scipio allowed them to see whatever they wanted and then he escorted them back to Hannibal’s camp.

3. HANNIBAL DECIDES TO NEGOCIATE WITH SCIPIO When the spies returned, Hannibal was impressed by Scipio's magnanimity and courage and he decided to talk to him. He sent a herald to Scipio to tell him that he

would like to discuss the situation with him. Scipio answered that he would send a messenger to inform Hannibal about the time and place.

Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (235–183 BC), National Museum of Naples 4. MASSANISSA ARRIVES IN ORDER TO HELP SCIPIO The following day, Massanissa (Μασανάσσης/Masinissa in Latin), a prince of the Numidians, arrived with 6.000 infantry and 4.000 cavalry. Scipio moved his camp to Naragara (Ναράγαρα), which enabled him to have easy access to water supplies. He also sent an envoy to Hannibal to inform him about the time and the place of their meeting. Hannibal moved his quarters closer to Scipio’s camp on a hill, somewhat far away from the water.

5. HANNIBAL AND SCIPIO MEET The following day both generals advanced from their camps attended by a few horsemen. Then, they left their escorts and talked in private, each one accompanied by one interpreter.

6. HANNIBAL'S SPEACH Hannibal was the first to speak. In the beginning, he wished that both Rome and Carthage had never coveted any possession outside Italy and Africa respectively but their rival claims in Sicily and Spain made them enemies. The result of this war it that the Romans had their own land endangered a year before and at that time the Carthaginians were in danger. Then, he said that he wanted to make peace with the Roman as he had learnt that Fortune is fickle. He also pretended that he worried about Scipio because Fortune was favorable to him so far but he was willing to risk

his success in one battle. In the end, he suggested that Sicily, Sardinia, Iberia and the islands between Italy and Africa should belong to Rome.

7. SCIPIO'S REPLY Scipio replied to Hannibal that the Carthaginians were the aggressors at the two wars and for this reason the Gods rewarded Rome with victory. He told Hannibal that if he had retreated from Italy before the Romans had invaded Africa, his request would probably be accepted. Scipio criticized the Carthaginians for having violated the previous peace terms which were:  The Carthaginians would restore prisoners without ransom  The Carthaginians should surrender all their decked vessels  The Carthaginians would pay 5,000 talents  The Carthaginians would give hostages So Scipio refused to withdraw the severest terms of the treaty. He insisted that the Carthaginians should surrender unconditionally or fight against them.

8. NEGOTIATIONS FAIL Scipio and Hannibal didn’t reach a deal. Next morning both generals drew out their armies and engaged. The Carthaginians were fighting in order to protect their country and the Romans were fighting for universal domination.

9. DEPLOYMENT OF THE ROMAN ARMY Scipio placed the hastati (ἁστάτοι) at the first line with gaps between the maniples.

Behind them, he deployed the principes which were not arranged to cover the gaps between the maniples of the hastati as the custom was. He placed them immediately behind the hastati at some distance because of the enemy’s elephants. In the rear he placed the triarii. On his right wing he deployed Massanissa and the Numidians and on his left wing the Italian cavalry under the command of Gaius Laelius. The gaps between the front maniples were filled with velites, who were ordered to begin the battle. If the velites were unable to stand the charge of the elephants, they would retreat to the rear of the whole army by the gaps between the maniples which were straight through the ranks. If they got entangled with the elephants, they would step aside into the later spaces between the maniples.

10. SCIPIO'S SPEACH BEFORE THE BATTLE

Scipio reminded to his soldiers their former victories and that if they were victorious in this battle, they would conquer not only Libya but the entire world. In case that the battle was lost, he said that those who would fall fighting, would have the record of having died for their country but those who would run away, would be objects of contempt and scorn as there was no place in Libya which could secure their safety.

In the end, he advised his soldiers to charge with the steady resolve to conquer or die.

11. DEPLOYMENT OF THE CARTHAGINIAN ARMY Hannibal placed his elephants that were more than 80 in the van of the whole army.

In the first line he deployed his 12.000 mercenaries which were Ligurians, Celts, Balearicians and Mauretanians. In the second line he deployed the Carthaginians and the native Libyans and on the rear the men that he had brought from Italy. On

his left wing, he deployed his Numidian cavalry and on his right wing the Carthaginian cavalry.

Ligurians in blue colour

The Balearics 12. HANNIBAL'S SPEACH BEFORE THE BATTLE Hannibal ordered each officer to address his own men. Hannibal reminded the Carthaginians what the consequences of a defeat would be. Then, he told to the Italian army not to forget the victories that they had the last 17 years in Italy. In the end, he said that the former Roman armies that they had faced were more numerous and that they had memories of past defeats in contrast to Scipio’s army that was smaller and was composed of the sons of those that had been defeated in Italy.

13. HANNIBAL'S NUMIDIAN CAVARLY VS MASSINISA, ELEPHANTS VS VELITES

The two opposing forces of Numidian cavalry started the battle by engaging in skirmishing attacks upon each other. Hannibal ordered the men on the elephants to charge the enemy but due to the noise that the horns and the trumpets made some of them attacked the Numidian contingents of the Carthaginian army instead of the Roman ones. Massanissa took advantage of this and managed to rout the Numidian cavalry that supported the Carthaginians. The rest of the Carthaginians charged the velites in the space between the maniples of the line. They inflicted much damage to the Romans but they also suffered severely. The elephants became frightened and some of them ran down the vacant spaces. The Romans let these elephants pass harmlessly along. Other elephants raw away to the right under a shower of darts from the cavalry until they were driven off the field.

Battle of Zama, C. Cort, 1567 14. ROMAN CAVALRY VS CARTHAGINIAN CAVALRY After the elephants were driven off the field, Laelius attacked the Carthaginian cavalry which soon began to retreat. In this way, the Romans had won the cavalry engagement on both flanks.

15. BOTH INFANTRIES ADVANCE While Laelius and Massanissa were chasing the Carthaginian cavalry, both infantries advanced apart from Hannibal's "army of Italy". The Romans charged the enemy.

16. HASTATI VS CARTHAGINIAN MERCENARIES Both combatants used swords, not spears. In the beginning, the mercenaries managed to wound a considerable number of Romans but soon, due to the steadiness of the ranks and the excellence of the arms, the Romans began to gain ground. The second line of Hannibal's army, the Carthaginians, refused to help them. As a result, the mercenaries believed that they were abandoned by the Carthaginians and turned against them. The Carthaginians were forced to fight against the Romans and against their mercenaries at the same time. They managed to kill many Romans and many of their own men as well. The maniples of the hastati were in confusion and the principes were committed to help. However, most of the Carthaginians were already killed by the hastati and their own mercenaries and were not willing to fight against the principes. They tried to retreat but Hannibal did not allow them to enter the ranks of his army and forced them to take refuge on the wings or make for the open country.

17. SCIPIO REDEPLOYS HIS ARMY The space between the two armies was full of wounded men and dead corpses. For this reason, it was difficult for the Romans to chase the Carthaginians. Scipio carried the wounded to the rear, he recalled the hastati from the pursuit and he ordered the principes and the triarii to deploy into line with the hastati on either flank.

18. HANNIBAL'S ARMY OF ITALY VS HASTATI+PRINCIPES+TRIARII Once the principes and the triarii got into line with the hastati, both lines charged.

Both armies were equal in numbers, courage and arms. None of them was giving out a step and for a long time, the battle was undecided.

19. THE ROMAN CAVALRY RETURNS In the nick of time, the Roman cavalry returned and charged Hannibal's rear. Most of the Carthaginians were killed in their ranks. Very few of those who attempted to escape made it, because the Roman cavalry was close and the ground was quite level. 20.000 Carthaginians died but only 1500 Romans. About 20.000 Carthaginians were taken as prisoners. After the battle was over, Scipio plundered the Carthaginian camp and then he returned to his own.

20. HANNIBAL ESCAPES TO HADRUMENTUM

Hannibal escaped with a few horsemen to Hadrumentum. He had done everything he could but it was not enough to defeat Scipio.

21. CARTHAGINIAN ENVOYS BEG SCIPIO FOR PEACE After the battle, the Carthaginians decided to send envoys to negotiate with Scipio.

Scipio said that they deserved no mercy because they were the aggressors and because they had violated the first peace terms by attacking Saguntum and the newly agreed terms as well. Later, however, Scipio decided to make a new peace treaty with the Carthaginians and he mentioned the concessions to be made to them and the penalties to which they were to submit.

Carthago 22. THE TERMS  The Carthaginians would retain their towns in Libya that were possessed before the last war against Rome with their cattle, slaves and other stock.  The Carthaginians would have their own laws and customs and they wouldn't have Roman garrisons in their cities.  The Carthaginians would pay an indemnity to the Romans for all wrongs committed during the truce.

 The Romans would restore all captives and runaway slaves  The Carthaginians would hand over all of their ships apart from 10 triremes  The Carthaginians would not be allowed to possess elephants  The Carthaginians were not allowed to go to war with people outside Libya at all  The Carthaginians were allowed to go to war with people inside Libya but only with consent of Rome  The Carthaginians would restore to Massanissa all houses, territory and cities that belonged to him or to his ancestors  1The Carthaginians would supply the Roman army with provisions and salary for 3 months  The Carthaginians would pay 10.000 talents of silver in 50 years  The Carthaginians would pay 200 Euboic talents every year  The Carthaginians would give 100 hostages which would by selected by Scipio and that would not be younger than 14 or older than 30 years.

23. HANNIBAL PERSUADES THE CARTHAGINIANS TO ACCEPT THE TERMS The envoys returned to Carthage to announce these terms to their countrymen. At the Carthaginian senate, Hannibal said that they had no other option but to accept the terms. His advice was regarded sensible by the rest of the senators and they decided to accept the terms. Then the senate sent envoys to notify their consent.

CORNELIUS NEPOS LIBER DE EXCELLENTIBUS DUCIBUS EXTERARUM GENTIUM (ca 100 - 25 BC)

Cornelius Nepos was a biographer, who usually praises the personalities he chooses to write about. He was a friend of Catulus, of Cicero and of Titus Pomponius Atticus.

One section of his voluminous work De excellentibus ducibus exterarum gentium, commonly known as Vitae excellentium imperatorum, and the biographies of Cato and Atticus from another (De Latinis historicis) have been preserved. The rest of his work is lost, apart from fragments.

His account on the battle of Zama in Hannibal’s Life runs as follows: 1. HANNIBAL RETURNS FROM ITALY TO DEFEND CARTHAGE Hannibal was recalled to Carthage, without having suffered even a single defeat, to defend his country. He fought a war against the son of Publius Scipio. Publius Scipio had been routed by Hannibal three times: on the Rhone, on the Po and on Trebia.

2. HANNIBAL TRIES TO NEGOTIATE WITH SCIPIO As the resources of Carthage were exhausted, Hannibal decided to make a treaty with Scipio so that they war could stop for a while. Later, he would fight again against him with a stronger army. Hannibal and Scipio met but they did not reach any agreement.

3. HANNIBAL IS DEFETED AT ZAMA A few days later, they fought at Zama and Hannibal was defeated. Two days after the battle, Hannibal arrived at Hadrumentum.

4. HANNIBAL ESCAPES FROM THE NUMIDIANS AND ASSEMBLES A NEW FORCE While he was retreating, some Numidians (NUMIDAE) that had fled with him after the battle tried to kill him but Hannibal managed to defeat them and escape. In Hadrumentum he gathered the survivors and he also recruited more men.

TITUS LIVIUS AB URBE CONDITA, LIBER XXX

Titus Livius was born in Patavium in 64 B.C. (or in 59 B.C.). He was educated in philosophy and rhetoric. He devoted a large of his life to his writings as he was able to do this because of his financial freedom. His most famous work Ab Urbe Condita he explains the complete history of Rome, from its foundation to the death of Augustus. His history emphasizes the great triumphs of Rome. He used a variety of sources but his aim was to write an entertaining, dramatic account of Roman history.

He used Polybius extensively for details of Roman dealings in the east, but often adapted this source and made his own additions. During Tiberius' reign, in order to avoid conviction, he committed suicide by self-starvation. After his death, many of his books were burned by the aediles.

1. HANNIBAL AT HADRUMENTUM Hannibal was called away by the Carthaginians to defend his country. He arrived at Hadrumentum, where he spent a few days so that his soldiers could recover from sea sickness.

2. HANNIBAL AT ZAMA After a forced march he arrived at Zama, just five days distance from the city of Cartage.

3. SCIPIO CAPTURES CARTHAGINIAN SPIES The first thing that Hannibal did was to send spies. The Carthaginian spies that had been sent to the Roman camp were captured but Scipio allowed them to see

anything that they wanted. Then, he sent them back to Hannibal. Hannibal was not pleased with the reports of his scouts.

4. HANNIBAL DECIDES TO NEGOTIATE WITH SCIPIO. SCIPIO AGREES Masinissa, a Numidian prince, arrived the same day with 6.000 infantry and 4.000 cavalry. But apart from this, Hannibal was also dismayed by the enemy's confidence.

Although Hannibal knew that he committed hostilities first and he was the one that broke the truce of the first Punic War, he believed that he could obtain better terms if he negotiated while his army was still intact. For this reason, he sent a messenger to Scipio requesting a meeting. Scipio accepted his offer and they agreed to meet at a spot halfway between the camps so that none could fall into an ambush.

5. HANNIBAL'S PROPOSAL When the two generals met, they were just looking at each other in the beginning.

Hannibal spoke first. He said to Scipio that he admits that he is a great general but he reminds him that he was also once in his position. At this time the Roman army was near Carthage but few months ago the Carthaginian army was close to Rome.

He advised Scipio not to risk his reputation in a single battle but to make a peace treaty. Hannibal suggested that Sardinia, Spain and every island between Italy and Africa should belong to Rome but Africa should belong to Carthage. He ensured that all of the Carthaginians will agree with this peace treaty.

6. SCIPIO'S ANSWER Scipio replied to Hannibal that the Carthaginians did not deserve to have the same terms as before because they were the aggressors. He also said that he was mindful of human weakness and that he was not acting arrogantly. He would have acted arrogantly, if Hannibal voluntarily had withdrawn from Italy and wanted to negotiate. In the end, Scipio said that if Hannibal added a compensation for the ships

loaded with supplies that were taken and for the violence he did to his envoys he will bring his suggestion before the senate.

Scipio meets Hannibal at Zama, Charlotte Mary Yonge, 1880 7. THE TWO GENERALS ENCOURAGE THEIR ARMIES The following day, the two armies were deployed for battle. Hannibal reminded to his soldiers their great victories in Italy. On the other side, Scipio recalled the great victories in Spain and Africa and he said that the fact that Hannibal sued for peace is a sign of weakness.

8. DEPLOYMENT OF THE ROMAN ARMY Scipio drew up in the first line the hastati. In the second line he deployed the principes. In the rear the triarii were closing the formation. However, he did not form cohort in close contact. Instead, he formed maniples at a considerable distance from each other so that there would be an empty space were the elephants could be

driven through without breaking up the ranks. Laetius was posted with the Italic cavalry on the left wing. Massinisa and his Numidians on the right. Scipio filled the open passages between the maniples of the front line with velites, the lightly armed of that day. In case that the elephants charged, they were given orders either to flee behind the ranks in the line or else, dashing to right and left and closing up to the maniples in the van, they should give the elephants an opening through which they might rush among missiles thrown against them from both sides.

Mauretiania next to Numidia in north-west Africa

9. DEPLOYMENT OF THE CARTHAGINIAN ARMY

The Carthaginian army was composed of many different nations. Gauls, Ligurians, Mauretanians, Balearicians, Numidians, Carthaginians, Bruttians, Macedonians.

Macedonia in 200 BC Each of them had each own reasons to fight. Hannibal placed his 80 elephants in front in order to create panic. Next, he placed his Ligurian and Gaul auxiliaries together with Balearic and Mauritanian troops. In the second line, he placed Carthaginians, Africans and Macedonians. Then, leaving a moderate interval, he drew up a reserve line of Italic soldiers most of which were Bruttians. These soldiers were forced to follow him when he returned from Italy. He also placed the cavalry on the wing. The Carthaginian cavalry on the right wing and the Numidian on the left.

10. MASINISSA'S NUMIDIAN CAVALRY VS HANNIBAL'S NUMIDIAN CAVALRY,

ITALIAN

ELEPHANTS VS VELITES

CAVARLY

VS

CARTHAGINIAN

CAVARLY,

While Hannibal was speaking to the Carthaginians and the other leaders to their countrymen, trumpets and horns sounded on the Roman side. This was done on purpose. The elephants turned against their own men, especially on the left wing where the Mauritanians and the Numidians were placed. Masinissa took advantage of this and stripped the end of the line from its cavalry support. A few of the elephants that were driven into the enemy managed to cause great casualties to the light-armed Romans but suffered many wounds themselves. The lightly armed Romans were sprang back to the maniples and made way to the elephants so that they wouldn't be trampled down. Then, they hurled their lanced from both sides against the elephants that were exposed from both sides to missiles. The elephants were driven out of the Roman line and into their own men by missiles thrown at them. They elephants turned against their own cavalry on the right flank and forced them to retreat. Laelius took advantage and attacked and routed them completely.

Battle of Zama, H.-P. Motte, ca 1890 11. HASTATI VS CARTHAGINIAN AUXILIARIES The Carthaginians had lost all of their cavalry. At this time, the infantries of both armies clashed. The Romans pressed on into the enemy by their own weight and the

weight of their arms. The Carthaginians made repeated charges at high speed but with less power. The first charge of the Romans immediately dislodged the enemy line. Then, beating them back with their shoulders and shields, they made considerable progress as none resisted. When they saw that the enemy line had given away, even the rear line presses upon the first which gave them a great force in repulsing the enemy. The second line of the Carthaginians was far behind. As a result, the Carthaginians and the Mauritanians could not support the auxiliaries which gave away. Some auxiliaries found refuge in the second line but others were not allowed by the second line to withdraw. These auxiliaries slashed at those who were not making place for them. By this time, the Carthaginians were fighting not only against the Romans but against their own men as well. In the end, the Carthaginians closed up their ranks and forced the auxiliaries to the wings outside the main battle so that they would not affect the morale of the rest of the army.

12. SCIPIO REDEPLOYS HIS ARMY Heaps of bodies and arms had covered the place where the auxiliaries stood before they retreated. For this reason, the Romans had great difficulty in making their way.

The men of the first line, the hastati, were trying to pursue the enemy but their

maniples and ranks broke. The principes also began to waver. Scipio immediately ordered the recall of the hastati and after he drew the wounded to the rear line, he placed the principes and the triarii to the wings in order to make the centre that was composed of hastati safer. The Romans were superior to numbers and morale because they had routed the cavalry and the elephants.

13.

THE

ROMAN

CAVARLY

RETURNS

AND

SLAUGHTERS

THE

CARTHAGINIANS At the right moment, Laelius and Masinissa returned and charged into the rear of the enemy line. Many Carthaginians were slain in the battle line. The Carthaginians tried to withdraw but the Roman cavalry was in complete possession. Over 20.000 Carthaginians died and about 20.000 were captured. Only 1500 Romans died.

14. END OF THE WAR Hannibal escaped with a few horsemen and fled to Hadrumentum. Hannibal had done anything he could that day but still, he couldn't defeat Scipio. In the Senate House, he admitted that he did not lose just a single battle but the war as well and he said that there was no hope of safety except in successfully suing for peace. After the battle, Lentulus, in command of 50 war ships and 100 transports with supplies arrived near Utica. Scipio sent Laelius to Rome to report his victory and he ordered Gnaeus Octavius to bring his legions to Carthage by land. Scipio went to his old fleet reinforced from Lentulus' fleet and sailed from Utica towards the harbor of Carthage. He was not far away when a Carthaginian ship with 10 envoys bedecked with fillets and olive branches met him. They were sent by Hannibal to sue for peace. When they approached holding the symbols of suppliants, begging and beseeching the help and pity of Scipio, he told they that they should come to Tynes, a city close to Carthage. Scipio sailed near in order to view the situation of Carthage,

because he wanted to humiliate the enemy. After that, he returned to Utica and recalled Octavius.

A SHORT COMPARISON Generally, Livius and Polybius offer a detailed description of the events before, during and after the battle. Cornelius Nepos’ narration, on the other hand, is very brief. His apparent purpose is to praise Hannibal. That’s the reason why he mentions a few selected events.

The first difference between Livius and Polybius is that Livius doesn't mention anything about the envoys. In addition, he doesn't mention the exact number of the spies. Apart from this, Livius focuses much on the dialogue between Hannibal and Scipio. Polybius also mentions this dialogue but without so many details. Another difference is that Livius says that Scipio suggested that the Carthaginians would add a compensation for the ships loaded with supplies that were taken and for the violence he did to his envoys, while according to Polybius the terms were: The Carthaginians would restore prisoners, they would surrender all their decked vessels, they would pay 5000 talents and they would give hostages. Apart from these differences, there are also differences regarding the battle. To begin with, Polybius believes that the Carthaginians had 12.000 mercenaries that were Celts, Ligurians, Balearicians and Mauretanians. Livius adds the Macedonians as well. Furthermore, according to Livius, Hannibal placed in the first line only his Ligurian and Gaul auxiliaries together with Balearic and Mauritanian troops and in the second line he placed Carthaginians, Africans and Macedonians. According to Polybius, all of the mercenaries were deployed in the first line. Moreover, Livius says that the elephants were frightened by the Roman trumpets and horns but Polybius says that the noise of their own horns and trumpets caused this. This difference can be explained if we take into consideration that Livius was a Roman and wanted to give to Scipio as much credit for the defeat of the elephants as he could. He also mentions at some point that when Scipio was talking to his army he stand so erect and with such a happy look on his face that one would have believed that he would be the victor.

Apart from this, Livius says that only the infantry fought with the elephants but Polybius says that they were driven off the field by darts from the cavalry.

Furthermore, Livius believes that Scipio sailed from Utica towards the harbor of Carthage and that the Carthaginians met him at that place. Then, he says that Scipio told to the envoys to meet him at Tynes to discuss the terms. Polybius doesn't

mention anything about sailing to the harbor of Carthage. Instead, he mentions the terms agreed.

All in all, I believe that Polybius is more objective than Livius and that Livius elaborates at some points. For this reason, I think that Polybius has the best description of the battle.

4. REFERENCES

http://www.history.com/topics/hannibal http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/nepos/nepos.han.shtml http://shot.holycross.edu/courses/Sallust-Livy/S06/pdfs/Nepos-Hannibal-eng.pdf http://www.livius.org/ha-hd/hannibal/hannibal.html http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0136%3al ife%3dhan. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/polybius6.html#Rome and Carthage Compared www.perseus.tufts.edu http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Nepos,_Cornel ius http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos http://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/Chronologia/Lsante01/Nepos/nep_intr.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NE_200bc.jpg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Localizaci%C3%B3n_de_las_Islas_Baleares.svg http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0159 http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0234 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titus_Livius http://www.ancientsites.com/aw/Post/847597 Images: Wikimedia commons All sites visited on the 10th of July 2011