Cambridge Senior Science VCE Biology Units 1&2 annotated sample pages

Annotated sample pages

© Cambridge University Press 2021

ISBN: 978-1-108-88711-3

For more information please contact your regular Cambridge Education Resource Consultant or the Education Sales Administrator: 03 8671 1475 or educationsales@cambridge.edu.au

Glossary

abiotic not living absorption

the movement of nutrients out of the digestive system and into the bloodstream for delivery to cells

accuracy

how close the measurements are to the ‘true’ value of the quantity being measured active transport

aneuploidy

when cells contain one more or one less chromosome than normal

angiogenesis

the formation of new blood vessels

apoptosis

About these annotated sample

the systematic and controlled death of cells; occurs as a normal part of an organism’s development (programmed cell death)

apoptotic bodies

the net movement of a substance from a region of low concentration to a region of high concentration, using a protein carrier and requiring energy input

pages:

membrane-bound vesicles that contain the intracellular contents of an apoptotic cell arteriole

adaptation

a change that makes an organism better suited to its environment

ADP (adenosine diphosphate)

a compound composed of adenosine and two phosphate groups that can store energy when another phosphate group is added, forming ATP

adult stem cells undifferentiated cells that are found in certain tissues throughout the life of an individual aerobic cellular respiration

a small branch of an artery leading into capillaries

asexual reproduction

These sample pages include selected pages from a variety of chapters in Cambridge Senior Science Biology VCE Units 1&2 to highlight the many excellent features of this new series.

a type of reproduction in which only one parent is required to produce offspring, which are genetically identical to the parent ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

To view the complete set of sample pages go to: cambridge.edu.au/sciencepagesvic

the main immediate source of chemical energy in a cell, powering most cellular processes; energy is released when the last phosphate group is removed, forming ADP (adenosine diphosphate)

authority

cellular respiration that occurs in the presence of oxygen and involves the transformation of the chemical energy in glucose into ATP

aim

the level of expertise and relevance of an author in relation to the information they provide

To preview the Interactive Textbook, go to: cambridge.edu.au/vcebiologypreview

the main purpose of an investigation and what you hope to achieve

allele

autoantibodies

antibodies that target and destroy the body’s own cells (‘self’ cells)

autoimmune disease

a disease in which the immune system acts abnormally and begins to target and attack the body’s own cells (‘self’ cells)

an alternative form of a gene alternative splicing when a single gene codes for more than one protein

anaerobic cellular respiration cellular respiration that occurs in the absence of oxygen and involves the transformation of the chemical energy in glucose into ATP; also known as fermentation

anaphase

autosomes

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chromosomes that do not determine sex; in humans, pairs 1 to 22

autotroph

cambridge.edu.au/vcescience

an organism that synthesises its own organic materials (food), by taking in energy from its physical environment, to meet its energy needs (auto = self, troph = food)

a mitotic phase in which double chromosomes separate and the sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite sides of the cell

About the authors

Simon Maaser is Lead Author of the VCE Biology team. He has held roles as both Head of Science and Director of Curriculum across various schools. He has also been involved in leading VCAA Biology Exam assessing and Study Design reviews.

Brett Drummond is a science communicator and co-founder of MStranslate, an organisation that communicates research summaries on multiple sclerosis. He has been a private tutor for VCE Biology and Chemistry.

Ben Elliott has been a Years 7–10 Science Co-ordinator and a VCE Biology teacher for a number of years. He also taught Science and A-Level Biology in the UK.

Kylie May has taught VCE Biology for the last 14 years. She has held the positions of Head of Science and Head of Biology at various schools throughout her career. She has also been a VCAA assessor for Biology and completed studies with the Harvard Graduate School of Education.

Victoria Shaw has been committed to sharing her love for science with Year 7–12 students for the past 21 years. She was Head of Science at an independent school for several years and has been an assessor for both the VCAA and IBO.

The new VCE Biology Study Design is explicitly followed.

A scientific investigations chapter in each book guides students through the skills they require to conduct an investigation, analyse scientific evidence and communicate results.

... Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspectives from knowledge, culture and history.

Answers are available in the Interactive Textbook and the

Suggested responses are provided in the Online Teaching Suite, and teachers can choose to make these available to students in the Interactive Textbook.

All changes to the new Study Design are reflected, including...

... increased focus on practical skills and bioethical understanding,

A chapter on research task strategies provides guidance for planning an investigation and advice on the ethical, social, legal and economic considerations involved.

UNIT 1 CHAPTER 5 REGULATION OF SYSTEMS

HOW DO ORGANISMS REGULATE THEIR FUNCTIONS?

Introduction

Have you ever stopped to think about how amazing life is? Not just the actual process of us being alive, but the fact that we manage to stay alive in an environment where things are changing all the time and we are being constantly challenged. Just think about all of the different things that your body does on a daily basis: eating meals, exercising, being outside in differing weather conditions.

All these things may feel like they have an impact on you. For example, if you go outside without a jumper and it’s cold, you may feel chilly. However, internally, these things are actually handled incredibly well. Indeed, most of the internal workings of the body (in humans and in animals in general) are very tightly regulated by a process called homeostasis. In this chapter, you will learn about homeostasis, the processes by which it is maintained and what happens when it goes wrong.

Curriculum

Area of Study 2 Outcome 2 Regulation of systems

Study Design Learning intentions – at the end of this chapter I will be able to:

• Regulation of body temperature, blood glucose and water balance in animals by homeostatic mechanisms, including stimulus–response models, feedback loops and associated organ structures

5A Homeostasis

5A.1 Recall the five stages of a stimulus–response model

5A.2 Describe the stimulus–response model

5A.3 Describe, using diagrams, negative and positive feedback loops

5A.4 Distinguish between examples of negative and positive feedback loops

5A.5 Define homeostasis

5A.6 Explain the importance of homeostasis to an organism’s survival

Every Study Design dot point is explicitly addressed.

Learning intentions matched to the Study Design at the start of the chapter show students what they need to know and do to meet syllabus requirements.

Key glossary terms are highlighted at the start of each chapter.

Concept map for Units 1&2

This spread displays the concept maps for topics Chapters 1–5 and 7–9. (Chapter 6 Scientific investigations is not included as it covers skill development rather than topics.) Access the digital version of this concept map in the ITB to zoom in on the details and click on hyperlinks to explore the interconnections of the topics.

Chapter 1 Cellular structure

Chapter 2 Cellular functioning

Chapter 3 Cellular regeneration and regulation

Concept maps visualise the chapter structure and provide a great memory aid.

Hyperlinks in the concept maps in the Interactive Textbook provide an alternative way of navigating the course.

Chapter

Chapter 8

Chapter 7 Reproductive strategies, adaptations and diversity

Annotations on each concept map summarise the content of the sections in the chapter and how they relate to the topic.

The endocrine system: chemical control

Study Design: Specialisation and organisation of animal cells into tissues, organs and systems with specific functions: digestive, endocrine and excretory

ENGAGE

Hormones and height

Glossary:

Diabetes

Gland (endocrine)

Homeostasis

Hormone

Hyperthyroidism

Hypothyroidism

Pathogen

Target cell

Human height is the result of the interaction between genetics and environmental factors. The findings of the Human Genome Project have shown that it takes the interaction of approximately 697 genetic factors to determine our final height. Research has also shown a strong relationship between poor growth and illness or malnutrition as a child.

Current data shows that the average global height of men is 171 cm and of women is 159 cm. Australians are above average: Australian men average 179 cm and women 166 cm.

According to the current Guinness World Records, the tallest living person is a Turkish farmer named Sultan Kosen, at a staggering 251 cm. The smallest living person ever documented and verified was Chandra Bahadur Dangi, from Nepal, who measured 54.64 cm.

Both these Guinness World Record holders are a long way from ‘average’. How do we explain such extremes? The answer is growth hormone. Growth hormone is released from the pituitary gland, and it controls the development of cartilage, bone and muscle. Damage to the gland (e.g. from a tumour) can result in the overproduction or underproduction of growth hormone, which in turn results in the extreme heights seen in Sultan and Chandra.

Figure 4C–1 Chandra Bahadur Dangi and Sultan Kosen together at a Guinness World Records day event.

Stimulus material in ENGAGE boxes explores why students need to study a particular topic, or why it is important or interesting, but not assessable.

Content is carefully organised and signposted to fully prepare students for success in VCE Biology without overwhelming them with content they won’t be assessed on.

4C THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: CHEMICAL CONTROL

189

EXPLAIN

What is the endocrine system?

The endocrine system is a collection of glands that produce and secrete a variety of chemical messengers known as hormones. Hormones are released into the bloodstream, where they travel to a target cell/area and act to regulate various activities within the organism. Hormones control a wide range of bodily functions. They influence the growth and development of body parts, cellular metabolism, reproduction and behaviour. They also act to maintain homeostasis, a constant internal environment. Figure 4C–2 shows the location of the major endocrine glands in the body. Table 4C–1 on the next page lists the various hormones that they release and the bodily functions they control.

VIDEO 4C–1

THE HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

NOTE

Pancreas

Testicle (male)

Thymus

Adrenal gland

Gland (endocrine) an organ of the endocrine system that secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream

Hormone a chemical messenger that travels through the blood to a target cell to initiate a response

Target cell a cell with a complementary receptor for a signalling molecule/ hormone

Homeostasis the maintenance of a constant internal environment despite changes in the external environment

Link icons connect students to related topics and are hyperlinked in the Interactive Textbook.

Ovary (female)

The word ‘hormone’ comes from the Greek word hormao meaning ‘I excite’ and refers to the fact that each hormone excites or stimulates a specific target cell.

Relevant

Figure 4C–2 Endocrine glands of the human body

Hypothalamus, pituitary gland

Thyroid gland

Pineal gland

EXPLAIN headings and icons indicate assessable, need-to-know content.

Study Design dot points and glossary terms are repeated at the start of each section.

214 CHAPTER 4 FUNCTIONING SYSTEMS

Vascular plants contain two connected systems:

• the root system – the parts of the plant that lie below the surface of the soil and are responsible for providing a constant supply of water and minerals to the stems and leaves

• the shoot system – the parts of the plant that are above the ground and are responsible for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide with the atmosphere and for carrying out photosynthesis.

Just like animals, plant systems consist of various organs that perform specialised tasks within the organism (Table 4E–1).

Shoot system Leaves Photosynthesis Stems

Structural support, transport of substances

Root system Roots (primary) Grow downwards for strength and anchorage; can source water from very deep underground and store large amounts of food

Roots (secondary) Branch to the side, increasing surface area for absorption of water and minerals

The key feature that differentiates vascular plants from non-vascular plants is the presence of a special type of transport system, known as vascular tissue. This consists of two types of conducting tissue, known as the xylem and the phloem, each with its own kind of specialised cells. The xylem is responsible for transporting water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant. The phloem is responsible for transporting sugar throughout the plant. Together, they ensure that all plant organs receive what they need to survive. Vascular tissue runs in bundles through the centre of each root, up into the stems and leaves of the shoot system.

Table 4E–1 Vascular plant systems System Primary organ Function

Figure 4E–5 Micrograph of a longitudinal cross-section through a plant’s stem. In the middle are two rows of xylem, identifiable by their spiral structure. To the left of these is a bundle of phloem fibres (red) sandwiched between two groups of phloem cells (blue).

Figure 4E–4 Root cross-section showing the location of the vascular bundle running through it. Xylem cells form the central red cross. Phloem cells are stained green and lie between the arms of the xylem cross.

Vascular bundle

Xylem cells

Phloem cells

Phloem fibres

VIDEO 4E–1 VASCULAR PLANT SYSTEMS

Concept videos demonstrate or illustrate important theory. In the Interactive Textbook the icon links to the video directly.

Tables summarise key information and are a great revision tool.

Annotated diagrams visualise key information or describe a process and are usually included as animated slide shows in the Interactive Textbook.

4E PLANT SYSTEMS

Check-in questions – Set 1

1 Structurally, what is the difference between a vascular plant and a non-vascular plant?

2 What are the two types of systems and their corresponding organs that make up vascular plants?

3 What is the difference between xylem and phloem?

The shoot system – leaf structure

The main organ of the shoot system in all plants is the leaf. The combination of a leaf and a stem form the plant shoot. Photosynthesis occurs primarily in the leaf. To maximise the rate of photosynthesis, leaves consist of highly specialised layers, and each performs a specific function. A cross-section through a typical leaf is shown in Figure 4E–6.

Cuticle

Upper epidermis

Palisade mesophyll

Spongy mesophyll

Xylem

Phloem

Lower epidermis

LINK 2D ROLE OF CHLOROPLASTS AND MITOCHONDRIA

Layer Roles

Cuticle A waxy, waterproof coating that reduces the rate of water loss from the leaf surface; also responsible for defence against plant pathogens

Upper epidermis A transparent outer layer of cells that allows sunlight to easily pass into the leaf tissue; contains stomata for release or entry of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) to or from the leaf

Palisade mesophyll Densely packed photosynthetic cells with large numbers of chloroplasts; most photosynthesis occurs in this layer

Spongy mesophyll Loosely arranged cells with large amounts of air space between cells; this space allows easy diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen gas between layers of the leaf and stomata

Xylem and phloem Vascular bundles that run between the leaves and the roots, transporting water and sugar

Lower epidermis A transparent outer layer of cells that allows sunlight to easily pass into leaf tissue; contains stomata for entry or release of gases to or from the leaf

WORKSHEET 4E–1

LINK UNIT 4

LINK 2D ROLE OF CHLOROPLASTS AND MITOCHONDRIA

LINK 2A THE NATURE OF SUBSTANCES AND THEIR MODES OF TRANSPORT

Stomata pores in the epidermis of leaves or stems in plants that allow the movement of gases and water vapour in and out of intracellular spaces; singular: stoma

Downloadable worksheets include extra questions and activities for in-class or homework. Teachers have access to suggested responses and can modify any worksheet to suit their teaching requirements.

Figure 4E–6 The leaf is a collection of different tissues. Each tissue layer consists of highly specialised cells crucial to the shoot system’s ability to photosynthesise.

Table 4E–2 Specialised layers of leaves and their roles

376 CHAPTER 8 INHERITANCE

VIDEO WORKED EXAMPLE 8C–1

Worked example 8C–1

Homozygous dominant × Heterozygous

A homozygous dominant female parent for unattached earlobes is crossed with a heterozygous male parent.

Genotype of female: EE

Test cross a genetic cross where an organism with the dominant phenotype (unknown genotype) is crossed with a homozygous recessive organism

VIDEO WORKED EXAMPLE 8C–2

Genotype of male: Ee

Genotypic ratio = 1 EE : 1 Ee

Phenotypic ratio = 1 unattached earlobes

Note: Where all genotypes or phenotypes of offspring are the same, use ‘1’ (in this case meaning ‘all’) to represent the ratio.

Check-in questions – Set 1

1 Briefly describe the steps required to set up a Punnett square.

2 Cystic fibrosis is a recessive hereditary disorder that results in the production of thick mucus, which leads to the blockage of pancreatic ducts, intestines and airways, resulting in digestive and respiratory system infections. Use ‘F’ to represent the allele for the normal condition and ‘f ’ to represent the allele for cystic fibrosis.

a If two carriers for the cystic fibrosis allele have a child, what is the chance that their child will suffer from cystic fibrosis? Use a Punnett square to explain your answer.

b If a male carrier has a child with a homozygous normal female, what are the chances of the couple having a child with cystic fibrosis?

Test crosses

Hopefully, by now you will have realised that an individual who displays the dominant phenotype could have one of two possible genotypes: homozygous (EE) or heterozygous (Ee). In order to determine this individual’s genotype, a test cross is carried out. A test cross involves crossing the dominant parent (with an unknown genotype) with a homozygous recessive parent. The phenotype of the offspring produced can then be used to determine the genotype of the unknown parent – this is why it is called a ‘test’ cross. The possible outcomes for each situation are shown in the next two worked examples.

Worked example 8C–2

Homozygous dominant × Homozygous recessive

A homozygous dominant female parent for unattached earlobes is crossed with a homozygous recessive male parent.

Genotype of female: EE

Genotypic ratio = 1 Ee

Genotype of male: ee

Phenotypic ratio = 1 unattached earlobes (i.e. expect 100% unattached earlobes)

Worked example videos walk and talk students through each step.

Worked examples step students through questions that require computation, eg. genetics.

Worked example 8C–3

Heterozygous × Homozygous recessive

A heterozygous female parent for unattached earlobes is crossed with a homozygous recessive male parent.

Genotype of female: Ee E

Genotype of male: ee e Ee ee e Ee ee

Genotypic ratio = 1 Ee : 1 ee

Phenotypic ratio = 1 unattached earlobes : 1 attached earlobes (i.e. expect 50% unattached and 50% attached earlobes)

NOTE

In Worked example 8C–2, if the genotype is homozygous dominant, then all offspring will be heterozygous and therefore display the unattached earlobe phenotype. On the other hand, in Worked example 8C–3, if the genotype is heterozygous, then the offspring are expected to be a mix of the dominant phenotype and the recessive phenotype.

If any individuals with attached earlobes (or, more generally, individuals with the recessive phenotype) were produced, then the unknown parent must be heterozygous (Ee).

Another term that you will encounter in questions is ‘pure-breeding’. This refers to when an individual is homozygous (either dominant or recessive) and will therefore pass on only one possible allele. For their offspring to also be pure-breeding and have the same phenotype, the other parent would also need to be pure-breeding for the same dominant or recessive trait.

Check-in questions – Set 2

1 Define ‘test cross’, using correct terminology in your answer.

2 a If a tall pea plant is homozygous (TT), what results will you obtain if you cross it with a dwarf plant (tt)?

b If the same tall pea plant was heterozygous, what results would you obtain if you crossed it with a dwarf plant?

Check-in questions can be answered in the Interactive Textbook. Teachers can choose to give students access to the suggested responses so they can self-assess their work.

Check-in questions in every section of each chapter support formative assessment.

128 CHAPTER 3 CELLULAR REGENERATION AND REGULATION

Distinguishing between prophase and interphase in diagrams

One of the more difficult skills you need to master in this topic is the ability to distinguish between interphase and prophase when looking at diagrams or micrographs. As DNA does not completely condense into chromosomes until late prophase, it can look very similar in the different stages, making it difficult to correctly identify the stage(s) shown in a question.

Take the following micrograph images, for example:

It is easy to identify C as metaphase (chromosomes lined up along the metaphase plate in the middle), D as anaphase (chromosomes being pulled towards opposite poles) and E as telophase (two nuclei within the parent cell). Some students, however, find it difficult to determine whether cell A or B would be prophase. So how do you distinguish between them?

First, you may have already realised that the cells are lined up in the order in which the cell would progress through each stage (that is, PMAT). This then makes A interphase and B prophase. However, in most cases, the question will not be kind enough to line up the subphases in sequential order for you, so how else can you distinguish between the two stages accurately?

Remember that prophase marks the breakdown of the nuclear membrane. This is the key distinguishing feature between prophase and interphase and should always be your point of reference for accurate identification of these two stages. In cell A there is a clear nucleus visible, so it must be in interphase. Cell B, on the other hand, does not have a visible nucleus and therefore must be in (late) prophase.

Now look at the diagrams below:

A B

3B SKILLS

VIDEO 3B–2 SKILLS: DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN PROPHASE AND INTERPHASE IN DIAGRAMS

Skills boxes in every section offer advice on how to approach assessment tasks and exam questions.

This time the cells are not shown in PMAT order. You should, however, still find it easy to recognise I as anaphase, II as metaphase and IV as telophase. That leaves cells III and V to be prophase and interphase. Using the presence of a clearly visible nucleus as the key distinguishing feature, this should direct you to identifying cell III as prophase and cell V as interphase.

While it may seem straightforward, many students have confused these two cells under assessment conditions and named them the other way around. With this in mind, remember to always use the presence of a clear nucleus as the determining factor between a cell in interphase and a cell in prophase.

Using key terminology

When describing the phases of the cell cycle, it is important to use precise key terminology, and not oversimplify your language. Take the following question, for example:

Question: Describe the event(s) that occur in metaphase.

Answer: Chromosomes line up down the middle of the cell.

While this is not wrong, the language used is not specific enough for the level of detail expected in VCE. A more accurate answer would be:

Answer: The double chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate/equator of the cell.

Let’s try another one, this time using the S phase.

Question: Describe the events that occur in the S phase of the cell cycle.

Answer: DNA replicates.

Again, this answer is not nearly technical enough for VCE level. A suitable response would be:

Answer: DNA replicates, resulting in the transformation of a single chromosome into a double chromosome that contains two identical sister chromatids held together by a centromere.

Note: Remember, chromosomes are not actually visible in the S phase. It is just easier to discuss the transformation that occurs in the context of chromosomes.

Keep in mind that a clearly labelled diagram would also be an acceptable response to either of these questions. For example:

Skills videos step students through skills and provide extra explanation and guidance.

VIDEO 3B–3 SKILLS: USING KEY TERMINOLOGY

3B THE CELL CyCLE

402 CHAPTER 8 INHERITANCE

Section 8D questions

1 In the cross below: A B a b × a b a b

a What genotypes of offspring are possible if: i no crossing over occurs between the two gene loci? ii crossing over occurs between the two gene loci?

b How would the phenotypic ratios differ between the scenarios in part a i and part a ii above?

2 Geneticists working with Drosophila melanogaster in the laboratory have been trying to determine the number of offspring produced in a cross between a yellow-bodied normal-winged female and a black-bodied vestigial-winged male. Note: Yellow body is dominant to black, and normal wings are dominant to vestigial wings.

The Punnett square for the dihybrid test cross has been partially worked out:

Parental genotype: BbWw B W B w b W b w

Parental genotype: bbww

b w b w b w b w

a Complete the Punnett square by filling in the possible genotypes.

b What is the expected genotypic ratio of the offspring?

c What is the expected phenotypic ratio of the offspring?

d Results from the mating of these two organisms in the lab produced the following results:

Phenotype

Number of offspring

Yellow body, normal wings 13

Yellow body, vestigial wings 11

Black body, normal wings 17

Black body, vestigial wings 12

Explain why the ratio observed is not exactly 1 : 1 : 1 : 1.

e From the information given in the question, are these two genes linked or unlinked? Explain your answer using relevant biological terminology.

Section questions provide opportunities for summative assessment at the end of every section.

3 A test cross between a heterozygous red-eyed, normal-winged fly with a recessive yellow-eyed, curly-winged fly, produced the following offspring numbers:

Red eyes, normal wings Red eyes, curly wings Yellow eyes, normal wings Yellow eyes, curly wings 45 41 47 44

a Do the results support the conclusion that the two genes are linked or assorting independently? Explain.

b Assign alleles for eye colour and wing type.

c Draw a diagram to represent the chromosomes for the heterozygous red-eyed, normal-winged fly.

d What are the possible gametes for the heterozygous fly in part c?

e Draw a diagram to represent the chromosomes for the recessive yellow-eyed, curlywinged fly.

f What are the possible gametes for the recessive fly in part e?

4 In guinea pigs, the gene for coat colour is located on the same chromosome as the gene for coat length. In a mating between a black, long-haired guinea pig and a white, short-haired guinea pig, a number of unexpected black, short-haired and white, longhaired guinea pigs were born. This would not be possible if the same alleles were always inherited together. Explain in depth how new allele combinations occur, outlining the process in which this takes place.

5 A gene locus for eye colour in blowflies has two alleles: ‘E’ for red eyes and ‘e’ for white eyes. A second gene locus for body colour also has two alleles: ‘B’ for black and ‘b’ for yellow. A test cross was conducted using a female that was heterozygous at both gene loci. The numbers of offspring from the cross are shown below.

Determine whether the following statements are true or false. If true, explain why. If false, explain why and adjust the comment so that it is true.

a The male fly that was crossed with the heterozygous female fly would have had red eyes and a yellow body.

b The two gene loci are assorting independently.

c The two gene loci are close together on the same chromosome.

d The offspring with white eyes and black body colour are the result of recombination in the female parent.

Section questions can be answered in the Interactive Textbook. Teachers can choose to give students access to the suggested responses so they can self-assess their work.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander calendars of seasons

A broad example of the understanding of adaptations can be seen in the Aboriginal peoples’ calendars of the seasons. These are based not only on weather or celestial observations, as in the Western understanding of seasons, but also on knowledge of plants’ and animals’ adaptations to wet and dry periods, to temperature and wind, and the availability of food. A specific example of a seasonal calendar is the Gulumoerrgin (Larrakia) seasons calendar, created by members of the Larrakia language group, from the Darwin region in the Northern Territory, working with the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, CSIRO (Figure 7C–12).

Examples of applications of structural adaptations in plants and animals

The adaptations for survival of many living organisms provide countless applications for human materials, devices, processes and technologies. Many of these have been invented by humans after observing all kinds of living things – bacteria, fungi, plants and animals. This has been done successfully in many ancient and modern human cultures. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples are no exception, having invented and developed tools, weapons, costumes and materials from structural adaptations observed in other organisms. Specific examples are summarised in Table 7C–1

Figure 7C–12 The Gulumoerrgin (Larrakia) seasons calendar, which is based on knowledge of natural events and stages annually in the life of plants and animals, which in turn is based on their adaptations to abiotic factors. (Source: CSIRO Indigenous knowledge and environmental management) LINK 1C CELL TYPES

7C ADAPTATION, DIVERSITY AND SURVIVAL, WITH INDIGENOUS PERSPECTIVES

Water-holding frog (Ranoidea platycephala)

Lives in temporary creeks, pools and swamps in arid and semi-arid regions, and is adapted to survive long dry periods by storing water under its skin. When the water dries up, the frog burrows into the soil or sand and secretes mucus around itself. The mucus dries into a waterproof cocoon, enabling the frog to aestivate (remain dormant) until the next rainfall, which may be months or even years away. Traditional owners teach the life-saving method of finding the frogs in extreme droughts by observing markings left on the surface or by tapping the ground with a spear. Squeezing the frog releases the water, which can be drunk.

Lawyer-cane plant (Calamus)

Also known as ‘wait-a-while’, is a climbing palm found in Queensland. It has rings of small hooks or spines along its strong, flexible vine-like leaf stems, which attach it to other plants as it grows, an adaptation enabling it to reach light in crowded rainforests. The hooks are a hazard, catching on skin and having to be carefully removed (hence ‘wait-a-while’), but they have many applications. The Jirrbal people insert long stems into tree hollows to hook out edible grubs, and also use them like a wire saw to cut meat or soft timber, to harvest insects. The Kuku-Yalanji people use them as fishing hooks, particularly for prawns.

Stingray

Has a strong sharp barb at the end of its tail, an adaptation to defend against predators. The barb has backwards-pointing ‘teeth’, making it hard to remove once it pierces flesh. Many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples used the barbs as spear tips, as a fighting weapon and for hunting and spearing fish. Some, such as the Yanyuwa people, made copies of the stingray barb from wood or bone.

Possum fur

Adapted to provide a warm, water-resistant covering to enable survival in extreme cold and wet. Its ability to hold an insulating layer of dry air close to the skin even in rainy conditions was well known to Aboriginal peoples in south-eastern Australia (present day Victoria and New South Wales) who made possum skin cloaks like those depicted here in the painting Figures in possum skin cloaks by William Barak, a traditional elder of the Wurundjeri of the Woiwurrung language group.

Table 7C–1 Examples of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples’ knowledge and application of adaptations of species

337

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples’ knowledge and perspectives in understanding adaptations of species and their interdependence is included, with examples and guidance for student activities.

A Success Criteria checklist at the end of the chapter draws on the learning intentions outlined at the start of the chapter.

Chapter 2 review

Summary

Teachers can choose to make the model chapter summary available or encourage students to make their own.

Create your own set of summary notes for this chapter on paper or in a digital document. A model summary is provided in the Teacher Resources, which can be used to compare with yours.

Checklist

In the Interactive Textbook, the success criteria are linked from the review questions and will be automatically ticked when answers are correct. Alternatively, print or photocopy this page and tick the boxes when you have answered the corresponding questions correctly.

Success

the modes of transport used by substances crossing the plasma membrane, including the nature of the substances moving, whether energy is required, and the component of the

process of osmosis including the substance moving, whether energy is required, and the component of the membrane involved

the efficiency of cellular functions

Draw the chloroplast and the mitochondrion, label key structures and state the function of these key structures

Summarise the inputs, outputs and location of the stages of photosynthesis and cellular respiration (aerobic and anaerobic)

2D.4 State the word equation and balanced chemical equation for photosynthesis and the word equation for cellular respiration (both aerobic and anaerobic)

2D.5 Demonstrate an understanding of the energy shuttle and why cells need ATP to survive

The checklist can be downloaded for manual checking.

Multiple-choice questions

1 The correct order of stages in aerobic cellular respiration is

A glycolysis Calvin–Benson cycle electron transport chain.

B light-dependent stage glycolysis Krebs cycle.

C glycolysis Krebs cycle electron transport chain.

D electron transport chain Krebs cycle glycolysis.

2 Which of the statements below is true?

A Photosynthesis occurs in the first half of the day.

B Photosynthesis occurs during daylight hours, while cellular respiration occurs all the time.

C ATP is produced in the light-independent stage of photosynthesis.

D ATP provides energy for cellular respiration.

3 Which statement best describes the structure of the plasma membrane?

A phospholipid bilayer with proteins and carbohydrates

B phospholipid bilayer with carbohydrates

C protein bilayer with phospholipids

D phospholipid bilayer with lipids

4 ATP is a high-energy molecule. Which of the following pairs of processes both require an input of energy?

A cell movement, diffusion

B active transport, cell growth

C osmosis, cell reproduction

D cell repair, facilitated diffusion

5 Which of the following is incorrect?

A Cells are unable to directly control the movement of water through the plasma membrane.

B One role of the plasma membrane is to regulate the movement of substances into and out of cells.

C Water molecules move from low to high free water concentration by osmosis.

D Osmosis is the movement of water from low to high solute concentration through the plasma membrane.

6 Identify which of the following shapes would allow the most efficient exchange across the plasma membrane.

7 Which of the following statements is correct?

A Mitochondria are found only in eukaryotic animal cells, while chloroplasts are found only in eukaryotic plant cells.

B Chloroplasts contain stacks of thylakoid membranes called grana and a gel-like substance called the matrix.

C Mitochondria are the site of anaerobic cellular respiration.

D Mitochondria and chloroplasts both contain a double membrane and many ribosomes.

8 The U-shaped tube in the figure below is divided by a semi-permeable membrane that selectively allows water to pass through but not large solutes, such as starch. Which of the following will occur?

Non-diffusible solute

Water

Semi-permeable membrane

A Water will move from right to left by osmosis.

B Water will move from left to right by osmosis.

C Starch will move from right to left by osmosis.

D Starch will move from left to right by osmosis.

Linked multiple-choice questions autofill the checklist when correct.

Multiple-choice review questions can be completed and automarked in the Interactive Textbook.

The Success Criteria checklist is linked to the Chapter review questions, allowing students to chart their progress as they answer questions correctly.

9 Two solutions were separated by a semipermeable membrane, as shown in the figure. Both solutions contain water (blue) and glucose (red), and both molecules can move through the pores of the membrane.

Solution A Solution B

Using the information provided, you could say that

A solution A is hypertonic compared to solution B.

B glucose will need ATP to move from solution B to solution A.

C solution B is hypertonic compared to solution A.

D solution A and B are isotonic.

10 Which of the following lists contains the products created when a yeast cell undergoes fermentation?

A ethanol and water

B lactic acid and water

C ethanol and carbon dioxide

D lactic acid and carbon dioxide

Short-answer questions

11 Draw a plasma membrane, labelling the following parts:

phospholipid bilayer, cholesterol, glycoprotein, glycolipid. (2 marks)

12 The cell controls the entry and exit of substances through the plasma membrane.

a Give reasons why cells need to move substances through the plasma membrane. (2 marks)

b Not all substances can enter and leave a cell through the plasma membrane. Name and define the term that describes this characteristic. (1 mark)

c Copy and complete the table below by filling in the gaps. (3 marks)

d Explain the process of endocytosis. (2 marks)

e Name two processes that could not be carried out by cells if their plasma membrane lacked carrier proteins. (1 mark)

13 The diagram shows a basic summary of photosynthesis.

a What are the names of inputs A and B? (1 mark)

b What is the name of the six-carbon output labelled C and how does it move through a plasma membrane without the expenditure of energy? (2 marks)

c Where does photosynthesis occur? (1 mark)

d What is the name of the output that is missing from the diagram and how does it move through the plasma membrane? (2 marks)

Short-answer chapter review questions include marking guides.

Short-answer chapter review questions can be completed online using the Workspaces in the Interactive Textbook.

e Two processes can then use output C to produce energy in the form of ATP. Name these two processes and explain the advantage of one of these processes over the other. (2 marks)

f Write the balanced word equation for the process named in part e that requires oxygen to occur. (1 mark)

g As the mitochondria break down output C, carbon dioxide is produced as a waste. Would the carbon dioxide molecules move out of the cell faster if the cell had a small volume or a large volume? Explain your answer. (1 mark)

14 a Explain the meaning of the term ‘surface area to volume ratio’, referring to the relevant cell structures in your answer. (1 mark)

b Explain what value increasing the surface area has to the cell. (2 marks)

c Identify ways in which cells can increase their surface area without increasing their volume. (1 mark)

15 Lysis occurs in animal cells, not plant cells. Summarise the circumstances that lead to lysis. (3 marks)

16 Reverse osmosis is often used in desalination plants as a means of separating sugar from water. Using the following figure and your understanding of movement through membranes, distinguish between osmosis and reverse osmosis. (2 marks)

17 Measurements of a leaf show it is giving out oxygen and taking in carbon dioxide. Does this prove that aerobic cellular respiration is not occurring in this leaf? Justify your answer. (3 marks)

Self-assessment tools in the Interactive Textbook allow students to check their answers (where teachers have enabled access to the suggested responses), self-assess their working using a four-point scale and use a red flag to alert their teacher if they had trouble with a question.

When students self-assess that they have answered a question correctly and with confidence, it is automatically ticked in the checklist in the Interactive Textbook.

Revision exercises at the end of each unit help students assess if they have mastered the content.

Unit 1 Revision exercise

The following questions require you to draw knowledge together across all the content covered in Chapters 1 to 6. This will help you to determine how well you can apply your understanding of the content to different scenarios.

Multiple-choice questions

1 A major difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is that

A prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells.

B prokaryotic cells contain a nucleus, whereas eukaryotic cells do not.

C prokaryotic cells have a cell wall, whereas eukaryotic cells do not.

D prokaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles, whereas eukaryotic cells do not.

Use the diagram below to answer Questions 2 and 3.

2 The organelle that contains the molecule with instructions for making protein is

3 The process that occurs in structure IV is

A anaerobic cellular respiration to generate useable energy for the cell.

B photosynthesis to generate glucose.

C protein modification and packaging.

D storage of water and ions.

4 An amoeba is a eukaryote because it:

A contains ribosomes, a plasma membrane and cytosol.

B belongs to the Protista kingdom and contains a membrane bound organelle.

C is multicellular and can be as big as 100 µm.

D is single-celled and does not contain a membrane-bound nucleus.

Multiple-choice unit revision questions can be completed and automarked in the Interactive Textbook.

Short-answer unit revision questions can be completed online using the Workspaces in the Interactive Textbook.

Short-answer questions

11 Elodea is an aquatic plant that is commonly used in experiments to identify the movement of water into or out of cells placed in different salt solutions.

Workspaces allow students to enter their own working (including scientific notation) directly into the Interactive Textbook for all short-answer questions. Answers can be typed, drawn or uploaded on a computer or tablet device.

a Which organelle(s) would you expect to see in Elodea cells but not in animal cells? (1 mark)

The image below was obtained using a light microscope. It shows Elodea cells exposed to 5% sodium chloride (NaCl).

b Using the image obtained from the light microscope, identify whether the 5% NaCl solution the Elodea cells were placed in is hypotonic, hypertonic or isotonic. (1 mark)

c Explain your reasoning for choosing your answer to part b (2 marks)

d Provide drawings of a plant cell placed in a isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic solution. Ensure you include annotations with arrows, indicating the direction of water movement. (3 marks)

e Explain what would happen to a cell if it was placed in an isotonic solution. (2 marks)

f Define ‘osmosis’. (1 mark)

EXPLAIN

Structuring a logbook – investigative design

These scientific discoveries were possible because the scientists were persistent and determined and probably made effective use of logbooks. A logbook allows a scientist to keep track of the specific dates of their investigation ideas, planning, questions, important results, errors and any modifications required, thereby maintaining a record of all work conducted. The VCE requires that each student maintain a logbook of practical activities in Units 1–4 for assessment purposes. The need for a printed logbook, rather than an online or digital logbook, removes the likelihood of any tampering with results. Of course, this will depend on your school and your teacher’s authentication practices, so it is best to work within your school’s guidelines.

In this section, you will learn how to develop a logbook for your own practical investigation and the importance of each section in contributing to the end product. This is usually in the form of a scientific poster (outlined in Section 6C). Other forms of representing results include oral, multimedia or visual presentation, and these are discussed in more detail in the digital resource that accompanies this textbook.

An important function of an effective logbook is that it clearly demonstrates the development of the ideas that come from your research and investigation, including changes in direction, equipment failures and so on, as well as your collaboration and discussion with peers. This is demonstrated in the example below, which shows two versions of the same investigation:

• Investigation 1 is the initial version. The ideas that are highlighted for the investigation are not perfect but they show the initial planning coming together.

• Investigation 2 is the final version. Adjustments have been made to the initial investigation to improve the validity and reliability of the results (terms explored in more detail later).

The transition between Investigation 1 (initial ideas) and Investigation 2 (final product), as well as tips on what to include in each of the key sections, are included to assist you with your own logbook development.

Title

1 What temperature do enzymes work at?

2 What is the optimal temperature for the enzyme catalase to break down hydrogen peroxide into oxygen and water?

Notes

The title should include reference to the variables being changed (independent variable) and measured (dependent variable), along with enough detail for the reader to decide whether they want to continue reading.

SCIENTIFIC COMMUNICATION

VIDEO 6A–1 LOGBOOK EXAMPLE

264 CHAPTER 6 SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS

Modelling of logbook development provides exemplar entries and walks students through each entry in two steps from initial investigation planning to a demonstration of what their final version might look like.

Introduction a detailed but succinct explanation of the reason for undertaking an investigation; includes key biological concepts, aim and hypothesis

Introduction

1 Enzymes are essential to help reactions proceed more efficiently, in order to sustain life. They are made of proteins, which are coded for by an organism s DNA, and they are specific to the substance they act on.

2 The enzyme catalase reacts with the substrate hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), breaking it down into water and oxygen (products) in a catabolic reaction. Catalase is primarily found in the liver and is important in protecting the organism from damage caused by hydrogen peroxide, which is constantly produced by mammals.

The rate of reaction between an enzyme and the substrate can be affected by many things, such as concentration of enzyme and substrate, pH level and inhibitors. It can also be affected by temperature. Every enzyme has an optimal temperature, at which its rate of reaction is highest with the most successful collisions with the substrate. The general rule for this is that, as temperature increases, the rate of reaction increases until optimal temperature is reached. Any further increase in temperature will result in a dramatic drop in rate of reaction and may lead to denaturation of the enzyme. Denaturation is an irreversible process caused by the hydrogen bonds being broken, destroying the characteristic 3D structure of the protein and therefore changing its active site so it cannot bind to the substrate.

The normal functioning temperature for a human is 37° C, which is similar to that of a lamb, where the liver containing catalase was obtained from. If the temperature decreases in the lamb, then there is less kinetic energy and therefore fewer successful collisions between the enzyme and substrate, leaving the lamb vulnerable to damage occurring from the peroxide. Similarly, if the temperature increases to a certain point, the enzyme denatures again, leaving it vulnerable.

Aim

Aim the main purpose of an investigation and what you hope to achieve

1 To determine the temperature at which catalase functions most efficiently.

2 To determine the optimal temperature for the enzyme catalase, by measuring the height of bubbles (oxygen gas) produced during the breakdown of the substrate hydrogen peroxide.

Hypothesis

1 That the catalase will function best at 37° C.

Hypothesis

a prediction of the outcomes, which are testable experimentally and form the basis of the methodology

2 That as the temperature to which the lamb liver is exposed increases, so too will the rate of reaction, producing a greater height of oxygen bubbles until the optimal temperature of 37° C (normal temperature of a live lamb) is reached. Any further increase in temperature will lower the rate of reaction due to the 3D conformational shape of the catalase denaturing.

In the introduction (to a poster) it can also be appropriate to present a labelled diagram of the concept/idea being investigated.

LINK

LINK

2D ROLE OF CHLOROPLASTS AND MITOCHONDRIA

4B THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: GETTING THE NUTRIENTS WE NEED

The aim includes explicit reference to the independent and dependent variable. This will be included in your introduction for the final scientific poster presentation.

The hypothesis is a prediction of what you think will occur. It does not have to be correct, but should be supported by knowledge of the theory, which is the difference between investigations 1 and 2.

6A I NVESTIGATIVE DESIGN

Definitions of scientific terms and specialised scientific usage of everyday words are provided in the margins.

A NEW LEVEL OF DIGITAL SUPPORT POWERED BY CAMBRIDGE EDJIN

The Interactive Textbook delivers a host of interactive features to enhance the teaching and learning experience.

The Online Teaching Suite combines the Interactive Textbook powered by Cambridge Edjin and its rich digital content with a suite of supplementary resources and a powerful Learning Management System when linked to students using the Interactive Textbook in a class.

The Interactive Textbook

• Prior knowledge quizzes and access to earlier content.

• Interactive concept maps

• 90 videos per book to introduce and illustrate concepts, demonstrate skills and provide worked examples

• Interactive animations of diagrams and tables

• Roll-over glossary definitions

• Link icons to navigate to related content

• Workspaces to enter working (including scientific notation) directly into the Interactive Textbook

• Self-assessment tools for students to check their answers, self-assess their working and alert their teacher if they had trouble with a question

• Chapter review questions

• Downloadable and editable worksheets

• Access to the Offline Textbook

The Online Teaching Suite

Task Manager: direct students on a custom activity sequence based on their scores in measurable activities.

Test generator: quickly create customised tests from a bank of multiple-choice questions.

Student workspace entries: review responses and red flags raised by students who are having difficulty. You can choose to give students access to suggested responses for selfassessment.

Sample assessment tasks and tests: save time preparing materials for the SAC requirement of the Study Design.

Exam Generator: create custom trial exams using questions from past VCE Biology exams to target topics that your students are having difficulty with. .

Reporting tools: monitor student and class results on automarked questions, self-assessment scores and completion of tasks.

Teacher note icons: access further support including details on a topic, links to websites or ideas for further activities.

Additional downloadable and editable teacher resources:

• Chapter tests (two per chapter) with alternative questions for some topics

• Practicals and activities

• Curriculum grids and teaching programs

• Checklists linking all questions to the Success Criteria

• Curated weblinks to internet resources

• Chapter summaries which can be given to students

• Practice exams

• Solutions for all tests and worksheets

• PowerPoint files for the animated diagrams are editable by teachers. Over 60 per book.

To preview the Interactive Textbook, go to: cambridge.edu.au/vcebiologypreview

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