T he New York City D E P A R T M E N T OF EDUCATION
Market from to
reforms Re a gan O b am a
SEPARATE BUT E QUAL
DE DE Jim
FACTO JURE Nor th
M A N H A T T A N C OMMUNITY BOARD
I N C O H E R E N C E service scho ols one stop shop
Crow
REIMAGINING C O - L O C AT I O N
Five Year Capital Plan FISCAL YEAR Mayor Michael Blo om berg and D OE C hancellor Joel Klein Taking the public out of public educ ation
Scho ol p ar tnership s private and public o r g a n i z at io n s C O - L O C A T I O N scho ol district s une qual funding r e d l i n i n g
reverse white flig ht W hite Flig ht GE NTRI FICATION Brow n v. Bo ard of Educ ation D i s clas s
t
r
i c t divide
S c h o o l C o n s t r u c t i o n A u t h o r i t y
Com munity
Scho ols
Public Scho ols S e g r e g a t i o n H o u s i n g te achers unions MAYORAL C ONTROL
MAYOR BILL DE BLASIO and C hancellor Ric hardC arr anz a
urb an planners d e v e l o p e r s
District Diversity in
A COMMUNITYCENTRED ALTERNATIVE FOR HARLEM’S SCHOOLS
b u r e a u c r a c y
U L U R P Uniform Land Use Reform Pro cedure p arent s unions d e v e l o p e r s
C HARTER SC HO OLS R E Z O N I N G a c t i v i s m gras sro ot s movement a m e r i c a n institute of a r c h i t e c t s
I MPLE ME N TATIO N E S S A Y J C
U A
B
L A
I N
A
A S
p
r
o
m
i
s
e
15 Plan Bro oklyn
c o m m u n i t y benefit s a greement s Federal vs. lo c al government a f f l u e n t middle clas s families
REIMAGINING CO-LOCATION
A Community-Centred Alternative for Harlem’s Schools
ACKNOW LED GE ME NTS With m any thanks to my sup ervisor Mary Ann Ste ane for her c ontinued supp or t, and to my studio tutors Ingrid SchrĂś der, Aram Mo oradian and James Po ckson.
Julia Cabanas
T his rese arch would not have been p o s sible without the invaluable insig ht s from the individuals I met during fieldwork who work as architect s, rese archers and activist s in New York. T hese include Mar t a Gutm an, Clara Hemphill, Ansley E rickson, Mar t a Sanders, Gwen
Conners,
Anna
Torriani
and
Loren-
zo Pa gnament a at APT, the Architecture for Educ ation Com mittee (AIANY), the Center for Architecture (AIANY), Leonie Haimson, Bryan Cohen, Galen Kirkland, Tyler Haup er t, John Kirsim a gi and his student s at C CNY. I must also ex tend my thanks to the scho ol princip als and te achers of New York City who to ok the time to meet with me, discus s
downing college October 2019
their exp eriences, and tour me around their scho ols.
A design thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the M.Phil. in Architectural
For privacy reasons I have used pseudonyms for two
and Urban Design 2018-20.
of the schools metioned in this paper:
This dissertation is the result of my own work and
James Baldwin Elementary School Maya Angelou Literature School
includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration except where specifically indicated in the text. WORD COUNT: Main Body - 5,166
C O N T E N T S GLOS SARY AIANY - Americ an Institute of Architect s New York SCA - Scho ol Construction Authority, over-
INTRODUCTION
6
T he Evolution of Scho ol Se gre gation Underst anding Co-Lo c ation: Findings and As sumptions
sees all public scho ol c onstruction in NYC
DOE - D ep ar tment of Educ ation, NYC ULURP - Uniform Land Use Reform Pro cedure,
a system under which mem bers of the c om munity c an influence urb an proj ect s
CEC - Com munity Educ ation Council D15 - Scho ol District 15, Bro oklyn D5 - Scho ol District 5, Central Harlem Brown v. Board of Education - 1954 Supreme
Cour t ruling that criminalised sep arate but e qual se gre gation
Eminent domain - T he rig ht of the government to expropriate private land for public use
C HAPTER 1 / The Politics of C o-Location
14
T he Paradox of Americ an Scho oling From National to Lo c al: A Complex Bure aucracy Gras sro ot s to Government: Les sons from District 15
C HAPTER 2 / E stablishing C ommunity Territories
23
Improvised Sp atial Ow nership C har ter Scho ol Co-Lo c ation in a Gentrifying Harlem Harlem’s Co-Lo c ated Urb an Proj ect s
C HAPTER 3 / C OMMUNITY HANDBO OK
36
C HAPTER 4 / PROJE CT IMPLE ME NTATION
49
Gaining Traction
Gaining Traction
A Par tnership between SCA and AIANY
T he SCA and AIANY
Funding and Construction
Funding and Const
Lo oking Forward
Lo oking Forward
C ONCLUSION
55
INTRODUCTION THE EVOLUTION OF SC HO OL SE GRE GATION Co-lo c ation, when multiple scho ols share one building, has bec ome a sp atial norm in New York. T his practice gained traction in the e arly 2000s when Mayor Michael Blo om berg used m arket-led p olicies to reform the city’s failing hig h scho ols, enc oura ging ‘scho ol choice’ and c o-lo c ation (Lo omis, 2019). With 183 new charter scho ols in the city (E aston, 2014), 651 scho ols (Baum gar tner, 2012), sometimes with c ontrasting resources and p eda go gic al philo sophies, were c o-lo c ated by 2010. Half a century after Brown
v. Board of Education , se gre gation not only prevails but has evolved into something more c omplex. Historic ally, scho ol se gre gation has followed housing p atterns and neig hb ourho o d c olour lines; typic ally, the le ast affluent neig hb ourho o ds – often with m aj ority Afric an Americ an and Latinx p opulations – would have the lowest p er forming scho ols (Fig.1). Discrimination o ccurred despite New York’s lack of de
jure se gre gation p olicies, p erp etuated inste ad throug h de facto pro ces ses. Even after the criminalis ation of Jim Crow laws after Brown , inner-city scho ols were still more ‘likely to be in disrep air’ (Durán-Narucki, 2008, p.285), with government rulings often favouring middle-clas s families (Rubinstein, 1970). However, over the dec ades, the city’s demo graphic s have shifted, c ausing some housing inte gration in New York’s once m arginalised neig hb ourho o ds, such as Harlem (Adams, 2016) (Fig.2-3). S ho ckingly, at the s ame time, the city’s scho ols rem ain deeply se gre gated (Hemphill and Mader, 2016) and face additional strains, such as displacement, as more char ter scho ols c ontinue to deplete public-scho ol funds. Incre ased c omp etition and the intro duction of different – and sometimes clashing – mo dels of Americ an scho oling have resulted
Fig.1: Best and worst performing schools in New York
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only in pieceme al reform effor t s. Sc aling-up has proven difficult (Hatch, 2002). Par ticularly in New York, the nation’s largest scho ol district, c omplex bure aucratic relationship s between the
Department of Education (D OE), School Construction Authority (SCA), develop ers and c om munity b o ards are often fraug ht. However, the is sue of scho ol se gre gation has re-emerged in b oth re gional and national p olitic s. From Bill de Blasio to Bernie Sanders (Fig.4-6), the urgency of educ ation ine quity has gained rec o gnition. For example, the District 15 Diversity Plan (Skop et al., 2018) has attracted citywide attention for succes sfully inte grating it s scho ols. In t andem, organis ations such as SCA and the American Institute of Architects (AIANY) are hig hlig hting exemplary scho ol design in public ations such as Building Great
Schools for A Great City (Hout and Sturges, 2019). An app etite for educ ational change, within p olitic al, so cial and architectural circles, is present in New York City.
Fig.2: Frederick Douglass Boulevard between 119th and 120th Street, 1970
Fig.3: Frederick Douglass Boulevard between 119th and 120th Street, 2019
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9
Fig.4: Official NYC website publicises de Blasio’s adoption of new school integration plans
UNDERSTANDING C O-LO CATION: FINDINGS AND AS SUMPTIONS T his p ap er reflect s on ethno graphic dat a c ollected over a 12-week fieldwork p erio d in New York. Almo st every scho ol I visited was c o-lo c ated with up to four other scho ols. T hroug h discus sions with te achers, pupils, p arent s, and non-profit organis ations, I le arned that c o-lo c ation sometimes led to strained sp atial c onfigurations and feelings of resentment between institutions (Haimson, 2015). Disp arities between scho ols c an bec ome more s alient in c o-lo c ated scho ols, p ar ticularly when acces s to funds Fig.5: Mayor Bill de Blasio reflecting on the Brooklyn D15 Diversity Plan, 2019
and resources differ. In Harlem, where gentrific ation thre atens to displace vulnerable families (Adams, 2016), institutions such as scho ols act as imp or t ant c om munity b astions. T he proj ect discus sed in this p ap er prop o ses an alternative to multi-scho ol c o-lo c ation. Inste ad, le arning sp aces are inte grated and c o-loc ated with public facilities, p o siting that scho ol territories anchored into the lo c al urb an m atrix c an enc oura ge c om munity inte gration. T his sp atial ‘we aving’ of scho ol and c om munity aims to provide resident s with a sense of security in New York’s changing neig hb ourho o ds. For this proj ect to be fe asible, this p ap er m akes the following
policies on Bernie Sanders’s educ ation Fig.6: New York Times reports
as sumptions: 1) a c om munity-led c o alition has been formed in Harlem’s District 5; 2) the SCA and AIANY have p ar tnered to gether with the c om munity; 3) Lo c al and city p oliticians supp or t a new scho ol design; and 4) prop er ty has been ac quired by reclaiming vac ant lot s and the government exercising eminent dom ain. C hapter 1 discus ses the p olitic al c ontex t of Americ an educ ation and it s effect s on Harlem, identifying opp or tunities within this system for new appro aches. C hapter 2 discus ses c o-lo c ation in more det ail, using c ase studies to outline p otential sp atial alternatives. C hapter 3 t akes the form of a Community Handbook that intro duces the Harlem scho ol/c om munity c ampus proj ect. C hapter 4 outlines the proj ect’s implement ation, from c oncept to c onstruction, discus sing the role of the architect in educ ation reform.
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11
Fig.10: Typical C.B.J. Snyder-era school floorplan
Fig.7: One room schoolhouse
Fig.9: Wadleigh High School, Harlem
Fig.11: P.S. 72, Manhattan
Fig.8: One room schoolhouse plan
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13
THE OF
POLITICS CO-LOCATION
THE PARAD OX OF AMERICAN SC HO OLING "Once, they invited a politician to the school campus, and he only visited the charter school. He didn't come to talk to us or the special-ed school in the building" a teacher at a co-located elementary school in Harlem tells me, not hiding her frustration. Scho ols were intro duced as publicly acces sible facilities in
icies were implemented – he dis m antled under-p er forming institutions, intro duced hig h-st akes testing, ab olished scho ol c ommunity b o ards, limited the ad ministrative p owers of te achers, and app ointed Jo el Klein (a c orp orate lawyer) as D OE C hancellor (Anderson, 2006; E aston, 2014; Lo omis, 2019). In c ontrast, de Blasio has prioritised c om munity- and student-centred p olicies, fo cusing on supp or ting underprivile ged student s and pushing for e quity (O ffice of the Mayor, 2015). Com munal c o-lo c ation c an physic ally re-centre the neig hb ourho o d around the scho ol, restoring, to some ex tent, c om munity-centred p eda go g y and reform.
c olonial New York; educ ation was (to some ex tent) available to all 1 throug h the provision of c om mon scho oling throug h charity scho ols and private tutorship (Kaestle, 1973). Indeed, e arly Amer-
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ic an scho olhouses served every child in a villa ge re gardles s of clas s and doubled as c om munity sp aces, for play and c ongre gation, out side of scho ol hours (Tra ger, 1976) (Fig.7-8). Later on, C harles Snyder intro duced his signature ‘alphabet’ scho ol plans to New York, with impres sive façades and auditoriums that elevated scho ols as imp or t ant civic institutions (Gray, 1999) (Fig.9-11). Educ ation has always been a key c omp onent of the Americ an dre am; it was e galit arian in principle, promising to put all Americ ans on the p ath to succes s (Ho chschild and Sc ovronick, 2003, p.2). However, when individuals be gan ‘to give their ow n children an advant a ge’ (ibid.) in pursuit of that succes s, educ ation ine quality and c omp etitivenes s grew. T his p aradox of educ ation bec ame more visible during the rise of ‘m arket-b ased reform’ (E aston, 2014). D ating as far b ack as the Re a gan era, during which m arket de-re gulation and the privatis ation of the public sector bec ame widespre ad, educ ation p olicy bec ame a ve hicle for p olitic al a gendas (Anderson, 2006). Private c omp anies including ‘m aj or hedge fund m ana gers’ and ‘venture c apit alist s’ (E aston, 2014, p.7) influenced reform by investing in scho ol-improvement initiatives. Under Blo om berg, ‘top-dow n’ p ol-
1
FROM NATIONAL TO LO CAL: A C OMPLEX BUREAUCRACY Navigating the p olitic s of New York’s vast bure aucratic scho ol district c an be difficult (Gittel and Hollander, 1968). Not only do p olitic al priorities change with every Mayoral election, the city is also subj ect to ever-changing national, st ate and district re gulations. T hom as Hatch argues that Americ an scho ol reform has faced setb acks in p ar t bec ause educ ation initiatives lack ‘c oherence’ (Hatch and Honig, 2004). T he Americ an federal government has limited c ontrol over educ ation, this resp onsibility usually falls onto the st ate. New York St ate it self is divided into 732 scho ol district s (New York St ate Educ ation D ep ar tment, 2019); within that, New York City has it s ow n system of 32 district s distributed between the five b oroug hs (T he City of New York, 2019) (Fig.12). Between these, there are around 750 scho ol attendance zones, which determine which element ary scho ol a child is assigned. Within every scho ol district, c om munity educ ation c ouncils app oint sup erintendent s who in turn oversee scho ol affairs. T his multi-layered structure often me ans that widespre ad p olicy change – let alone scho ol c onstruction – is a longwinded pro ces s.
Except to enslaved African Americans.
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T he United St ates invest s more money into prim ary-to-ter tiary educ ation than any other c ountry (except Luxem b ourg) in the world (OE CD, 2019). In 2019, the USA sp ent an avera ge of US$16,151 p er student – almo st US$7,000 more than the EU23 avera ge (ibid., p.274). Surprisingly, les s than 10% of that c ame from federal funds (Baum gar tner, 2012). As noted by Ho chschild and Sc ovronick (2003, pp.4–5), Americ an educ ation is ‘deeply lo c al…Americ ans want neig hb orho o d scho ols, decentralized decision m aking, and demo cratic c ontrol’. President-b acked initiatives such as Stu-
dentsFirst and Democrats for Education Reform (DFER) gained national clout under O b am a (E aston, 2014, p.7), but the bulk of educ ation funds and p olicies are still lo c ally re gulated. New York St ate will provide 36% of the D OE’s US$34 billion budget for 2019-2020; in c ontrast only 7% of this will c ome from federal funds. New York City it self will provide the rem aining 56% of the budget (T he New York City D ep ar tment of Educ ation, 2019) (Fig.13). In addition, the D OE has set aside US$17 billion sp ecific ally for scho ol c onstruction and m aintenance, which is re gulated by the SCA (ibid.). With more exp er tise and c onnections with the building industry, the SCA has signific antly stre amlined the pro ces s of scho ol c onstruction. T he dis m antlement of the Board of Education (BOE) under Blo om berg in 2003 (Anderson, 2006) was met with a mixed reception. W hilst some welc omed the efficiency of m ayoral c ontrol, others preferred p arent- and te acher-led scho ol ad ministration (ibid.) (Fig.14). D espite his les s radic al appro ach, de Blasio still holds signific ant p ower over scho ol proj ect s by app ointing three trustees to oversee the SCA’s affairs (Scho ol Construction Authority, 2017). Following his c amp aign promise to est ablish univers al Pre-K, he has approved the c onstruction of do zens of new Pre-K facilities in the city – resources, that some argue, should be invested into K-12 scho ols inste ad (Clas s Size Matters, 2018). Some avenues do rem ain for c om munity group s to influence scho ol c onstruction plans, e.g. by using the Uniform Land Use Reform
Fig.12:| New York districts and elementary school zones
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STATE NYC
FEDERAL
Approved and reviewed by the Mayor of NYC
community recommendations
Operations, instruction, support, employee costs etc.
Fig.13: Department of Education funding structure
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New capacity, early education, class size reduction, TCUs removals etc. Capital improvement, school enhancements etc.
Fig.14: Old structure (black) of NYC education politics vs. new structure (red)
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Procedure (ULURP) to deb ate proj ect s in public he arings. Never-
and underst anding of c om munity needs), strong le adership and
theles s, for a c om munity-centred scho ol to be built under ‘m ay-
exp er tise (foresig ht and k nowledge of government a gendas and
oral c ontrol’, c oherence between gras sro ot s group s and gov-
planning p olicies), and c onnections with City Hall (public he ar-
ernment organis ations needs to be est ablished.
ings and meetings) need to be est ablished. Harlem’s c om munity group s will also need to c ollab orate with exp er t s at the SCA and AIANY to build a c onvincing prop o s al for a new scho ol proj ect.
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Without c oherence between key players, educ ation reform will c ontinue to be shor t-lived.
GRAS SRO OTS TO GOVERNME NT: A LE S SON FROM DISTRICT 15 T he hyp er-lo c al and often fra gment ary p olitic s of New York often m akes it difficult to implement citywide change. However, with a c om mitted effor t from c om munity b o ards, Community Education
Councils , and neig hb ourho o d group s, it is p o s sible to p ersuade City Hall to adopt district-led initiatives citywide. A succes sful example of this is Bro oklyn’s District 15 Diversity Plan (Skop et al., 2018) (Fig.15) which prop o sed phased inte gration for all district middle scho ols. T he plan prop o sed a phasing out of ac ademic screening and for more clas s- and race-inclusive ad mis sions p olicies (S hapiro, 2019). Multiple advisory group s, te achers, p arent group s, and affiliated scho ols, were involved. T his te am prop o sed rese arch-b acked go als for the nex t five ye ars, planning for annual t arget s such as implementing unc onscious bias training, improving
transp or t ation
infrastructure,
and
streng thening
c om munity enga gement s (Skop et al., 2018). T houg h the D15 effor t was predominantly gras sro ot s-led, the group worked clo sely with government represent atives and D OE throug hout, resulting in a US$2 million scho ol grant, launched by the Mayor, to enc oura ge other NYC scho ols to em brace diversity (City of New York, 2018). Synchronising b ottom-up and top-dow n strate gies is imp or t ant in cre ating ‘p olicy c oherence’ in c omplic ated bure aucratic systems (Hatch and Honig, 2004). For a new scho ol c ampus to be c onstructed in Harlem, a level of cultural clout (a c omp elling argument
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E S TA B L I S H I N G COMMUNITY TERRITORIES IMPROVISED SPATIAL OWNERSHIP
‘The charter school is super…militant with their students. They’re not allowed to like, wave to other teachers in the hallway, so I’ve stopped saying hello to them’ said one teacher at the James Baldwin Elementary School in Harlem. ‘They’ve opted out of using the building’s shared library, I don’t know why’ piped up another. In c o-lo c ated scho ols, tensions between different c om munities c an be amplified as te achers and pupils ne gotiate territories. Princip als m ay have disp arate te aching and op erating styles, and these c an clash in shared facilities. O ften, the p oint s of sp atial c ontention are in c om mon are as, such as the c afeteria, lobby and library, where c areful planning is needed to m aint ain rapp or t. O ne c om mon adjustment is the use of lunchtime rot as between scho ols, which sometimes le ads to student s having lunch as e arly as 10am (Haimson, 2015). St a g gered entry times have also been enforced to mitigate c ongestion in shared lobbies (A+A+A and Robinson, 2019) (Fig.16). Te acher c olle giality is also c ompromised, often when new scho ols are intro duced to a building, ad ministration/st affro om sp ace is s acrificed for clas sro om sp ace. At the Maya Angelou Literature School in E ast Harlem, the princip al do es not have an office, and has to hot desk around the building every day. W hen I visited, she ho sted me in the nurse’s ro om. In ex treme c ases, scho ols claim c ontrol over b asic facilities – one char ter scho ol has b anned district scho olchildren from using water fount ains on ‘their’ flo or, forcing student s to clim b up flig ht s of st airs to acces s water (Haimson, 2015, p.36). Arguably, this typ e of se gre gation is akin to ‘sep arate but e qual’ but at very clo se proximity and c an generate feelings of division and disc ord between scho ols.
Fig.15: District 15 Diversity Plan, Brooklyn
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With c o-lo c ation, the sense of c om munity ow nership m ay also be c ompromised. O ne scho ol I visited was only acces sible throug h a side do or bec ause the m ain entrance around the c orner was reserved for another scho ol (Fig.17). Mo st c o-lo c ated premises were overseen by one security c omp any, who se dom ain included the lobby, hallways and st airs. Student s and te achers tended not to linger in these circulation sp aces. O nly when I arrived on the c orrect flo or did it feel like I had entered a scho ol: the sense of c om munity acces s from street to lobby is c ompletely lo st. Lo omis writes that historic ally ‘from the one-ro om scho olhouse to the neo-gothic university hall, we c orrelate scho ols with their buildings’ but in New York this as so ciation has been ‘undone’ (2019). During an interview with Mar t a Gutm an on 23 August 2019, we discus sed the Wadleigh School in Harlem, a civic building designed by Snyder that enc oura ged c om munity enga gement. It s auditorium was strate gic ally lo c ated on the ground flo or and was often used by neig hb ourho o d resident s. In c o-lo c ated scho ols, the prominence of the auditorium is usually minimised – often they are subdivided to acc om mo date multiple clas ses or are lo c ated on another scho ol’s flo or. At times, acces sing shared facilities involves ‘tresp as sing’ throug h another institution’s c orridor – an exp erience that c an heig hten a sense of exclusion. Given these c onstraint s, some princip als have found cre ative ways to claim ow nership over their premises. The New Design High
School in the Seward Park Campus in Manhatt an do es this by inviting profes sional ar tist s to p aint murals in their hallways. T hey have also renovated the building’s ro oftop sp ace to bec ome a le as able venue for indep endent c omp anies to use during non-scho ol hours (Fig.18); the money m ade funds scho ol improvement proj ect s including a brand-new c afé cum c o-working sp ace. T hese renovations, thoug h inform al, set the scho ol ap ar t from it s neig hb ours and have cre ated c om munity c onnections by welc oming the public to use the ro oftop. At P.S. 188 The Island School , the well-used Makerspace , designed in c ollab oration with an archi-
Fig.16: Complicated logistical arrangements in co-located schools
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Fig.18: The Rooftop at the New Design High School, Lower East Side
Fig.19: The Makerspace at the Island School, Lower East Side
Fig.17: Security patrols and separate entrances at co-located schools in Manhattan
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27
tect, is p opular amongst student s. O nce a c om munity kitchen and then a stora ge ro om, the Makerspace (Fig.19) op ens out into the playground and act s as a vers atile workshop. T hese sor t s of interventions in shared sp aces give scho ols some level of c ontrol over buildings that mig ht otherwise no longer feel like ‘theirs’. W hat these scho ols have in c om mon is their willingnes s to work with ex ternal organis ations to execute proj ect s that the D OE’s budget m ay not c over. Resourceful princip als c onst antly apply for grant s and out source help from non-profit s to provide new opp or tunities for their pupils. Organis ations such as Behind
the Book and Reading Partners supp or t multiple public scho ols around the city by donating b o oks and running literary c ourses. O thers such as the Beam Center in Bro oklyn offer workshop sp aces to lo c al scho ols who lack the resources to est ablish their ow n design facilities. O n o cc asion, these p ar tnership s result in sp atial interventions. At the Island School , the princip al has est ablished do zens of long-term p ar tnership s that have help ed fund an on-site clinic, dentist facility and laundrom at for student s and their families. Within New York, the practice of c onnecting scho ols to the c om munity is c om monplace, neig hb ourho o d gardens and even the street are often utilised as improvised le arning sp ace (Fig.20). For c o-lo c ated scho ols where sp atial c onstraint s often re quire a level of ‘b orrowing’ territory from the city, such c ollab orations are p ar ticularly welc ome.
Fig.20: Photographs of students using the street / Street festivals during Harlem Week / Front cover of Wadleigh Junior High School’s 1965 Yearbook showing the street covered in chalk drawings
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C HARTER SC HO OL C O-LO CATION IN A GE NTRIFYING HARLE M
tecturally signific ant and once c om munity-centred building – on 114th Street (Succes s Ac ademies, 2018). Almo st all Harlem-b ased
‘It was painful to realize how even a kid could see in every new building, every historic renovation, every boutique clothing shop — indeed in every tree and every flower in every park improvement — not a life-enhancing benefit, but a harbinger of his own displacement.’ (Adams, 2016)
Success scho ols are c o-lo c ated and this has resulted in some tense relationship s (O tterm an, 2018). Te achers at the James Baldwin Elementary School claim that since they were c o-lo c ated with Success , the char ter scho ol has show n ‘no interest’ in sharing sp ace with public-scho ol pupils.
In Harlem, the lo s s of ow nership over public sp ace, including
O ther char ter scho ols have c aused territorial tension on a neig h-
district scho ols, is exacerb ated by widespre ad gentrific ation
b ourho o d level. For example, on the site of the St. Nicholas Houses
and displacement as middle-clas s families move in and house
on 129th Street, Harlem Children’s Zone c onstructed a new Prom-
prices clim b (Adams, 2016). Touted by develop ers as an attractive
ise Academy building where a playground and c om munity garden
and well-c onnected neig hb ourho o d filled with culture and his-
once sto o d (Fig.21). T his was met with dis m ay from neig hb ouring
tory, Harlem has been undergoing change for dec ades (Ve gara,
resident s who lamented the lo s s of their fre quently-used ‘c om-
2013). However, the recent re zoning of Harlem’s prim ary street s,
munal living ro om’ (Santo s, 2011). However, not all char ter scho ol
Frederick Douglass Boulevard and 125th Street , has fo stered
proj ect s have c aused outra ge, the ‘much-loved’ Harlem Hebrew
unprecedented urb an change. Re zoned from a prim arily R-7 (residential) zone to a c om mercial zone, new hig h-rise develop ment s
Language Academy Charter School , which has a dedic ated c ampus on St. Nicholas Avenue , has had a more p o sitive imp act. D espite
and busines ses have had a k no ck-on effect on surrounding blo cks.
the building’s recent 6-storey ex tension (Fig.22), the scho ol has
Brow nstone tenement s and Housing Development Funding Corpo-
m aint ained go o d relations with the c om munity b o ard, resp ecting
ration (HDFC) ap ar tment s are being c onver ted into luxury ap ar t-
their re quest to ret ain an adj acent c om munity garden. A lo c al
ment s. T his in turn has attracted more affluent families and
tour guide explained that overall, the proj ect was received p o s-
pushed lower-inc ome ones out.
itively, praising the scho ol’s c ontributions to the c om munity.
T his shift has fuelled the rise of privately-run char ter scho ols
T his territorial tug-of-war between scho ols, and between c om-
as middle-clas s families seek a better educ ation for their chil-
munity and scho ol, is c om monplace in Harlem. T he c onstruction
dren. Masked as ‘educ ation reform’ under Blo om berg, m any un-
of new char ter scho ols is inex tric ably linked to the neig hb our-
der-p er forming city scho ols were replaced with s m aller sp ecial-
ho o d’s evolving urb an environment and changing demo graphic s.
ised scho ols and char ters (Lo omis, 2019). To minimise c o st s, large
If c om munities are willing to offer their facilities to scho ols
hig h scho ol buildings were often divided up between several in-
and vice-vers a, there m ay be p otential for a new p eda go gic al
stitutions (ibid.). Unfor tunately for m any district-scho ols in
and sp atial arrangement to emerge that facilit ates a more har-
Harlem, this influx of middle-clas s families, m arks an uncer t ain
monious c o-existence. Over the nex t dec ade, as Harlem c ontinues
future. Some char ter scho ols like the famous Success Academy
to change, it will be imp or t ant for scho ols and c om munities to
have been p ar ticularly pres sing with their dem ands for sp ace.
supp or t e ach other in order to anchor themselves in a quickly
Recently, they filed a lawsuit a gainst the D OE dem anding more
changing urb an environment.
sp ace within the c o-lo c ated Wadleigh School c ampus – an archi-
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Harlem’s C o-located Urban Projects For a c om munity-inte grated scho ol to be est ablished in Harlem, there must be an op ennes s towards the c om munal use of public sp ace for le arning in p olitic al, so ciet al and urb an planning discus sions. It was evident throug h fieldwork that Harlem’s ‘c ommunity spirit’ rem ains despite the acceleration of neig hb ourho o d gentrific ation. During the 2019 Harlem Week, music festivals, p arades, and educ ational fairs attracted Harlem’s resident s out into the street s (Fig.20). A ‘blo ck p ar ty’ atmo sphere filled prominent urb an ar teries such as 135th Street; est ablished institutions such as The Schomburg Center and Apollo Theater ho sted public event s; the State Office Building Plaza bec ame a daily music venue and meeting sp ace. Politicians, including c ouncilFig.21: Promise Academy in the middle of the St. Nicholas Houses complex
mem ber Mark Levine and Manhatt an b oroug h president Gale Brewer, were also involved, ho sting b ack-to-scho ol street p ar ties and fundraisers. During the weeks that Harlem’s urb an landsc ap e was being used by the c om munity, so cial and racial b arriers app e ared temp orarily softened. During the 1960s and 1970s, Harlem’s p otential to bec ome a new cultural melting p ot was explored in a series of fe asibility studies for new develop ment. Jo seph Black, a c onsult ant at the NYC
Planning Commission , was app ointed to c onduct in-depth studies of Harlem and it s planning p otential (Black, 1961-1977). His p ap ers prop o sed new proj ect s, including the Gateway to Harlem scheme – a mixed-use and mixed-inc ome c omplex – within which the Harlem Music Center would bec ome a venue to te ach, p er form and rese arch the ar t s. Not ably, he also prop o sed a Multi-Service
Center in E ast Harlem which c om bined a day-c are centre, g ym nasium, workshop s, he alth clinic s and a c om munity c afeteria into one building. Another set of drawings outlines the prop o s al for Fig.22: Harlem Hebrew extension on St. Nicholas Avenue
a Harlem Cultural Center with educ ation, office, ar t s and c ommercial sp aces lo c ated in a prominent lo c ation on 125th Street nex t to the State Office Building . Housing proj ect s, scho ols, and
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inte grated transp or t designs were all explored in Black’s p ap ers. Black wanted to bring cultural prestige to Harlem; despite m any of his proj ect s rem aining unbuilt, they were often c om mercially and so cially lucrative for the neig hb ourho o d. His p ap ers promoted educ ation and the study of culture as imp or t ant civic activities, fre quently listing the Board of Education as a p otential c ollab orator. Another c om munity-inte grated proj ect for Harlem – Leonard Covello’s Benjamin Franklin High School – demonstrates a more mo dest and fe asible framework for inte grating scho ol and city. T his scho ol had a c om munity-centred appro ach and envisioned it self as a civic centre for neig hb ourho o d improvement (Johanek and Puckett, 2006) (Fig.23). Along the street where the scho ol was b ased were facilities for ‘recre ation, rese arch, and educ ational activities that enc oura ged c om munity mem bers, busines s ow ners, p arent s, te achers, and student s to work to gether to improve the quality of neig hb orho o d life’ (ibid.). Sp atially, the scho ol and it s p ar tners o ccupied mo st of the urb an blo ck and provided interesting venues for le arning and so cialising, such as the c ommercial storefront s along the street. T his op ennes s to the street is still evident in Harlem to day, with p eople using brow nstone sto op s and street c orners for so cialising, meeting and relaxing. T hese two examples demonstrate how educ ation facilities c an be anchored into Harlem’s central urb an landsc ap es. Just as in Black’s era, Harlem to day is being m arketed as the nex t cultural centre for New York. As new glas s towers are erected on 125th Street and public scho ols c ontinue to lo se clas sro oms to char ter scho ols, it is wor th asking if a reframing of educ ation’s role in the c om munity is needed. Perhap s if the scho ol c an once a gain be elevated as an imp or t ant p ar t of Harlem’s cultural infrastructure or as a key driver for c om munity improvement, develop ers and p oliticians would invest more into new scho ol mo dels. Fig.23: Leonard Covello’s Benjamin Franklin High School, street units
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T his chapter t akes the form of a c om munity handb o ok – a series of visual m aterial designed to intro duce the new scho ol proj ect to Harlem resident s and government officials. Given the recent displacement c aused by gentrific ation in the are a, it is imp ort ant that this proj ect is presented as predominantly c om munity centred. T he cho sen site, 135th Street, is culturally and historic ally signific ant with m any well-loved c om munity-serving buildings. It also rem ains relatively untouched by large develop ment s. T he proj ect, therefore, will be implemented with c onsidered sensitivity using five phases of c onstruction. Phase 1 will involve claiming vac ant lot s and using eminent dom ain to ac quire land along 135th Street and surrounding blo cks. Phase 2 will see the est ablishment of key scho ol/c om munity facilities such as the g ym nasium, auditorium and c afeterias to enc oura ge inte gration in the neig hb ourho o d before scho ol-sp ecific buildings are intro duced. Phase 3 will involve the c onstruction of le arning sp aces, such as clas sro oms, using more private areas on the m asterplan. Phase 4 will streng then the links between sites, with interventions fo cusing on p edestrian acces s and the revit alis ation of public sp ace. Phase 5 is the proj ect’s widespre ad implement ation, supp or ted by new le gislation rele ased by the D OE.
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DISTRICT5
COMMUNITY HANDBOOK
HARLEM COMMUNITY HANDBOOK SCHOOL/COMMUNITY CAMPUS
37
YOU CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE FOLLOW THE STEPS ON THIS PAGE TO LEARN HOW TO BEGIN A COMMUNITYLED CAMPAIGN FOR A NEW SCHOOL IN YOUR NEIGHBOURHOOD!
5. SUCCESS!
GATHERING RESOURCES T Y P O L O G Y DE MO GR APHIC S F E A S I B I L I T Y PLANNING POLICY SITE AND SCOPE
GET YOUR VOICE HEARD!
4. MAKE IT POLITICAL!
3. PROPOSE DESIGN
2. CONSULT THE EXPERTS! 1. CAMPAIGN 38
BY PARTNERING UP WITH EXPERTS AT THE SCA AND AIANY, WE CAN PRODUCE DRAWINGS AND REPORTS OUTLINING THE PROJECT’S KEY AIMS, FEASIBILITY, AND DESIGN PROPOSAL. 39
WHY 135TH STREET?
135th Street is one of the most historically and culturally signifi cant avenues in Harlem...
The Abyssinian Baptist Church
Countee Cullen Library (NYPL)
Harlem YMCA
135th Street
Schomburg Center
Site boundary
This year, 135th was the venue for Harlem Week celebrations which included street parades, concerts, and food festivals! a school located here would be well-connected to invaluable learning facilities such as the Schomburg center...
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Religious building
Greenspace
Cultural building
Community centre
Vacant land
Metro station
Bus stop
Existing school
20m
0m 10m
50m 100m
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A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE
OUTLINED BELOW ARE THE PHASES OF THE SCHOOL/COMMUNITY CAMPUS PROJECT
IMPLEMENTATION TIMELINE
PREPARATION GRASSROOTS CAMPAIGN Community outreach Research with non-profits
PHASE 1
Consult AIANY Consult SCA Consult other NYC construction authorities
Eminent domain enacted by the government, vacant lots acquired by community
DESIGN COMPETITION
Politicians’ recommendations
Ground-breaking LIBRARY CONSTRUCTION THEATRE CONSTRUCTION
Community Benefit Agreement between developer and residents
SPORTS FACILITIES CONSTRUCTION DEMOLITION
Revisions to drawings Planning Submission
Collaboration with the community to revitalise
for classroom buildings
PHASE 4
Mayor and local government representatives invited to open newly completed public facilities
Public Design Commission consulted for new transport links and renovations to Community and schools invited public spaces to use the newly opened facilities Construction plans approved
PHASE 5 Completion of masterplan announced and celebrated in Harlem festival
CLASSROOM AND LEARNING SPACES CONSTRUCTION
PHASE 3
Ground-breaking for community facilities
Rezoning of 135th Street approved
Winner announced Prepare drawings Public hearings Community recommendations
PHASE 2
Construction details Contractors selected
PARKS AND OUTDOOR FACILITIES
public spaces
COMMUNITY PROJECTS
Staffrooms and admin construction Facilities and maintenance construction ENGAGEMENT Students and teachers visit the first completed classrooms on site
Improvements to Community-led fundraising events public domain Government grants approved Community visits and events and greenspace organised within masterplan Family and health facilities construction
APPROVAL
CAPITAL PLAN FOR 2025-2029 Inspections
Districtwide implementation approved Improvement of local pedestrian space begins MAYOR GRANTS Public space revitalisation FUNDING FOR and construction
CITYWIDE SCHEME
TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE
Inspections Inspections Community tree planting and garden volunteering schemes Harlem Week 2028 hosted in new venues Councilmember fundraising
Research for new projects begins...
2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034
Political decisions Construction/design related actions Community actions 42
43
1
2
demolition vacant lots eminent domain site allocation
construction of public and community facilities library, gymnasium, theatre, cafe health clinics
Children’s library and theatre adjacent to the Schomburg Existing school to be demolished and replaced by new campus
Main sports facility connected to Harlem’s famous YMCA Main Entrance to school
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Demolition
Notable building
Vacant land
Site
20m
0m 10m
50m 100m
Auditorium/arts
Notable building
Sports facilities
Site
Cafeteria/cafe
20m
0m 10m
50m 100m
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3
4
construction of school facilities and learning spaces classrooms , staffrooms , administration
revitalisation of public space parks and playgrounds pavement and street treatment
A series of gardens and playgrounds throughout the campus, connected by pedestrianised streets
Staff and admin rooms by main entrance
Classroom facilities face residential streets away from the main roads
Learning space
Staff/admin
Notable building
Facilities
Completed
Site
20m
0m 10m
50m 100m
Hard landscape
Notable building
Soft landscape
Site
20m
0m 10m
50m 100m
Completed
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5
mayoral approval and citywide implementation of school/community campus schEME
P R O J E C T IMPLEMENTATION GAINING TRACTION Government officials m ay underst and displacement and c o-loc ation at p olicy level, but it is the architect’s role to demonstrate how these p atterns affect neig hb ourho o d urb anis m and scho ol design. It is cle ar that in mo dern day Americ a, subst andard scho ol environment s are having adverse effect s on scho olchildren (Alonso et al., 2009). T his was evident during my visit s to c o-lo c ated scho ols, where the tension over territory was p alp able. T he proj ect outlined in the Community Handbook , prop o ses an alternative to c o-lo c ation and p o sit s that children – and the wider c om munity – deserve ow nership over their le arning sp aces. Inste ad of placing multiple scho ols into one building, the scho ol will inste ad be c o-lo c ated with public c om munity facilities such as libraries, music venues, and he alth clinic s. T his mutually beneficial arrangement would secure a scho ol’s sp atial c onnections with the c om munity and vice-vers a. T hroug h ethno graphic studies, testimonies from te achers and pupils, surveys of existing c o-lo c ated scho ols, and public educ ation schemes, c om munity group s c an gather the relevant dat a to identify sp ecific student needs. Lo c al organis ations who rese arch the c onditions of overcrowded scho ols such as the non-profit
Class Size Matters c an act as c onsult ant s to provide credible rese arch for the c amp aign. O ther non-profit s such as The Center for Urban Pedagogy , c an use their ar tistic public ations and public-enga gement workshop s to educ ate Harlem c om munities ab out the need for a new scho ol framework. In these initial studies, the site for a new proj ect – in this c ase 135th Street – c an be rec om mended. T hese rec om mendations c an then be forwarded to
Community Education Council 5 and lo c al c om munity b o ards who c an facilit ate public he arings and meetings. In these he arings, A network of integrated schools ‘weaving’ the neighbourhood together
48
the SCA is c onsulted and a budget and framework c an be approved.
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A PARTNERSHIP BE TWEE N SCA AND AIANY
struction k nowledge to re alise scho ol proj ect s. In prep aring for Harlem’s new scho ol/c om munity c ampus, architect s c an offer an
T he SCA ultim ately decides the sc op e and site of scho ol proj ect s.
underst anding of c oncept s such as designing for ow nership and
As suming that at gras sro ot s level, c om munity group s have lim-
dignity. Similarly to how the Medds influenced scho ol design
ited acces s to architect s and urb an planners, it is dow n to the
in the UK (Franklin, 2012), architect s c an translate ide as of
SCA to est ablish these c ont act s. If a go o d working relationship
c om munity and scho ol inte gration into physic al territories in
between the SCA and architect s is est ablished, exemplary pro-
New York. As evident in Black’s c ompre hensive studies of Harlem
j ect s are p o s sible. As hig hlig hted in the recent public ation,
(Black, 1961-1977), the architect needs to demonstrate an under-
Building Great Schools for a Great City (Hout and Sturges, 2019),
st anding of p eople group s, infrastructures, and cultural trends
a go o d working relationship between p olicym akers (SCA) and de-
to pro duce c onvincing site-sp ecific and c om munity-centred de-
signers (AIANY) c an have gre at result s. A celebrated example is
signs.
the net-zero P.S. 62 proj ect on St aten Island designed by SOM and c ompleted in 2016 (Fig.24). --Government organis ations and architect s (AIANY) have c ollab orated in the p ast. In the sum mer of 2019, the Center for Architec-
ture op ened two exhibitions celebrating the city’s public works: Mapping Community: Public Investment in NYC and Big Ideas, Small Lots (Fig.25). T he former showc ased publicly funded pro-
Funding and C onstruction Mo st of the proj ect’s funding will c ome from the D OE’s C apital
j ect s built under the c apit al plan, and the latter showc ased a
Budget . For a proj ect as large as a c o-lo c ated scho ol/c om muni-
succes sful c omp etition for alternative housing designs c o-ho sted
ty c ampus, additional funds m ay be re quired. T hese m ay be ob-
with the Department of Housing Preservation and Development
t ained throug h donations from the scho ol’s p ar tners. Additional
(HPD). A similar p ar tnership c ould be cre ated between the SCA
funds c an also be obt ained throug h Community Benefit Agree-
and AIANY’s Architecture for Education Committee . T he c om mittee
ments (C BAs) which are inform al a greement s between develop ers
alre ady ho st s a range of event s discus sing the design of scho ols
and Harlem resident s. T hese c an result in develop ers a greeing
and the p otential for architect s to have more influence over
to fund a c om munity-centred proj ect – such as a scho ol – in ex-
public scho ol c onstruction. A government-b acked design c omp eti-
change for neig hb ourho o d supp or t for future develop ment s. T his
tion would be invaluable in spurring a c onvers ation ab out public
proj ect’s implement ation and c o st s are designed to follow the
scho ol typ olo gies and would attract t alented architect s to be
phasing plans outlined in the Community Handbook which prop o se
more involved with educ ation reform.
a sust ainable (and financially st able) pro ces s that allows for a gradual exp ansion of the scho ol/c om munity network – C BAs c an to
T he role of the architect in public proj ect s is imp or t ant, how-
some ex tent, acc om mo date such plans.
ever, to o often there is a disjunction between p olitic s and de-
50
sign. Architect s c an turn p eda go gic al philo sophies into sp atial
Construction c an be gin once enoug h funds are available. A gain,
re alities. T hey provide the drawings, design det ails, and c on-
it is SCA who app oint s proj ect architect s, c ontractors and sub-
51
c ontractors. Since the scho ol/c om munity scheme is a mixed-use proj ect which involves the c onstruction of buildings out side of SCA’s jurisdiction – such as c om munity centres and public p arks – other government organis ations such as the Department of Build-
ings , the Department of City Planning and the Department of Design and Construction will need to be c onsulted. T he SCA however, will act as the proj ect m ana ger, working with architect s and c onsult ant s from st ar t to finish.
---
Looking Forward O nce the proj ect is built, the SCA will be resp onsible for re gulating, insp ecting and m aint aining the scho ol buildings (Scho ol Construction Authority, 2017). Every proj ect c ompleted by the SCA will be published online and act as an example for future proj ect s. If the c ampus on 135th Street is a succes s, it m ay well be used by the D OE to implement similar schemes citywide.
Fig.24: SOM’s net-zero school, P.S. 62, Staten Island
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C O N C L U S I O N T he implement ation of a scho ol proj ect that addres ses the issue of se gre gation – in p ar ticular, se gre gation exacerb ated by c o-lo c ation – is a c omplic ated pro ces s. Not only is the history and evolution of educ ation ine quity deeply ro oted in Americ an p olitic s, the way cities are governed also me ans that m aking lasting imp act throug h public works is difficult. T he hyp er-loc ality of New York’s neig hb ourho o ds me ans that a c om munity-led c amp aign for new scho ols would be the mo st fe asible but also mo st challenging appro ach. T his would need a c omp elling c ase, strong le adership and a solid action plan. T houg h my exp erience in New York is anecdot al, it seemed that m any of the p eople I met during fieldwork had something to s ay ab out scho ol se gre gation – including within the c onstruction industry. Recent exhibitions at the Center for Architecture (2019) and the current rese arch pro gram at A/D/O (2019) b oth explore the ide a of territory and displacement in urb an settings. O nline public ations such as the
Center for New York City Affairs (Hemphill and Mader, 2016) and Urban Omnibus (Lo omis, 2019) also discus s the c orrelations between scho ol and city, design and c om munity, se gre gation and c o-lo c ation. Gentrific ation
has
c aused
uncer t ainty
and
displacement
in
low-inc ome c om munities. T his proj ect argues that within this volatile urb an landsc ap e, the scho ol rem ains a p otentially p owerful institution in est ablishing c om munity ow nership over neig hb ourho o d sp ace. A proj ect that c arves territories – or ‘c om munal living ro oms’ (Santo s, 2011) – for b oth the scho ol p opulation and the neig hb ourho o d’s resident s, m ay help restore a de gree of c ommunity c ontrol over the future of Harlem’s children.
Fig.25: Summer exhibitions at the Center for Achitecture (AIANY), 2019
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list of illustratios
Fig.11: (No author, 1911) Annex addition to Public School 72. (Photograph) Retrieved: 18 September 2019 from https://nycdesignarchive.tumblr.com/post/164290434706/annex-addition-to-public-school-72-now-thejulia
Fig.1: Author’s own image Fig.2: (No author, 1970) Frederick Douglass Boulevard. (Photograph) Retrieved: 18 Septem ber 2019 from http s://viewing.nyc/ vint a ge-photo graph-of-frederick-douglas s-b oulevard-in-harlem-circ a-1970/
Fig.12: Author’s own image Fig.13: Author’s own image Fig.14: Author’s own image
Fig.3: (No author, 2019) Frederick Douglass Boulevard (Photo graph) Retrieved: 18 Septem ber 2019 from http s://w w w.go o gle.c om/m ap s
Fig.15: Pa ges from District 15 Diversity Plan (Skop, A. et al., 2018)
Fig.4: City of New York (2019) Mayor de Blasio, Schools Chancellor
Carranza Announce Adoption of School Diversity Advisory Group Recommendations (Screenshot) Retrieved: 21 Septem ber 2019 from http s://
Fig.16: Drawings from Schoolhouse Shuffle, Urban Omnibus (A+A+A and Robinson, 2019)
w w w1.nyc.gov/office-of-the-m ayor/news/292-19/m ayor-de-blasio-scho ols-chancellor-c arranza-adoption-scho ol-diversity-advisory-group
Fig.17: Author’s own image
Fig.5: Sanders, D. (2019) The New York Times. (Photograph) Retrieved: 21 September 2019 from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/12/nyregion/ ny-public-schools-diversity.html
Fig.19: Author’s own image
Fig.18: Author’s own image
Fig.20: Author’s own images / Wadleigh Junior High School, “Wadleigh Way [1965],” Harlem Education History Project [Photograph} Retrieved: October 1, 2019 from: http://educatingharlem.cdrs.columbia.edu/ omeka/items/show/2069.
Fig.6: D ove, T. (2019) The New York Times. [Photograph] Retrieved: 21 September 2019 from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/23/us/politics/ bernie-sanders-charter-schools.html
Fig.21: Ciardullo Architecture Planning (2014) Harlem Children’s Zone Promise Academy I. (Photo graph) Retrieved: 24 Sep-
Fig.7: (No author, circa 1920) Arbor Day at the Schoolhouse before 1920 Reynoldston New York. (Photograph) Retrieved: 21 September 2019 from https://www.reynoldstonnewyork.org/category/oral-and-digital-history-of-a-mill-and-logging-community-in-the-northern-new-yorkstate/life-in-reynoldston-in-he-late-19th-and-early-20th-centuries/ description-of-schooling-in-the-late-19th-early-20th-centuriers-inreynoldston-ny/ Fig.8: Author’s own image, redrawn from The School House at Pine
tem ber 2019 from http s://w w w.ciardullo.c om/p or tfolio-item/harlem-childrens-zone-promise-ac ademy-i/ Fig.22: Harlem+Besp oke (2016) 147 St. Nicholas Avenue. (Photograph) Retrieved: 24 Septem ber 2019 from http s://newyorkyim by. c om/2016/03/reve aled-six-story-exp ansion-of-harlem-hebrewlangua ge-ac ademy-char ter-scho ol-at-147-st-nicholas-avenue. html
Tree Corner (Trager, 1976, p.40) Fig.9: Wharton, G. W. (1903) Wadleigh High School for Girls. (Photograph) Retrieved: 18 September 2019 from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:Wadleigh_High_School_for_Girls,_1903.jpg Fig.10: Perry, C. A. (1912) Social center features in new elemen-
tary school architecture and the plans of sixteen socialized schools. (Drawing) Retrieved: 18 September 2019 from https://www.flickr.
com/photos/internetarchivebookimages/14760386611/
Fig.23: Author’s own image, redrawn from Leonard Covello and the
Making of Benjamin Franklin High School: Education as if Citizenship Mattered. (Johanek and Puckett, 2006, p.110) Com munity Handb o ok: (pp.37-48) Author’s ow n im a ges Fig.24: Ewig, J. and SOM (2015) The Kathleen Grimm School for Leadership and Sustainability at Sandy Ground / SOM. (Photo-
graph and Drawings) Retrieved: 24 September 2019 from https://www. archdaily.com/780383/the-kathleen-grimm-school-for-leadership-andsustainability-at-sandy-ground-som Fig.25: Author’s own image
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BIBLIO GRAPHY A/D/O (2019) At the Border, A/D/O. Available at: http s://a-d-o. c om/attheb order (Acces sed: 24 Septem ber 2019). A+A+A and Robinson, G. (2019) Schoolhouse Shuffle, Urban OmAvailable at: http s://urb anom nibus.net/2019/06/scho olhouse-shuffle/ (Acces sed: 14 August 2019).
nibus.
Adams, M. H. (2016) The End of Black Harlem, The New York Times. Available at: http s://w w w.ny times.c om/2016/05/29/opinion/sunday/the-end-of-black-harlem.html?auth=lo gin-faceb o ok&lo gin=faceb o ok (Acces sed: 14 August 2019). Alonso, G. et al. (2009) Our Schools Suck: Students talk back to a segregated nation on the failures of urban education. New York and London: New York University Pres s. Anderson, N. S. (2006) ‘Hostile Takeover: Antiunionism and the Ne-
oliberal Politics of Urban School Reform in New York’, The Journal of Labor and Society , 9(2), pp. 225–243. Available at: http s://
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