Exporting Metabolism: From Urban Utopias to Informal Settlements

Research Report

EXPORTING METABOLISM FROM URBAN UTOPIAS TO INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS

Camilla Allan | 940885 camilla.allan@mail.polimi.it

Masters in Architecture and Urban Design Research Thematic Seminar “The Global Architect” | 055952 Presented by Gaia Caramellino, Pierre-Alain Croset, Paolo Scrivano Assisted by Nicole De Tongi, Alberto Genua, Valeria Casali Date: 14 January 2021

ABSTRACT The purpose of this paper is to present an outline of the proposed research to be done for the development of my final thesis Exporting Metabolism: From Urban Utopias to Informal Settlements. This paper focuses on the paradigms developed by the Metabolist movement through the proposals of urban utopias, both in the Japanese context and internationally.

Member of the Japanese Metabolist movement, Fumihiko Maki criticised the paradoxical issue surrounding the prominent Western design of static urban forms to accommodate our increasingly dynamic society. It is, in fact, over half a century ago, at the World Design Conference in Tokyo in 1960, where a group of Japanese architects published the Metabolist Manifesto, proposing a “New Urbanism”. Keenly aware of the transitory relationship between time, space, and human vitality, the Manifesto insisted that: “buildings and cities must be able to adapt, grow, elevate, even float, if they are to survive the dual pressures of rapid modernization and inevitable natural change” (Kawazoe et al., 1960)

A product of Japanese ideologies, the Metabolist movement proposed urban utopias as a process, in opposition to the Western notion of urban forms as artefact. There is considerable literature outlining the work of the Metabolists during the 1960s, an overview of which will be presented in the first part of this paper. This section outlines the key paradigms of the movement, substantiated by a brief overview of projects which embodied such notions.

Despite increased interest in the Metabolist movement over the past two decades, few researchers have addressed the viable correlation between the urban utopias proposed by the Metabolists, and the nature of informal settlements, a consideration which will be investigated at length in my thesis. In order to understand how Metabolist paradigms can be translated to different contexts it’s imperative to observe how this was done by the members of the movement in the period following the Expo ‘70 and the oil crisis of 1973. The second part of this paper proposes to investigate the transfer of Metabolist notions, values and discourses established in the urban utopias of Japan, to diverse contexts in time and space.

What paradigms emerge from the shifting context? Specifically, this paper presents the case studies of: Kenzo Tange’s proposal for pilgrim accommodation in Mina, Saudi Arabia; and Kisho Kurokawa’s proposed new town in As Sarir, Libya. How did the new cultural, political, economic, linguistic and geographical dimensions affect the translation of Metabolist paradigms that had been domestically developed?

Keywords:

Metabolism | Informal Settlements | Urban Utopias | Export | Transfer 1

EXPORTING METABOLISM

TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION

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METABOLISM / 1960

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Megastructure

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Group Form

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Ruin

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METABOLISM EXPORTED

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Mina, Saudi Arabia

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As Sarir, Libya

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PROPOSAL

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Thesis Proposal

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Closing Remarks

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FIGURES

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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13

Mentioned

Extended

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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INTRODUCTION

1 The UN-Habitat defines informal settlements as “residential areas where 1) inhabitants have no security of tenure [...] with modalities ranging from squatting to informal rental housing, 2) the neighbourhoods usually lack, or are cut off from, basic services and city infrastructure and 3) the housing may not comply with current planning and building regulations, and is often situated in geographically and environmentally hazarous areas (UN Habitat, 2015).

Most cities worldwide host a variety of urban forms which coexist in the same space, in a seemingly kaleidoscopic state. These include everyday urbanism, new urbanism, and varying forms of indigenous urbanism. The collapse of these conceptions of urbanism into a singular multifaceted entity manifests itself as a schizophrenic landscape in many cities of Latin America, Africa and Asia. Here, we find the presence of the informal landscape, characterised by dynamic qualities (Mehrotra, 2012). Whilst this may be experienced in the form of street vendors and festivals, temporarily transforming the streetscape, it is also manifested as huge spans of residential informal settlements1, home to approximately one quarter of the world’s population (UN, 2018). Even though every settlement is characterised by their individual history, as well as cultural and geopolitical contexts, in the majority of settlements the already dire conditions have been aggravated by increasing urbanisation outpacing the rate at which governments are able to supply adequate housing and infrastructure. This is exacerbated by the strict hierarchical urban forms which make up the fabrics of the existing urban centres, in most cases imposed by colonising Eurocentric values.

Fig. 1 - Areal photograph of the Ise Jingu complex. On top is the old complex, soon to be demolished.

Below is the new complex, under construction for 7 years prior to the demolition of its predecessor.

Whereby, historically, Western architecture has focused on the artefact as the key to design, Japanese tradition has, for millennia, valued the transient relationship between time and space, seeing design as a process rather than a final outcome (Maki, 1964). This value is especially embodied in the periodical reconstruction of the Ise Jingu complex, whereby the structures are torn down and rebuilt every 20 years, allowing for contemporary architects to be reflected in its reconstruction (Isozaki, 2011).

2 Metabolism / noun / the chemical processes that occur within a living organism order to maintain life.

(Oxford English Dictionary)

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Rooted in Japanese tradition and arguably regarded the most influential avant-garde movement in modern Japanese architecture, Metabolism2 was launched by a group of architects at the World Design Conference in Tokyo in 1960, with the publishing of the

Metabolist Manifesto. In the wake of the post-war tabula rasa inflicted upon most of Japan, the Japanese government’s efforts to provide mass housing in a short period of time were not sufficient for the increasingly urbanising cities. Motivated by the state of their country and the hope for a brighter future, the group of Metabolists, including Kisho Kurokawa, Kiyonori Kikutake, Fumihiko Maki, as well as fellow peers and unofficial members Kenzo Tange and Arata Isozaki, announced their vision in the manifesto: Metabolism is the name of the group, in which each member proposes future designs of our coming world through his concrete designs and illustrations. We regard human society as a vital process - a continuous development from atom to nebula. The reason why we use such a biological word, metabolism, is that we believe design and technology should be a denotation of human society. We are not going to accept metabolism as a natural historical process, but try to encourage active metabolic development of our society through our proposals (Kawazoe et al., 1960)

Fig. 2 - Cover of the Metabolist Manifesto published for the 1960 World Design Conference in Tokyo, 1960.

Although sharing the same hope and values for a “New Urbanism”, members of the movement proposed their individual designs and philosophies for Japan’s urban utopias3. In his paper, Metabolist Utopias and Their Global Influence, Zhongjie Lin outlines three main paradigms of urbanism which emerge from the Metabolist utopias: (1) Megastructure; (2) Group form, (3), Ruin (Lin, 2016). The following section gives a brief overview of each of the paradigms, substantiated by literary references and examples of projects that exemplify the key notions.

3 Utopia / noun / an imaginary place or state in which everything is perfect (Oxford English Dictionary).

INTRODUCTION

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METABOLISM / 1960 Megastructure The term megastructure was first proposed by Maki in his essay Investigations in Collective Form in 1964. In it, he defines megastructures as “a large frame in which all the functions of a city or part of a city are housed” claiming that “it offers a legitimate way to order massive grouped functions” (Maki, 1964a). Famously characterised by a single structural frame and moving modular parts, the utopic mega-forms of the metabolists ranged from the minute scale of capsule architecture, such as the case of Kisho Kurokawa’s Nakagin Capsule Tower, to massive urban forms, as seen in Kenzo Tange’s 1960 Plan for Tokyo.

Fig. 3 - Kenzo Tange standing next to his ‘Plan for Tokyo 1960’, 1960 [unbuilt].

Considered one of the most monumental of the metabolist proposals is Tange’s plan for the expansion of Tokyo Bay. A proposal to (1) shift Tokyo’s centripetal urban organisation to a more linear development; (2) discover methods to transfer urban structures, the transport system and the architecture of the city in a single organic unit; (3) find a new order for the urban space that would reflect the open organisation and spontaneous mobility of the contemporary society (Tange, 1979). Thus, the proposal consists of a long structural axis spanning across the entire bay, hosting all necessary infrastructural services, with great importance placed on a multi-scalar transport network. Expanding outwards from the structural axis are tentshaped residential quarters, modular and adaptable in their design as to respond to the growing population of Tokyo.

In a series of articles in the Japan Architect journal, Tange speaks of his proposals of mega-forms with reference to rapidly changeable functional units which fit within the larger framework. Key to this is the notion of time, which the architect explains as two fold, claiming that certain urban structures have a long life cycle, whereas others have a shorter one (Tange, 1961). Maki refers to this concept as both 5

EXPORTING METABOLISM

the success and downfall of megastructures. Whilst the flexibility of multiple independent, yet interconnected, systems allows for more efficient regeneration of the urban forms, the very operations required to determine the life cycle of each system are highly unpredictable (Maki, 1964a).

Nicknamed “Dinosaurs of the Modern Movement” by Ryner Banham in 1976, megastructures were met by strong criticism of their mammoth scale, incidentally leading to extended construction times such “that the intellectual fashion that had given them birth had passed away before completion” (Banham, 1976).

Group Form Fumihiko Maki challanges the paradigm of megastructures with that of ‘Group Form’, first introduced in the Metabolist manifesto in 1960, and later developed in his Investigations in Collective Form. He states “[group form] evolves from a system of generative elements in space” and recalls the sequential formations of Japanese villages and Dutch sixteenth-century housing. He refers to these as precursors of the modern group form as they are characterised by: (1) consistent materials and construction methods; (2) wise use of topography; (3); preservation of human scale; (4) sequential development of basic elements (Maki, 1964a). Thus, group form suggests that order arises from the grouping of individual, yet inter-linked elements. Maki upholds that such an urban system would be able to respond more directly to fluctuating situations within society (Lin, 2010).

The group form architect critiqued the static notion of “master planning”, suggesting a more apt “master-process” by which the urban utopia “derives from a dynamic equilibrium of generative elements, not a composition of stylized and finished object” (Maki, 1964b). The notion of group form is most effectively manifested in Fumihiko Maki’s Hillside Terrace. Developed in seven phases

Fig. 4 - Fumihiko Maki’s Hillside Terrace in Tokyo, 1967-1997 [built].

METABOLISM / 1960

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over the course of thirty years, the project exemplifies a remarkable approach to the social, temporal and spatial dimensions of the architect’s concept. Constructed on either side of a vehicular street, the evolution of the complex has emerged from the existing pattern of previous phases and as a reflection of new regulations, technological developments and changing character of the urban context (Lin, 2016). Thus, Hillside Terrace embodies Maki’s vision whereby “Group form is often the essence of collectivity [and] evolves from the people of a society, rather than from their powerful leadership” (Maki, 1964a).

Ruin The last of the three paradigms, as proposed by Zhongjie Lin, is Arata Isozaki’s concept of ‘Ruin’. Traumatized by the devastation caused by the war, Isozaki saw the outlook of his contemporaries, the rosetinted utopic fever that took over their designs, as “misunderstood, severely limiting the development of our imaginative powers”. He adds: More than longing, what seemed important to me was that those fallen pieces formed an invitation to fill in the gaps, to make the connection, to shore them up and where necessary to replace them (Isozaki, 2009).

Fig. 5 - Arata Isozaki’s photomontage showing the destruction of the future city, 1968.

He outlines the concept of time as two-fold, absolute (linear) and imaginative (memories). By analysing the past through these lenses, the dystopian architect suggests the reversal of the time axes. “Could we, by sketching and describing the past in imagination thereby turn all this into the future?”. As such, he insinuates a repeated cycle of construction and destruction, city and ruins (Lin, 2016).

In order to portray visions of the future, superimposed on the ruins of the past, Isozaki produced a series of photomontages, including Destruction of the future city (1968). The image shows the architect’s constructions, in the process of decomposition, superimposed on the panorama of Hiroshima, razed to the ground following the explosion of the atomic bombs. Isozaki describes “a future superimposed upon the ruined landscape of the past [where] ruins lie in the future of our city, and the future itself will lie in ruins” (Isozaki 2009).

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METABOLIST EXPORTS CONTEXTUAL SHIFT In order to establish a methodological approach to the investigation of inheritance of Metabolist paradigms in the context of informal settlements of the 21st century, research must be conducted in the international export of Metabolist urban utopias. What paradigms emerge from the translation of the Metabolists’ notions and values to different cultural, social, political, economic, linguistic and geographical dimensions?

Host of the highly popular Osaka Expo ‘704, Japan, along with many other counties, fell victim to the oil crisis of 1973, causing a deep recession. The avant-garde, technically ambitious work of the Metabolists, thus, saw a great decline in local opportunities.

Whilst some adapted to the changing economic climate at home, others ventured out to international contexts, in search for new opportunities (Koolhaas & Orbist, 2011).

“I think it is the duty of Japan, which already has industrialized know-how [...] to export design and techniques to the third world, and help them in sustaining man made environments” (Tange, 1974).

4 The Expo ‘70 was held in Osaka under the theme of “Progress and Harmony for Humankind”.

It hosted a number of projects from the Metabolists including ones from: Kenzo Tange, Kiyonori Kikutake, Kenji Ekuan, Kisho Kurokawa, Arata Isozaki (Koolhaas & Orbist, 2011).

How can architects export designs and technologies to international contexts without having the all too common effect of architectural colonisation? What are the outcomes of the metabolist movement in the international field?

Fig. 6 - Map showing the geographical location of international projects.

This section briefly outlines the translation process of certain metabolist utopian paradigms, with reference to two international projects: (1) Kenzo Tange’s Masterplan for Pilgrims’ Accomodation in Mina, Saudi Arabia; (2) Kisho Kurokawa’s New Town in As Sarir, Libya.

METABOLIST EXPORTS

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Mina, Saudi Arabia Kenzo Tange, whose work primarily constituted the design of utopic megastructures during the 1960s, was known to use experimental methods which would often exceed budget. In the years following the Expo ‘70, Tange’s domestic influence became obsolete, thus shifting his interest towards the Middle East, a land of new wealth and many opportunities.

5 The Hajj is the pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia, which every adult Muslim must make at least once in his or her lifetime. (Britannica)

Tange, along with Kenji Ekuan, was commissioned by King Faisal to design the masterplan for a temporary city in the holy valley of Mina, five kilometres south-east of Mecca, to host the two-million pilgrims on the Hajj5 each year. In the design process, Tange outlined three main parameters: (1) preserve the natural beauty of the sacred region; (2) create the possibility of temporary accommodation at a human scale, practical and to be used by the pilgrims during their short stay; (3) create a flexible number of accommodations in function with the unpredictability of the pilgrims (Tange, 1979). Thus, limited by the necessarily transient nature of the construction on the sacred land, Tange looked to integrate the notions of group form, proposed by Fumihiko Maki, into his design proposal (Lin, 2010).

Fig. 7 - Kenzo Tange Masterplan for Pilgrim Accommodation in Mina, Saudi Arabia, 1974. (Left) pre-Hajj, invisible city; (right) during Hajj, temporary city [unbuilt].

The result is a masterplan made up of a permanent structure outlining the perimeter of the three kilometre long site, housing all the necessary materials for the annual pilgrimage. Over the three days of Hajj, the expanse of land between the perimeter would transform to a pilgrim village, hosting an organic urban form of flexible tentlike units used for accommodation and services. Unfortunately the assassination of King Faisal meant that construction was never started and the project never took shape (Koolhaas & Orbist, 2011).

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As Sarir, Libya Kisho Kurokawa, fellow advocate for megastructures and capsule architecture, wrote a number of publications about metabolism, his theories and philosophies. In his book Each one a Hero - The Philosophy of Symbiosis, published in 1997, he writes about shifting perspectives of a society moving towards the 21st century. He explains this as “a shift from Eurocentrism to the symbiosis6 of diverse cultures [...] towards a symbiosis of plurality of values [...] from the age of machine to the age of the life principle” (Kurokawa, 1997).

In other words, Kurokawa challenges the binary notions prevalent in society, theorising that the new climate calls for the coexistence of a plurality of values, notions and cultures.

6 Symbiosis / noun / interaction between two different organisms living in close physical association, typically to the advantage of both.

In keeping with his philosophy of symbiosis he designed the masterplan and residential units of a new town near an oil mining site, in the Sarir region of the Libyan Sahara desert. Kurokawa explains the project as

(Oxford English Dictionary)

“a concrete example of the symbiosis of Arab and Japanese culture and of tradition and the latest technology” (Kurokawa, 1997).

Fig. 8 - Kish Kurokawa’s New Town in Sarir, Libya. (left) a local standing next to sand bricks ready to be used for the construction of his home (right) completed prototype of house [partly built].

Inspired by the nomadic Bedouins’ ability to exploit their experience in the desert to achieve a comfortable living environment, Kurokawa’s strategic approach wanted to involve the local community, learn from them and the their surroundings, and limit any need for skilled labour. Thus, the design included locally produced sand bricks, passive air ventilation and a construction method achievable by anyone. (Kurokawa, 1997). Additionally, Kurokawa’s masterplan recalled the concept of the Japanese tsuji7 as reference, giving greater importance to the streets as public spaces, rather than to plazas, typical of Western design. The choice not only had beneficial topographical outcomes, as the winding roads shaded pedestricans from direct sunlight and protected them from sand storms, it is also a notion with extremely close ties to the Islamic souks8.

Thus, Kurokawa’s “philosophy of symbiosis could be realized on a wide range of levels, from the conceptual to the most practical” (Kurokawa, 1997). By the time the first prototype was completed the oil prices had dropped and construction of new town was halted, leaving the architect’s vision unrealised (Koohlaas & Orbist, 2011).

7 Tsuji is the japanese word for the street or martketplace (Kurukawa, 1997).

8 A souk is an Arab marketplace, also known as a bazaar (Kurukawa, 1997).

METABOLIST EXPORTS

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PROPOSAL The research presented in this paper outlines the key paradigms of the Metabolist movement in the 1960s and examples of how, in the decade to follow, those paradigms were exported and adapted to international contexts. What methodologies were used by the Metabolists to export their notions of urban utopias to different environments? Can we apply them to contexts over half a century in their future?

Thesis Proposal My thesis proposes the re-framing of paradigms that emerged from the transfer of the Metabolists’ urban utopias as a methodological framework for the upgrading process of informal settlements.

A first part will outline the Metabolist notions, values and discourses, within well-known urban utopic visions in the local context of Japan and the subsequent international exports. This will be done through scientific investigation of the current state of the art and analysis of periodicals contemporary to the movement. Additionally, empirical research methodologies will be employed. How does the recontextualization of paradigms, which emerged within the climate of Japan in the 1960s, affect their operation in new environments?

Do new paradigms emerge? Can they be used to investigate the realities of informal settlements of the 21st Century?

To substantiate this inquiry, the second part of the thesis presents an empirical investigation of informal settlements with specific reference to townships in South Africa. What local logic characterizes their urban forms? What patterns of living emerge?

Following the research presented in the first and second parts, this thesis proposes the development of a methodological framework to approach the upgrading of informal settlements. This exploration will be carried out on a theoretical level, as well as through research by design, testing the proposed theories at an urban level.

Closing Remarks Although many studies have been done on the Metabolist movement and on informal settlements independently, few have drawn a parallel between the movement’s paradigms in the context of settlement upgrading. The proposed thesis attempts to contribute critical questions and commentary to the existing scholarship. Can paradigms emerging from the study of past movements be used to investigate the realities of informal settlements in the 21st century?

How can the Metabolist movement be inherited by today’s society?

What social value does it hold? How can we export the Metabolist urban utopias to the context of informal settlements?

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FIGURES Fig. 1 Areal photograph of the Ise Jingu complex.

Source: https://scottfstudio.com/2014/06/20/ise-grand-shrine-linking-generationsthrough-construction/ Fig. 2 Cover of the Metabolist Manifesto published for the 1960 World Design Conference in Tokyo.

Source: Koolhas & Orbist, 2011.

Fig. 3 Kenzo Tange standing next to his Plan for Tokyo 1960 [unbuilt] Source: Koolhas & Orbist, 2011.

Fig. 4 Fumihiko Maki’s Hillside Terrace in Tokyo, 1967-1992 [built].

Source: http://www.maki-and-associates.co.jp/details/index_pic.html?pcd=8 Fig. 5 Arata Isozaki’s phoromontage showing the destruction of the future city, 1968.

Source: Museum of Modern Art, https://www.moma.org/collection/works/816 Fig. 6 Map showing locations of projects Source: by author Fig. 7 Kenzo Tange Masterplan for Pilgrim Accommodation in Mina, Saudi Arabia, 1974. (Left) pre-Hajj, invisible city; (right) during Hajj, temporary city.

Source: Koolhas & Orbist, 2011.

Fig. 8 Kish Kurokawa’s New Town in Sarir, Libya. (left) a local standing next to sand bricks ready to be used for the construction of his home (right) completed prototype of house.

Source: Koolhas & Orbist, 2011.

FIGURES

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Mentioned Banham, R. (2020). Megastructure: Urban Futures of the Recent Past. Monacelli Press.

Daniell, T. (2008). From Far East to Middle East: Revitalizing Metabolism.

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Isozaki, A., & Oshima, K. T. (2009). Arata Isozaki. Phaidon Press.

Kawazoe, N., Kikutake, K., Otaka, M., Maki, F., & Kurokawa, K. (1960).

Metabolism/1960: The Proposals for New Urbanism. Bijutsu Shuppansha.

Koolhaas, R., & Obrist, H. U. (2011). Project Japan: Metabolism Talks.

Taschen America Llc. Kurokawa, K. (1977). Metabolism in Architecture.

Kurokawa, K. (1987). Architecture of Symbiosis.

Lin, Z. (2010). Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement. Routledge.

Lin, Z. (2016). Metabolist Utopias and Their Global Influence: Three Paradigms of Urbanism. Journal of Urban History, 3, 604–622. https://doi. org/10.1177/0096144216635169 Maki, F. (1964a). Investigations in Collective Form. Washington University School of Architecture.

Maki, F. (1964b). The Future of Urban Environment. Progressive Architecture, 45.

Mehrotra, R. (2012). Rethinking the Informal City: Foreword. Berghahn Books.

Oshima, K. T. (2012). Metabolist Trajectories. Log : Architecture Criticism, 24, 28–32. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41765463 Pernice, R. (2004). Metabolism Reconsidered Its Role in the Architectural Context of the World. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 2, 357–363. https://doi.org/10.3130/jaabe.3.357 Pernice, R. (2014). Images of the Future from the Past: The Metabolists and the Utopian Planning of the 1960s. Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture, 6. https://doi.org/10.17265/1934-7359/2014.06.011 Tange, K. (1961). A plan for Tokyo, 1960 : toward a structural reorganization.

Japan Architect, 36, 8–38. https://search.proquest.com/scholarlyjournals/plan-tokyo-1960-toward-structural-reorganization/ docview/55877721/se-2?accountid=28385

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Extended Adriasola, I., Teasley, S., & Jilly Traganou. (2016). Design and Society in Modern Japan: An Introduction. Review of Japanese Culture and Society, 28, 1–50. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1353/roj.2016.0021 Angelidou, I., & Yatsuka, H. (2012). Metabolism and After: A Correspondence With Hajime Yatsuka. Log: Architecture Criticism, 24, 33–41. https://www. jstor.org/stable/41765464 Cho, H. (2011). Expo ’70: The Model City of an Information Society. Review of Japanese Culture and Society, 23, 57–71. https://www.jstor.org/ stable/42801087 Cho, H. (2012). Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park and the Making of Japanese Postwar Architecture. Journal of Architectural Education, 1, 72–83. https:// doi.org/10.1080/10464883.2012.720915 Cho, H. (2018). Kenzō Tange’s A Plan for Tokyo, 1960: a plan for urban mobility.

Architectural Research Quarterly, 2, 139–150. https://doi.org/10.1017/ s1359135518000301 Cho, H., & Shin, C. (2014). Metabolism and Cold War architecture. The Journal of Architecture, 5, 623–644. https://doi.org/10.1080/13602365.

2014.965186 Cupers, K. (2013). Use Matters: An Alternative History of Architecture.

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Cupers, K. (2016). Human Territoriality and the Downfall of Public Housing.

Public Culture, 1 81, 165–190. https://doi.org/10.1215/089923633644445 Daniell, T., & Arata, I. (2014). Arata Isozaki in conversation with Thomas Daniell. AA Files, 68. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23781453 de Oliveria, F. L. (2011). Of Metabolism: future cities for our contemporary world.

Risco, 14, 77–81. de Raedt, K. (2012). Building the Rainbow Nation. A critical analysis of the role of architecture in materializing a post-apartheid South African identity. Afrika Focus, 1. https://doi.org/10.21825/af.v25i1.4960 de Satgé, R., & Watson, V. (2018). Urban Planning in the Global South.

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Eken, C., & Alpar Atun, R. (2019). The Self-Organizing City and the Architecture of Metabolism: An Architectural Critique on Urban Growth and Reorganization. Sustainability, 19, 5326. https://doi.org/10.3390/ su11195326 Gardner, W. O. (2011). The 1970 Osaka Expo and/as Science Fiction. Review of Japanese Culture and Society, 23, 26–43. https://www.jstor.org/ stable/42801085

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Gardner, W. O. (2020). The Metabolist Imagination. University of Minnesota Press.

Hansen, T. B. (2012). Melancholia of Freedom. Princeton University Press.

Hein, C. (2017). The Urban Core in Japan (1930s-1950s): From Plans for the Colonies to the Mainland. Histories of Postwar Architecture, 1. https://doi. org/10.6092/issn.2611-0075/7311 Hernandez, F. (2010). Bhabha for Architects. Routledge.

Hernández, F., & Kellett, P. (2012). Rethinking the Informal City. Berghahn Books.

Huchzermeyer, M., Karam, A., & Maina, M. (2014). Changing Space, Changing City: Johannesburg after Apartheid - Open Access selection.154–175. Wits University Press. https://doi.org/10.18772/22014107656.12 Iguchi, T. (2013). Reconsideration of the World Design Conference 1960 in Tokyo and the World Industrial Design Conference 1973 in Kyoto. Saitama University. http://design-cu.jp/iasdr2013/papers/1183-1b.pdf Isozaki, A., & Asada, A. (1997). The After-Image of Erewhon: On Mirage City Another Utopia. InterCommunicatio, 21.

Jacquet, B. (2015). On Things to Come: What contemporary Japanese architecture should be like. Nihon Ishiki” No Mirai : Gurōbarizēshon to “Nihon Ishiki The Future of “Japanese Idendity”: “Japanese Idendity” and Globalization, 191–216. https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/ halshs-02328994 Jacquet, B. (2019). Dans L’Utopie de la Ville Metaboliste. Archiscopie, 18–25. https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-02332969 Jacquet, B. (2020). L’architecture du futur au Japon : Utopie et Métabolisme. Le Lezard Noir .

Kawazoe, N. (1969). Metabolism. Japan Architect, 44, 101–108; 45, 97–101. https://search.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/metabolism/ docview/55912347/se-2?accountid=28385 Lin, Z. (2007a). Nakagin Capsule Tower and the Metabolist Movement Revisited.

University of North Carolina at Charlotte.

Lin, Z. (2007b). Urban Structure for the Expanding Metropolis: Kenzo Tange’s 1960 Plan for Tokyo. Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, 24, 109–124. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43030795 Lin, Z. (2011). Nakagin Capsule Tower: Revisiting the Future of the Recent Past.

Journal of Architectural Education, 1, 13–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1531-314x.2011.01158.x Lippa, C., & Scaroni, F. (2018). Japan After The Bubble. What Has Remained Of The Metabolist Epic In The Post-Crisis Age? In [Co]Habitation Tactics.

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Camilla Allan 940885 camilla.allan@mail.polimi.it