Introducing Emerging Technologies - Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Within the context of the history of technology, ‘emerging technologies’ is a broad term which helps to encompass some of the most significant and cutting edge technological advances taking place during the twenty first century. Examples of such technologies currently include nanotechnology, biotechnology, cognitive science, robotics and artificial intelligence 1 . Are there any problems with this? Should Christians be concerned? It is a commonly accepted fact that the very essence of technology is to make things that allow us to do more than we could without them. In many respects Christians should not fear technological progress, as technology is not inherently wrong. Under the covenantal obligations we are still to adhere to today, stewardship of our created world requires some form of technology if we are to exercise dominion and ‘Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it’ 2 . Christians believe that every human being is made in the image of God. We reflect God’s image in what we do (capabilities and attributes) and what we are (our humanity). Therefore each human life has a unique dignity and unique value because of the divine image. In the light of this we cannot ‘improve’ upon human nature as this would involve altering the image which we bear. Technology is generally helpful to the degree that it enables us to have dominion in the world and addresses human problems like sickness. As such, emerging technologies offer the prospect of being able to enjoy a fuller and richer human experience than would otherwise be the case. In the words of Professor John Wyatt, we are ‘flawed masterpieces’ upon which we can carry out ethical art restoration, preserving and restoring the masterpiece whilst keeping to the original artist’s (God) intentions. Technology can become a problem, however, when the boundaries of ‘being human’ are exceeded and we enter into new ‘post-human’ territory. As Christians we must be informed, and engage with the issues presented by new technologies in order to help influence the decisions surrounding their development and application, thereby continuing to uphold and celebrate what it is to bear God’s image and be human.
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In brief, nanotechnology is the science of the very small; tiny matter. Biotechnology refers to a field of biology involving the use of living things in engineering, technology and medicine, for example genetic engineering. Information technology covers developments in computing and advances in capturing or simulating human abilities using computers (artificial intelligence). Cognitive science or cognitive neuroscience involves the understanding of mental processes and behaviour. 2 Genesis 1:28 (New International Version)
It’s all science to me. What can I do? One of the advantages of living in a democratic society is that we have the opportunity to exercise our right to express to politicians and regulators what our thoughts and opinions are on a whole variety of issues, including those relating to science and technology. Increasingly, there are calls for public engagement strategies to be implemented which allow members of the public to feed into discussions concerning how new advances in science and technology are to be regulated. The CARE election briefing papers address a number of concerns regarding the emerging technologies. This paper looks at artificial intelligence and robotics.
Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Artificial intelligence (AI) can be defined as the intelligence of machines. Advances in various fields of science and technology mean that forms of AI are becoming a reality. Any machine able to do any pre-programmed task(s) or function on its own (autonomously) is known as a robot. Backdrop Traditionally seen to be a field of biological science, neuroscience, the study of the body’s nervous system, is increasingly becoming a multidisciplinary area of study drawing in the disciplines of mathematics, physics, psychology, computer science, philosophy and medicine. One of the immediate results from this mass collaboration of research and development is that our understanding of brain function has been greatly increased. In this context the possibilities of human-machine linkage and the creation of artificial intelligence become an ever closer reality. Strong and Weak AI The extent to which this intelligence will be reached, however, is widely debated. On the one hand, some experts believe AI will eventually rival human intelligence Machines will become self aware and totally independent. This is known as strong AI. On the other hand, there are those who believe AI will never be able to rival human intelligence and, despite being able to solve specific problems or perform certain tasks, machines will never be able possess the full range of human cognitive abilities. This is known as a weak AI. Robots are already playing an increasing role in human lives, such as in caring for the sick and elderly, in biological modelling, space exploration, in leisure and entertainment and, increasingly, in military and law enforcement. A Christian response AI poses at least two challenges from a Christian perspective: First, AI adds weight to the functionalist perspective according to which humans are perceived to simply be a collection of parts and functions, or a ‘property-thing’ that has been assembled according to a particular process. The danger with this perspective is that it threatens to change the way society treats people. Specifically, there is grave concern that those failing to pass certain functional tests may be declared to be a non or sub-person. Moreover, and like most approaches to biotechnology, it also leads to the view that we are little more than the sum of our genes or biological make-up. In direct contrast, the Biblical view of humanity regards all human beings as having worth and 2
dignity. While machines are made, Christians recognise that humans are begotten. While computers are designed by humans, humans are designed by God, and bear His Image. Second, it gives grounds to the ‘hope’ of some that if AI and robotics combine immortality could be achieved. Having reduced humanity to a purely functional level by being able to mimic cognitive functioning through complex mathematical and computer modelling, the resulting binary information could be uploaded onto a PC and then downloaded into robotic bodies or virtual reality programs. This whole process could be repeated from one robot to another as many times you would like, thereby guaranteeing virtual immortality. The line between natural and artificial becomes blurred as the day of the post-human dawns 3 . Regardless of exactly what AI does achieve, there is no doubt that its presence threatens to alter the way society views human beings, human well-being, human dignity and human worth. This has huge potential social and political implications for Christians believing that society’s well-being rests upon the fact that all people are special because, regardless of ability, they are all made in God’s image and are equally valuable.
Current Research on the Ethical and social implications In 2009 the Royal Academy of Engineering (RAEng) published a report entitled Autonomous Systems: Social, Legal and Ethical Issues 4 which sought to establish progress to date and likely progress into the future of AI and autonomous systems. Taking the findings of the RAEng report and combining them with other research to date, the following can be offered as some of the key areas of AI application in the immediate future: Robots in the home There is the need to think through the practical issues of human-robot interactions. If robots are going to be in the home there are confidentiality issues which need to be considered. If humans are uncomfortable with these ideas, then research is needed which will hopefully resolve these concerns now, as opposed to in the future - when it might be too late. Robots caring for the elderly Advances in this area already point to the strong possibility of allowing the frail and elderly to continue to live in their own homes, but with the assistance, care and ‘companionship’ of robots. But how do the elderly feel about this? Could it take away the only remaining human contact the house-bound have? Robots in the battlefield Autonomous radar-killer drones are already being used by the Israelis and the South Koreans use lethal autonomous systems to defend their border with the North 5 . How far and to what extent can robots be given the ability to exercise discriminative ability? With much public outcry over the sacrifice of young lives in recent conflicts, could robotic warfare point to warfare in a risk adverse world?
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See the following for a more detailed discussion on the post-human future: Brent Waters, From Human to Posthuman: Christian Theology and Technology in a Postmodern World (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2006). 4 The Royal Academy of Engineering (2009), Autonomous Systems: Social, Legal and Ethical Issues, http://www.raeng.org.uk/news/publications/list/reports/Autonomous_Systems_Report_09.pdf 5 Noel Sharkey, ‘March of the killer robots’, 15th June 2009, The Daily Telegraph, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/5543603/March-of-the-killer-robots.html [accessed 17th March 2010]
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Robots in surveillance How far do we take surveillance? Already two UK police constabularies are using robot helicopters in order to monitor people movement and crowd control, including at the annual ‘V music festival’ 6 .
Artificial Intelligence in the 2005-2010 Parliament In 2006, the Office of Science and Innovation's Horizon Scanning Centre 7 commissioned research into the future of robotics. The resulting and controversial paper, entitled ‘Utopian dream or rise of the machines?’ examined the developments in artificial intelligence and how this may impact on law and politics. The report predicted a ‘monumental shift’ that could occur should robots develop to the extent they are able to reproduce, improve themselves or develop artificial intelligence. However, the report was criticised because of the paucity and quality of the research used in the report. It was the view of experts in the field that more pertinent ethical issues surrounding human-robot interaction should have been the focus of any horizon scanning report, as opposed to whether robots should be given rights 8 . There have been various public engagement projects and initiatives 9 which have sought to draw in and inform the public on what is taking place in this field.
Artificial Intelligence: Pressures for Change As the prospect of thinking machines and the manipulation of cognitive processes looms on the horizon, a unique set of ethical, legal, and social questions arise in the foreground. There is a real and urgent need for ongoing public engagement and discussion, in order not only to inform the public but also inform and shape the work of policy makers, scientists and engineers working in this area. There is very little point in carrying out research into radical applications of artificial intelligence and robotics if the public still has major concerns and misgivings regarding using the most basic of robots and other autonomous systems. Moreover, our regulatory framework and policies need serious updating from the age of automation to autonomous systems 10 . Such a conversation can be enriched by the contribution the Christian community can make in terms of raising what it is to be human in a technological civilisation, thereby seeking to shape policy from a pro-human as opposed to a post-human perspective.
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Paul Lewis, ‘CCTV in the sky: police plan to use military-style spy drones’ 23rd January 2010, The Guardian, http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2010/jan/23/cctv-sky-police-plan-drones [accessed 2nd February 2010] 7 Foresight: The Horizon Scanning Centre aims to help the Government think strategically about the future. It is a part of the Government Office for Science within the Department for Business, Innovation & Skills. 8 Mark Henderson ‘Human rights for robots? We’re getting carried away’ 24 April 2007, The Times Online, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/science/article1695546.ece [accessed 17 March 2010] 9 Such projects include ‘Walking with Robots’ (http://www.walkingwithrobots.org) as well as the 'Talking Robots' initiative convened by the University of the West of England and activities organised by the Open University Robotics Outreach Group. 10 The Royal Academy of Engineering, ‘Press release: Autonomous Systems: social, legal and ethical issues’, 19 August 2009, http://www.raeng.org.uk/news/releases/shownews.htm?NewsID=511 [accessed 17 March 2010].
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Artificial Intelligence and Party Lines Currently none of the three major political parties have published specific policies on artificial intelligence and robotics.
Artificial Intelligence and Devolution The impact of emerging technologies presents implications which affect and have a general applicability across the UK. Consequently, matters pertaining to artificial intelligence would more than likely be discussed in relation to the Westminster Parliament and not in isolation, drawing on the input and advice of the Council for Science and Technology 11 .
Artificial Intelligence: Key Questions for Candidates
If elected, would you press for the development of a regulatory framework regarding artificial intelligence that protects our humanity?
If elected, would you press for public engagement on the subject of human-robotic interaction and its implications for our humanity?
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The Council for Science and Technology (CST) is the UK Prime Minister's top-level independent advisory body on science and technology policy issues. See CST’s ‘Ways of Working – Working with Government’ (para. 24), http://www.cst.gov.uk/about/index.shtml [accessed 17 March 2010]
Policy Document for Make the Cross Count 2010 CARE 53 Romney Street London SW1P 3RF T 020 7233 0455 mail@care.org.uk www.care.org.uk www.makethecrosscount2010.net UK Charity 1066963 Scottish Charity SC038911
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