History Thesis carlottapinna by Carlotta Pinna

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Carlotta Pinna 1238728 The European shopping arcades : “The Gallery”of Milan and the Upper Trade Rows of Moscow Contents. 1. The origin of Arcades as a typology of the time. 2. The origin and definition of Arcade 2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.4. 2.5. 2.6.

Arcade as a typology of the time. Access to the interior of a block and system of access Public space on private property System of access:a symmetrical street space Form of organizing retail trade Skylight space

3. The social Meaning of the Arcades 3.1.

Economy and social function

4. Milano: Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II

5. Competition

The urban relation between the arcade and the locus:� �� the role of �� Urban context of the city centre of Milan: theatre ,palace of justice ,parliamentary building ;the relation between the Galleria and the other urban artefacts. 5.1. Competitions for the Dome Square 5.2. Announcement of Competition 5.3. 1859-1860:The unsolved problem of the Square: the need and the role of celebrative square 5.4. The stage of Competitions: -1860 the first stage -1861-1863 the second -the third stage 5.5. Il progetto Mengoni 5.6. Design Square Proposal 5.7. 1864-1867 The period under construction : “grandeur willing” despite economical reasons

6. Moscow: Upper Trade Rows 1888-1893 6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4.

The unsolved problem of the Square The role of celebrative square: the Agora ’Red Square The reconstruction of Red Square Trade Rows and Gowstini Dwor: the Russian Retail typologies

6.5. Trade Rows Arcades 6.6. Upper Trade Rows: Verknie Torgovye Ryady 6.7. The stage of competitions: -competition -stage of competitions 7. The act of construction 7.1. 7.2.

The act of construction The act of construction of Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II

8. Material: iron architecture and the universal exhibition 9. Gum :from Arcades to department store 10. The role of public realm of Muscovites consumer spaces

Trade Rows arcades projects 10.1. 10.2. 10.3. 10.4. 10.5.

Access to the interior of a block and system of access Public space on private property Skylight space Form of organizing retail trade Space of transition

Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II 10.6. 10.7. 10.8. 10.9. 10.10. 11. References

Access to the interior of a block and system of access Public space on private property Skylight space Form of organizing retail trade Space of transition

Introduction The issue of the research attempts to investigate the “world” of Arcades basically in two different contexts and metropolis : the Upper trade Rows-Gum stores Moscow and Galleria Vittorio Emanule II in Milan. The examples of arcade typologies in this research will take account of the architectural and social influence of the city in which they are placed. The attempt is to underline a network of a new specific trade typology , rapidly diffused in all Europe, within the comparison between those examples. The study and the analysis of the variation of those projects is used to understand the culture , the society, the architectural and technological influences of that time;in order to highlight how strong the effects of this typology are . The comparison of those building types might be used to show the variations from which developers and planners derived the contemporary shopping mall. The shifts from arcade to mall represents one crucial point of the crisis of a trade typology into an architectural object which is not anymore related to the context. The lack of identity, the homogeneity of activities and architectural elements present in the generic space of shopping malls are reinforcing the power of the arcade typology of XX century as a contemporary architectural expression of this era and as an expression of the needs of the collectivity . “The arcade remains an invention which responded to the specific needs and desire of a society in a specific era of its cultural and industrial development,the need for a public space protected from traffic and weather and the search for new means of marketing ,the products of a blossoming luxury goods industry.” The collective entrust the architect with the task of representing in complete forms a culture that belongs to the collective ,which the architect will implement and give back to the collective with recognition. Arcades can be defined as the new building typology of their own time,built for the city of their time. It represented an architectural trade building which has a familiarity with the theme and the awareness of its construction lies in its recognition. The aspiration to define a building type corresponds to the intention to define stable relations among the parts of a building that contain or reveal the lasting value,at least for the historical period of a given culture of habitation […] the definition of a building type must take its impetus from the theme and the characteristics of the site . The research will take advantage from the definition written by Johan Friedrich Geist in his masterpiece “The History of a building type” . The guide line of the essay will follow the arcade as an architectural and as a sociological phenomena ,hence will focus on the historical and competitional stage of Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II and Upper trade Rows (Gum store). Those of the taken examples will be compared through the following parameters used by Geist in his definition of the arcade process:�� access to the interior of a block ,public space on private property , skylight space ,system of access ,form of organizing retail trade and space of transition .

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Geist , Johann Friedrich –Arcades �� , The History of a building type – Antonio Monestiroli –The �� Metope and the Triglyph- Question of Method pp.30 Ibidem pp.32 ��

The origin and definition of Arcade Arcade as a typology of the time. « passagen–transitional nature of a building type. French passage- narrow private streets which divided and connected interiors of larger building blocks. Passus latin-passage de la vie. » When shopping arcade made its appearance in the late eighteenth century in Paris and then in London came through a desire for luxury goods and a taste for personal ostentation. The typology came from a gradual combination of several architectural and retail developments ,the history of this building type leaps from financial institutions to classical architecture,to developer’s profit;and to exaltation of individuals. The basic pattern of shopping and the development of the retail trade was estabilished in the Middle Ages and did not change significantly until the middle of the nineteenth century. It is just in this century that the shopping arcade typology develops and became the commercial lasting success . The general definition of the arcade given by Johann Friedrich Geist, touches different fields and gives the basic notion of the complexity of the Arcade typology ,which gain its “golden period” from the beginning XIX until the XX century. “Arcade is primarily a pedestrian thoroughfare, a space with a beginning and an end; bordered or covered by a building which serves its own function. Is a glass-covered passageway which connects two busy streets and is lined both sides with shops….the arcade is the organizing force of retail trade .It offer public space on private property …an easing of traffic congestion, protection from the weather ,an area accessible only to pedestrians. The arcade is an object of building speculation. It’s prosperity depends to a considerable extent on the urban context in which is located […]it can be an independent structure built on his on piece of land .The illusory element of the arcade is the space within its confines: an extended exterior is made interior […]The space of the Arcade differs from the streets only in its glass roof ,symmetrical façades ,and exclusively pedestrian walkway .” Geist , Johann Friedrich. For understanding the richness and the complexity of this definition is necessary going through the main points and characteristic defined by Geist in his chapter The architectural history of Arcade. Access to the interior of a block and system of access For access to the block it’s meant a “ system of special access ,which enabled construction of great numbers of apartments and shops in expensive land where a walk through building is granted” “Early arcades they consist of narrow ,self –sufficient units brought together by the interior facades. The sum of these units defines the arcade as a building .If a building serves a public purpose and its open space is structured according to the system of arcade ,it can became a department store […]” Public space on private property “The interior façade of the arcaded have one motif which occurs again and again :the arcade” “The colonnade openings are glazed and define the shops units” “Loggias,porticoes,colonnades,covered walks,and arxhways all served the pedestrian ,offered protection from sun ,rain and traffic.”

� Geist , Johann Friedrich –Arcades �� , The History of a building type – The architectural history of the Arcade pp.4 � Geist , Johann Friedrich –Arcades �� , The History of a building type – The architectural history of the Arcade pp.16 � Geist , Johann Ibidem pp.16 ��

System of access:a symmetrical street space “The arcade strives to be like a street . It must not deny the pedestrian his anonymity. Its façades are exterior,but both sides are simmetrical .This is the fundamental differece between the arcade and the normal commercial street . Early arcades consist of narrow self –sufficient units brought together by the interior façades.” ‘However ,the arcade conceived as a system of access to the interior of a freestanding building leads inhabitants to residences facing the outside.” “Arcade from the time of its conception inspired architects to use its system of spatial access in completely different programs for which no clear formal tradition existed in arhcitecture”. Form of organizing retail trade “Arcade trade begin the closed concessionary system of the guilds ,which excluded advertising,competition and increased rates of exchange .It ends with the capitalistic methods of marketing ,creation of demand and quick turn over of goods.” The Arcades signed the starting point of a commercial development which influenced the shift of new typologies for trade. The arcade is a collection of rentable shops in a street like area. Bazaar is a structure ehich consists of a numerous courtyards or halls with skylights,it has numerous entrances and open stands. The department store is a massive sundry-articleshop.All branches are represented in one building.The business principle is high turnover and low pricing. The reason of those changes are due to industrialization growing (mass production and merchandise),uniform pricing ,great capital demand ,rapid turn over,reduction of stock ,anonimity of the customer. Hence the arcade attracted a classificable clientele,while the department store appealed to the masses as anonimuos consumer. Skylight space The glass skylight develop during the nineteenth century to fantastic dimensions. It became an indispensable part of almost all building types ,eliminated direct contact between the interior space and the outer world ,and transformed the atmosphere of the space . Sunlight the play of sharp shadow and reflections ,gave way to a softer ,more neutral light . “Nature was replaced by artificially created mood of “indoor Orient”” “As an extension of this trend ,branches of the applied arts,interior decoration ,and plant coltivation thrived as never before”

A space of Movement “The arcade appears as a transitional passagewats or space which movements take s place” “The transitional character of the passageway ,exploited for commercial purposes,determines the building type” “The galleries are indoor promenades.This element of palace architecture continues into the nineteenth century in the form of picture galleries ,halls with skylight ,and frestanding promenades in spas.”

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Geist , Johann Ibidem pp.28 �� Geist , Johann Ibidem pp.35 �� Geist , Johann Ibidem pp.20 �� Geist , Johann Ibidem pp.54 ��

The social meaning of the Arcades: economy and social function The arcade had its beginning in France :Palais Royal Paris . Palais Royal in 1786 was transformed into a ‘merciless confrontation between aristocracy and democracy” It serves as a site of political agitation ,it played a role in the French revolution ,a promenade ,luxury market ,place of learning and entertainment, It was a model of arcade “The arcade were the original temple of commodity capitalism” “This place possessed a magical power of attraction for the rest of Europe ,men of leisure and literati ”Balzac “Great enthusiasm that arose at the end of the 18th century ,with the construction of new arcade providing completely new promenade” “The arcade came into fashion because the street still existed in its medieval state” The personality of «Flâneur» connected with the phenomena of Arcade described by Walter Benjamin in the “ Arcade project”

In the eighteenth century the bourgeois enlightenment challenge the theological position that the heavenly and earthly cities were contradictory extremes ,one full of sin and suffering ,the other a place of redemption and eternal bliss […] God –given reason to create the heavenly city here now, and as an earthly paradise, material happiness was to be a basic component of its construction. The industrial revolution seemed to be possible this practical realization . In the nineteenth century ,capital cities throughout the world, were dramatically transformed into glittering showcases, displaying the promise of the new industry and technology for a heaven –on earth[…]

The passagen-werk ,the ancestors of arcades, is fundamentally concerned with the effect of the fairs on workers and working –class organization […] It has been claimed that the world expositions were the birthplace of the International Workingman’s Association, because they provide the opportunity for workers from different nations to meet and discuss common interests. But despite the initial fears of those in power, the fairs proved to have quite contrary effect. A phantasmagoria of politics had its source in the world expositions no less than a phantasmagoria of merchandise, where in industry and technology were presented as mythic powers capable of producing out of themselves a future world of peace class harmony, and abundance.10

� Benjamin ,Walter –Buck-Morss ,Susanne “ The �� dialectics of seeing: Walter Benjamin and the shopping arcade” pp.83 � Buck-Morss ,Susanne ibidem pp.81. �� Term used by Karl Marx to refer to the deceptive appearances of commodities as “fetish” in the market place. Term used by Walter Benjamin to describe the spectacle of Paris. 10 �

Buck-Morss ,Susanne ibidem pp.81. ��

Milano: Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II 1865-1877 The urban relation between the arcade and the locus:�� the role of Urban context of the city centre of Milan: theatre ,palace of justice ,parliamentary building ;the relation between the Galleria and the other urban artefacts. With the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele ,the arcade building type enters in the gallery of the great representative buildings of the nineteenth century . In these buildings –theatres,the palace of justice,city halls,stock exchanges,parliamentary buildings-bourgeois society becomes manifest. “Quando si pensa alla strada coperta che unisce piazza duomo a piazza della Scala ,il suo nome e’ Galleria. Non e’ soltanto indicazione topografica ,e’ un simbolo :La Galleria . Il nome completo,galleria Vittorio Emanuele II ,non lo dice piu’ nessuno.Galleria e’ un riflesso condizionato sinonimo anche di centro”11 “When we talk about the covered road which joins public square dome to public square of the Scala, its name is gallery , which is not only topographical indication, but a symbol: The Gallery. Nobody says the complete name, Vittorio Emanuele II gallery , anymore ,but just “ The Gallery” in itself is a conditioned glare synonymous for defining the center hall” Inspired by some Parisians passages, it had architectonic nobility ideal for being to the apex of a stylistic and a building story as a key of final interpretation of a city order. “La galleria e’ probabilmente la piu rilevante delle invenzioni urbane della prima meta’ del XIX secolo. Si possono trovare alla galleria urbana del XIX sec. illustri antenati:dal bazar delle citta’ arabe ,alla galleria degli Uffizi,o illustri e piu’ prossimi parenti negli edifici delle grandi esposizioni universali,nelle grandi serre inglesi del XVIII ,nei magazzini coperti,il Gum moscovita e’ forse l’esempio piu’ interessante di grande magazzino come luogo urbano collettivo e persino nelle tipologie della nuova prigione del tardo Settecento ,e’ evidente che la galleria urbana rappresenta in modo specifico uno strumento di connessione non solo planimetrico ma spaziale tra le parti della citta’ ,il decoro della grande piazza pubblica coperta,il luogo dell’incontro pedonale” “The gallery is probably one of the most important urban inventions of the first half of XIX the century. In city gallery of XIX sec. illustrious ancestors they can be found: perhaps from the bazaar of the Arabic city, to the gallery of the Uffizi, or illustrious and next relatives in the buildings of the great universal exposures, in the great English greenhouses of XVIII, in the covered warehouses. The muscovite Gum is one of most the interesting example of department store like a collective city place. Even in the typology of the new prison of late the 1700’s, is obvious that the city gallery represents in a specific way: a system of plan metric and spatial connection between the parts of the city’; the decorum of the great public covered square, the place of the pedestrian encounter.”12 In Italy the city gallery makes its appearance after 1860, the national unification of Italy is accompanied and pushed by the transformations, in modern sense, of the great metropolitan cities :Milan, Rome, Naples, Turin, Florence. Because of later age, the Italian galleries are placed in strategic points of the city and are often wider than European galleries. The influences, from the late XVIII century typology ,of Parisian Passages acted on this choices. In the case of Milan the local example of the gallery de “ Cristoforis ”, constructed in 1831 on a plan by Piazzala architect, is significant. Here seventy stores, an hotel, a restaurant café’ ,a mechanical theatre, over hanged by thirty apartments collected under a glass shed, shaped to the way of Paris an atmosphere protected from clemencies, reverberating natural and artificial light, delineated from the display windows and covered by mirrors, which reflected and unlighted the stage of commerce, of the capital, of the industry and the courage, which are considered the greater author of prosperity of a nation.

11 � 12 �

�� Pozzi,Emilio –In � Galleria cuore e specchio di Milano pp. Ernesto Treccani,1987. Ibidem ,Gregotti, Vittorio �� La strada coperta.

Fig.I-II Interior of the gallery De Cristoforis in Milan. I-Drawing by L.Rupp,incisione Bramanti 1840. Milano ,Civica Raccolta Stampe A.Bertarelli. II -Demolition work of Galleria de Cristoforis Milan in the 30’s. Photo by Agazzi.Milano ,Archivio civico Fotografico

“Here seventy stores, an hotel, a restaurant café’ ,a mechanical theatre, over hanged by thirty apartments collected under a glass shed, shaped to the way of Paris an atmosphere protected from clemencies, reverberating natural and artificial light, delineated from the display windows and covered by mirrors, which reflected and unlighted the stage of commerce, of the capital, of the industry and the courage, which are considered the greater author of prosperity of a nation.”

Fig.II Galleria G.Mazzini ,Genova . Fig.III Galleria Umberto I ,Napoli. Photo by Carlo Brogi,1890.Firenze Archivio Alinari

The covered passage was not �� therefore a new type element for the city of Milan ; new �� was however the formulation of the Gallery in urban terms that aimed to insert it in a system of city dynamics: here the representative way was conjugated with the traffic requirements, with the rationalization of the net of connections with the needs of grown of the city. The future street between the public square of Dome and public square of “ la Scala” had the advantage to work itself like a true connection between two important points of the city.

In this long and adventurous vicissitude the commitment role shifted: the aristocratic and the cultured clergy of the ancient regime has been replaced from the Municipality “ Il Comune”. “è certo che, in questi primissimi anni ruggenti dell’Unita’ Nazionale ,Mengoni trova una citta’ in bilico tra passato e futuro ,dove il vecchio agonizza e il nuovo non c’è ancora e dove perciò tutto è possibile ;ma una Milano alla urgente ricerca ,come mai prima ,di una propria nuova credibile identita architettonica” “it is sure that, in these first years of the national union, Mengoni finds a city in the balance between past and future, where the old is dying and the new one is still not there, and where therefore all is possible. Milan is urgently searching , like never before, one own new credible architectonic identity.” (Marco Dezzi Bardeschi) The Construction for the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele followed a precise political plan: “ Dedicare al re Sabaudo qualche opera monumentale la quale tramandasse ai posteri quel nazionale avvenimento” “Dedicate to the Sabaudo king some monumental work which handed on to the posterity that national event” The monumental phase from 1860 until 1880 occurred in Milan, the arcade was widely published –from the daily press ,which celebrated the opening as a national event,to the illustrated magazines,which regarded it as a fairy tale building. “Here the arcade developed into monumentality into emancipation of the public building ,into a promenade in the manner of Roman baths ,and into the secular counterpart of the cathedral. The reason for building was political and the unification.”13 (Geist , Johann Friedrich)

13 � Geist , Johann Friedrich –Arcades �� , The History of a building type – The Social history of the Arcade pp.75

Competition Competitions for the Dome Square Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II dresses the definition of urban architecture ,in fact, a priori the city decides which kind of celebrative and urban impact the design project has to. The gallery represents here a further typology which derives from several debates of the committee of the city of Milan, who decided which kind of monument or artifact has to be realized to celebrate the king Sabaudo of the reunited Italy . The galleria represents the best synthesis of how to combine political ,economical , urbanity and architectural interest of the city of Milan which assumed the role of the capital of economy of the new “giovine” Italia. Nevertheless the phases of the competition are strictly related to the urban factory of the Dome square. We cannot conceive the presence of the gallery without the urban design of the Dome Square as the new representative and celebrative public space after the �� fulfilment of the �� Factory of the Dome ��14. The wide cathedral façade was finally finished in 1806 and required a structure to balance it visually. The Palazzo Reale which met the Piazza del Duomo on the diagonal, seemed an impossible site for a regular piazza in axial relationship to the cathedral. For the public Dome square an immense rectangular area surrounded by buildings was previewed and for which ,eurhythmic lines and the interruption on the northern side for the entrance of one street, covered or discovered, were recommended ,to connect with the Scale square. Announcement of Competition. Several points are delineated from the commission: one of the main point dealt with the dimension of the square, the others were ,instead, connected with infrastructural issues . The commission was propelling for those design proposal which didn’t have an homogenous perimeter but defined by a urban fabric made of different building complex. “fronti di fabbriche grandiose ed isolate ;grandiose affinche’ la piazza assuma un carattere monumentale ;isolate onde essa non venga rinchiusa in un fabbricaio continuo che le darebbe l’aspetto di un cortile” 15 “the facades were huge and isolated factories :huge so that the public square assumes a monumental character ; isolated to avoid that the square becomes locked up in a continuous building block fabric that would give the aspect of a courtyard” Hence came out the initiative to substitute the initial idea of a common street ,titled with the name of the sovereign ,into a covered passage . “ spaziosa e riccamente decorate , meglio che una strada comune il carattere di un monumento odierno,senza divenire per questo meno degno di portare il nome del re”16 “widely and rich decorated, better than one common road , being then a worthy modern monument to represent the name of the king ” The preliminary project phase defined the issue of the announcement of competition for the new Dome Square: sluice, on the facing side the dome ,from isolated palace to whose shoulders connection road runs one. “Stavano a guida dei giudizi della commissione il comodo,il decoro,e l’utile della citta’ ,stava dietro a questi una ragionevole economia nella spesa” 14 �� Maria Nascente, is the name of the Dome builted in marble, on the structure of the previous Basilica of Saint Greater Maria. From the 1386, traditional date of beginning, the Factory of the Dome, from centuries, continues the jobs. Under the guide of numerous general engineers, followings one the others in the time, the various conceptions of the architectonic structure make a moving stone show. In 1774, on the higher peak it comes raised the statue of the Madonnina. The image that is perceived of the dome corresponds to the idea of the gothic between the five hundred and the second parts of the eight hundred. 15 � Rapporto della sottocommissione sui giudizii dei vari progetti presentati per la nuova Piazza del Duomo ,in data Otto�� bre 1860. 16 � Seduta del Consiglio Comunale ,in data dicembre 1860,BCM,AM. ��

“�� The useful, the decorum, and the profit of the city, were to guideline of the judgments �� of the commission, was behind these one reasonable economy in the expense” The commission then finds an agreement to support the transformation of the Vittorio Emanuele street into a gallery and cutting off the transit for vehicles. “ Una via larga quanto le nostre piu’ belle e regolari ,coperta da un vasto padiglione di cristallo che simuli colle sue nervature una sontuosa volta coordinata per guisa che luce ed aria penetrino ad abbondanza.Essa dovrebbe essere tale da accoppiare vantaggi e le comodita’ di una via cogli agi e colle eleganze di una immensa e splendida sala” 17 “One wide way as much beautiful and regular as our best streets, covered from an immense crystal pavilion that simulates with its ribbings a sumptuous vault that light and air would abundantly penetrate. It would have to be such to combine advantages and usefulness of one comfortable and elegant street with immense and magnificent hall ” The idea of connecting the Piazza del Duomo to the Piazza della Scala or to Piazza San Fedele with a street or an arcade was taken up time after time; only after the result of the first square design proposal ,it became part of the official requirement program. The unsolved problem of the Square: the need and the role of celebrative square. 1859-1860 “ Il prossimo compimento del Duomo ,inoltrato ora con lode ora con biasimo ,ma pur con efficace zelo ,dalla generazione vivente suggerì a tutti il bisogno di assestare in forma di piazza gli spazi disordianti che lo accerchiano inconsapevolmente.Una piazza del Duomo ,degna del tempio e della citta’ e del più bello ed ubertoso fra i regni d’Europa, è divenuta un desiderio universale” Carlo Cattaneo 18 “the next fulfilment of the Dome, forwarded hour with praise hour with blame, but also with effective zeal, from the living generation suggested to all the need to arrange in the public shape of the square shape the disordered spaces that surrounded it .A public square of the Temple of the city worth the comparison to the other reigns of Europe, it has become a universal desire” “Risolta ormai la questione del completamento della facciata del Duomo ,si pone ora il problema dello spazio antistante la cattedrale ,il quale risulta irregolarmente delimitato dal misero e popoloso isolato del Rebecchino…” “Solved by now the issue of the completion of the facade of the Dome, the problem of the space in front of the cathedral came out ,which turns out irregularly ,delimited from the poor and crowed housing block called Rebecchino” On the political plan :the enthusiasm for the French –Piedmont’ s victory on Austro-Hungarian domination ,manifests in the purpose to dedicate to the king Sabaudo , one of “some monumental” work which handed into the posterity of that national event” “ qualche opera monumentale la quale tramandasse ai posteri quel nazionale avvenimento”19 The solution delineated from the plan of architect Gian Luigi Ponti is that one of the opening of one new street between public square of the Dome and public square of the Scala theatre .This reasoning is an occasion for the Committee and investors to polarize the economic interests of the city in order to obtain the right of forced expropriation of the areas and the pieces of real estate touched from the demolition plan. See illustration –Il piano della Commissione del 1860(RBS).

17 � Sedutadel Consiglio Comunale ,in data 22 agosto 1862,BCM ,AM <<la �� via Vittorio Emanuele ,anziche’ aperta e dotata di portici sar a’ invece coperta a vetri riservata esclusivamente ai pedoni .Ferma la sua direzione perpendicolare all’asse del Duomo essa avr a’ una larghezza netta fra i 12 e i 15 metri ed un’altezza tale della tettoia da comprendere due piani superiori oltre gli ammezzati ed il piano terreno . Essa sara’ decorata elegantemente e soprattutto abbondantemente ventilata.Il progetto relativo e’ indipendente da quello della piazza del Duomo>>. 18 � Sul progetto d’una Piazza del Duomo Il Politecnico Vol I 1839. 19 � Seduta del Consiglio Comunale ,19 august 1959,BCM,AM. ��

FigV Piazza del Duomo -commission plan 1860 Raccolta civica stampe Bertarelli,Milano

a arch.Caimi proposal b arch.Pavesi proposal c arch .Pestagalli proposal d arch .Beccaria proposal e arch.Ponti proposal f arch. Zuccari proposal g arch .Amati proposal

FigV Piazza del Duomo -commission plan 1860 Raccolta civica stampe Bertarelli,Milano

FigVI Piazza del Duomo -Mengoni project 1863 Raccolta civica stampe Bertarelli,Milano

The stage of competitions 1860-the first stage. It resulted from a long series of competitions for the monumental development of the cathedral square . The first of these competitions was opened to the public by the city on July 21st,1860 . There followed a number of smaller competitions with a limited number of participants . The architect Carlo Amati envisioned a cathedral square expanded to the west ,north, and south which would be bordered by arcaded walkways surrounding the square in a semicircle on the west side. A tunnel street was planned only for the cathedral axis. Beccaria proposed a wider square ,arcaded ,U-shaped, and strictly related to the cathedral. It would continue in two sections on the north side and on the echo of the transept façade of the cathedral. (see illustration) Caimi submitted two proposals .The first was similar to Beccaria’s ;he envisioned a polygonal enclosure of the square on the west and one running straight across on the north. A path designated as a bazaar is included ,however , approximately at the presence entrance to the arcade, connecting the Piazza del Duomo to the Piazza San Fedele. An octagonal space was planned for the centre of the arcade; this widening corresponds almost to Mengoni ‘s proposal of 1863 . See illustration Beccaria and Caimi project (RSB) Fig V/d/a A city commission judged the submitted projects without coming to any conclusion. 1861-1863-the second and the third stage In February 1862 an initial competition was announced among eighteen invited participants; the announcement provided the set up of a basic scheme advice ,which the participant were free to modify. The cathedral is set off in an oblong square ,the west side of which is arcaded .It is divided into three building groups On the North ,the Nuova Galleria Vittorio Emanuele is presented as a street with promenades on both sides and a glass covering down in the middle . In the south is the pendant to the arcade entrance located ,the Loggia Reale ;across a standing structure with surrounding arcaded walkways and connecting passages to the neighboring sections of the building. Since the Piazza del Duomo would be closed to vehicles, a new street network around the square was proposed which would allow an up-to-date traffic solution.20 The final outcome of the competition does not see the attribution of the first prizes but only the allocation of four indemnities to the plans that the Commission thinks mainly adherent to the municipal demands. An interesting innovation element is caught a glimpse in the system to Greek cross of the covered gallery, proposed of job Fears and hopes “Temo e spero” , from the architect Gaetano Martignoni , who moreover assigns to the via Vittorio Emanuele exclusively a pedestrian function. The Dante plan of architect Giuseppe Mengoni conquest one particular mention from the Commission, for its thoroughness and clear the reasonable representation . The plan open itself to the style of the communal palaces of the XIV sec.; Mengoni provides moreover the use of terracotta for the windows framing , evident quotations of the decorative taste of the 1400’s Lombardic. Mengoni adhered to the metric plan type proposed from the Committee of the first competition, choosing to strengthen, with the adoption of a double run porticato ,the income of the new via Vittorio Emanuele and that one of graft of Real Palace. Both constitute the heads of the two wings of portico that limit the new public square. On the elevations the two elements take shape of an triumphal arc, repeated also on the central axis to face the Dome cathedral. Gradually the idea of a public covered promenade crystallized out a numerous of plans to built a major new structure between the cathedral and the Scala Theatre . Up to this stage we don’t have documents concerning the architectural design level of the Galleria. In the Dante proposal ,in fact, the arcade ,that would connect the Piazza la Scala with Piazza del Duomo, is presented only as a space and not yet as a building. 20

�� Luigi Tatti committee proposal - Barigazzi,G. “Cento anni in galleria”Milan 1957.

FigVII Piazza del Duomo -Mengoni project 1863 “ Dante proposal”

“Mengoni planned two small theaters only ,at the entrance, diagonally oriented towards the proposed triumphal arch: a Teatro dell’Opera Comica and a Teatro dell’Opera della Commedia. Only one double line in the plan ,north –west of the arcade space, refers to the eventual possibility of a building. An octagon is planned for the centre of the arcade ;but transverse with missing wings . The diagonal exit onto Piazza della Scala is accommodated by an apse ,which corresponds partially in form of its construction.”

“In the Dante proposal ,in fact, the arcade ,that would

connect the Piazza la Scala with Piazza del Duomo, is presented only as a space and not yet as a building.” FigVIII Piazza del Duomo -Mengoni project Final proposal

“Mengoni’s original proposal consisted of an arcade with

a polygonal dome covered space in the middle . In the final version ,however ,he extended this plan into a figure of a cross, even through the traffic pattern ,which did not warrant this form. He sought symbolic forms based on historical models :the Roman triumphal arch as gateway; the inferior spatial proportions of an ancient baths ;the dome above a cross ,the diameter of which was exactly that of the dome of St Peter ‘s in Rome . This proved by his sketch dated 1865 where the Octagon in the middle of the axis is inscribed in a circle which correspond with the circumference of San Peter Dome.”

FigIX Milan,Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II 1865-1867;triumphal arch 1877 Ground Floor plan-arch.Giuseppe Mengoni

Mengoni planned two small theaters only ,at the entrance, diagonally oriented towards the proposed triumphal arch: a Teatro dell’Opera Comica and a Teatro dell’Opera della Commedia. Only one double line in the plan ,north –west of the arcade space, refers to the eventual possibility of a building. An octagon is planned for the centre of the arcade ;but transverse with missing wings . The diagonal exit onto Piazza della Scala is accommodated by an apse ,which corresponds partially in form of its construction . The Dante proposal gives no indication on the drawing that the passage would be glass covered, but the architect with his urban design choice awarded the commission to build the arcade. See illustration(Dante Proposal)progetto Mengoni (RSB). The third stage The communal council receives finally the proposal to name three architects: “everyone of which is designated to form a new plan for the public square of the Dome and as well for the Vittorio Emanuele street” . The architect Giuseppe Mengoni has the nomination as “which author of the better job introduced to the competition “, while the other nomination turns out for Giuseppe Pestagalli. The proposal of Pestagalli is guided with the attempt to create a system of monumental, specular spaces regarding the main axis of the Dome. The main public square, in front of the cathedral, is sluiced on three sides from a continuous curtain building, in which , with the employment of large arches, the street outlets and the accesses to two smaller polygonal public squares are masked. Pestagalli foresaw ,moreover, the lay out of two wide diagonal ways, one correspondent to the via Cappellari, the other symmetrical to it, whose directions converge to leave from the ends of the new road approved from the Communal Council, in the centre of the forehead of the Dome. See illustration of Pestagalli design (RSB) Fig V/c Il progetto Mengoni Invited to produce a second proposal, Mengoni modified its initial proposal called Dante. He reduced the deepness of the public square, increased the facing palace of the Dome and opened a regular space on the configuration of elevations of its buildings. The architect established the thickness of the palace destined to close the western side (45m) so that for the deeper public square the 112 meters remain .This deepness is double of the height of the facade of the Dome and sufficient to catch the optical cone scene of the factory ensemble. Mengoni’s design established the alignments and the main dimensions of the public square and focused the attention on the choice of the bodies of fabric of the public square and on the composition of their facades. He introduced the cruciform plan which enlightens the arcade into a central place of public activity independent from the cathedral square and granted its structural autonomy. “Una piazza e’ uno spazio libero fra diversi edifici.La piu’ adatta sua decorazione sara’ quella che corrisponde alla natura degli edifici stessi”.21 “A public square is a free space between various buildings . The most adapted decoration will be that one that corresponds to the nature of the same buildings” The solution for the new covered street , in comparison with the first proposal of the Dante plan, mainly had been specified in its essential trade functions, shaping itself like a wide destined covered passage to the pedestrians. “ a coloro cui e’ negata la fortuna di guadagnare spazi coi veicoli….e accoppiare i vantaggi e le comodita’ di una via cogli agi di un ‘immensa e splendida sala” “to those people who deny the fortune to earn spaces with the vehicles... is to combine the advantages and the usefulness of one street with comfort of an immense and magnificent hall ” 21 �

A.Belluzzi,<<Architettura �� 1789-1868>>,in AA.VV, i concorsi curlandesi 1785-1860,Bologna 1980.

The Gallery was preannounce therefore as the laically altar in the presence of the monumental cathedral. The Mengoni interpreter of its time and of its architecture ,was in the van of its contemporaries who were enabled to understand his work. Its radical participation on the public square of the Dome had created uncertainty in the Milan inhabitants who were used to live certain spaces with different values, and were incapable to adapt themselves quickly to a change of image use. The new intervention on the public square has meant relevant destructions of city spaces ,typologies and former activity for the collective memory. Camillo Boito was in charge as promoter of the safeguard of the ancient use of public square , his position was shared also from Carlo Cattaneo . This later one in his essay : “the public square, useful and pleasant place for the citizen, heart of the city , if it has modified and torn down the buildings that delimited it, would lose its primary function as a favorable place for social relations and for encounter.” (In Fact the Gallery assumed later this role ,becoming the living room of the Milan) Design square Proposal. Mengoni’s original proposal consisted of an arcade with a polygonal dome covered space in the middle . In the final version ,however ,he extended this plan into a figure of a cross, even through the traffic pattern ,which did not warrant this form. He sought symbolic forms based on historical models :the Roman triumphal arch as gateway; the inferior spatial proportions of an ancient baths ;the dome above a cross ,the diameter of which was exactly that of the dome of St Peter ‘s in Rome . This proved by his sketch dated 1865 where the Octagon in the middle of the axis is inscribed in a circle which correspond with the circumference of San Peter Dome. “If the nearby cathedral represents the body of Christ ,the arcade represents a kind of Pantheon of Bourgeois society” Il pantheon of Milano Mengoni is inspired by the “palazzi comunali”of XVI century and from the “snellezze eleganti dell’arte ogivale del Duomo” The architect, in his second design proposal version , isolated the arc as entrance to the Gallery, hence increased the proportions (the ideal triumphal arch ), and created with the insertion of two lateral terraces the regression of the fronts in correspondence with the presence of the theatres. Moreover he enriched the decorations of the buildings of residential use, ennobling them with the cornice under a subordinate frieze , in which small windows of the last floor are inserted. “ The combination of apartments above arcaded shops remained successful however in Italy and in France ,inspiring the builders of the Galleries du Palais Royal in Paris 1781,in which ten years later was the setting for the first Parisian arcade”.22 The architect opened the great arch in the gallery building in front of the Dome: “inteso come liberta’ e giudizio il corpo centrale postato in fondo alla nuova piazza,in modo quasi da formare un arco trionfale alla nuova via” (the great arch) “meant as freedom and as judgment ,the central body posted in the bottom of the new public square, in the way to form a triumphal arch to the new street”

22 �

Mac Keith, Margaret “ The history and conservation of shopping arcades”pp.11 ��

1864-1867 The period under construction : “ grandeur willing” despite the economical reasons. The building project period of the gallery is characterized by increasing difficulties between the building companies and the dissatisfaction of the expropriated public opinion. In the end of the September 1865 the building company had been entrusted to carry out the necessary demolitions, even that one of the Coperto Figini, and of those areas being necessary for the continuation of the works for the feature Gallery towards the public square of the Dome and for its cross-sectional arm. In short time all the receipts in delivery manufactured were torn down , except the Tallacchini house, and the building of the Theatre of the King. See illustration of Dome fabric ,before the construction of the Gallery Vittorio Emanuele II.ACD See illustration of demolition and beginning of the Gallery work ,1865 RSB Thus the delineated building operation took place: “reform of that most stowed and less regular dwelling part that occupy the centre of city”, provoking the expulsion of residents and traders. In order to avoid the closing of all the shops the English company “City of Milan Improvements Company Limited” supplied to prepare the temporary shops in wood. The Gallery constitutes not only a representative, but also remunerative architecture, proposing itself like a participation of land speculation to high yield. In the beginning of 1865 ,the first two demolished blocks were ready for the reconstruction. On the seventh of March, a tracing covered by carpets and delimited from flags introduced the open space of the future octagon and the first stone was place in a solemn ceremony in presence of the king. An exceptional construction yard in the history of Italy. Mengoni worked with the Joret company of Paris, for the execution of all the works in iron of the shed of the covered way. In 1867 the construction of the shed of the Gallery is completed: the centering are placed in work, began the cover of the cupola, and the construction of the striped glass plates of St Gobain is worked out . The elevation of the inner span of the Gallery takes advantage of coverings and stucco decorations, under the direction of architect Bragaldi. Granite for the hoof of the facades and the stones Saltrio and Viggiu’is employed for pedestals and contours with lesene , for some part of the pediment , for thresholds and architraves. For all the remaining decorations, Mengoni employed putty and terracotta , to which applied colors that simulate the natural stone. Hence the English Society stipulated the contract for the four decoration of lunette of the octagon, whose entrusted execution is made by many painters from Milan: Eleuterio Pagliano, Raffaele Casnedi, Angelo Pietrasanta, Bartolomeo Giuliano. The pictorial program includes the representation of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, showing in allegorical terms, on the background of representatives elements of the artistic culture of every continent. They complete the figurative cycle on lunette of the entrances ,east and west the allegorical representations of the Art, Agriculture, the Industry and at last of Science. The studies of lighting gas system in sight of the opening to the public are completed at last. At last the statues are placed, one in correspondence for every lesena of the octagon one for part to flank of the four entrances of the gallery. The statues called of the illustrious men, represent on one hand that personalities of that time and on the other of the past that have contributed to the formation of one culture and one Italian tradition. References between cultural tradition, limbs, architecture as a message quotations to add. The inauguration ceremony took place on the 15 September 1867, honored from the presence of the king Vittorio Emanuele II. The day of the inauguration, the 15 September 1867, lacked however the proscenia for the great show: with the realization of the arch of the main entrance , a series of vicissitudes events followed after the other :the bankrupt of The City of Milan Improvements Company Limited and the acquisition from the municipality of the entire Gallery property.

Fig .X Perspective view of the new piazza del Duomo “verso il palazzo di fondo”. Raccolta stampe Bertarelli,Milano. FigXI View of the Dome factory before the construction of Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II. Photo by Luigi Sacchi,1860.Milano,Archivio Civico Fotografico. View of demolition in the beginning of the construction of the Gallery in the place of the central octagon.1865. Photo by “raccolta di fotografie per la costruzione della Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II of Milan. Milano,Civica Raccolta Stampe A.Bertarelli.

Fig.XII Icilio Calzolari,1870ca.Milano ,Archivio Civico Fotografico.

XI Fig XIII Planimetria del primo lotto di demolizioni con l’indicazione delle aree e delle quote di esproprio nel tratto da piazza della Scala all’ottagono centrale . Fontanelice,Archivo Mengoni.

Fig XIV Caricatural drawing :demolition of Coperto Figini. Milano,Civica Raccolta Stampe A.Bertarelli.

XII

XIII

XIV

The Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II was finally completed on February 24,1878 with the triumphal arch. The arch signed the conclusion of the construction work of the gallery but at the same time signed the death of its planner who fell from a scaffolding in the eve of the definitive inauguration of the work. But the cathedral square construction came to a standstill; neither the Palazzo dell’Indipendenzia nor the Loggia Reale was built . The Gallery crowded and illuminated in the evening became then the place privileged of the city report. The arcade here, has been the “ cuore della citta’” (hearth for the city) or “ the great urban monument” for hundred years in Milan. For 100 years it has been the backdrop for favorite stories ,the mirror of daily life in Milan “ speculum of the city” with political demonstration events ,showcases and exhibitions. Hence the monumental phase of Arcade dealt as national and political symbol, so that the gallery is the great representative building of the nineteenth century and the monument of reunion of Italy after 1860. “Hall”, “wide bazaar”, “entrance hall of fantastic palace”, “festino di Baldassarre”; they were no limits to the efforts of the journalists of the eighteen century to describe sense of wonderfulness’ , wealth’s and sumptuousness’ ,transmitted by gallery Vittorio Emanuele II in the 1867,date of its inauguration. The great character of a large stage-design was impressive , tied to the remarkable dimensions of the work, to the rich covering of an architecture that held the supremacy of being the most criticized of that time. To the Gallery as spectacular stage design joined the idea of Gallery as endowed place of intrinsic vocation to the use of a collective space: comings and goings of public in the great hall, ritual of encounter, on the marked and slow rhythm step of the flaneur or on the hurried step of the laborers and the seamstresses directed to the job. Its architecture assumed the meaning of a lived place, container of gestures and daily behaviors value underlined by exuberant backdrops. The major of Milan address the king: “Sire, the city of Milan is confident that this great building, the result of the happy marriage of Italian artisan with foreign capital, and an opportunity of great benefit to the working class, to whose well-being our thoughts constantly turn as if they were our own cares, will owe its success to Your Majesty. ”major Beretta “A Farewell to Arms” Ernest Hemingway “A tramp abroad” Mark Twain

Fig XV Galleria Vittorio Emanuele Milano. Maria Mulas ,sculputure by Bruno Contenotte all’ottagono,1982

The arcade here, has been the “ cuore della citta’” (hearth for the city) or “ the great urban monument” for hundred years in Milan. For 100 years it has been the backdrop for favorite stories ,the mirror of daily life in Milan “ speculum of the city” with political demonstration events ,showcases and exhibitions.

Fig XVI Umberto Boccioni. La rissa in Galleria,1911. Pinacoteca di Brera. Fig XVII Schetches by Gae Aulenti ottagono della Galleria per Un viaggio a Reims, Gioacchino Rossini allestito con la regia di Luca Ronconi alla Scala.Milano,Archivio teatro alla scala.

The act of construction The interior façade of arcades have one motif which occurs again and again : the arcade The prototype of arcade: Palais Royal (Paris) –Colosseum ( Rome) Classical colonnades are literally transposed into the building type of Modern arcades. The glass roof of nineteenth century arcades never mask their own structure. The construction is the central moment of architectural design ,the focal point of the discipline ‘s many definitions,seen precisely as art of construction. The engineering aspect must therefore extend beyond its own technical construction logic ….the logic of contruction shows such consistency in terms of the relations between means and ends that it has succeeded in trasmitting an idea of truth .This the reason of admiring technical forms ,which explicitly reveal their practical function.Much of contemporary culture tends to merge technical forms with the idea of modernity .Yet the limits of this position are clear. ….When the construction takes precedence and is set apart from the other phases of the creative ,conceptual process of design ,the meaning of the work is reduced to a sort of technical virtuosity.23 “Arcade are all children of the same mother: Industry”Kollhoff In the Arcades project of the XIX century architects are demanded to interpretate the culture of the community they design for and to translate the aspiration of the time into this architectural form. Galleria vittorio Emanuele II The huge employment of the iron and cast iron in every part of its construction, constitutes a new element for the Italian background , behind in comparison to the foreign experiences. Here the support and needs to employ the French –Parisian company for providing those materials. The total realization of the plan of the Public square of the Dome moreover, had demanded the employment of remarkable quantities of metallic materials also in relation to the fact that the application of elements in iron was not limited to the single shed of cover and to the finish parts of the gallery, but invested more rather the entire structural conception of the buildings. The materials employed were used for the realization of the decorative parts too. The arches of the arms of the Gallery are based on over cast iron supports, which are firmed by granite blocks: this system is planned by Chizzolini’s engineer, who had concurred to avoid the employment of chains or pulling in order to balance the horizontal pushes. The cupola set up on a having octagon the sides of 14,50 m, is made of sixteen circular struts with beam lower surface of 20 m and connects by seven rings placed with equal long distance along the meridian. All the skeleton is constituted by structural parts (membrature)having a double T section and decorated with fretwork ornaments. Of sixteen centering : eight adopt a position on the vertex of the octagon, berthed to sturdy supports of cast iron; four are leaned on the keys of metallic arches correspondents to the arms of the Gallery; four cross the blind “lunette” of the building sides of the octagon and took place on bearings supported by iron beams. In particular, the rafters that fall on the axis of the arms are fixed with double metallic arch looking on to the octagon with the interposition of a box element in cast iron and are joined together to the key of the arc through one decorated corbel. Rafters ,that intersect the wall of fresco , are based on a pedestal of cast iron and ribbings, supported from two T beams that join as a bridge between the walls that finish the service corridor. A skylight concludes the top of the cupola, the maximum height of 5,25 m, which is superimposed to the spider ring by eight light columns .

23 �

Monestiroli, Antonio –The �� Metope and the Triglyph- Question of Method

All the construction phases are documented in an album by the photographer E.Heyland, from building stage of the roof to floor mosaic. The pictures show the almost primitive bare brickwork of the arcade with tile roofing on the adjoining buildings and the construction of the glass roof. To built the dome ,scaffolding was erected to its lower edge; n the center a wooden tower supported the lantern ring. Turn able scaffolding made it possible to work on each part of the structure. First ,the perforated arched beams were placed on their supports, then the circumferential supports were installed, and then the ribbing ,which held the overlapping panes of glass. The interior faรงade were put up along with the roof .Finally the floor mosaic was brought in , and the space facing the Piazza del Duomo was temporarily closed off.

Fig XVIII-XIX Construction of the entrance arch of the Gallery,1877. Milano ,civica raccolta stampe bertarelli. Satiric Drawing of the monumental arch of the Gallery,1878. Milano ,civica raccolta stampe bertarelli.

Fig XX Octagon Ceiling cover section,(Lâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;architettura del ferro,1879-1883) Fig XXI Cross section of Gallery (Milano Tecnica).

Fig XXI Construction of the entrance arch of the Gallery,1877. Milano ,civica raccolta stampe bertarelli. Satiric Drawing of the monumental arch of the Gallery,1878. Milano ,civica raccolta stampe bertarelli.

Fig XXII Interior of the Gallery Vittorio Emanuele II after the contruction works. Milano ,civica raccolta stampe bertarelli.

Fig XXIII Hierarchy of interior facade 5 levels ,one setback balcony

“The pictorial program includes the representation of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, showing in allegorical terms, on the background of representatives elements of the artistic culture of every continent. They complete the figurative cycle on lunette of the entrances ,east and west the allegorical representations of the Art, Agriculture, the Industry and at last of Science.”

Fig.XXIV Incisions by G.Gallieni “i quattro continenti del mondo” : Euleterio Pagliano ,L’Africa;Raffaele Casnedi,L’America; Angelo Pietrasanta,L’Europa;Bartolomeo Giuliano,L’Asia.

Moscow : Upper Trade Rows –New Trade Halls Gum 1888-1893(The arcade become s a building similar to a covered market or department store) The relation between Red Square and Upper Trade Rows .The relation between Upper Trade Rows and other Urban aritfact of Gostiny Dvor: Cathedral,Musem of History,Gostiny Dvor The role of Red Square in the evolution of Upper Trade Rows. The unsolved problem of the Square: the need for the square. As in Milan we cannot talk about the design of the Gallery without mentioning the stage of Dome square competitions, as well in Moscow we cannot avoid to look back to the history and to the development of Red Square ,which represent the urban setting where the Upper Trade arcades project is set. The role of celebrative square:�� The Agora’ Red �� Square. Everything in Russia began in Red Square, from religion and politics to history and commerce: the Kremlin and the Trade Halls face each other and the Historical Museum and St Basil ‘s cathedral define the short sides of rectangles. Red Square ,in fact ,is the showplace of the nation ,the place where the decrees of the czars were read ,at first space for markets and parades ,the for revolutions and demonstrations, was given its general outline at the end of the nineteenth century. Since former time under the east wall of Kremlin the square represented the setting for the bustle of street traders. In the 16th century it was called Troitskaya (Trinity) Square after the Holy Trinity Church which stood where St. Basil’s Cathedral is now to be located. Only from the mid-17th century it became known as Krasnaya Plošcad (Red) Square, that in old Russian this simply meant ‘beautiful .’ I In the middle ages the land of Red Square was originally covered with wooden buildings, but cleared by Ivan III’s edict in 1493, as those buildings were dangerously susceptible to fires. The newly-opened area (originally known simply as the Pozhar, or “burnt-out place”) gradually came to serve as Moscow’s primary marketplace. The oldest forms of trading establishments still in existence were the related phenomena of street vendor and the open air market. The old Russian town market in form of square was occupied by a chaotic accumulation of Wooden stalls, cages, storehouses. Until the end of the eighteenth century the quarter across the Kremlin ,called kitaigorod was extending until the Moskva River. By the XV century the Red Square had already established itself as a centre of Russian trade. Merchants had set up their stalls in this historic space and the market square shifted then from the Kremlin to the other side of Red Square in Kitai Gorod. Kitai Gorod is known as one of the most famous Russian districts of trade ,where during the last half of nineteenth century new types of trading establishments appeared. The trade activities of Red Square districts rapidly assumed a permanent and durable form with stalls being converted into enclosed shops ,and thus evolved into a characteristic Russian commercial form with oriental overtones :the Trade Rows. The Red square was also used for various public ceremonies and proclamations: occasionally as the site of coronation for Russia’s tsars and for religious ceremony. On days of great church festivals there was a religious procession from the Kremlin to the Red Square, and on such days the whole square was would fill with people, and it had the appearance of an open-air church ,in front of the cathedral.

The Reconstruction of Red Square Because of celebrative and grandeur willing ,the Tsar Alexander I, engaged the Italian architect Giacomo Quarenghi as the person in charge for the reconstruction of medieval Red Square in a fashionable neo-Palladian model(Fig.2). The Quarenghi proposal had as issue to re-order the impact of the old square and to design the scenic façade of the Trade Rows in order to expand the market hall (gostinny dvor) with colonnades on all sides . A sort of Stoa’ element with column and corridor in order to achieve a designed square system and in order to hold the chaos behind and the bustle of the trade Rows. The 1786 signs the date in which start the construction of a row of shops directly on Red Square ,consisting of arcaded galleries along the Kremlin wall and across from it . The architect documented his urban design square plan on several lithography, but those documents went under various improvements, by Bové�� who substantially modified the original design . The architect Joseph Bové took part in the great plan of reconstruction of Moscow after the big fire of 1812, when the Napoleonic Army failed to conquer the city. In 1815 the neoclassic gallery was replaced by the New Trade Hall Building. Bové’s building extended the length of the site which GUM covers today;it was elongated ,had projecting wings,and a central temple portico ,which however,obly concealed the shop alleyways behind it.

« En 1820 ,la place Rouge est trasforme’e ,les galleries merchandes qui separaient jusqu’alors des murs du Kremlin disparaissent;la perpective des murs cre’nele’s et des tours a couronnement pointu du Kremlin conduit juqu’au fleuve ,decouvrant l’eglise Basile.La Place Rouge,la Place Manege,les Jardin Alexandre cree’nt ainsi un vaste ensemble de parade. Le noveau plan prevoit aussi l’ouverture d’espaces publics dans Kitai Gorod[...] » J.–M. Pérousse de Montclos “Moscou : patrimoine architectural”(Paris, Flammarion, 1998)

Fig.XXVI Red Square in Moscow with trading Rows designed by J.Quarenghi ,end of XVIII Century. From architecture as an engine of trade.Project Russia 1999,n 17 pp.33

Trade Rows and Gostini Dwor:the Russian retail typologies. The Kitai Gorod trade district is respectively divided in precise retail areas : The Gostiny Dvor in between the I’linka and Varvarka streets, and the Trade Rows which occupied the East side of the Red Square. Novy Gostini Dvor Gostiny Dvor occupies a substantial portion of Kitai- gorod, and is the first Trade House building in Moscow. Formerly accommodating both shops and warehouses, it was constructed of brick in the XVI century. As the Russian capital expanded and the old structure became overcrowded, a new indoor market was completed nearby in 1665. The Novy Gostiny Dwor “new Bazaar” is a three –storey building with an internal courtyard and a tower over the entrance. Here the typology can be compared with the Grand Baazar in Istanbul: with rectangular courtyards ,arcades, housing ,warehouses and residential accommodation for visiting merchants. This kind of accommodation can be considered as a primitive form of hotel. Gostiny Dvor is in fact a courtyard of visitors and his Bazaar typology was the only type of trading building employed until the middle of the nineteenth century. This first form of trade building was object of the reconstruction plan of Giacomo Quarenghi. The architect replaced, in 1789, those medieval buildings with a new shopping mall designed in a sober Neoclassical style with innumerable Corinthian columns and arcades. Architecturally it must have been strikingly modern at the time of its construction.

Fig.XXVII The Moscow Kitai -Gorod trade quarter ,1846 a-Upper Trade Rows b-Middle Trade Rows c-Lower Trade Rows d- Gostiny Dvor e-Museum of National History

Fig.XXVIII Red Square: perspective view of Upper Trading Stalls I.O.Bove,1813 From History of Gum www.gum.ru

Trade Rows arcades The Kitai Gorod is subdivided in three Trade Rows establishments : major sections Upper, Middle and Lower trade rows.Fig. XXVII �� The Upper Rows increasingly assumed retailing function, while the others tended to whole sale specialization: every individual row or passage was concentrated on particular specialties By the beginning of the XIX century the «passazh» ways between the rows had been roofed over and produced then a primitive arcade form. The smallish unit opened at the front during business and shuttered at night called« Lavka». The process of physical modernization of the traditional lavka and row forms, centred around the development of a new form of shop; the« Magazin » and the combination of magazine into a new type of arcade gave life to the Passazh form. The Trade Courtyards and as well the Trade Rows refer in terms of categorization in goods to the Grand Bazaar in Istanbul and Oriental Bazaar. “The nearest thing in the Western World is GUM ,the Bazaar of Moscow ”. The trade Rows have a similar structure of arcades ,which accommodated local trade in small goods ,and are organized in linear form instead of having an internal courtyard. In Moscow the functions of the individual trade house and the market are combined. The old trade Rows were designed by Giacomo Quarenghi in 1786, were brought over by O.I.Bove: he took the responsibility for the construction after the 1812 fire . Fig. �� XXVIII The Bove design of the Upper block facade was made a s a temple front and with two side wings scaenographically holding the chaos of the trade behind. But by the 1860s it had fallen into disrepair and was becoming unmanageable for modern commerce. The condition of the blocks was bad and difficult to reorganize because every stall belonged to a different owner, and the trade rows built by O.I.Bove were torn down in 1870.

Fig.XXVIX Reconstruction of I Upper Trade Rows (Verchine-Torgoye-Rjady) 1889 designed by Pomerancev II Middle Trade Rows 1893 designed by Klein

�

Pevsner,Nikolaus “ A history of building types” �� pp.257-272 (London 1976) ��

Upper Trade Rows: Verknie Torgovye Ryady The rebuilding of the Upper Trading Rows was a turning point in Russian architectural history, not only because it represented the apogee of the search for a national style but also because it demanded advanced functional technology applied on a scale. “While the trade Rows was cramped ,cold ,and shabby the passage was spacious heated and elegant . The challenge was mouldering Upper Trade Rows on Red Square against apirited resistance of their occupants.” The former Trade Rows were object of an architectural competition, in order to develop a new typology for high level trade in the quarter to attract the bourgeoisie. The winning proposal was by Aleksandr Pomerantsev that with his New Upper Trade Rows Verknie Torgovye Ryady combined the typology of a Western Bazaar typology and the European arcades . We are in front of a temple of consumption for “flanneurs” which exalts the image of Imperialist Moscow of Alexander I. Pomerantsev derived his plan from the galleria, or passage , which had been used elsewhere in Europe—most notably in Milan—as well as in Russia for fashionable retail trade throughout the nineteenth century. The leitmotif of arcade ,loggias , column ,balustrades , decoration gives to the complex an Italian Renaissance style and a Neo Classical foot –print typical of St Petersburg city ,more closed to the idea of a Western European typology used according to W. Benjamin as a dreaming consumer space. “…One knew of places in ancient Greece where the way let down into the underworld. Our waking existence likewise is a land which ,at certain hidden points ,leads down into the underworld-a land full of inconspicuous places from which dream arise .”24 In his design for the facades, each facade of the trapezoidal structure shows a different articulation, saturated in motifs borrowed from sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Muscovite architecture. The leitmotif of the exterior façade is inspired from the Russian monastery and basilica architecture. Here the characters of another building on the border of red Square are recognizable :the Museum of National history. Pomerantsev , like Shervud ‘s Historical Museum,, organized decorative details in a balanced scheme dominated at the main entrance by two symmetrical towers in the style of the Kremlin walls. Pomerantsev used a sharply moulded string course between the floors to emphasize horizontality and to separate the layers of decorated window surrounds and arches. On the main facade each level is a different type of stone: red Finnish granite, Tarussa marble and limestone, all capped with a massive cornice. The ostentatious style of the building represented a gesture of historical consciousness on the part of the merchants who paid for it. The size of the new Upper Trading Rows, with 1,000 to 1,200 shops for retail and wholesale trade represents an important data to reinforce how this Trade building is until now considered as one of the main temple of consumption. Inside are three parallel arcades connected by passageways. Each arcade has three levels, with rows of shops on the first and second and offices on the third. Walkways of reinforced concrete span each gallery on the second and third levels; iron and glass arched skylights provide illumination. The Verknie Torgovye Ryady represent the prototype for a public infrastructure with several layers :bridges, staircases, galleries, and balconies. The use of reinforced concrete for the interior walls and vaulting eliminated the need for thick masonry support walls and provided the space for circulation and light. For maintenance, there was a network of basement corridors, beneath which was a subbasement with heating boilers and an electrical generating station. 24 �

Benjamin ,Walter “ The arcades project” –The arcade of �� Paris. Translate by Howard Einland and Kevin Mac ��

Laughin ,1999

The ceiling realized by the engineer Vladimir Shukhov ,reveal a glass and metal structure, a new technique for Russia at the time, inspired from the celebrity Cristal Palace of J.Paxton in London. A filigran tension system is employed to cover the roof, whose diameter is 14 meters. It looks light, but it is a firm construction made of 819 tons of metal. Illumination is provided by huge arched skylights of iron and glass, each weighing some 820 tons and containing in excess of20,000 panels of glass. The middle and wider gallery has a central space covered by a dome, moreover to consecrate this temple of trading and control we could even find details from Russian church architecture and decoration from nearby Kremlin Royal Palace. The Upper Trading Rows revealed a fundamental disjunction between the national style and the rational, functional demands of modern urban architecture.

Competition In 1869 the neglected condition of the new trade hall Bové’s building ,motivated the governor general of Moscow to request of the city government a comprehensive reorganization of the market section; customers had already begun to do their shopping elsewhere. In 1888 the city succeed in organizing all of the ship-owners into a corporation with municipal participation ,thus preparing the way for a new building in the grand style. The capital of the corporation amounted to nine and one-half million rubles and consisted of taxable property belonging to the corporation. A competition was announced on November 15,1888 ,for the Upper Trade Halls, which in addition to practical ,publichealth considerations ,was directed toward completing Red Square on a grand city planning scale. The stage of competitions Twenty –three architects registered for the competition .The winner of the 6,000 ruble first prize was ,� Alexander Nikolayevich Pomerantsev of St.Petersburg. The other prizes went to R.I.Klein from Moscow and Weber from Vienna. A gigantic structure went up according according to Pomerantsev ‘s plans, a huge arcade complex with a logical system of longitudinal and lateral concourses ,galleries ,and bridges which made every space of three levels easily accessible .The building block represent a city of booth multiplied into monumental ,using an alley system as its organisational scheme. The dedication of the new Upper Trade Halls took place in 1893 .The ceremony honoured a three- story shopping centre, using an arcade as a system of access. R.I. Klein ,the second price winner ,was hired several years later to built the Middle Trade Halls ,which would serve wholesale trade. After the 1917 Russian Revolution ,the Upper Trade Halls were converted into GUM the State Universal Department Store. In the 1930 Stalin closed it ,and it served as a military hospital during World War II. It returned to its status as a department store after Stalin death. Today it is a place where everyone in the country wants to go ,the house of superlative.

When lavka s had been covered creating the primitive forms of Arcade.

Fig.XXX Inner view of Upper trade rows- Moscow early twenty century. Fig.XXXI Inner view of Upper trade rows arcade transformed in a military hospital. Fig.XXXII Red Square perspective :Upper and Middle trade Rows facade (courtesy of Franziska Bollerey) Fig. XXXIII View of the main entrance arch -Gum department store.(Courtesy of arch.Marco Piras МАРХИ university.)

Luca Beltrami â&#x20AC;&#x153;passanti in Galleriaâ&#x20AC;? XVIII century.Milano Archivio civico Fotografico.

The great character of a large stage-design was impressive , tied to the remarkable dimensions of the work, to the rich covering of an architecture that held the supremacy of being the most criticized of that time. To the Gallery as spectacular stage design joined the idea of Gallery as endowed place of intrinsic vocation to the use of a collective space: comings and goings of public in the great hall, ritual of encounter, on the marked and slow rhythm step of the flaneur or on the hurried step of the laborers and the seamstresses directed to the job. Its architecture assumed the meaning of a lived place, container of gestures and daily behaviors value underlined by exuberant backdrops.

Material :Iron architecture and universal exhibitions. From beginning to the end of 700’s, the great development of the technology of the iron and the discovery of its applicative ductility one in the building field, seemed to constitute ,one of the little elements assign to you to carry some news in the architecture and in the engine-eristic fields of the successive century. Mentionable work ,under the use of those new techniques, �� remained the consolidation apparatus of the cupola of Saint Peter, 1743-1747, from the Vanvitelli. The treaty of Rondelet defines the iron “the most strongly material employed in the construction of the buildings”. They are the two parallels lines of evolution that allow the new conquests: on the plan of the material quality we passed from the employment of the cast iron to the use of the steel, while on the forehead of science of the constructions the theoretical acquaintances improved who ran in the realization of the bridges suspended by arco di catenaria. “Ora il ferro e’ chiamato a sostenere un ruolo piu’ importante nei nostri fabbricati”25 The problem of the employment of the iron is born from the lack of an independent expressive language of the technology of such material to outside of the constructions of specifically technical character. The advantage of the employment of the iron can instead be represented from the strong affinity of the gothic architecture and the nature of the operation of the metallic structures: The application of the iron to the neogothic style. From the research in the application of the material derives combination between iron and glass, which thanks to the new workings acquire greater abilities to resistance and new application potentiality ,find its official celebration in 1851, in the great theatre of the universal exposures. Use of cast iron columns and beams had the additional advantage of easy assembly. Façade iron had a further advantage : the members could be thinner than members of wood or stone and allowed more light to enter. Hence iron conquered the architecture of market hall and exhibition buildings ,of train sheds and factories. See Cristal Palace ,J.Paxton Even the arcade, with its duty and characteristic proper of an exhibition trade urban building, is affected from the use and the advent of iron ,which is employed for the ceiling construction, in contrast with the massive and decorated stone wall. A typology which combine the tradition of stone architecture and the experience of handcraft sculptors with the technology and the progress of the engineers techniques ; a typology which mark the line between tradition and the development of a flourishing industrial era. The city gallery represents within the advent of the railroad, in its metropolitan version, the entrance in the picture of the city decorum. The iron and the cast iron techniques are symbols of the overbearing process, they bring to modern shape some of the great European metropolitan cities , from the Ring of Vienna to Haussmanian’s Paris to the London of Nash until to the Barcelona of Idelfonso Cerda. The total realization of the plan of the Public square of the Dome had demanded the employment of remarkable quantities of metallic materials, in relation to the fact that the application of elements in iron was not limited to the single shed of cover of the Gallery and to the finish parts, but invested the entire structural conception of the buildings.

25 �

E.Viollet le Duc,Entretiens �� sur l’architecture, Parigi 1863.

“L’impressione gradevole e duratura viene specialmente prodotta dalla tettoia in ferro e vetri che tutta ricopre la Galleria con un singolare effetto di leggerezza,chiarezza di composizione […] Cosi’ il ferro appariva solennemente tra noi come materiale in concorrenza colle classiche strutture murarie e di legno,non piu’ relegato alle funzioni subordinate di tiranti e chiavi,ma elevato alla dignita’ che gli si conveniva per le sue quantita’ resistenti ed elastiche” 26 “�� The long-lasting and pleasant impression is especially due by the shed in iron and glasses that all covers the Gallery with a singular effect of lightness, composition clarity [... ] Thus the iron appeared solemn as a material in competition with the classic structures building and the wood construction , not more relegated to the subordinate functions of pulling and keys, but elevated for its resistant and elastic quantities” The new engine eristic cover stimulated the attention of the writers which wrote some epithets like “the acoustic shed”, the “crystal vault”, “the dorsal iron thorn”. The poet Giuseppe Ungaretti defines the time of the Gallery a “pond” of glass under which the diaphanous atmosphere from “Aquarius” was spread. The Gallery was characterized as ensembles of spaces and buildings that acquired the greater expressivity for being closed from a glass sky. But moreover the literary references, the covered iron ceiling constituted the product of an advanced technology whose merit was up to the Mengoni for the ideation and to the French company Henri Joret for the realization. Through railroad 353,000 kg of iron from Paris were sent , subdivided in parts :in segments, centers, arches and rings. The cover had demanded one new organization of yard, not meant like handicraft bricolage of members, but as exactly assembly of done pieces, prefabricated object chain factory

26 �

A.F.Jorini, “ La Cupola della Galleria Vittorio Emanuele in Milano”,L’edilizia �� moderna n.1,1982

FigXXV. Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II ,Milano Top View of the ceiling ,Photo by Mario de Biasi 1985. Left View of inner aisles ,2007. Middle Detail view of ceiling detail. Right View of the Cariatides statue along the inner facade.

Fig.XXVI Inner view of Gum store ,formerly Upper Trade Rows. Inner octagon square ceiling construction;view of iron and glass skylight placed on the intersection of galleries aisles,courtesy of Franziska Bollerey collection ;view of Iron and glass skylight under construction design by Vladimir Shukhov.Torgovye riady na Krasnoi ploshcadi v Moskve .Courtesy of the Slavic and Baltic division,New York public library. Four Inner view of the main central aisles passages.2007 Courtesy of arch.Marco Piras МАРХИ university.

GUM :from the arcades to department store. After the Russian Spring Revolution in 1917 ,the Upper trade Rows became the state owned store of GUM : Gosudars Tvennyi universal’ny Magazin. It was closed during the second war world. In this time its huge structure with three different floors, thousand shops-rooms, central and secondary streets ,was used as another collective public space of a military hospital. It remained closed during the dictatorship of Stalin who wanted to tare down the Gum Stores for the construction of the new ministry of heavy industry. The Gum store reopened in 1953 and with it, different detail of the building had been handled(Fig.14).In the interior: with ornate arches and elaborated heavy decorations, ceremonial staircase in the major entrance. The retail spaces is surprisingly related with the idea of holy space (typical of the contemporary shopping mall ,where the consumer sin is absolved from the element of the space; where fountains, arches, and the idea of other classical elements give a fake sacred atmosphere ,where consumers freely forget about the political control (in the case of Soviet retail) or developers market economy control (in the case of capitalism society). GUM Arcade represented , in its unusual plan-form, a monument of trade in the Soviet Moscow. It is an immensely busy and bustling area, which may not have resisted with the concurrence and the low budget investments of other retail super-malls. GUM showcased the state’s aspiration to bring a world of style, quality, and beauty to ordinary citizens at an affordable price. GUM invited workers and peasants, men, as well as women to its “dream world,” vowing to make the consumption of mass-manufactured basic goods a classless, gender-neutral activity guaranteed by a benevolent state. The firm assembled a large staff that included executives, sales workers, and other staff employees, as well as artists and writers to implement daily sales operations and to broadcast its message to consumers. Together these various movements and philosophies provided inspiration for the founding of the socialist retail sector. Idealism , pragmatism ,old and new commercial methods and styles , co-existed when a state retailers blended characteristics of the department store with ideals enshrined in socialism and the cooperative constructivist, and rationalist movements to construct a retail system dedicated to oppose private commerce and modelling new norms of buying and selling. Gum and the national trade propaganda. Advertisement trade propaganda “…The repackaging of consumer goods and marketing of revolutionary slogans, imagery, and personalities suggests that socialist leaders were not opposed to the acquisition of consumer goods, if the meanings and purposes attached to them were recast. The task of agitation product marketing became to offer consumer goods as products of a state seeking to build a socialist society, not of capitalist entrepreneurs seeking profit by indulging consumers’ extravagant caprices. Consumption in the service of an industrialized, cultured, egalitarian society was permitted, indeed, even encouraged In setting up a retail network, commercial officials were naturally also guided by the principles of socialism. Business reformers sought to maintain the fiscal and organizational benefits of mass retailing, especially economies of scale, while ridding state stores of such pernicious aims as profit and the satisfaction of the whims of coddled customers. The political ideal of the primacy of the worker became a guiding rule for state stores, turning on its head the old commercial axiom that the consumer was king/queen.” 27 The world of goods advertisement’s is not an unknown force in the USSR, as well as in the capitalistic Weastern World, advertisement represent a tools of control a persuasion way to encourage and make confidence with the costumer. The Soviet advertisement slogan and poster are here used with politic propagandistic way ,in fact GUM stores confidently presented itself as the pre-eminent merchant in the USSR. Its advertising staff emphasized this status in its creation of an identifiable, distinctive image and messages of universality, style, and value that broadcast the firm and its promise of mass consumption. Advertisements in 27 �

Example of �� propaganda advertisement extract from Journal of Social History. ��

Hamilton,L.Marjorie Retailing the revolution :the State Department Store and Soviet Society in the 1920s 2004 .

popular commercial media displayed GUM’s distinctive logo and slogan: a circle topped by “GUM Moscow,” underscored with the inscription “The State Department Store,” and featuring in the center the all-inclusive motto “Everything for Everybody.” Catchphrases informed readers: “We Have Everything You Need at GUM!”, “The Latest Styles only at GUM!”, and “Colossal Assortment of High-Quality Merchandise at Prices that the Competition Can’t Beat!” The firm also proudly trumpeted its role as principal purveyor, billing itself as “The Only True State Department Store,” a slogan that suggested that only The State Department Store could provide a world of goods and services to a large constituency of consumers. Clothe the body, Feed the stomach, Fill the mind— Everything that a person needs at GUM he will find. Consumer! You commit a crime against yourself, Against your family, Against the state, When you shop at a private shop. 28

28 � Example of �� propaganda advertisement extract from Journal of Social History. �� Hamilton,L.Marjorie Retailing the revolution :the State Department Store and Soviet Society in the 1920s 2004 .

The Role of Public Realm of Moscovites consumer Spaces. The goal of Alexander ‘s edict to move the role of a Market Square - as centre of the vivid public life social and sellers activities of a city -into a trade building, succeeded with the constitution of Upper Trade Rows. The earlier spontaneous Rows along the Red Square became a real crowded system of activities: a parallel miniature city with its own rules, stalls ,owners, and inhabitants :the customers. When the Lavkas had been covered creating the primitive forms of Arcade, this has to be considered as an architectural and urban event which tells us about the character of Russian traditional markets. The traditional form of Bazaar with narrow street, lavka and magazine roofed over by the same vendors ,represent up to know a generic Russian cover market square form. For example the Central Market of Kaliningrad ,which occupies a former Prussian Building and is not a planned complex for trade , offers his courtyards to several Trade Stalls Rows which are organized in the same primitive system of the Muscovites Trade Rows. Those spontaneous market spaces faced the contrast with the ambition of a celebrative square for the city and a proper trade building for the customers at the same times. The intent of Giacomo Quarenghi for the replacement of the medieval trade district was to bring models from the classicality and adapt them in a modern context . As a modern Agora’ ,the Red Square is delineated by the Cathedral on the south east and bordered by trade Row buildings .The last ones with their neoclassical façade and the repetition of arches ,columns gave a hierarchical façade system for a closed square. The later Trade building of I.O.Bove ,as a heritage of the Quarenghi plan, is a linear block element which faced the Kremlin wall and designed the east side of the square. This building ,which was an open colonnades system, can be consider as a Modern Stoa’ element. The entire Red Square has a visionary Agora’ appeal: the Krasnaja street represents the main way as a starting point to the connection with San Petersburg :the Russian Acropolis. Ultimately , The Verknie Torgovye Ryady ,the New Upper Trade Rows Building represents for Moscovites the New for Of Bazaar Arcades . The close building with internal eclectic streets for the bourgeoisie , is a modern icon for the new flourishing Moscow ,which plays an European trade role as other prominent cities as London, Paris and Milan The setting of the Gum store arcades aside a celebrative and religious square, is a characteristic recognizable as well of the Milan Dome Square .There the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II (1865-77) offers goods on the main elegant and alive trade streets which connect the Cathedral to the Theatre Square. The Verknie Torgovye Ryady arcade bazaar, renamed Gum department store, represent until now one of the most important temple of consumption ever in Russia and remarkable for the rest of West Europe. The trade building is transformed in the first State department store, becoming a modern trade institution. However Arcades typology has never disappeared from developer’s vocabulary: the shopping arcade in fact has influenced the development of modern shopping centres. These have been built on much larger scale than any other arcade ,with car parks and bus stations ,with covered malls for pedestrian use only and repetitions in their shop fronts with decorative details ,nevertheless their architecture does not correspond ,for proportion ,to the corridor arched over eighteen century. The Gum stores with the Modernism Russian stone Façade, in contrast with the light technology of the Glass Roof system, it can be considered an architectural monument than a monument of trade .

Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II and Upper trade Rows arcades project. The comparison between this two study cases will take account of the definition of arcades of Johann Friedrich Geist,who states the following technical points as crucial for an understanding: Upper trade Rows arcades project access to the interior of a block and system of access For access to the block it’s meant a “ system of special access ,which enabled construction of great numbers of apartments and shops” GUM has the outline of a parallelogram,90 meters at the ends and 250 meters down the middle. It’s bordered by Red Square ,Ilinskaya, Vetoshnichiny Proyezd, Nikolaskaya. There are three entrances on each of the four sides ,each leading to three longitudinal arcade spaces and to the three lateral concourses, which are only two stories high. These interior streets divide the entire block into sixteen units which are all connected to another on all three levels by steps ,galleries ,and bridges. Each unit is broken up by longitudinal and lateral walls […] between which thin mobile walls allow for flexible partitioning. Contra rotating stair cases, running from one longitudinal corridor . The polygonal opening in the center of the intersecting corridors is reminiscent of the arcade in Milan, although the lateral wing does not reach the roof level on the longitudinal wings. The glass pendentive dome and the grand fountains are more orientation points within network ,more resisting or pausing areas ,than necessities of the design. The decisive feature of this building is the totally accessibility of the rooms ,the multiple access to the individual shops, and the penetration of the levels by competing walkways. Just as Palais Royal was the prototype of the arcade, the Upper Trade Rows were the model at the end of the century for multileveled public systems of access. The multiple spaces provoke surprising perspectives, unintentional meeting ,and streams of movements. Here we find a city within a city .29 The arcade do not serve any traffic function within the city plan ,but are rather a network of internal access ,orientation and circulation. Public space on private property The public space here is represented by the interior promenade and by the two wide squares in correspondences of the middle of the blocks ,enclosed interior courts . -

skylight space �� Till 1890 Shukhov created exclusively light arch structures with thin inclined tightening. Even today these arches serve as bearing elements of the glass vault over the biggest Moscow shops: GUM (former Upper trade lines) and Petrovskiy arcade.

form of organizing retail trade The ground plan of the arcade ,which ,including the cellar has seven floors in every part ,is constructed according to a simple scheme.A network of concealed intersection supports,like those later in the Moscow Trade Halls,allows a fairly flexible use of space on all floors.Staircase and sanitary facilities are located on the rear side of the arcade buildings and are accessible throught the courtyards so as not to disturb the visual unity of the façades of the arcade.The staircase are located as a rule on the through streets in the lateral wings between the courtyards .Their situation allows a rear delivery system and separated rental of the upper stories. The seven floors of the arcade contain a total of 1260 rooms .Both the ground floor and the mezzanine are occupied by shops of varying size , showrooms of large firms, cafes, and restaurants which number among the finest in the city. The thrid floor is occupied by rented clubrooms , offices,and studios; the four upper stories ,the uppermost of which is above the arcade space,are residential. “The arcade is a conglomeration of individual shops and occupies a specific place in the development of the organizational from of retail trade” It represent one of the most organize retail trade for the Moscow society and one of the first exaple of trade city for the rest of Europe. Over 200 private firms maintainde retail stores in the Upper Trade Rows until the Russian Revolution There

29 �

Geist , Johann Friedrich ibidem pp.413 ��

were over 1000 rooms at their disposal ,whose size could be easily changed ,as they could be re-arranged within a support system and had light ,mobile walls. Deliveries were made to the cellar,through which vehicles could be driven. Today is considered the house of superlative 30:there are two and one and half kilometers of counters over an area of 47,000 square meters selling weres of all kinds. After the 1917 Russian Revolution ,the Upper Trade Halls were converted into Gum the state universal departemnt store. -

space of transition The transition here is not only made by interior promenades and walkthrought area,but even by the different destination use the building complex had over the years. In the XX century Upper Trade Building was the main arcade building in all Russia ,with typological influences from Eastern Bazaar . “The bazaar is a series of coutyards and rooms with skylights,light wells,and multileveled,continuos galleries.It resemble the arcade in that it serves reatil trade ,is built into already developed sites,possesses numerous exits to different streets ,and lacks the arcade’s transitional nature. The bazaar is a predecessor of a dipartment store because of its spatial organization ,the arrangement of the open sales booths around a light well ,and the extensive variety of goods.[…] Like the arcade ,it represents an effort to create higher forms of organization for reatil trade ,place where anything can be bought .It gives way to the depratment store and exhibition hall.”31 “The bazaar is an adaption from the East ,the true principle of which is the classification of trades.”32 The relation between outside and inner space was made…not anymore a covered market ,but a proper inner city arcade building.even if in the beginning the elevators and climate system was not optimized as in the laters renovation. After the 1917 Russian Revolution ,the Upper Trade Halls were converted into Gum the state universal departemnt store. In the 1930 Stalin closed it ,and it adapted its typology as military hospital during the second world war. “If a building serves a public purpose and its open space is structured according to the system of the arcade ,it can become a departement store ,market hall,bath house,prison…”33 It returned to his status as a departemnt stores only after Stalin death ( 1953), “ Today is the place where everyone in the country wants to go ,the house of superlative” There are two and half kilometers of counters over an area of 47,000 square meters ;behind them ,7,000 retail merchants .

30 � Geist , Johann Friedrich –Arcades �� , The History of a building type – Milan-Moscow pp.403 31 Geist , Johann Friedrich ibidem pp.49 32 � Knight, William Curiosities of London, 1855 �� 33 � Geist , Johann Friedrich ibidem pp.28 ��

Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II -

access to the interior of a block and system of access The plan of the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele describes a Latin cross whose center has been expanded into an octagon , on which a majestic spherical cupola is rising up representing the central body of the all building complex. It connect two squares and two smaller secondary street to one another. “Arcades[…] constructed like a church in the shape of a cross (in order to connect with all four surrounding streets ,these privately owned, publicly traversed passages displayed commodities in windows showcases like icon in niches” The plan , based on a metric -plan of four wings meeting in the octagon centres and covered respective from four vaults sheds and a cupola, and marked from a triumphal entrance towards public square of the Dome. The cupola which is based on the octagon ,has a diameter of 37,50 meters “L’ arco trionfale d’ingresso che risponde ai canoni di un modello di matrice classica massiccio ed eccessivo si distaccano dagli interni che ,seppur con bizzarro Eclettismo, rappresentavano uno spazio d’insieme amalgamato.” �� The triumphal arch is the monumental introduction to the arcade . It bears the inscription “ To Vittorio Emanuele II from the Milanese people” The triumphal arch is a part of a continuous colonnade which borders the Piazza del Duomo on the north. Only the middle arch, with a height almost equivalent to that of the glass roof ,leads into the arcade. The exit onto Piazza della Scala is also triumphal arch , which, however , is set off from the facades only by glyphs. The arch is an opening in an apse with two smaller gates less than 45 degrees .Only one opens onto the arcade. Above it is a passage with windows on both sides which connects the arcade buildings .

public space on private property The Gallery estabilish an obvious urban relation character,because is used mainly as a connctive celbrative inrastructure between two focal point of the city center.Hence its public caracther is strongly define by the elegant covert promenades . The public space is private property is morevoer delineated by the ground floor which is public ,with shops sold to investors. The cellar were used ,instead,by the private building company as storages or small offices. symmetrical street space The plan of the Gallery describes a Latin cross whose center has been expanded into an octagon becoming then a Greek cross. It connect two square and two secondary streets to one another. The arcade space has street dimensions . The main measurements include: longitudinal wings 196.62 meters, lateral wings 195.1 meters, area of arcade space 4.195 square meters area of rotunda 1.148 square meters, diameter of rotunda 36.6 meters , concourse width 14.5 meters ,height to wreath mounding 27.05 meters, height to the first ring of dome 30.15 meters ;height of vault 29.28 meters, height to apex of dome 41.83 meters; height to the top lantern 47.08 meters. These measurements were only exceeded by later arcade; the length by the Moscow Trade halls. skylight space The skylight employed for the Gallery is the two layers mode: an exterior glass roof and an interior dust cover. Here we are in front a ceiling skylight See Material :Iron architecture and universal exhibitions. form of organizing retail trade and space of transition The ground plan of the arcade ,which ,including the cellar has seven floors in every part,is constructed according to a simple scheme. A network of concelead intersection supports ,like those later in Moscow Trade Halls ,allows a fairly flexible use of space on all floors. Staircase and sanitary facilities are located on the rear side of the arcade buildings and are accessible throught the courtyards so as not to disturb the visual unity of the façades of the arcade. The staircase are located as a rule on the throught streets in the lateral wings between the courtyards . Their situation allows a rear delivery system and separated rental of the upper stories.

The seven floors of the arcade contain a total of 1260 rooms. Both the ground floor and the mezzanine are occupied by shops of varying size.,showrooms of large firms,cafes , and restaurants which number among the finest in the city. The third floor is occupies by rented clubrooms ,offices and studios ; the four upper stories ,the uppermost of which is above the arcade space are residential. As in Moscow Trade Upper Stall ,we find in the Galleria the contrast -motif based on inner and outside façade s of the arcade building. The narrow bays of the four stories façades are accentuated by two –storied Ionic pilasters on double pedestals ,with ornament reminescent of the early Renaissance .The pilasters support a broadly projecting moulding which serves as a balcony. On the fifth floor ,the pilasters become caryatids ,which alternate with square,richly framed windows. The support for the iron beams of the glass correspond exactly with the lines of pilasters on the interior façades .The transition between wall and roof is unorganic . The filtering of light through glass differs from the solidity of the exterior façade . The arcade is a typology which its type evolved during the century. The Upper Trade Rows and the Gallery are both late expression of the arcade development ,which alredy granted its success in Great Britain and France before,but they developed in a different ways. The Gallery is an obvious and celebrative urban characther for the connection among two square,while the Upper Trade Rows later Gum stores is developing itself as a closed block ,indipendent trade city . Here the urban connection might be revealed on the relation of its neoromanic façade in connection with the other Red Square fabbric building as the Museum of history ,that estabilish a fierarchy of facades wings. Those opposite way of the Gallery and Gum Moscow trade arcade are due to the different urban situation. The Moscow settlement is closing the side of the Red Square to focus the attention on the celebrative rectangular square . The Gallery Vittorio Emanuele II is ,instead ,opening with a triumphal arch an elegant passage to connect the two main city center squares:Dome and Scala theatre square. Upper Trade Rows is a huge volume block focusing the circulation inside its structure,the place of staying on inner space,the Gallery is a place of crossing ; both are succeding on the way of shopping atmosphere. The later Gum department store is mainly focusing on trade activity thus to developing into a department store,while the Gallery has not only shops acitvities ,but apartament and office too :is a covered street setting,the theathre of flanneurs, for workers who just cross the infrustrcure and politician debates So in this way, as for the square we meant the Agora of the city, the galleries still achieves the quality of a proper urban square ,much more then the huge planned Cathedral space, that with its huge space was less succeeding than the covered gallery.

Fig XXVII Typology Plan:Cross section type :street and central space. Cross and longitudinal diagram section:one set back Level types ,triple height ,entrance building on a central space.

System of access :Upper stories accessible only from the gallery.

Fig XXVIII Typology Plan:quadruple cross section Cross and longitudinal diagram section:two set back Level balconies types ,triple height .

System of access combined lenghtwise and lateral access. many bays and triple corridor crossing.

References Monograph Pevsner ,Nikolaus “A history of Building types”pp.257-272 ( London 1976). Latour ,Alessandra “Mosca 1890-1991:guida all’architettura moderna”(Roma-1985). Pozzi ,Emilio “In Galleria cuore e specchio di Milano”(Electa,Milano 1987) Geist , Johann F. Arcades: “The History of a Building Type” (The MIT Press; 1985) �� Mac Keith ,Margaret “The history and Conservation of Shopping Arcades” ,(London 1986). Gioeni , Laura “L’affare Mengoni ;piazza Duomo e la galleria Vittorio Emanuele .I concorsi ,la realizzazione, i Restauri”(Milano,Guerini associati ,Milano 1995) Montclos Chvidkovsky , J.–M. Pérousse de Montclos “Moscou : patrimoine architectural”(Paris, Flammarion, 1998). Buck-Morss, Susan “The Dialectics of Seeing: Walter Benjamin and the Arcades Project” (Studies in Contemporary German Social Thought) by (Paperback - Jul 1, 1991) Brumfield, William Craft. The Origins of Modernism in Russian Architecture. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1991 1991. http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft1g5004bj/ Heynen ,Hilde “Architecture and Modernity: A Critique”pp.96-118(Boston, MIT ,1999). Inaba ,Jeffrey ; Koolhaas, Rem ; Sze Tsung ,Leong “The Harvard Design School Guide to Shopping / Harvard Design School Project on the City 2” (Koln, Taschen, 2001) Guidarini ,Stefano “Il mutevole concetto di tipo:studi sulla tipologia edilizia,l’architettura,la citta”(Milano,Clup, 2003). Wall Alex, “Victor Gruen: From Urban Shop to New City”(Barcelona ,Actar,2005)

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