Trade Rows- Consumer spaces in the Soviet Society

Carlotta Pinna b1238728 Lectures on great metropolitan cities AR0361

Trade rows and consumer spaces The evolution of Kitai Gorod in Moscow

contact: c.pinna@student.tudelft.nl mobile 06-33827911

C.Pinna Adrienmildersstraat 74a 3022 NK Rotterdam

Contents Introduction - I-

Consumer spaces in the pre-revolutionary Moscow.

- I I - The Agora’ Red square.

- I I I -Trade Rows and Gostini Dwor:the

Russian retail typologies.

Novy Gostini Dvor Upper Trade Rows

- I V - Upper Trade Rows: Verknie Torgovye Ryady

- V - GUM :from the arcades to department store.

Gum and the national trade propaganda.

Coda - V I -The Role of Public Realm of Moscovites consumer Spaces.

References and Sources.

-IConsumer spaces in the pre-revolutionary Moscow.

The issue of this research attempts to investigate the market activities and the trade building forms of Moscow ‘s city centre between XIX and XX century .

It is focusing on the aspects of social-architectural typologies and on the position of Moscow as a great metropolitan city between East and West.

The 19th century represents for Moscow a period of flourishing of economy, culture, demographic increase and consequential transformation of urban asset of the city.

The strategic position of the Russian metropolis for trade traffic among Europe and Asia, had influenced the typological character of the market and consumer spaces and confirms his role of one of the main capitals of trade.

Moscow represent a real capitalism reference city not less than other main European capital as Paris, Berlin ,London and Milan.

The rise of trade traffic of XIX century ,forced to move the market activities from the Kremlin to the Red Square which represents for centuries the cradle of trade.

The research takes as guide line the evolution of consumer spaces in the Russian society focusing on the role of the Red Square “Krasnaya ploshchad”1, known as a main square of Moscow and all Russia.

The analysis starts with relevance of Red Square as the main market way ,moving through the trade activities organized in the Trade Rows pattern (placed on the west side of the Square) , until the reorganization of those market forms under monumental buildings as the Middle Trade Rows and Upper trade Rows Torgovye Riady .

The report ends examining this last project whose gallery typology was adapted to hold one of the government department store of Russia: GUM (Godudars Tvennyi Universal’ny Magazyn).

Those consumer spaces were planned and designed according specifics rules and architectural competitions as other relevant public spaces; even the Moscow urban planning was taking account of that.

This investigation attempts to show how those Moscow retail buildings and those urban market spaces played an important social role in the urban city’s context as well as museum ,cultural and religious building .

Fig.2 Red Square in Moscow with Trading Rows designed by J.Quarenghi,end of XVIII century.

From Architecture as the engine of trade .Project Russia 1999, n 17,pp.33.

Fig.1

Russian Empire -Shifting of territories Robert Broesi “Euroscapes:Atlas Euroscapes shifting territories”,pp.13 Amsterdam 2003

-IIThe Agora’ Red Square.

Everything in Russia began in Red Square, from religion and politics to history and commerce.

Since former time under the east wall of Kremlin the square represented the setting for the bustle of street traders.

In the 16th century it was called Troitskaya (Trinity) Square after the Holy Trinity Church which stood where St. Basil’s Cathedral is now to be located.

Only from the mid-17th century it became known as Krasnaya Plošcad (Red) Square, that in old Russian this simply meant ‘beautiful.’I In the middle ages the land of Red Square was originally covered with wooden buildings, but cleared by Ivan III’s edict in 1493, as those buildings were dangerously susceptible to fires. The newly-opened area (originally known simply as the Pozhar, or “burnt-out place”) gradually came to serve as Moscow’s primary marketplace.

The oldest forms of trading establishments still in existence were the related phenomena of street vendor and the open air market. The old Russian town market in form of square was occupied by a chaotic accumulation of Wooden stalls,cages,storehouses.

By the XV century the Red Square had already established itself as a center of Russian trade.

Merchants had set up their stalls in this historic space and the market square shifted then from the Kremlin to the other side of Red Square in Kitai Gorod.

Kitai Gorod is known as one of the most famous Russian districts of trade ,where during the last half of nineteenth century new types of trading establishments appeared.

The trade activities of Red Square districts rapidly assumed a permanent and durable form with stalls being coverted into enclosed shops ,and thus evolved into a characterisitic Russian commercial form with oriental overtones :the Trade Rows.

The Red square was also used for various public ceremonies and proclamations:occasionally as the site of coronation for Russia’s tsars and for religious ceremony.

On days of great church festivals there was a religious procession from the Kremlin to the Red Square, and on such days the whole square was would fill with people, and it had the appearance of an open-air church ,in front of the cathedral.

Because of celebrative and grandeur willing ,the Tzar Alexander I engaged the Italian architect Giacomo Quarenghi as the person in charge for the reconstruction of medieval Red Square in a fashionable neo-Palladian model(Fig.2).

The Quarenghi proposal had as issue to re-order the impact of the old square and to design the scenic façade of the Trade Rows. A sorta of Stoa’ element with column and corridor in order to achieve a designed square system and in order to hold the caos behind and the bustle of the trade Rows.

The architect documented his urban design square plan on several lithographies of 1786, but those documents went under various improvements, by Osip Bove who substantially modified the original design .

The architect Bove took part in the great plan of reconstruction of Moscow after the big fire of 1812 ,when the Napoleonic Army failed to conquer the city.

I-The name of Red Square derives not from the colour of the bricks around it, nor from the link between the colour red and Communism

<<Deux jours apre’s notre arrive’e, l’incende commenca[...] un vent violent se leva qui repandit le feu a’ una vitesse extreme.

C’etait un ocean de feu;le ciel ,le nuages n’etaient plusque fume’e et poussie’re,les flammes tournoyantes et rouges e’taient comme des montagnes>> Napoleon Bonaparte

En 1820 ,la place Rouge est trasforme’e ,les galleries merchandes qui separaient jusqu’alors des murs du Kremlin disparaissent;la perpective des murs cre’nele’s et des tours a couronnement pointu du Kremlin conduit juqu’au fleuve ,decouvrant l’eglise Basile.La Place Rouge,la Place Manege,les Jardin Alexandre cree’nt ainsi un vaste ensemble de parade.

Le noveau plan prevoit aussi l’ouverture d’espaces publics dans Kitai Gorod[...]

J.–M. Pérousse de Montclos “Moscou : patrimoine architectural”(Paris, Flammarion, 1998).

-IIITrade Rows and Gostini Dwor:the Russian retail typologies.

The Kitai Gorod trade district is rispectively divided in precise retail areas : The Gostiny Dvor in between the I’linka and Varvarka streets,and the Trade Rows wich occupied the East side of the Red Square.

Novy Gostini Dvor Gostiny Dvor occupies a substantial portion of Kitai-gorod, and is the first Trade House building in Moscow.

Formerly accommodating both shops and warehouses, it was constructed of brick in the XVI century.

As the Russian capital expanded and the old structure became overcrowded, a new indoor market was completed nearby in 1665.

The Novy Gostiny Dwor “new Bazaar” is a three –storey building with an internal courtyard and a tower over the entrance.

Here the typology can be compared with the Grand Baazar in Istanbul: with rectangular courtyards ,arcades, housing ,warehouses and residential accommodation for visiting merchants. This kind of accommodation can be considered as a primitive form of hotel.

Gostiny Dvor is in fact a courtyard of visitors and his Bazaar typology was the only type of trading building employed until the middle of the nineteenth century.

Fig.3

The Moscow Kitai Gorod -trade quarter,1846 a-Upper Trade Rows b-Middle Trade Rows c-Lower Trade Rows d-Gostiny Dvor e-Museum of National History

This first form of trade building was object of the reconstruction plan of Giacomo Quarenghi.

The architect replaced, in 1789, those medieval buildings with a new shopping mall designed in a sober Neoclassical style with innumerable Corinthian columns and arcades. Architecturally it must have been strikingly modern at the time of its construction.

Trade Rows arcades The Kitai Gorod is suddivided in three Trade Rows estabilishments: major sections Upper,Middle and Lower trade rows.Fig.3 The Upper Rows increasingly assumed retailing function,while the others tended to whole sale specialization: every individual row or passage was concentrated on particular specialities .

Fig.4

Red Square: perspective view of Upper Trading Stalls I.O.Bove ,1813 From History of Gum -www.gum.ru

By the beginning of the XIX century the passazh ways between the rows had been roofed over and produced then a primitive arcade form.

The smallish unit opened at the front during business and shuttered at night called Lavka.

The process of physical modernization of the traditional lavka and row forms,centered around the development of a new form of shop;the Magazin,and the combination of magazine into a new type of arcade gave life to the Passazh form.

The Trade Courtyards and as well the Trade Rows refer in terms of categorization in goods to the Grand Bazaar in Istanbul and Oriental Bazaar.

“The nearest thing in the Western World is GUM ,the Bazaar of Moscow”.II The trade Rows have a similar structure of arcades ,which accommodated local trade in small goods ,and are organized in linear form instead of having an internal courtyard.

In Moscow the functions of the individual trade house and the market are combined.

The old trade Rows were designed by Giacomo Quarenghi in 1786, were brought over by O.I.Bove:he took the responsibility for the construction after the 1812 fire . Fig.4 The Bove design of the Upper block facade was made a s a temple front and with two sidewingd scenographly holding the chaos of the trade behind.

But by the 1860s it had fallen into disrepair and was becoming unmanageable for modern commerce.

The condition of the blocks was bad and difficult to reorganize because every stall belonged to a different owner, and the trade rows built by O.I.Bove were torn down in 1870.

II . Pevsner ,Nikolaus “A history of Building types”pp.257272 ( London 1976) See Kirichenko, Moskva na rubezhe , pp. 41-42, with references to archival sources on the design competition for the Upper Trading Rows

-Iv Upper Trade Rows: Verknie Torgovye Ryady The rebuilding of the Upper Trading Rows was a turning point in Russian architectural history, not only because it represented the apogee of the search for a national style but also because it demanded advanced functional technology applied on a scale.

While the trade Rows was cramped ,cold ,and shabby the passage was spacious heated and elegant .

The challenge was mouldering Upper Trade Rows on Red Square against apirited resistance of their occupants.

The former Trade Rows were object of an architectural competition, in order to develop a new typology for high level trade in the quarter to attract the bourgeoisie.

The winning proposal was by Aleksandr Pomerantsev that with his New Upper Trade Rows Verknie Torgovye Ryady combined the typology of a Western Bazaar typology and the European arcades .

We are in front of a temple of consumption for flanneurs which exalts the image of Imperialist Moscow of Alexander I. Pomerantsev derived his plan from the galleria, or passage , which had been used elsewhere in Europe—most notably in Milan—as well as in Russia for fashionable retail trade throughout the nineteenth century.

Fig.5-6 Upper Trading Rows, central passage.

Upper Trading Rows, west gallery (Brumfield M160-20).

The leitmotif of arcade ,loggias , column ,balustrades , decoration gives to the complex an Italian Renaissance style and a Neo Classical foot –print typical of St Petersburg city ,more closed to the idea of a Western European typology used according to W.Benjamin as a dreaming consumer space. …One knew of places in ancient Greece where the way let down into the underworld.

Our waking existence likewise is a land which ,at certain hidden points ,leads down into the underworld-a land full of inconspicuous places from which dream arise.III

III The Arcade of Paris”-Paris Arcade II pag{875} .The Arcades project Walter Benjamin translate

by Howard Eiland and Kevin Mc Laughlin 1999

Fig.8 Reconstruction of I Upper Trade Rows (Verchine -Torgovye -Rjady) 1889 designed by Pomerancev.

II Middle trade Rows 1893 designed by Kliejn

In his design for the facades, each facade of the trapezoidal structure shows a different articulation, saturated in motifs borrowed from sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Muscovite architecture.Fig.11 The leimotif of the exterior façade is inspired from the Russian monastery and basilica architecture.Here the characters of another building on the border of red Square are recognizable :the Museum of National history.

Pomerantsev, like Shervud â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s Historical Museum,, organized decorative details in a balanced scheme dominated at the main entrance by two symmetrical towers in the style of the Kremlin walls.

Pomerantsev used a sharply molded string course between the floors to emphasize horizontality and to separate the layers of decorated window surrounds and arches.

Fig.9 Upper Trading Rows. View of iron and glass skylights under construction designed by Vladimir Shukhov.

Torgovye riady na Krasnoi ploshchadi v Moskve .

Courtesy of the Slavic and Baltic Division, New York Public Library.

On the main facade each level is a different type of stone: red Finnish granite, Tarussa marble and limestone, all capped with a massive cornice.

The ostentatious style of the building represented a gesture of historical consciousness on the part of the merchants who paid for it.

The size of the new Upper Trading Rows, with 1,000 to 1,200 shops for retail and wholesale trade represents an important data to reinforce how this Trade building is until now considered as one of the main temple of consumption.

Inside are three parallel arcades connected by passageways. Each arcade has three levels, with rows of shops on the first and second and offices on the third. Walkways of reinforced concrete span each gallery on the second and third levels; iron and glass arched skylights provide illumination (Fig). 5-6 The Verknie Torgovye Ryady represent the prototype for a public infrastructure with several layers :bridges, staircases, galleries, and balconies.

The use of reinforced concrete for the interior walls and vaulting eliminated the need for thick masonry support walls and provided the space for circulation and light.

For maintenance, there was a network of basement corridors, beneath which was a subbasement with heating boilers and an electrical generating station.

The ceiling realized by the engineer Vladimir Shukhov ,reveal a glass and metal structure, a new technique for Russia at the time, inspired from the celebrity Cristal Palace of J.Paxton in London.

A filigran tension system is employed to cover the roof, whose diameter is 14 meters.It looks light, but it is a firm construction made of 819 tons of metal.Fig.9

Fig.10 Upper Trading Rows. View of iron and glass sky-lights placed on the intersection of galleries aisles.

Courtesy of Franziska Bollerey collection

Illumination is provided by huge arched skylights of iron and glass, each weighing some 820 tons and containing in excess of20,000 panels of glass.

The middle and wider gallery has a central space covered by a dome, moreover to consecrate this temple of trading and control we could even find details from Russian church architecture and decoration from nearby Kremlin Royal Palace. Fig.10 The Upper Trading Rows revealed a fundamental disjunction between the national style and the rational, functional demands of modern urban architecture.

Fig.11 Red Square perspective: Upper and Middle Trade Rows Facade-(Franziska Bollerey collection)

-v GUM :from the arcades to department store.

After the Russian Spring Revolution in 1917 ,the Upper trade Rows became the state owned store of GUM :Gosudars Tvennyi universal’ny Magazin. Fig.12 It was closed during the second war world.In this time its huge structure with three different floors, thousand shops-rooms,central and secondary streets ,was used as another collective public space of a military hospital.

Fig.13 It remained closed during the dictatorship of Stalin who wanted to tare down the Gum Stores for the construction of the new ministry of heavy industry.

Fig.12 Inner view of Gum arcade -Moscow early twenty century

The Gum store reopened in 1953 and with it, different detail of the building had been handled(Fig.14).In the interior: with ornated arches and elaborated heavy decorations, ceremonial staircase in the major entrance.

The retail spaces is surprisingly related with the idea of holy space (typical of the contemporary shopping mall )where the consumer sin is absolved from the element of the space; where fountains, arches, and the idea of other classical elements give a fake sacred atmosphere ,where consumers freely forget about the political control (in the case of Soviet retail) or developers market economy control (in the case of capitalism society).Fig.15

Fig.13 Inner view of Gum arcade transformed in a military hospital -Moscow early twenty century

GUM Arcade represented , in its unusual plan-form, a monument of trade in the Soviet Moscow. It is an immensely busy and bustling area, which may not have resisted with the concurrence and the low budget investments of other retail super-malls.

GUM showcased the state’s aspiration to bring a world of style, quality, and beauty to ordinary citizens at an affordable price.

GUM invited workers and peasants, men, as well as women to its “dream world,” vowing to make the consumption of mass-manufac- Fig.14 View of the interior shop.

Courtesy of Franziska Bollerey collection tured basic goods a classless, gender-neutral activity guaranteed by a benevolent state.

Fig.15 The retail spaces is unpredictable related with the idea of

holy space (typical of the contemporary shopping mall )where the consumer sin is absolved from the element of the space

The firm assembled a large staff that included executives, sales workers, and other staff employees, as well as artists and writers to implement daily sales operations and to broadcast its message to consumers.

Together these various movements and philosophies provided inspiration for the founding of the socialist retail sector.

Idealism , pragmatism ,old and new commercial methods and styles , co-existed when a state retailers blended characteristics of the department store with ideals enshrined in socialism and the cooperative constructivist, and rationalist movements to construct a retail system dedicated to oppose private commerce and modeling new norms of buying and selling.

Gum and the national trade propaganda.

Advertsemnt trade propaganda “…The repackaging of consumer goods and marketing of revolutionary slogans, imagery, and personali-

ties suggests that socialist leaders were not opposed to the acquisition of consumer goods, if the meanings and purposes attached to them were recast. The task of agitational product marketing became to offer consumer goods as products of a state seeking to build a socialist society, not of capitalist entrepreneurs seeking profit by indulging consumers’ extravagant caprices. Consumption in the service of an industrialized, cultured, egalitarian society was permitted, indeed, even encouraged In setting up a retail network, commercial officials were naturally also guided by the principles of socialism. Business reformers sought to maintain the fiscal and organizational benefits of mass retailing, especially economies of scale, while ridding state stores of such pernicious aims as profit and the satisfaction of the whims of coddled customers. The political ideal of the primacy of the worker became a guiding rule for state stores, turning on its head the old commercial axiom that the consumer was king/queen.” IV

The world of goods advertisment’s is not an unknow force in the USSR,as well as in the capitalistic Eastern World, advertisment represent a tools of control a persuasion way to encourage and make confidence with the costumer.

The Soviet advertisment slogan and poster are here used with politic propagandistic way ,in fact GUM stores confidently presented itself as the preeminent merchant in the USSR. Its advertising staff emphasized this status in its creation of an identifiable, distinctive image and messages of universality, style, and value that broadcast the firm and its promise of mass consumption. Advertisements in popular commercial media displayed GUM’s distinctive logo and slogan: a circle topped by “GUM Moscow,” underscored with the inscription “The State Department Store,” and featuring in the center the all-inclusive motto “Everything for Everybody.”

Catchphrases informed readers: “We Have Everything You Need at GUM!”, “The Latest Styles only at GUM!”, and “Colossal Assortment of High-Quality Merchandise at Prices that the Competition Can’t Beat!” The firm also proudly trumpeted its role as principal purveyor, billing itself as “The Only True State Department Store,” a slogan that suggested that only The State Department Store could provide a world of goods and services to a large constituency of consumers.

Clothe the body, Feed the stomach, Fill the mind— Everything that a person needs at GUM he will find.

Consumer!

You commit a crime against yourself, Against your family, Against the state, When you shop at a private shop. V

IV Journal of Social History. Retailing the revolution: the State Department Store and Soviet society in the 1920s 2004 by Marjorie L. Hilton

V Example of propaganda advertisement extract from Journal of Social History.

Retailing the revolution: the State Department Store and Soviet society in the 1920s 2004 by Marjorie L. Hilton

Fig.16 Gum Main central aisle passage 2004. www .gum.ru

Fig.17 Gum Main central aisle passage 1995 www .gum.ru

Fig.18 Gum Main central aisle passage 1953 Collection Franziska Bollerey dia

-vI The Role of Public Realm of Moscovites consumer Spaces.

The goal of Alexander ‘s edict to move the role of a Market Square - as centre of the vivid public life social and sellers activities of a city -into a trade building,succeded with the constitution of Upper Trade Rows.

The earlier spontaneous Rows along the Red Square became a real crowded system of activities: a parallel miniature city with its own rules, stalls ,owners,and inhabitants :the customers.

When the Lavkas had been covered creating the primitive forms of Arcade, this has to be considered as an architectural and urban event which tells us about the character of Russian traditional markets.

The traditional form of Bazaar with narrow street, lavka and magazine roofed over by the same vendors ,represent up to know a generic Russian cover market square form.

Fig.19-

When the Lavkas had been cover creating the primitive forms of Arcade

For example the Central Market of Kaliningrad ,which occupies a former Prussian Building and is not a planned complex for trade , offers his courtyards to several Trade Stalls Rows which are organized in the same primitive system of the Muscovites Trade Rows.

Fig 19-20-21 Those spontaneous market spaces faced the contrast with the ambition of a celebrative square for the city and a proper trade building for the customers at the same times.

The intent of Giacomo Quarenghi for the replacement of the medieval trade district was to bring models from the classicality and adapt them in a modern context .

As a modern Agora’ ,the Red Square is delineated by the Cathedral on the south east and bordered by trade Row buildings .The laters with their neoclassical façade and therepetition of arches ,columns gave a hierarchical façade system for a closed square.

The later Trade building of I.O.Bove ,as a heritage of the Quarenghi plan, is a linear block element which faced the Kremlin wall and designed the east side of the square.

This building ,which was an open colonnades system, can be consider as a Modern Stoa’ element. see Fig.22 The entire Red Square has a visionary Agora’ appeal: the Krasnaja street represents the main way as a starting point to the connection with San Petersburg :the Russian Acropolis.

Fig.20-21

The Central Market of Kaliningrad in fact ,which occupied a former Prussian Building and is a not planned building for trade , offers his courtyards to several Trade Stalls Rows which are organized in the same primitive system of the Muscovites Trade Rows.

Ultimately , The Verknie Torgovye Ryady ,the New Upper Trade Rows Building represents for Moscovites the New for Of Bazaar Arcades .

The close building with internal eclectic streets for the bourgeoisie , is a modern icon for the new flourishing Moscow ,which plays an European trade role as other prominent cities as London, Paris and Milan The setting of the Gum store arcades aside a celebrative and religious square, is a characteristic recognizable as well of the Milan Dome Square .There the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II (1865-77) offers goods on the main elegant and alive trade streets which connect the Cathedral to the Theatre Square.Fig.23 The Verknie Torgovye Ryady arcade bazaar, renamed Gum department store, represent until now one of the most important temple of consumption ever in Russia and remarkable for the rest of West Europe.

Fig 22 The trade building is transformed in the first State department store, Attalo Stoa” Ancient Athena Building methods,Athens 1984 becoming a modern trade institution.

However Arcades typology has never disappeared from developer’s vocabulary: the shopping arcade in fact has influenced the development of modern shopping centres.

These have been built on much larger scale than any other arcade ,with car parks and bus stations ,with covered malls for pedestrian use only and repetitions in their shop fronts with decorative details ,nevertheless their architecture does not correspond ,for proportion ,to the corridor arched over eighteen century.

As a modern Agora’ the Red Square is delineated by the Cathedral on the south east and bordered by trade Rows building that with their neoclassical façade and repetition of arches and column gave a hierarchy façade system of a closed square.

The Gum stores with the Modernism Russian stone Façade, in contrast with the light technology of the Glass Roof system, it can be considered an architectural monument than a monument of trade .

Fig 23 Giuseppe Mengoni,la sistemazione del centro di Milano:Piazza del Duomo ,Galleria Vittorio Emauele assonometria .

(Milano Civica Raccolta Stampe A.Bertarelli;da Vercelloni,Atlante storico di Milano ,citta’ di Lombaridia , Milano 1989)

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Latour ,Alessandra “Mosca 1890-1991:guida all’architettura moderna”(Roma-1985).

MacKeith,Margaret “The history and Conservation of Shopping Arcades” ,(London 1986).

Montclos Chvidkovsky , J.–M. Pérousse de Montclos “Moscou : patrimoine architectural”(Paris, Flammarion, 1998).

Brumfield, William Craft. The Origins of Modernism in Russian Architecture. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1991 1991. http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft1g5004bj/ Heynen ,Hilde “Architecture and Modernity: A Critique”pp.96-118(Boston, MIT ,1999).

Inaba ,Jeffrey ; Koolhaas, Rem ; Sze Tsung ,Leong “The Harvard Design School Guide to Shopping / Harvard Design School Project on the City 2” (Koln, Taschen, 2001) Guidarini ,Stefano “Il mutevole concetto di tipo:studi sulla tipologia edilizia,l’architettura,la citta”(Milano,Clup, 2003).

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Idem, Back to the USSR: interview with Rem Koolhaas, Idem pp. 14-18.

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Sedov ,Vladimir;Architecture as the engine of trade .Project Russia 1999, n 17,pp.33-39 Inaba ,Jeffrey ; Koolhaas, Rem ; Sze Tsung ,Leong “The Harvard Design School Guide to Shopping / Harvard Design School Project on the City 2” (Koln, Taschen, 2001) CD room -Guidarini ,Stefano “Il mutevole concetto di tipo:studi sulla tipologia edilizia,l’architettura,la citta”(Milano,Clup, 2003) Pierini ,Orsina Simona’s Archive Lectures of Analisi delle morfologie e tipologie edilizie.

Broesi ,Robert; “Euroscapes:Atlas Euroscapes shifting territories”,pp.13 Amsterdam 2003. www.gum.ru