Fashion History: The 1970s

The 1970s AN OVERVIEW of the driving influences on fashion

INFLUENCES world events music film

CAROLINE DAVIES Student no. 201009275 Fashion in Context DESN1375

TRENDS

punk disco androgyny

The decade that taste forgot ... or not?

1 December 2016

(Front Cover) Figure 1: Patchwork patterned gypsy dress, 1975 Figure 2: Actress and model, Lauren Hutton, 1971

2

CONTENTS INTRODUCTION

4

WAR AND TERRORISM

6

DEMOGRAPHICS

8

SOCIETY

10

SECOND-WAVE FEMINIST MOVEMENT

12

GAY RIGHTS MOVEMENT

20

ANDROGYNY AND GENDER-BENDING

22

DENIM AND CASUALISATION

28

CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

30

TECHNOLOGY

32

ECONOMIC CRISIS

34

FILM AND TELEVISION

36

DISCO

41

THE PUNK MOVEMENT

42

SCIENCE, HEALTH AND EXERCISE

50

CONCLUSION

54

REFERENCE LIST

56

FIGURE LIST

58

Figure 3: A dress from Bill Gibb’s Celtic collection

Figure 4: Louis FÊraud’s Peruvian wide brimmed hat and floral embroidered shirt, 1973

4

FORGOT ...

“

DECADE “ THE THAT TASTE

A decade of economic hardship, dramatic social movement and rebellious uprising, the 1970s is often remembered as ‘tasteless, uninteresting… and artistically moribund’ (Spicer, A., 2008) especially following the vibrancy of the 1960s.The eclectic nature of 1970s fashion has led to the perception that this time of ‘crisis and confusion’ is ‘the decade that taste forgot’ (Lutyens, D. and Hislop, K., 2009, p.6) whose fashions and trends were chaotic or excessive. However, upon closer inspection, the decade is rich with both new and upcycled trends due to the rapid and extreme social change. The previous perception of ‘Fashion’ was adapting to suit the needs and tastes of newly evolved subcultures, rebellious teenagers and the decay of social constructs.

‘Fashion (with a capital “F”) was simply not in fashion’ (Dirix, E. and Fiell, C., 2014, p.11).

Apparel and appearance no longer established social class, instead it signified personality and expression; a ‘truly modern democratization and individualization of style’ (Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. p.10) and the notion of a ‘supermarket of styles’ (Polhemus, T. 2010) was born.

5

WAR AND TERRORISM The development of fashion trends was strongly influenced by world events in ‘this particularly politicized decade’ (Cole, D. J. and Deihl, N., 2015, p.305).War and terrorism were prevalent throughout the decade; from the withdrawal of US troops from Vietnam to the Munich Olympics attack, rebellion and extremism was at the forefront of 1970s culture. The influence on the fashion industry was apparent, with the emergence of Terrorist Fashion. Mirroring the ‘political and fundamentalist groups’ and their acts of terrorism, ‘no rules applied anymore’ to fashion (Herald, J. 2007. p.6).

Images of soldiers and war were frequently shown across the media channels, influencing contemporary culture and fashion.At the height of the Vietnam War, ‘pocketed fatigue jackets’ and leather jackets, see figure… were worn as a form of protest, mimicking the military uniform.

(Worsley, H. 2011. p.51) This was enhanced with aviator style sunglasses, berets and heavy soled shoes as demonstrated in Daniel Hechter’s “Terrorist-inspired” look, figure 5, which debuted at a 1978 Paris fashion show.

Uniting the laborious efforts of the war with the elite upper class, the popularity of military fashion recognised the ‘efficacy of military specifications and the charisma of heroic accomplishment’ (Whiteclay-Chambers, J. 2000).

6

Figure 5: Daniel Hechter’s Terrorist look, 1978

Figure 6: Calvin Klein’s Honan silk suit, 1973

Military and utilitarian features also influenced everyday fashion in a less extreme manner. For example, the Calvin Klein 1973 beige Honan silk suit, figure 6, provided the wearer with chic style and an on-trend military edge, boasting a military-esque beige tone and four flap-close patch pockets, similar to that of utilitarian military uniforms.

7

Figure 7: A group of teenagers on a park bench, 1976

DEMOGRAPHICS AND THE D Fashion evolution and dissemination mirrors

As Behling suggests, fashion change and

the demographic of the society. ‘The coming of

movement are strongly influenced by the

age of the baby boom generation’ (Cole, D. J.

median age in society. In 1970s America,

and Deihl, N. 2015. p.305) in the 1970s shaped

the median age was 27.9, the lowest in 40

the industries of the decade, which focused

years. (Behling, D. 1985). Fashion began

on younger consumers. Due to this, fashion

in the streets with teenagers and young

evolved

in

adults and trickled-up the social classes as

the early years to a more materialistic

Field’s model describes (1970), challenging

maturity’

the Haute Couture and luxury industries.

(Cole, D. 8

from as

‘playful the

individualism

generation

matured.

J. and Deihl N. 2015. p.305)

DEMISE OF HAUTE COUTURE The demise of these industries led to an

Yves Saint Laurent announced to Elle magazine

entirely new shopping experience, labelled the

that he would ‘concentrate on pret -a-porter’

‘boutique boom’ (Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014.

and his Rive Gauche line as he believed his

p.11). Designer brands struggled to gain custom

‘true public consisted of young women who

due to both the young median age and the

worked’. (Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. p.17) Many

economic

turmoil. Their products were no

brands followed suit and ‘boutiques... continued

longer in demand, so, in order to survive, new

to thrive’ ‘selling more individualised clothing to

diffusion lines were launched with cheaper,

smaller market segments’ (Cole, D. J. and Deihl,

ready-to-wear alternatives in ‘pret-a-porter’

N. 2015. p.310) creating a successful balance

collections. (Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. p.11)

between bespoke couture and ready-to-wear.

9

Figure 8: Oscar de la Renta’s waist-clinching midi-skirt

SOCIETY

10

The free-spirited culture of the 1960s had taken an extreme toll on society and with the stabbing of Meredith Hunter by a member of Hell’s Angels, society began to revert to historic

Figure 9: Arnold Copper for Rakes’s poetic midi dress worn by Pilar Crespi, 1970

sensibility, reflected in the lowering hemlines of popular women’s fashion., see figures 8, 9 and 10 (Dirix, E. and Fiell, C., 2014, P18). However, due to economic hardship, people did not buy into this immediately, so there was resistance to this trend. The new midi length was also considered ‘dowdy and matronly’ (Cole, D. J. and Deihl, N., 2015, P310) by the everyday woman at the beginning of the decade, despite Vogue describing it as the ‘length girls love for the fluid line it gives’ (1970. p.131). It was indeed a stark contrast to the previously popular mini skirt that could still be seen in the ‘vernacular wardrobe’ (Cole, D. J. and Deihl, N., 2015, P310).

This

trend

disseminated

into

popular

fashion via Veblen’s theory of consumption.

At first it could only be afforded by the leisure and upper classes but after time, middle and lower classes adopted the style in an attempt to gain status. (Veblen, T. 1994)

Figure 10: A Vogue article giving women the freedom to choose their preferred length of skirt, 1970 11

Figure 11: A protest march for women’s liberation, circa 1970

SECOND-WAVE FEM 12

MINIST MOVEMENT 13

Figure 12: Yves Saint Laurent’s Le Smoking Suit, 1974

14

The socio-political movements of the decade ‘considered the importance of appearance in the development and presentation of their

Figure 13: Model wearing flared jeans with a cotton T-shirt, 1975

respective agendas.’ (Cole, D. J. and Deihl, N. 2015. p.305) At the height of the second-wave feminist movement ‘fashion had become political.’ (Reed, P. 2012. p.18) Social constructs were eroding and a woman’s place in society was shifting rapidly. Feminist ideals led to a revolutionised wardrobe that was ‘functional, utilitarian and androgynous’ (Reed, P. 2012. p.18), figure 13, with the intention of making an ‘impression on a man’s world’. (Herald, J. 2007. p.11)

become political

“

“ ...fashion had

A highly influential political figure in the 1970s, Germaine Greer inspired social change with her revolutionary and controversial book ‘The Female Eunuch’ published in 1970. Arguing for ‘revolutionary change in the social structure’ (Reed, P. 2012. p.18), she inspired a trend of practicality and power; women wanted to dress as their male equals. Designers were quick to adopt this new way of dressing, with Yves Saint Laurent providing fashionable trousers at a couture level and his Le Smoking trouser suit, figure 12, became a stylish option for business women (Worsley, H. 2011. p.76).

15

The 1970s saw the sexual liberation of women following the invention of the contraceptive pill in the 1960s and the legalisation of abortion in Britain in 1967 and America in 1973. Women gained the complete rights to their bodies and a newfound freedom. This

Figure 14: A Southwest Airlines advert demonstrates that hotpants were even acceptable as uniform, 1972

Example of sexualised dressing

was reflected in their fashion choices and sexualised fashion was born, see figure 14.

(Herald, J. 2007) Women did not feel restricted to modest dressing, choosing faux leather, short hemlines and knee-high boots, figure 16.

...frank advice on sex... meeting men and information on makeup and the body

“

“

Print media further enhanced the sexualisation of women’s fashion. Cosmopolitan, offered ‘frank advice on sex,… meeting men’ and ‘information on makeup and the body’. (Reed, P. 2012. p.18).

The covers of magazines depicted scantily clad women and provocative images, figure 15, influencing society’s view of women and women’s fashion choices.Teenagers and young adults now had unprecedented access to information, adding a new sense of freedom and sexual liberation.

Figure 15: Front cover of Cosmopolitan, March 1972 16

Figure 16: Marcelle’s faux leather mini skirts and waistcoats worn with matching blouses and hats and tight-fitting leather boots, 1972

17

Figure 17 Givenchy trouser suit (right) and homemade copy (left), 1974

POWER DRESSING

18

“

were accepted “ ...pantsuits as stylish citywear Magazines did not simply consider women as consumers but respected their ‘new values and lifestyles, including careers’. (Herald, J. 2007. p.10) Executive dress borrowed aspects from masculine suits and ‘for the first time in history, women’s ‘pantsuits were accepted as stylish city wear’ (Herald, J. 2007. p.11), figure 18. The popularisation of padded shoulders and tailored coats reflected ‘radical

feminism’

and

anticipated

the ‘power dressing’ movement of the 1980s. (Herald, J. 2007. p.11) Economic hardship meant much of the population had become more resourceful in their upkeep of trends.

Suits were costly due to the tailoring involved,

therefore

many

created

copies of fashionable suits. For example, the ‘tailored pant suit with trapunto stitched jacket’ by Givenchy, on the right of figure 17, was expensive, whereas the suit on the left was made using the ‘Vogue 2920 pattern and executed in

Dacron

polyester’

costing

just

$43.50 to make. This allowed trends to trickle down the social classes to fashion conscious women on a budget.

Figure 18: Trouser suits became the unifrom for the working woman, as demonstrated by these female workers at Eastman Dillon, Union Securities & Co. in Chicago, 1970 19

GAY RIGHTS MOVEMENT The gay rights movement gained momentum throughout the decade, characterizing the 1970s as ‘a decade of

sexual exploration’

(Reed, P. 2012. p.40). A historic moment was an organised march by the Gay Liberation Front on the anniversary of a police raid on a gay bar in 1970, which is now remembered as the first gay pride march. (Herald, J. 2007. p.7). Society was uniting and celebrating the freedom of sexuality.

20

a decade of sexual exploration

“

“

Figure 19: A gay liberation march, 1970

21

Figure 20: Siouxsie Sioux from the British Punk band Siouxsie and the Banshees, 1979

ANDROGYNY AND GENDER-BENDING

22

Inter-gender borrowing was not just limited

Strongly influenced by fashion icons such as

to women. Influenced by popular icons such as

Bowie, Marc Bolan and Siouxsie Sioux, see figure

David Bowie and his Ziggy Stardust persona,

20, the 1970s music scene prompted a dramatic

male fashion introduced feminine elements . As

costumed style. This is evident in men’s fashion

predicted by Rudi Gernreich in 1970, who stated

as gender experimentation became accepted in

that ‘clothing would cease to be a function of

popular culture. Glam rock ‘gave men a chance

gender’ (Cole, D. J. and Deihl, N. 2015. p.316),

to dress up as women and flaunt their finery and

fashion was becoming more androgynous

feathers’ (Worsley, H. 2011. p.159) partiularly

as the strict gender divides began to erode.

embodied in David Bowie’s Ziggy Stardust

persona, see figure 21. Embellished suits, heels and makeup ‘challenged preconceived notions of masculinity’ which disseminated

Figure 21: David Bowie’s elaborate costume style

through their followers and across the youth market (Cole, D. J. and Deihl, N., 2015, P316).

Bowie’s bisexual announcement led to his icon status in both popular music and the LGBT community. Whilst their fashions cannot be considered everyday the ‘showgirl’ style of David Bowie and Marc Bolan (Worsley, H. 2011. p.76) infiltrated everyday fashions in a trickle down manner. and strongly influenced looks, see overleaf. Young adults and teenagers who

Figure ?

idolised the stars were seen to be borrowing

David and Angie Bowie, 1973 Fifty Fashion Look that Changed the 1970s

‘girls’ boas, blouses’ and makeup, see overleaf figure 23, due to Bowie’s makeup ‘blurring gender lines even further’. (Reed, P. 2012. p.40)

...blurring gender lines even further

Figure 22: Tim Curry as Dr Frank-N-Furter, 1975

“

“

Approaching the ‘taboo subject of transvestism’, The Rocky Horror Picture Show

epitomised

the

‘increasingly

flouted’ sexual stereotyping. (Lutyens, D. and

Hislop, K. 2009). Popular

culture was embracing cross-dressing and gender bending and this became noticeable in men’s fashion, see figure 23.

23

24

Figure 23: Gay clubs saw elaborate gender-bending and cross dressing, as demonstrated by these two in Blitz, 1979 25

Gender-bending also reached luxury and couture levels. The most outrageous example was Rudi Gernriech’s 1970 unisex collection featuring ‘skirts, bikinis and catsuits for both men and women’ (Cole,D. J. and Deihl, N. 2015. p.316). Debuting at a French fashion show, a man and woman walked the runway simultaneously ‘in the same midi dress and matching heeled boots’ (Herald, J. 2007. p.7).

These images of male and female models wearing the same outfits, highlighted the erosion

26

of

gender

divisions

in

society.

Figure 24 & 25: Rudi Gernriech’s 1970s unisex collection

27

Figure 26: Two models wearing flared Wrangler jeans, 1976

“ Levi’s, a pullover,

28

“

marvellous belts ... the uniform of the world ... a way of life

Figure 27: Iman wearing a denim shirt, denim jacket and jeans

DENIM AND CASUALISATION The casualisation of fashions reflected the relaxation of strict views imposed by previous social

constructs.

Gender

distinctions ‘grew increasingly blurred’ as ‘both sexes grew their hair and wore T-shirts and jeans’ (Worsley, H. 2011. p.76), figure 26. Vogue declared ‘Levi’s, a pullover, marvellous belts’ as ‘the uniform of the world… a way of life’. (1971. p.33). Jeans became highly sought-after, so much so that in 1978,’20,000 pairs of Calvin Klein jeans were sold within their first week of release.’ (Cole, D. J. and Deihl, N. 2015. p.315) Denim infiltrated all aspects of 1970s life, being used ‘for every conceivable wardrobe item’ (Cole, D. J. and Deihl, N. 2015. p.315), see figure 26. Due to society’s relaxing views and the casualisation of both men and women’s wardrobes, denim soon penetrated the formal market with the release of Yves Saint Laurent’s denim suit.

29

CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT Following the assassination of Martin Luther King in 1968, the Civil Rights Movement had gained power, equality was at the forefront of society and popular culture began to celebrate ethnic diversity.

Significant in the progression of civil rights, the cover of the 1974 August edition of American Vogue featured Beverly Johnson, the first African-American cover girl for the magazine, see figure 28.The issue sold out rapidly and Johnson ‘almost overnight’ became a ‘symbol of and role model for the American Civil Rights Movement’.

(Reed, P. 2012. p.30) ‘The fashion industry had become accessible to black women’ (Cole, D. J. and Deihl, N. 2015. p.308).

30

The fashion industry had become accessible to black women

“

“

Figure 28: Beverly Johnson featuring on the cover of Vogue, 1974

31

TECHNOLOGY were slow as ‘recession meant that industry was reluctant to invest in fast-changing technology’ (Herald, J. 2007. p.14) However, despite not being developed in the decade, colour televisions became commercialised and popular in many homes. Bright colours and psychedelic patterns were used extensively

“

there are no rules in fashion ...you write your own etiquette... express yourself

in costume design to portray personalities and character traits. This disseminated into everyday fashion, see figure 29, with eccentric and bright patterns and colours adorning apparel across both genders, figures 30 and 31.

This was accelerated by Vogue’s declaration that ‘there are no rules in fashion… you write your own etiquette… express yourself’ inspiring unusual combinations of patterns and colours, figure 31. (Reed, P. 2012. p.26) Figure 29: Hawaiian style printed blouse, 1973

32

Figure 30: Designers from London boutique, Mr Freedom, epitomising the boutique’s colourful and elaborate style

“

Technological advancements in the 1970s

Figure 31: The rainbow-hued knitwear featured in Nova, 1974

33

Figure ?: Figure 32: Twiggy modelling wearing Biba’s 1930s inspired evening gown, 1971 Twiggy a Biba pale gold satin evening dress Fashion in the ‘70s. p.263

ECONOMIC CRISIS Economic hardship affected all aspects of 1970s life: industrial advancements were halted, the average disposable income decreased and future prospects were bleak. Unemployment had risen dramatically in the West and ‘by 1975, the world was in recession’. (Herald, J. 2007. p.13). The fashion industry was affected terribly with ‘the number of people employed in fashion-related industries dropped’ (Herald, J. 2007. p.13). Fashion production slowed as there was a lower demand due to the oil crisis increasing the price of synthetic fibres.

in recession

“

“ the world was

‘Britain was beset by economic crisis’ (Reed, P. 2012. p.6) and the bleak outlook led people ‘to revisit the past in an effort to find certainty and safety’, reshaping ‘the past to satisfy contemporary desires for stability’ (Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. p.23). Consumers looked to their sentimental memories for happiness, which was reflected in the revival of previous trends. (Muehling, D. D. et al, 2014)

... beset by economic crisis

34

“

“

as a “ fashion of the elite

the decor’, Biba’s historically referenced brand image was welcomed in the economic climate of the 1970s. (Vogue. 1973. p.129). The glamorous satin evening gown is texturally redolent of the 1930s infusing 1970s fashion with historic glamour and satisfying the consumers’ need for stability and comfort. The cut of the gown is also evocative of 1930s fashion, sweeping the ankles, providing modesty for those unwilling to adopt the sexualised trends.

“

Art Deco from the clothes to the decor

“

This ‘mass adoption of historic costume’ (Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. p.9) was driven by economic hardship and the resulting rise in popularity of second hand clothing. ‘A network of street markets developed’ and books such as Cheap Chic offered ‘hundreds of money-saving hints to create your own great look’. Fashion as a ‘dictatorship of the elite’ was dead; anyone, no matter their financial or social background could partake. This contributed to the eclectic and confused nature of 1970s fashion (Lutyens,

“

dictatorship e was dead

Described as ‘Art Deco from the clothes to

D. and Hislop, K., 2009, p.6) as ‘new clothes were made from old’ and ‘old and new were worn together, often in unexpected combinations of color, pattern, and texture’ (Herald, J. 2007. p.14).

35

Figure 33: A still from The Rocky Horror Picture Show, 1975

FILM AND T 36

ELEVISION 37

Figure 34: A still from The Great Gatsby, 1974

and

vintage

styles

were

also

promoted by film and television with ‘new forms of history television’ and helping

...new forms of history television

to ‘articulate a larger nostalgia culture’ (Rymza-Pawlowska,

M.

J.

2014.

p.82).

The film adaptation of F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby (1974), figure 34, contemporised the glamour of 1920s’ fashion.Theoni V.Aldredge won the Academy Award for costume design and the influence on fashion was immediately apparent. Adele Simpson’s 1974 collection, see

figure

35, features

1920s

elements

including the iconic tasselled fringing. Fur was also repopularised, featuring in both men’s and women’s fashion, see figures 36 and 37.

38

Figure 35: Adele Simpson’s 1920’s inspired dress, 1974

“

Retro

“

Figure 36: Daniel Hechter’s fur coat, 1974

Figure 37: Walt ‘Clyde’ Frazier wearing a fur coat, 1974

39

The

popularisation

of

dance

and

athletic wear was influenced by films such as Saturday Night Fever. Taking elements from Disco fashion, Patrizia Von Brandestein’s ‘white three pieced suit with open necked black shirt’ created

for

iconic

and

John Travolta instantly

became

fashionable.

(Cole, D. J. and Deihl, N. 2015, p.316)

40

Figure 38: John Travolta in the iconic suit in Saturday Night Fever, 1977

DISCO Figure 40: Mr Freedom disco-syle ensemble, 1971

Figure 39: Disco band ABBA, 1975

Glam-rock had an extremely influential effect on fashion, as did other popular music styles of the 1970s. Disco music was accompanied with its own unique sense of style, iconised by the popular Swedish band ABBA, see figure 39. An underground movement ‘that emerged from City’, Disco was a performance with the aim of getting noticed;‘a shiny satin shirt or second-skin bodysuit and sequin jackets were staples’. (Reed, P. 2012. p.104) Apparel had to accommodate physical movement, often fabricated from Lycra and ‘adapted from the kit of professional dancers’. (Cole, D. J and Deihl, N. 2015. p.308).

“

shiny technicolour

“

African-American and gay clubs in New York

Figure 41: An advertisement for men’s flares in a 1970s catalogue

Considered high-fashion at the end of the 1960s,

‘shiny technicolour’ (Reed, P. 2012)

flares had trickled down (Veblen,T. 1994) to the ‘mainstream in the 1970s’, (Reed, P. 2012).

Popular for both genders, women adopted the trend in a more audacious manner, figure 40, whereas men’s fashion was more subtle, figure 41.

41

Figure 42: London punk, Darrio, wearing a customised leather jacket, boasting a plastic hose, chains, safety pins and nihilism-chic graffiti

42

THE PUNK MOVEMENT

43

In a decade of rebellion and protest, it is no

Vivienne Westwood’s influence on Punk fashion

surprise that a controversial and outrageous

was monumental, described as ‘the co-creator

music genre expanded to infiltrate all aspects

of punk’ (Watson, L. 2013, p.8). Considered a

of life including fashion. The Punk Movement

style icon herself, see figure 43, Westwood’s

was a renowned, and occasionally feared,

eye for design and understanding of ‘the psyche

time in fashion, testing the boundaries of

of the angry teenager’ (Worsley, H. 2011. p.166)

both society and design. It promoted ‘anarchy,

led to her becoming one of the most successful

nihilism

of

and influential designers of the decade. In

good

taste’

collaboration with Malcom McLaren,their London

2014.

p.31).

boutique store became the flagship for Punk.

middle-class (Dirix,

“

E.

an

outright

notions and

Fiell,

of C.

rejection

anarchy, nihilism and an outright rejection of middle-class notions of good taste

“

and

Her experimental approach was evident in her early designs, customising a top with ‘boiled chicken bones and suspended chains carefully assembled to form the word “rock”’ (Watson, L. 2013. p.8) and decorated with leather inserts, figure 44. This early Punk garment epitomised the movement, appealing to the ‘worryingly high proportion’ of unemployed youth (Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. p.29). This shift in youth culture to ‘violence and deliberate bad taste’ was born out of ‘the deepening economic crisis, political upheaval and social fragmentation’ (Dirix,E. and Fiell,C. 2014. p.29); teenagers wanted to differentiate themselves from their elders in the most outrageous manner possible. The Figure 43: Vivienne Westwood wearing a latex suit inside her boutique, SEX 44

‘deliberately revolting style’ that incorporated an array of threatening or taboo elements was an act of rebellion and an outlet for expression.

Figure 44: ‘Rock’ top by Vivienne Westwood, 1971

45

Figure 45: Shop assistant, Jordan, stands in the doorway of SEX

McLaren and Westwood’s boutique evolved with the Punk movement, beginning as Let It Rock, selling 1950s memorabilia and customised clothes with elements of 1950s greaser style, see figure 46 . As Punk became more experimental and controversial, the shop was renamed to Too Fast To Live, Too Young To Die, in 1972, exhibiting garments with a ‘rougher edge inspired by James Dean’ and based on biker clothes with ‘zips and customised leather’. (Watson, L. 2013. p.10) 1974 saw the shift to overtly sexualised fashion with ‘sadomasochistic references’ (Cole, D. J. and Deihl, N. 2015. p.316) and the boutique was rebranded as SEX., see figure 45. The combination of violent and sexual elements in fashion embodied the Punk movement. SEX ‘promoted the idea of sexual confrontation’ selling bondage-style apparel such as leather and rubber goods, ‘negligées, skirts, stockings 46

and suspenders’ (Watson, L. 2013. p.11).

Figure 46: Vivienne Westwood (right) and shop assistants 47

Figure 47: The Sex Pistols’ lead singer, Johnny Rotten, wearing Seditionaries ‘Destroy’ shirt

48

...preaching opposition to formal order

“

“

In 1976, Punk became more political than ever

and was renamed Seditionaries and the products

and there was another shift from sexualisation

were described by Westwood as ‘clothes for

to ‘preaching opposition to formal order’

urban guerrillas’ (Watson, L. 2013. p.17). The

(Watson, L. 2013. p.17). Punk clothing was

Destroy shirt, see figure 47, boasted several

adorned with controversial slogans and pictures,

political

making a statement against society. Westwood

satirical

and McLaren’s boutique adapted accordingly

head,

and manner, the

religious

icons

including

crucifixion

and

in

a

the

queen’s

a

swastika.

Figure 48: Zandra Rhodes Conceptual Chic Dress, 1977

The Punk look ‘combined the subversive with the traditional, the unexpected with the outrageous’ began in the streets but influenced all market levels. Luxury designers adopted elements of the trend in their own designs as the fashion trickled up (Field, G. 1970). Aspects of Punk and Punkfusion could be found everywhere in the 1970s from ‘the high style interpretations of Zandra Rhodes to mass-marketed t-shirts featuring bands’ (Cole,D.J.and Deihl,N.2015. p.316). For example, this Zandra Rhodes ‘Conceptual Chic’ dress features carefully finished edges, crafted to resemble rips, and ‘diamanté safety pins’ (Blackman, C. 2012. p.286) providing the upper classes with the Punk trend in a more glamorous manner.

49

SCIENCE, HEALTH AND EXERCISE A precursor to the 1980s’ fitness craze, scientific discoveries and health trends let to dieting and exercise gaining a ‘prominent place in health care’ and society was more concerned than ever with slimming. (Herald, J. 2007. p.16) Figure 49: Fiorucci’s Dancing Dollies

Figure 50: Stan Smith wearing the iconic Adidas trainers, Wimbledon, 1973

Sportsmen and women became fashion icons and many endorsed sportswear products.Tennis player Stan Smith endorsed the eponymous Adidas trainers, which were worn both on the court and in the street by both genders, figure The focus of many magazines on exercise

51, and basketball player Walt Frazier endorsed

and dieting saw the increase in sales of

the Puma Clydes; athletic shoes had emerged as

sportswear, which had become ‘acceptable

fashion items.(Cole,D.J.and Deihl.N.2015.p.315)

daywear’ as women dressed ‘more casually and comfortably’ and ‘there was a constant crossover from the gym and the court to the street’ (Worsley, H. 2011. p.64)., figure 52.The aerobics craze introduced discostyle leggings and leotards to many women’s wardrobes, see figure 49. and jogging and skating brought athletic shorts and headbands to both men and women’s looks along with legwarmers for women. (Worsley, H. 2011. p.64)

and closer to the body

50

“

“ ...softer, sleeker

Figure 51: Elements of sportswear were seen in everyday fashion, with pleated tennis skirts (Yves Saint Laurent) and cricket jumpers (Ralph Lauren)

Figure 52: Guy Laroche’s chevron striped evening dress, 1972

and closer to the body

“

“ ...softer, sleeker

Not only did sports and exercise infiltrate everyday fashion directly, but it also changed the ideal silhouette and therefore the cuts and styles of the decade. At a vernacular level, ‘the boxy silhouette of the mid-1960s’ could still be seen, but the ‘truly fashionable silhouette was softer, sleeker and closer to the body’ (Cole, D. J. and Deihl, N. 2015. p.310).This was emphasised with chevron detailing, see figure 53, enhancing the slender figure and heightening the slim and relatively straight

silhouette

of

the

decade.

51

Figure 53: Daniel Hechter’s 1979 sports inspired collection

52

“...lean and Men’s

fashion

was

“

body conscious

also

considered ‘lean and body conscious’ with long suit jackets, defined waists and fitted shirts. (Cole, D. J. and Deihl, N. 2015. p.336) The trend also directly influenced men’s fashion with track tops becoming a staple item in many mens’ wardrobes, see figure 53. The comfort and freedom provided by such garments contributed to

their

popularity.

53

Figure 54: Missoni’s machine knitted zig zag striped outfit, 1975

“INDIVIDUALITY AS A FASHION

“

PHILOSOPHY

The 1970s should be celebrated as a decade

of expression and individuality, providing an eclectic collection of styles and trends to suit everyone. The wide variety of sources of inspiration contributed to the diversification of fashion. The inventive attitude in the decade began to settle as the 1980s approached, with menswear, in particular, evolving from ‘experimental to classic’ conveying ‘affluence and maturity’ (Cole, D. J. and Deihl, N., 2015, P339). A precursor to much of 1980s fashion, 1970s fashion has influenced subsequent trends, including contemporary fashion with the return of flares, illustrating the impact of 1970s fashion.

Word Count: 3056

54

55

REFEREN Barnard, M. 2014. Fashion Theory: An Introduction. New York: Routledge Bateman, K. 2015. Versailles 1973: How one show changed American fashion history. [Online]. [Accessed 26 November 2016]. Available from: http://www.harpersbazaar.com/fashion/designers/a11385/versailles-french-american-fashion-show/ Behling, D. 1985. Fashion Change and Demographics: A Model. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal. 4(1), pp.

18-24 Blackman, C. 2012. 100 Years of Fashion. London: Laurence King Ltd. Cole, D. J. and Deihl, N. 2015. The History of Modern Fashion. London: Laurence King Publishing Ltd. Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. Fashion in the ‘70s. London: Carlton Publishing Group.

Field, G. A. 1970. The status float phenomenon. Business Horizons. 13(4), pp.45-51 Fraser-Cavasson, N. 2015. Vogue on Yves Saint Laurent. London: Quadrille Publishing Ltd. Herald, J. 2007. Fashions of a Decade:The 1970s. Second Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.

Lutyens, D. and Hislop, K. 2009. 70s Style & Design. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. Muehling, D. D., Sprott, D. E. and Sultan, A. J. 2014. Exploring the boundaries of nostalgic advertising effects: A consideration of childhood brand exposure and attachment on consumers’ responses to nostalgia themed advertisements. Journal of Advertising. [Online] 43(1), pp. 73-84 [Accessed 31 October 2016]. Available from: http://sl4tb4rv5r.search.serialssolutions.com/?ctx_ver=Z39.882004&ctx_enc=info%3Aofi%2Fenc%3AUTF-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsummon.serialssolutions. com&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Exploring+the+Boundaries+of+Nostalgic+Advertising+Effects%3A+A+Consideration+of+Childhood+Brand+Exposure+and+Attachment+on+Consumers%27+Responses+to+Nostalgia-Themed+Advertisements&rft. jtitle=Journal+of+Advertising&rft.au=Darrel+D+Muehling&rft.au=David+E+Sprott&rft.au=Abdullah+J+Sultan&rft.date=2014-04-01&rft.issn=0091-3367&rft.eissn=1557-7805&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=1&rft. spage=73&rft.externalDocID=3256876371&paramdict=en-US O’Flaherty, M. C. 2011. Men’s wear ch-ch-changes: David Bowie’s multiple characters and artistic directions continue to inspire fashion designers. [Online]. [Accessed 26 November 2016]. Available from: http://0-search. proquest.com.wam.leeds.ac.uk/docview/893905959?pq-origsite=summon&accountid=14664 Polhemus, T. 2010. Street Style. United Kingdom: PYMCA. 56

NCE LIST Reed, P. 2012. Fifty Fashion Looks That Changed The 1970s. London: Octopus Publishing Group Rymsza-Pawlowska, M. J. 2014. History Television, “Nostalgia Culture”, and the Emergence of the Miniseries in the 1970s United States. Broadcasting the Past. [Online]. 42(2), p.82. [Accessed 19 October 2016]. Available from: http://sl4tb4rv5r.search.serialssolutions.com/?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_enc=info%3Aofi%2Fenc%3AUTF-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsummon.serialssolutions.com&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Broadcasting+the+past%3A+history+television%2C+%27nostalgia+culture%27%2C+and+the+emergence+of+the+miniseries+in+the+1970s+United+States&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Popular+Film+and+Television&rft. au=Rymsza-Pawlowska%2C+Malgorzata+J&rft.date=2014&rft.issn=0195-6051&rft.eissn=1930-6458&rft. volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.spage=81&rft.externalDocID=R05168601&paramdict=en-US Spicer, A. 2008. British Culture and Society in the 1970s. Journal of British Cinema and Television. [Online].

6(1), p.134 [Accessed 19 October]. Available from: http://0-www.euppublishing.com.wam.leeds.ac.uk/doi/ full/10.3366/E1743452109000739 US Bureau of Census. 1980. 1980 Census of Population. [Online]. [Accessed 26 November 2016]. Available from: https://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1980/1980censusofpopu8011u_bw.pdf Veblen, T. 1994. The Theory of the Leisure Class. Canada: General Publishing Company Vogue. 1970. American Spring Collection. 155(3), p.133. [Online]. [Accessed 29 November 2016]. Available from: http://search.proquest.com/vogue/docview/879276417/C64575DB850648FDPQ/9?accountid=14664 Vogue. 1971. Belts and the Blue Denim Looks. 157(2), p.33. [Online]. [Accessed 26 November 2016]. Available from: http://search.proquest.com/vogue/docview/879271806/43C0D3374D784442PQ/3?accountid=14664 Vogue. 1973. Vogue Observations. 162(6), p.129. [Online]. [Accessed 29 November 2016]. Available from: http://search.proquest.com/vogue/docview/911869288/A1EEFCF010C4EBCPQ/8?accountid=14664 Watson. L. 2013. Vogue On Vivienne Westwood. London: Quadrille Publishing Ltd. Whiteclay-Chambers, J. 2000. The Oxford Companion to American Military History. Oxford; Oxford University Press Worsley. H. 2011. 100 Ideas That Changed Fashion. London: Laurence King Publishing Ltd.

57

FIGURE Figure 1:

(Cover) Patchwork gypsy dress, 1975 Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. Fashion in the ‘70s. London: Carlton Publishing Group. p.122

Figure 2:

Actress and model, Lauren Hutton, 1971 Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. Fashion in the ‘70s. London: Carlton Publishing Group. p.4

Figure 3:

A dress from the Bill Gibb’s Celtic collection Reed, P. 2012. Fifty Fashion Looks That Changed The 1970s. London: Octopus Publishing Group. p.12

Figure 4:

Louis Féraud’s Peruvian wide brimmed hat and floral embroidered shirt, 1973 Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. Fashion in the ‘70s. London: Carlton Publishing Group. p.344

Figure 5:

Daniel Hechter’s Terrorist look, 1978 Herald, J. 2007. Fashions of a Decade:The 1970s. Second Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing. p.13

Figure 6:

Calvin Klein’s Honan silk suit, 1973 Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. Fashion in the ‘70s. London: Carlton Publishing Group. p.131

Figure 7:

A group of teenagers on a park bench, 1976 White, J. 2012. From stack heels to heartbreak in 1976. [Online]. [Accessed 2 December 2016]. Available from: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/mother-tongue/9155645/Fromstack-heels-to-heartbreak-in-1976.html

Figure 8:

Oscar de la Renta’s waist-clinching midi-skirt, circa 1970 Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. Fashion in the ‘70s. London: Carlton Publishing Group. p.157

Figure 9:

Arnold Copper for Rakes’s poetic midi dress worn by Pilar Crespi, 1970 Vogue. 1970. American Spring Collection. 155(3), p.133. [Online]. [Accessed 29 November 2016]. Available from: http://search.proquest.com/vogue/docview/879276417/ C64575DB850648FDPQ/9?accountid=14664

58

E LIST Figure 10:

A Vogue article giving women the freedom to choose their preferred length of skirt, 1970 Vogue. 1970. The little dress of many lengths. 155(7), p.146. [Online]. [Accessed 2 December 2016]. Available from: http://search.proquest.com/vogue/ docview/879263101/6A44F996A3FB4E1DPQ/2?accountid=14664

Figure 11:

A protest march for women’s liberation, circa 1970 Boston University. 2014. Women, Gender and Sexuality Studies. [Online]. [Accessed 2 December 2016]. Available from: http://www.bu.edu/wgs/wgs-events/conference2014/

Figure 12:

Yves Saint Laurent’s Le Smoking Suit, 1974 Vogue. 1974. The New Allure in Paris. 163(3), p.109. [Online]. [Accessed 2 December 2016]. Available from: http://search.proquest.com/vogue/docview/879279757/3BAE80926FE54073PQ/1?accountid=14664

Figure 13:

Model wearing flared jeans with a cotton T-shirt, 1975 Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. Fashion in the ‘70s. London: Carlton Publishing Group. p.125

Figure 14:

A Southwest Airlines advert demonstrates that hotpants were even acceptable as uniform, 1972 Reed, P. 2012. Fifty Fashion Looks That Changed The 1970s. London: Octopus Publishing Group. p.37

Figure 15:

Front cover of Cosmopolitan, March 1972 The Advertising Archive. No date. Cosmopolitan 1970s. [Online]. [Accessed 2 December 2016]. Available from: http://www.advertisingarchives.co.uk/?service=search&action=do_ quick_search&language=en&q=30533004

Figure 16:

Marcelle’s faux leather mini skirts and waistcoats worn with matching blouses and hats and tight-fitting leather boots, 1972 Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. Fashion in the ‘70s. London: Carlton Publishing Group. p.195

Figure 17:

Givenchy trouser suit (right) and homemade copy (left), 1974 Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. Fashion in the ‘70s. London: Carlton Publishing Group. p.48

59

Figure 18:

Trouser suits became the unifrom for the working woman, as demonstrated by these female workers at Eastman Dillon, Union Securities & Co. in Chicago, 1970 Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. Fashion in the ‘70s. London: Carlton Publishing Group. p.78

Figure 19:

A gay liberation march, 1970 Herald, J. 2007. Fashions of a Decade:The 1970s. Second Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing. p.7

Figure 20:

Siouxie Sioux from the British Punk band Siouxsie and the Banshees, 1979 Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. Fashion in the ‘70s. London: Carlton Publishing Group. p.32

Figure 21:

David Bowie’s elaborate costume style Lutyens, D. and Hislop, K. 2009. 70s Style & Design. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. p.12

Figure 22:

Tim Curry as Dr Frank-N-Furter, 1975 Lutyens, D. and Hislop, K. 2009. 70s Style & Design. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. p.186

Figure 23:

Gay clubs saw elaborate gender-bending and cross-dressing, as demonstrated by these two in Blitz, 1979 Lutyens, D. and Hislop, K. 2009. 70s Style & Design. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. p.211

Figure 24:

Rudi Gernriech’s 1970 unisex collection Blackman, C. 2012. 100 Years of Fashion. London: Laurence King Ltd. p.243

Figure 25:

Rudi Gernreich’s 1970 unisex collection Blackman, C. 2012. 100 Years of Fashion. London: Laurence King Ltd. p.243

Figure 26:

Two models wearing flared Wrangler jeans, 1976 Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. Fashion in the ‘70s. London: Carlton Publishing Group. p.124

Figure 27:

Iman wearing a denim shirt, denim jacket and jeans Blackman, C. 2012. 100 Years of Fashion. London: Laurence King Ltd. p.243

Figure 28:

Beverly Johnson featuring on the cover of Vogue, 1974 Okwodu, J. 2016. How Beverly Johnson broke fashion’s glass ceiling, [Online]. [Accessed 3 December 2016]. Available from: http://www.vogue.com/13465691/beverly-johnson-vogue-cover-changed-fashion/

60

Figure 29:

Hawaiian style printed blouse, 1973 Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. Fashion in the ‘70s. London: Carlton Publishing Group. p.142

Figure 30:

Designers from London boutique, Mr Freedom, epitomising the boutique’s colourful and elaborate style Lutyens, D. and Hislop, K. 2009. 70s Style & Design. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. p.16

Figure 31:

The rainbow-hued knitwear featured in Nova, 1974 Lutyens, D. and Hislop, K. 2009. 70s Style & Design. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. p.120

Figure 32:

Twiggy wearing Biba’s 1930s inspired evening gown, 1971

Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. Fashion in the ‘70s. London: Carlton Publishing Group. p.263

Figure 33:

A still from The Rocky Horror Picture Show, 1975 The Rocky Horror Picture Show. 1975. [Film]. Jim Sharman. dir. United Kingdom: 20th Century Fox

Figure 34:

A still from The Great Gatsby, 1974 The Great Gatsby. 1974. [Film]. Jack Clayton. dir. United States of America: Newton Productions and Paramount Pictures

Figure 35:

Adele Simpson’s 1920s inspired dress, 1974 Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. Fashion in the ‘70s. London: Carlton Publishing Group. p.53

Figure 36:

Daniel Hechter’s fur coat, 1974 Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. Fashion in the ‘70s. London: Carlton Publishing Group. p.245

Figure 37:

Walt ‘Clyde’ Frazier wearing a fur coat, 1974 Cole, D. J. and Deihl, N. 2015. The History of Modern Fashion. London: Laurence King Publishing Ltd. p.335

Figure 38:

John Travolta in the iconic suit in Saturday Night Fever, 1977 Cole, D. J. and Deihl, N. 2015. The History of Modern Fashion. London: Laurence King Publishing Ltd. p.318

61

Figure 39:

Disco band ABBA, 1975 Nelson, F. 2014. We’re still thanking ABBA for the music, 40 years after Eurovision. [Online].

[Accessed 3 December 2016]. Available from: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/ rockandpopmusic/10746492/Were-still-thanking-Abba-for-the-music-40-years-after-Eurovision.html

Figure 40:

Mr Freedom disco-style ensemble Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. Fashion in the ‘70s. London: Carlton Publishing Group. p.87

Figure 41:

An advertisement for men’s flares in a 1970s’ catalogue The Advertising Archives. no date. Men’s Fashion 1970s. [Online]. [Accessed 3 December 2016]. Available from: http://www.advertisingarchives.co.uk/en/asset/show_zoom_window_popup.html?asset=8453&location=grid&asset_list=40929,40921,40920,40910,40908, 39998,38967,33837,33687,33686,33685,33684,33675,33674,33672,33671,33670,33669,27 189,26813,26442,26430,26000,24

Figure 42:

London punk, Darrio, wearing a customised leather jacket, boasting a plastic hose, chains, safety pins and nihilism-chic graffiti Lutyens, D. and Hislop, K. 2009. 70s Style & Design. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. p.206

Figure 43:

Vivienne Westwood wearing a latex suit inside her boutique, SEX Watson. L. 2013. Vogue On Vivienne Westwood. London: Quadrille Publishing Ltd. p.13

Figure 44:

‘Rock’ top by Vivienne Westwood, 1971 Watson. L. 2013. Vogue On Vivienne Westwood. London: Quadrille Publishing Ltd. p.9

Figure 45:

Shop assistant, Jordan, stands in the doorway of SEX Watson. L. 2013. Vogue On Vivienne Westwood. London: Quadrille Publishing Ltd. p.12

Figure 46:

Vivienne Westwood and shop assistants Blackman, C. 2012. 100 Years of Fashion. London: Laurence King Ltd. p.285

Figure 47:

The Sex Pistols’ lead singer, Johnny Rotten, wearing Seditionaries ‘Destroy’ shirt Watson. L. 2013. Vogue On Vivienne Westwood. London: Quadrille Publishing Ltd. p.19

Figure 48:

Zara Rhodes’ Conceptual Chic Dress, 1977 Blackman, C. 2012. 100 Years of Fashion. London: Laurence King Ltd. p.286

62

Figure 49:

Fiorucci’s Dancing Dollies Lutyens, D. and Hislop, K. 2009. 70s Style & Design. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. p.63

Figure 50:

Stan Smith wearing the iconic Adidas trainers, Wimbledon, 1973 Montanaro, P. 2013. The Stan Smith Adidas. [Online]. [Accessed 3 December]. Available from: http://www.gqitalia.it/httpredir/r.php?q=/moda/static/2013/giugno/le-stan-smith-diadidas-tornano-a-gennaio-2014/

Figure 51:

Elements of sportswear were seen in everyday fashion, with pleated tennis skirts (Yves Saint Laurent) and cricket jumpers (Ralph Lauren) Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. Fashion in the ‘70s. London: Carlton Publishing Group. p.181

Figure 52:

Guy Laroche’s chevron striped evening dress, 1977 Dirix, E. and Fiell, C. 2014. Fashion in the ‘70s. London: Carlton Publishing Group. p.28

Figure 53:

Daniel Hechter’s sports inspired collection Lutyens, D. and Hislop, K. 2009. 70s Style & Design. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. p.47

Figure 54:

Missoni’s machine knitted zig zag striped outfit, 1975 Cole, D. J. and Deihl, N. 2015. The History of Modern Fashion. London: Laurence King Publishing Ltd. p.328

Figure 55:

(Cover) Biba fashion suit, circa 1970 Cole, D. J. and Deihl, N. 2015. The History of Modern Fashion. London: Laurence King Publishing Ltd. p.324

63

The 1970s

Figure 55: Biba fashion suit, circa 1970 64