Ciencias de la conducta 2001 vol 16 iss1

CIENCIAS DE LA

CONDUCTA Revista de la Universidad Carlos Albizu Vol. 16 Mtn. I

UNIVERSIDAD CARLOS ALBIZU Apartado 9023711, Old Station San Juan, Puerto Rico 00902-3711

2001

CIENCIAS DE LA

CONDUCTA Revista de la Universidad Carlos Albizu Vol. 16 Mint 1

2001

Imprufa Immudoses PdanduestIvas P.O. Box 190910 Sea Jun, P.R. 009194910 Mk (757) 765-5220 Fu: (757) 765-5395

Tabla de Contenido Mensaje del Presidente Salvador Santiago Negro:5n The Use of Humor in Counseling: A Contemporary View of a Long Debated Issue Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

1

Cognitive and Behavioral Pmfile of Puerto Rican Aggressive and Impulsive Children JosĂŠ J. Cabiya, Darice Orobitg, Lymaries Padilla, Sean Sayers, Nashara Bay& & Maribelle De la Torre

49

Analisis BibliomĂŠtrico de las Revistas Psicologicas en Puerto Rico Alfonso Martinez-Taboas, Brenda Castro, Viviana Pagan & Hector Coca

63

La Edad y los Comportamientos Asociados a la Gerencia de Calidad Total y Mejoramiento Continuo: Un Estudio Comparativo Miguel E. Martinez Lugo, Luz D. Hernandez, Glenda L. Velez, y Zoe Figueroa

79

Suplemento de Arte y Cultura Entre la Vo; y el Silencio Maria Arrigaga

95

Organza Dreams of Cuban Fragments Elsa B. Cardalda Sanchez

101

Maria Arrillaga: Concierto de Voces Insurgentes de 3 Autoras Puertorriquenas Margarita Ostolaza Bey

105

Mensaje del Presidente Con este numero intentamos cubrir campos tan diversos como las areas del humor y la Psicologia, los niftos con problemas especificos de aprendizaje y articulo del doctor Martinez-Taboas y colaboradores, donde se analiza la situaci贸n de los psic6logos/as puertoriqueflos/as y su producci6n intelectual escrita. En este articulo los autores sefialan muy certeramente que "el 95% de los psicologos en Puerto Rico no se dedican, de manera consistente, a la tarea de publicar sus ideas o investigaciones".

Nos preocupa sobremanera las implicaciones que tiene este hollsiigo. Especificamente, nos concieme la manera en que Ios profesores de psicologia tienden a compensar la falta de matehales producidos localmente con materiales de importaciOn de los Estados Unidos. En ocasiones estas importaciones se hacen sin tomar en cuenta el contexto cultural o cuan apropiadas son para un ambito social distinto al de los Estados Unidos.

Muchos de estos Psic6logos no se dan cuenta de que el uso de esos materiales sin adaptarlos a nuestra cultura local, sirven el proposito no anticipado de asimilar los estudiantes a los modos de pensar norteamiericanos, como si ese fuera el tinico universo intelectual de referencia. En un Pais como el nuestro, donde los problemas asociados a la identidad del Puertorriquefio son legendarios, se hace imperioso hacer un llamado a los Psic6logos/as para que doblen sus esfuerzos en pro de una mayor producciim intelectual. Veamoslo como un deber civico y patri6tico. Nuestro pueblo se lo merece.

Salvador Santiago Negn5n, MPH, PhD. Presidente Universidad Carlos Albizu

aortic:I de la Condueta

0 2001 Universidad Carlos Albizn

2001, Vol 16, 1-48

San Juan, Puerto Rico

The Use of Humor in Colmseling: A Contemporary View of a Long Debated Issue Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano, M.A. University of Maryland Abstract The growing interest on the phenomenon of humor and laughter seems to be promoted by the long time genetalized popular beliefthat humor and laughter (positive emorions) can heal both mind and body.

In order to promote finther exploration of the role and uses of humor in the counseling process, this paper reviews recent literatMe and research on therapeutic humor. It examines the mtgor theoretical perspectives on humor, summarizes the findings of behavioral and psychosomatic studies on the effects of humor and laughter on the physiology of the body, and analyzes individual differences in the experience of humor. It also, describes therapies that implicitly and explicitly incorporate the use of humor in counseling presents supporting and dissenting opinions on the use of humor, and reviews research on humor and psychotherapy.

For many decades the multifaceted phenomenon of humor and laughter have been of interest to behavioral scientists and health service providers in psychology.

This growing interest seems to be promoted by the long time generalized popular belief that humor and Jaughter (positive emotions) can heal both mind and. body.

Expressions of this belief are to be found, for example, in Para comunicarse con la autora, favor de esenbir al 4220-C Guilford Drive, College Park, MD. 20740-3104.

2

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

Biblical passages, literary and artistic works, personal accounts (e.g., Cousins, 1979), movies based on real life stories ,(e.g., Patch Adams; Kemp, Farrell, Minoff, Newirth, & Shaidyitc, 1998), and many other forms of popular wisdom.

The large number of articles, reviews, and books published within the last fifty years attests to the effort being made in several fields to increase and improve our understanding of what has been called the power of humor and how it influences mind-body interactions in connection with health and disease.

The studies of Adelson (1947), Cattell and LuborSky.(1946), Horowitz and Horowitz (1949), and Raley (1964) are perhaps some of the earliest contributions made by psychologists to the study of humor. Current psychological studies attempt to explain and describe the relationship between humor and personality, development, communication, social interaction, emotions, learning, and physiological and neurologically based processes among other aspects of human behavior (e.g., Chapman & Foot, 1996; 'McGhee & Goldstein, 1983). The proliferation of hunior training workshops (412Maine, 1994; Salameli, 1986; Yonkovitz, 1997), humor therapies (Fry & Salameh, 1987, 1993), courses on the psychology of humor (Endlich, 1993), assessment software (e.g., Subjective Interactive Multidimensional Evaluation), journals (e.g., Humor and Health Journal), websites, and multidisciplinary professional organizations (e.g., American Assn. for Therapeutic Humor, International Society for Humor Studies, The Humor ProjecOindicate the widespread acceptance of humor as a psychotherapeutic tool by counselors and psychotherapists from different theoretical approaches.

The previous observation is supported by the findings of surveys in which cognitive-behavioral therapists (Epstein, 1996), psychotherapists (Lynch, 1987), psycholo-

The Use of Humor in Counseling

3

gists in Puerto Rico (Pappaterra, 1996), Adlerian therapists (Salisbury, 1989), and Reality therapists (Thomson, 1985) reported regarding humor as important to psychotherapy and endorsed its therapeutic applicability as long as it is appropriate and for the benefit of the client. Recently, several articles published in the American Psychological Association magazine AAPA Monitor (Clay, 1997a, 1997b, 1997c, 1997d; McGuire, 1999) have reacquainted psychologists with the potential benefits of humor and laughter for psychological and physical health and with the ongoing debate regarding its influence and effectiveness , in psychotherapy (e.g., Hashem, 1999; Kazdin, 1999; Passarelli, 1999).

Banmen (1982), Cassell (1974), Foster (1978), and Johnston (1990) recognized the importance of humor for counselors and also pointed out that relatively few articles have appeared in counseling journals, few training programs ever mention its use as a viable counseling technique, and discussion focusing on humor and laughter is not usually found in psychology textbooks. A recent perusal -of the literature supports their observations and suggests that few counseling psychologists have expressed their opinions regarding this matter. For example, Allen (1980) visualized humor as an important and necessary element in the psychotherapeutic work of counseling psychologists in the 21st century, while others have addressed its use in career or social-emotional counseling (Donald & Carlisle, 1983; Falk & Hill, 1992; Hill & O'Brien, 1999; Nevo, 1986).

Therefore, it seems prudent to say that the position of counseling psychologists in this debate, though slightly inclined in its favor, remains unclear.

No concrete answer has been provided in the 14erature to explain this situation. However, Bloomfield (1980) and 4

4

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

Foster (1978) have speculated that the scarcity of work on humor in counseling could be related to the following reasons: (a)the counselor's sense of professionalism may cause him or her to' overlook the potential of humor in counseling, (b)ithe-- idea that counseling is a very serious matterand that it has to be painful to be effective seems to make humor unacceptable, (c) the idea that the use of humor, in counseling may discredit it, (d) the idea that coUnselors should refrain from behaving in a way that could be interpreted as disrespectful or self-serving, and (e) the -counselor's difficulty in recalling what it was that had evoked laughter during the session (e.g., the moment, the context, a verbal expression, a gesture, a facial expression, the tone of voice, body posture, or the combination of all of these). • Hence, in order to promote fiirther exploration of the role and uses of humor in the counseling process, this paper reviews recent literature and research on therapeutic humor. It examines the major theoretical perspectives on humor; summarizes the findings of behavioral and psychosomatic studies on the effects of humor and laughter on the physiology of the body; analyzes individual differences in the experience of humor; briefly describes therapies that implicitly and explicitly incoiporate the use of humor in counseling, presents supporting and dissenting opinions on the use of humor, and review research on humor and psychotherapy.

Theories of Humor In this section the major theoretical perspectives on humor are examined. According to Haig (1988) more than one hundred theories of humor have been authored by a

The Use of Humor in Counseling

5

wide variety of philosophers, natural and social scientists, artists, novelists, and humorist& Heaffirms that no theory satisfactorily explains or predicts all aspects of humor, and, therefore, he suggests - that severaLtheories should be considered for a complete understanding oftheph000rilerm Several authors have summarized the majority of these theories and group them into different categories. For example, Keith-Spiegel (1972) proposed eight broad categories, Haig (1988) divided the theories into five main groups, whereaslefcourt and Martin (1986) grouped theories into three types.

According to Morreaull (1983) superiority, relief, and incongruity, are the three major theoretical approaches.

Each approach focuses:on different psychological processes.

The superiority model involves interpersonal perception, the relief theory examines intrapsychic conflicts and the incongruity model deals with cognitive processing.

However, the various theories of humor differ in the degree to which they focus on the cognitive-emotional processes, the ways they attempt to account for their relationship to laughter, and in the variety of functions that humor and laughter appear to serve (Lefcourt & Martin, 1986).

The superiority or disparagement theory suggests that laughter is an expression of perceived superiority over others (Haig, 1988; Keith-Spiegel, 1972). The superiority theory dates back to Plato and Aristotle who maint*ed that humor and laughter were manifestations of humans' most undesirable qualities. Keith-Spiegel (1972) and Lefcourt and Martin (1986) indicate that theories which stress elation in triumph or victory, pleasure in outstripping one's competitors, joy of getting another at a disadvantage, delight in the sufferings and misfortunes of others, amusement at the stupid actions of others, enhancemeat of

6

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

reference group members and disparagement of outsiders and humiliation of unsocial persons all incorporate the element of superiority or related concepts as central to the nature of humor. These authors also observe that sympathy, empathy, congeniality, geniality, and positive feelings of well-being and efficacy can also be associated with the laughter of superiority to the extent it reflects a mirthful response to a situation or external threat In those situations the superiority laughter represents a sense of achievement and mastery over the environment after facing a stressproducing situation (Levine, 1977).

The relief approach suggests that the function of laughter is to release excessive tension or afford relief from strain or constraint (Haig, 1988; Keith-Spiegel, 1972). The English philosopher Herbert Spencer was the author of the first excess-energy theory of humor which states that the surplus of Anervous energy overflows the organs of speech and muscles of respiration producing laughter. Some of the theories subscribing to the theme of the relief approach are Freud's theory of humor, Berlyne's arousal-jag theory, and Apter and Smith's reversal theory (Haig, 1988; Lefcourt & Martin, 1986).

Freud, like Spencer, believed that the function of laughter was to burn off excess energy and distinguished among the different types of psychic energy that may be turned into laughter according to different mirthful experiences (Haig, 1988; Keith-Spiegel, 1972; Lefcourt & Martin, 1986; Palmer, 1994). According to Freud, the ludicrous or mirthful experiences always represent a saving of psychic energy. In his view the excess of psychic energy becomes unnecessary and may be discharged in the form of laughter. To Freud a sense of humor is the best and most beneficial defense mechanism but also a rare and precious

The Use of Humor in Counseling gift suggesting that not everyone is capable of taking a humorous attitude in the face of hardships and awdeties (Haig, 1988; Lefcourt & Martin, 1986).

Berlyne rejected Spencer's excess-energy theory because scientific findings on the functioning of the nervous system did not support Spencer's perspective. Berlyne's theory is based on the concept of an inverted-U relationship between physiological arousal and subjective pleasure (Haig, 1988; Lefcourt & Martin, 1986). Laughter is viewed as a reflection of a reduction of arousal. Berlyne's theory postulates that during the telling of a joke its collative properties (e.g., novelty, complexity, incongruity, and redundancy) tend to progressively increase the arousal to an optimal level. When the level of arousal increases over the optimal level the discomfort experienced is reversed by the punch line, which produces a sudden resolution of the arousing properties of the joke, reducing the arousal level to a pleasurable level in the form of laughter.

The reversal theory of Apter and Smith (cited in Lefcourt & Martin, 1986) rejected the notion of the inverted-U postulated by Berlyne and suggested that the hedonic tone associated with different levels of arousal depends upon the Ametamotivational state of the individual.

Apter and Smith described two states, the telic and the paratelic. In the telic state the individual is goal-oriented and serious minded, whereas in the paratelic state the person is involved in ongoing activity and is more playful.

Arousal is experienced as unpleasant in the telic state, but pleasurable and exciting in the paratelic state. In this theory humor involves an increase in arousal and reversal from a telic to a paratelic state. In contrast to Freud's theory where laughter functions to decrease arousal, in the reversal theory the function of laughter is to increase physiological arousal

8

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

in the paratelic state which is experienced as pleasurable.

Stddies suggesting a positive correlation between arousal increases and perceived funniness of humorous stimuli provide some support to the reversal theory.

The incongruity model is the third major approach Theories ascribed to this model emphasize the cognitiveperceptual processes involved in humor. In this approach humor results from pairing normally disjointed, ill-suited, disparate ideas, concepts, or situations in a surprising or unexpected manner. Incongruity is a conflict between what is expected and what actually occurs in the joke.

Incongruity theories of humor are strongly influenced by the writings of Kant and Schopenhauer (cited in KeithSpiegel, 1972). These theories suggest that humor involves sudden, surprising shifts in cognitive processing of information (Keith-Spiegel, 1972; Lefcourt & Martin, 1986). The incongruity model was further elaborated by the English writer Arthur Koestler.

Koestler (1964) maintains that creativity is differentially manifested in the arts, the sciences, and in humor. He coined the term Abisociation to refer to the creative thinking which joins two self-consistent but mutually incompatible (incongruous) frames of reference, or the discovery of various similarities and analogies implicit in concepts normally considered distant from each other (Lefcourt & Martin, 1986). Haig (1988) explains that in the creation of a joke or the recreative act of perceiving a joke there is a sudden mental leap from one associative context to another.

Laughter results from the release of the emotion associated with that sudden creative leap. Several theorists have been debating whether incongruity alone is a sufficient condition for humor or whether the important component is the leiolution of the incongruity. Those in favor of the

The Use of Humor in Counseling

9

incongruity-resolution model suggest that it is necessary to distinguish humor from nonsense (Shultz, 1996).

As evidenced by this brief overview of the relief, superiority, and incongruity approaches of humor, a wide diversity of opinions have been expressed to describe and explain humor, laughter, and the relationship between them.

An extensive review of these and other models is out of the scope of this work and surely represents a complex and challenging task to accomplish. However, the fact that different theories emphasize different aspects of the humor phenomenon suggests that a more comprehensive understanding is possible by examining how they complement each other.

Humor and Health This section summarizes the fmdings of behavioral and psychosomatic studies on- the effects- of humor and laughter on the physiology of the body. Several studies have investigated the potential physiological benefits of humor and laughter postulated in the writings of many philosophers, physicians, and psychologists (Goldstein, 1987). Humor physiology or gelotology is the field of science that studies Athe events occurring in our bodies in association with humorous experiences. Research in this area investigates physiological activities and changes involving the muscular, respiratory, cardiovascular, endocrine, immune, and central nervous systems occurring during mirthfiil experiences (Fry, 1992).

According to Fry the stimulus (humor), the emotional response (mirth), and the resulting behaviors (e.g., grinning, laughing, smiling, or giggling) are the main elements in the humor process. Research has shown that the laughter

10

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

response involves innervation of fifteen facial muscles, throat, jaw, diaphragm, chest, abdomen, neck, back, and the limbs, causing spasmodic skeletal muscle contractions, increases in breathing and cardiovascular activity, stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system and the production of catecholamines (e.g., dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine) which in turn stimulate the production of endorphins (the body's natural pain-relieving neurotTansminers). As suggested by these findings, the effects of laughter are similar to that of physical exercise (Fry, 1992; Haig, 1988).

Studies on the effect of humor on physical health suggest that incorporating humor as an ongoing coping style into everyday life can enhance the immune system (e.g., Dillon, Minchoff and Baker, 1985; McClelland, cited in Saper, 1988). However, Saper (1988) notes that a number of other non-humorous procedures (e.g., relaxation and exercise) can also enhance immune function as well as or better than laughter. In light of his review, Saper encouraged the development of more research on the psycho-physiological mechanisms by which positive emotions influence biochemistry and physiology and on the role those mechanisms play in healing psychological problems and/or physical illness.

According to Kolb and Whishaw (1996), studies by Gardner and his associates found that although both left and right hemisphere damage impaired the appreciation of humor, patients with large lesions in the frontal area of the right-hemisphere in particular show a reduced ability to comprehend, appreciate, and produce humor and manifest a very atypical sense of humor (e.g., inappropriate laughter).

As these fmdings imply, laughter can also indicate underlying pathology. Sudden outbursts of laughter precipitated by a nonspecific event or stimulus with no apparent emotional

The Use of Huinor in Counseling

11

significance, which do not reflect an underlying sense of joy, are beyond an individual's conscious control and are socially inappropriate have been observed in patients with organic brain disorders (Goldstein, 1987; Haig, 1988).

Findings regarding the role of humor as mediator of stress seem mixed. For example, Safranek and Schill (1982) reported that neither humor nor the appreciation of humor affected the relationship between stressful life events and depression or anxiety. On the other hand, Lefcourt and Martin (1986) found that humor moderates the effects of stress on psychological well-being. More recently, Spruill (1992) reported a modest relationship between sense of humor and psychological well-being but no relationship between sense of humor and either perceiVed stress or health. Other studies have found that humor can help moderate pain (Adams & McGuire, 1986), depression (Nezu, Nezu & Blissett, 1988), heterosexual anxiety(Nies, 1982), and threat-induced anxiety (Yovetich, Dale '& Hudak, 1990). Humor has also been found imixkitant in improving memory for shapes and for sentences (McAninch, Austin & Derks, 1992-93; Schmidt, 1994), mood and flexibility of thinking (creativity) (Isen, Daubman & Nowicki, 1987; Ziv, 1976, 1980, 1988a, I988b), and promoting general health (Carroll, 1990).

According to Goldstein (1987) and Rotton (1992), individuals with a well-developed sense of humor do. not live any longer than other people, but their sense of humor surely enhances their quality of life So, although thiriiiical evidence tends to support the argument that humor and laughter can be directly or indirectly beneficial/effeCiive in promoting health and preventing or even speed* recovery from illness (Berk, 1989; Cousins, 1979, 1989; rry, 1992; Goldstein, 1987), more research is needed before a conclusion

12

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

can be reached about the role of humor in health.

Individual Differences and Humor

This section examines gender, personality, and cultural differences in the experience of humor and their potential effects in the counseling process.

Gender

Gender differences are the most frequently studied source of group differences in humor (e.g., Chapman & Foot, 1996). The studies reviewed by Haig (1988) on gender differences and humor in adults Suggest that (a) the overt expression of humor in women may not be equally encouraged in certain parts of society, (b) in general, because women have been encouraged from childhood to be emotionally more expressive than men, they tend to be more appreciative of humor than men, (c) men tend to enjoy jokes with aggressive or sexual components more than females do, though changes in societal values, norms, expectations and gender roles are influencing the dynamic aspects of humor in terms of the occurrence and response to jokes in both sexes, and (d) men tend to be strongly committed to the social context and modify their laughter in accordance with their conceptions of social roles and relations whereas women modify their laughter in accordance with their emotional state. Palmer (1994) Critically evaluated the literature on the relationship between- gender and patterns of humor appreciation and perforthance. Although he acknowledges that men and women-- do "indeed have somewhat dissimilar senses of humor, be- 'alsO "notes that studies suggesting differences between men and women, particularly in their appreciation of sexual and aggressive jokes, are ambiguous and probably

The Use of Humor in Counseling

13

unreliable. Palmer argues that the external validity of these studies is severely limited because they are based on responses ofAnglo-Saxon students participating in laboratory experiments, which represents a restricteiradiiiral, age, and class range of participants responding to atypical circumstances of humor.

Palmer states that context variables including setting, type of companion, nature of occasions when humor is possible or permissible, group world View, type/theme of the joke, and identity of the joke teller, athong others, may influence the results. An additional prObliin 'relates to the use of isolated pieces of humor The Use'Of cartoons or typed jokes precludes the possibility of examining whether women's humor may be more oriented toward the humor that emerges as part of conversations and other everyday situations and less toward jokes and isolated pieces of humor. According to Pahner 's analysis the txemendous variety of relationships between humor and gender that are to be found in every respect suggests that there is a multiple functional (causal) relationship between gender and humor in this society. These reviews convey the idea that there is little consistency in existing research reporting significant sex differences. Nonetheless there is some evidence that males and females initiate and respond to humor in different ways (McGhee & Goldstein, 1983).

Personality Several personality theorists including Freud (cited in Palmer, 1994; Haig, 1988), Adler (1927/1946), Allport (1937, 1961), Maslow (1987), Kohut (cited in Rowe & Isaac, 1991), and Rogers (1951, 1961) have acknowledged humor as one of the attributes of the fully functioning

14

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

individual and indispensable to psychological health. For example, to Freud a sense of humor is the best and most beneficial defense mechanism (Haig, 1988; Lefeourt & Martin, 1986). Adler described the Asanguine type as the mentally healthy individual. The sanguine type includes those who evidence a certain joy and do not take them or things too seriously, who attempt to see the positive side of every event, and have a healthy perception of their life style. In addition, Adler said Alaughter, with its liberating .energy, its freedom-giving powers, goes hand in hand with happiness, and represents, so to speak, the keystone of this affect (p. 276).

Throughout his writings Kohut (cited in Rowe & Isaac, 1991) suggested certain attributes and capacities that characterize a well-functioning individual. In addition to the capacity for empathic attunement, curiosity and wish to understand the needs of others, ability to love, creativity, and wisdom he considered humor another criterion of a healthy self According to Rowe and Isaac (1991) Kohut Acharacterizes humor as an ability to laugh goecl rnaturedly at one's previously held self-importance or formerfanatically held beliefs and values of a political, religious, or philosophical nattire (p. 73).

All port articulated that a so many tangles in life are ultimately hopeless that we have no appropriate sword other than laughter. I venture to say that no person is in good health unless he can laugh at himself quietly and privately... (p. 134). He also stated that having a sense of humor is remarkably related to insight and plays an important role in achieving a) self-objectification b) the process of attaining self-knowledge as a prerequisite to positive personality change. And Maslove concluded from his study of self-actualizing peoPle that one characteristic that

The Use of Humor in Counseling

15

distinguishes self-actualizers (e.g., individuals striving to realize his or her inner potentialities to the optimal level) is their distinct preference for philosophical, non-hostile humor.

Different types of personality classifications have been used with the purpose of correlating personality with humor. Ziv (cited in Haig, 1988; Saper, 1987) generated a range of personality traits defined by two axes: a social axis of introversion-extroversion and an emotional axis of instability-stability. He hypothesized that there are four general personality types of humor. The four personality types are emotional-extrovert, stable-extrovert, emotionalintrovert, and stable-introvert. Ziv considered that the emotional-extrovert (i.e., a touchy restless, aggressive, impulsive, angry, excitable, changeable, and active person) would prefer jokes of aggressive, sexual or practical nature and would laugh readily. The stable-extrovert (i.e., a sociable, outgoing, responsive, easygoing, lively and carefree person) would prefer interpersonal jokes. The emotional-introvert (i.e., an anxious, rigid, unsociable, moody, and pessimistic person) would derive less enjoyment from humor than other personality types. These individuals would enjoy black humor, satire, cartoons, written humor, and would not laugh uproariously. The stable-introvert (i.e., a passive, careful, inhibited, reflective, and controlled person) would piefer intellecrnal humor, problem-solving humor, and self-ridicule. Studies exploring the relationship between humor and other personality classifications are discussed later on.

Cultural Differences

A computer search of pertinent psychological

16

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

databases did not identify studies exploring the effects of humor on the therapeutic relationship with ethnic/racially diverse clients. The search did not include publications from Spanish-speaking countries other than Puerto Rico. A cursory review of the subject index of books addressing the use of humor in psychotherapy (e.g., Fry & Salameli, 1987; Kuhlman, 1984; Strean, 1994) also revealed no particular attention to this topic. Consistent with this observation Hashem (1999) noted that articles recently published in the APA _Monitor on the use of humor in therapy failed to address the socio-cultural nature of humor. Dimmer, Carroll and Wyatt (1990) stated that research into crosscultural aspects of humor in therapy is clearly needed to inform the clinical practice of multicultural psychologists.

113ecause of the lack of research on this area the roles, uses, and , impact of humor and laughter in the development, progress and outcome of cross-cultural counseling (i.e., when the therapist and the client are from different racial/ethnic groups) are unknown.

At this moment, common sense, some sociological literature (e.g., Fine, 1983), and informal observations suggest that the nature and role of humor vary across cultures. Hashem (1999) stated that the roots of humor are culturally based and argued that what is humorous in one culture might not be in another. He emphasized that Adifferences in humor, both in their verbal and non-verbal forms, exist among all subcultures . . . (p. 3) and reminded therapists to be culturally sensitive and very careful regarding the style, content, and timing of the laughter and humor they introduce in counseling. Inappropriate humor can be disrespectful, disruptive and even offensive.

The Use of Humor in Counseling

17

Humor in Counseling & Psychotherapy Psychotherapists of different theoretical orientations have elaborated on the therapeutic uses and misuses of humor in counseling. This section briefly describes some of the humor therapies that have been incorporated into counseling practice, presents supporting, cautionary, and dissenting opinions on the use of humor in counseling, review studies on the role of humor in therapy, and identify areas for further inquiry.

Kottler (1991, 1993) recognizes therapist's appreciation for and active use of humor and play as an important element in effective psychotherapy. He believes that a therapist's sense of humor Ais a reflection of the joy, passion, creativity, and playfulness that are the hallmarks of any interesting character (p. 83). A sense of hurry* is what makes a therapist appear less threatening, mite approachable and what allows him or her to deal With intensely serious subjects on a daily basis and still keep a sense of perspective. According to Kottler (1991) effective therapists have the capacity to be tastefully and tactfully humorous in ways to disarm client resistance and help clients face painfully serious issues. It is another way to introduce a renewed, optimistic, and hopeful perspective to a client's. life. Corey (1986) and Ziv (1976) agree that when appropriate laughter is triggered in clients it usually signals therapeutic progress. And Grotjahn (1970) suggested that humor can be an excellent medium to use in making interpretations and a valuable teaching instrument of unique efficacy.

Salameh (1990) asserts that humor can help the clinician do his or her work more seriously and more energetically. He suggests humor presents benefits at

18

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

different levels. At the personal level humor can be an antidote to stress and burnout for the clinician. At the interpersonal level, it is a powerful way of breaking defensive barriers, a refreshing means of conveying information and a self-help model for patients. Humor is best received by most clients when the therapist has developed a good level of trust and a constructive working alliance with the client.

Beck, Rush, Shaw and Emery (1979) favor the judicious use of humor and hyperbole as tools in the therapeutic interview and counseling process. They observe that humor is particularly useful if it is spontaneous, if it allows the client to observe his notions or ideas objectively, and if the humor is presented in such a way that the client does not think he or she is being belittled or ridiculed. They explain that when a depressed client is able to appreciate the humor in a situation it is usually a sign that he or she is developing or applying an important coping skill. Humor, although temporarily, often increases the client's sense of control, which in turn increases his or her sense of security and well-being.

Kohut (1971) lists the capacity for humor as one of the signs of the accomplishment of an effective psychoanalytic result Freud (cited in Palmer, 1994) indicated that humor is an efficient and safe pathway for both discharging and mastery of instinctual arousal. According to Ruvelson (1988), Winnicott cited the sharing of a joke as a mutual creative act emerging from the overlap of potential spaces where meaningful communication occurs. The therapist's personal presence and willingness to engage with the patient in playful merger arouses in both participants heightened capacities for self-discovery and integration of _ii,eviously segregated aspects Of experience. Rosenheim (1974) defmed constructive humor as a message conveyed

The Use of Humor in Counseling

19

empathically by the therapist in a humorous style which intends to call attention to habitual intrapsychic processes within patients or to highlight some aspect of their momentary interpersonal engagement He discusses humor as abreaction , of instinctual impulses, suggests that jokes made by the client in therapy can be used in the exploratory process very much like dreams or slips of the tongue, and affirms that the value and potency of humor are derived mainly from its intrinsic attributes of intimacy, directness, and humaneness.

Other psychodynamic or psychoanalytic therapists supporting the use of humor are Bloomfield (1980), Ehrenberg (1991), Kennedy (1991), Korb (1988), Reynes and Allen (1987), Sands (1984), and Satow (1991).

Htunor has been considered a valuable assessment and diagnostic tool (Adler, 1927/1946; Banmen, 1982; Bloomfield, 1980; Grossman, 1977; Grotjahn, 1970; Johnston, 1990; O'Connell, 1996; Richman, 1996; Rutherford, 1994; Salameh, 1990; Schnarch, 1990).

Zwerling (1955) pointed out that a patient's favorite joke can be assumed to be related to some central instinctual conflict, which can be used in diagnosis and in therapy. He stated that a favorite joke, like projective tests, early memories, and dreams, may be, in a concise pointed way, useful for a tentative approach to a troubled area. Reynes and Allen (1987) assert that the patient's capacity to engage in a humorous exchange and to produce a joke is one of the most valuable indicators of a patient's emotional state, degree of ego-integrity and prospective state of well-being.

McNaly (1979) suggests that through humor we get important clues about clients anxieties, concerns, and self-esteem. Humor serves for identification of conflict areas and coping styles (Casse11,1974), and assessment of the patient's capacity for spontaneity and his or her pre-

20

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

paredness for active self-exploration (Rosenheim, 1974).

Many functions have been attributed to humor as a main contributor to therapeutic change. Clinicians have considered humor as a useful way to facilitate the recognition end expressions of feelings and emotions (Haig, 1988; Pierce, 1985; Richman, 1996), to promote an attitude of Mastery (Ehrenberg, 1991; Ellis, 1977; Haig, 1988; Pierce, 1985; Richman, 1996; Roseit1teim, 1974; Sands, 1984; Satow, 1991), tO imprOv贸 Clients insight and inVolVement With their feelings (BanMen, 1982; Bergman, 1985; Ehrenberg, 1991; Johnston, 190; Mindess, 1961; Pierce, 1985; Richman, 1996; Rosettheim, 1974; Schimel,'cited in Ruvelson, 1988), to improve the relationship 'between therapist and client bY emphasizing their common hmnanity (Berginan; 1985; Dimmer, Carroll & Wyatt, 1990; Ehrenberg; 1991; Haig, 1988; Johnston, 1990; Killinger, 1917; Kuhrman, 1984; Mosak, 1987; Pierce, 1985; Reynes & Allen; 1987,. Riehman, 1996; Rosenheim, 1974; Sehnarcll, 1990), and to broaden perspective and discover new options (ger:grill/1, 1985; Dimmer, Carroll & Wyatt, 1990; Ehrenberg, 1901; Ellis, 1977; Haig, 1988; Reynes & Allen, "1987; Richman, 1996; Rosenheim & Golan, 1986; Sands, 1984).

Humor haialso been acknowledged as a resource to rednee tenSion or anxiety (Bergnian, 1985; Dimmer, Carroll & Wiratt, 1990; Greenwald, 1977; Haig, 1986, 1988; Kottler, 1993; Levine, 1976; Mindess, 1961, 1996; Reynes & Allen, 1987; Richman, 1996; Rosenheim & Golan, 1986; Satow, 1991; Schimel, cited in Ruvelson, 1988; Schnarch, 1990; Ventis, 1973), to help clients see the humorous side of their self-defeating thoughts and behaviors (Beck Rush, Shaw & EmerY, 1979; Bergman, 1985; Ellis, 1977; Mindesi, 1961; Richman, 1996), to promote openness and

The Use of Humor in Counseling

21

communication (Ehrenberg, 1991; Ellis, 1977; Haig, 1988; Johnston, 1990; Killinger, 1977; Mindess, 1961;,Reynes & Allen, 1987; Rosenheim, 1974; Sands, 1984; Satow, 1991; Schimel, cited in Ruvelson, 1988), and to facilitate expression of normally taboo subjects (Banmen,1982; Bagman, 1985; Kottler, 1993; Richman, 1996).

Within the context of group counseling, Bloch (1987), George and Dustin (1988), Grotjahn (1971), and Sonstegard (1998) consider sense of intmor to be an important characteristic of effective group counselors and an essential part of healthy group life- Therapeutically, humor can help to regulate the emotional atmosphere ofthe group and facilitate open and creative communication. It can help group members to gain insight and perspective on their problems, release tension, improve intragroup relationships, express joy and satisfactions, , improye social skills, develop confidence in the helpingprocess,and develop a positive outlook on life (Bloch, 19$7;„Elock Browning & McGrath, 1983; George & Dustin, 1988; Kennedy, 1991; Satow, 1991; Sonstegard, 1998; Tuttman, 1991). In addition to individual and group counseling, humor has been incorporated into child and adolescent psychotherapy (e.g., Bernet, 1993; Fisher & Fisher, 1987; Prerost, 1984, 1985; Ventis & Ventis, 1988), family and couples counseling (e.g., Madanes, 1987; McBrien, 1993), and substance and alcohol abuse counseling (e.g., Ellis, McInerney, DiGiuseppe & Yeager, 1989; Scott, 1989; von Wormer, 1986).

Current therapies incorporating humor into the counseling process include Rational Emotive Therapy (Dryden & Ellis, 1988; Ellis, 1987, 1977), Provocative Therapy ( Farrelly &Lynch, 1987; Farrelly & Matthews, 1981), and Natural High Therapy (O'Connell, 1981/411987).

22

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

Other counseling modalities which recopize humor as a therapeutic intervention include Integrative Short-Term Psychotherapy (Salameh, 1987), Pragmatic Psychotherapy (Driscoll, 1987), Direct Decision Therapy (Greenwald, 1987), Reality Therapy (Glasser & Wubbolding, 1995), and Behavior Therapy (e.g., Smith, 1973; Ventis, 1973, 1987).

Franld's (1960) Paradoxical Intention and Prerost (1985) Humorous Imagery Situation Technique are described as humorous techniques in the literature.

The Rational Emotive Therapy postulates that people's emotional disturbance largely consists of taking life too seriously, of exaggerating the significance of things, and almost completely losing one's sense of humor about how to get along in life (Dryden & Ellis, 1988; Ellis, 1987, 1977). According to Dryden and Ellis (1988) RET therapists often prefer an informal style of interacting with their clients and tend to employ a good deal of humor when appropriate. RET therapists direct their own humor at aspects of the client's dysfunction and not at the client as a person. They encourage their clients to laugh at their dysfunctional thinking and behavior but not at themselves.

Also, RET therapists often direct their humor against some of their own irrationalities and by doing so show that they do not take themselves too seriously. Ellis (1977) postulates that humor works at cognitive, emotional, and behavioral levels by presenting new ideas and insight bringing enjoyment, mirth, and a new outlook to life; and encouraging different actions.

Provocative Therapy favors a full-fiedged and intensely interactive relationship with the client emphasizing here and now experiences. It uses humor of different kinds to provoke the client to laugh at him or herself or at his or her maladaptive habits. Provocative therapists assume that

The Use of Humor in Counseling

23

clients are not as psychologically fragile as is usually considered, that they are free to change if they wish, regardless of severity or duration of the disorder, and that both clients and therapists often underrate the possible positive growth that can be achieved. Farrelly and Mathews (1981) explain that the provocative therapist does not ridicule clients as human beings but rather ridicules their maladaptive behaviors in an effort to help them alter their behaviors.

Humor plays a central role in O'Connell's (1981, 1987) Natural High Therapy, also known as humorous self-therapy. According to O'Connell a sense of humor is regarded as Athe royal road to self-actualization and as the end result of actualization He postulated three equally important and progressively related levels of self-actualization.

The first level refers to the struggle to move from the external ego attachments of roles, goals, and controls toward a healthy sense of self-esteem. The second level refers to the development of positive social interest The third level refers to the maturation of transpersonal dimensions and the experience of spiritual communion. This approach uses psychodramatic and empty-chair techniques, role playing, guided imagery, exercises to develop encouragement of self and others, and meditation techniques using breath focusing and contemplation. Humor may be incorporated into any of these procedures. O'Connell developed the group technique called Ahumordrama.

Cautionary and Dissenting VieWs

Most authors, aside from endorsing the use of humor in counseling, have expressed xecautionary concerns regarding its possible misuse and destructive consequences while others

24

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

,compktely oppose its use. Beck, Rush, Shaw, and Emery (1979) note that the use of humor is not the ideal solution to a client's problem. Some therapists do not have a ..spontaneous sense of humor nor are they prepared to use %humor in,zounseling. These authors advise therapists to immediately correct any misinterpretation derived from the humorous intervention, to direct humorous interventions to the client's, thoughts or ideas, instead of the client, and to be cautious in choosing which thoughts would serve as targets, for a misjudged intervention may affect the therapeutic relationshiA Sands (1984) sustains that the most important , humor- in, the therapeutic situation is the humor that is - expressed by the client and that humor should only be used -by_the therapist in the ethical sense of being helpful to the client ..

Other pmctitioners have argued that humor should not be used (a) to degrade, exploit, belittle, or mock the client, (b) to defensively avoid uncomfortable feelings, (c) to distract or trivialize the therapeutic process, (d) to jeopardize therapeutic authority, (e) to mask therapists hostilities toward the client, (f) to mask clients hostilities fr)toward members of the counseling group, or (g) for self-display -siblingratiation (e.g., Bloch, Browning & McGrath, 1983; !.iDimmer, Canon & Wyatt, 1990; George & Dustin, 1988; Mickson, 1977; Johnston, 1990; Pierce, 1985; Richman, 1996). Consistent with the previous arguments Poland (1994) suggests a clear appraisal of the therapeutic alliance to potentiate possible benefits, Saper (1987) favors a careful assessment of the clients personality and the type of humor they prefer, Salameh (1990) suggests a sequence for evaluating clients experiences and attitudes regarding humor, while Schnarch (1999) notes that humor must be tailored and restricted with. clients who require a more •

The Use of Humor in Counseling

25

formal approach.

Schnarch observes that clients who readily feel misunderstood or disqualified by authority figures may respond negatively to therapist humor. Clients with healing difficulties or cognitive difficulties are more likely to miss the point of the humorous intervention and feel diminished in the process. Salameh (1990) adds that special care needs to be taken in using humorous interventions- with severely disturbed psychotics, borderline clients, paranoid and manic-depressive clients, and suggests. cautious judgment with individuals who have been victims of'a recent trauma, or are emotionally hypersensitive . beeause.of animpending disconcerting event in their lives.

Among those expressing strong- opposition to the use of humor in counseling are Greenson (1967), Kubie, (1994), Parry (1975), Paul (1978), and Reik (1960:- Parry (1975) and Paul (1978) warned that jokes are not appropriate hi psychotherapy and advised therapists to refrain from using humor and from responding to their patients teasing humor, while Kubie emphasized humor's destructive potential.

Kubie (1994) warned that the use of humor is potentially destructive to the therapeutic relationship, especially.when used by inexperienced therapists. Among other things, he sustained that humor blocks free association, confuses the patient by making him or her wonder whether the therapist is serious or joking, and may serve to hinder progress in therapy. Kubie concluded that humor has its place in life, but a very limited role, if any, in psychotherapy. Mindess (1996) and Mosak (1987) emphaSized that humor presents no More danger than other therapist's techniques, that other interventions may be abused in identical ways, and that any therapy is risky for both the client and the counselor and both must take their risks if therapy is to be productive.

26

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

Richman (1996) agreed with Mindess and Mosak and discussed several areas of congruence between humor and psychotherapy.

Research on Humor and Psychotherapy In his review of the literature on humor in psychotherapy Salameh (1983) noted the scarcity on research in this topic and identified two trends in the literature. The first trend was characterized by articles of anecdotal nature acknowledging the usefulness of humor and its benefits in therapy but lacking either in theoretical conceptualization or empirical data on how it can be used. The literature was alio' replete of speculative articles from a psychoanalytic perspective whereby humorous phenomena was seen as a defense mechanism and related to regression, repression, and "deception. Also, the use of cartoons or written jokes as stimulus in the few existing experimental studies limited the generalization of their results to natural/social humorous situations.

The second trend is characterized by a nonpsychoanalytic and empirical outlook in the study of various specific identifiable dimensions of therapeutic humor in part originated by the publication of the book The Psychology of Humor by J. Goldstein and P. McGhee in 1972 (Salameh, 1983). These trends suggested by Salameh (1983) are also documented by Shaughnessy and Wadsworth (1992) chronological overview of the development of research and theorizing on the use of humor in psychotherapy beginning in 1970 until the 1990s. Since the seventies and continuing up to the present several doctoral dissertation studies began to address methodological and theoretical issues, effects of humor on the therapeutic process, client reactions to the use

The Use of Humor in Counseling

27

of humor, therapist-related variables, therapist views regarding the use of humor, and uses of humor in group therapy. Some of these studies are briefly reviewed next, followed by an outline of promising research perspectives, and some considerations regarding several factors affecting the development of research in therapeutic humor.

Huber's dissertation (1974) explored the use of humor relative to clients discomfort and its effects on the relationship. Results indicated that humor did not decrease tension in discussing intimate topics and that counselor's personality characteristics and clients anxiety level might affect clients evaluations of therapist use of humor in connection with discussion of intimate topics. Killinger (1977) investigated whether the use of humor by the therapist is a facilitative skill, or one that serves destructive tendencies by inhibiting or blocking the therapeutic process. She defined humor in terms of seven descriptive categories and classified these according to affect as laughter or nonlaughter humor. She found that the therapist experience level may not be a key factor in determining how often humor is used. However, level of maturity and developmental and environmental influences may be more important considerations in using humor. Her results also suggested that humor is effectively used to convey relevant ideas, communicate a positive therapist-client attitudes, and to facilitate positive client exploration and understanding as a result of the humorous intervention.

Fetzek (1981) studied the impact that counselorinitiated humor has on high-school students perception of counselor performance. He hypothesized that counselorinitiated humor would increase students perception of the counselor's capacity for empathy, level of positive regard, unconditionality of regard, congruence, and willingness to be

28

Leslie R Maldonado-Feliciano

known. He found that joke-telling humor appeared to encourage higher perceptions of regard level, congruence, and unconditional positive regard in females but not in males, whereas integrated humor worked to increase positive perceptions in males but not in females. In an analogue study, Megdell (1981) investigated the relationship between counselor-initiated humor and clients subsequent attraction to the counselor. He also focused on the relative impact of shared and nonshared humor on clients liking for counselors.

He reported that a significantly greater proportion of shared humor intervals showed increases in attraction rating in comparison with the other conditions. His results support the argument that counselor-initiated humor in an initial counseling session can enhance the clients attraction for the counselor.

In another analogue study, Kerrigan (1983) explored how therapists use of humor in psychotherapy would affect subjects ratings of these therapists. Six short excerpts of actual therapy sessions illustrating different levels of humor (e.g. no humor, slight amount of humor, and moderate amount of humor)' used by therapists were rated on the dimensions of empathy, respect, Warmth, genuineness, concretenesi; and self-disclosure. Results ShOwed that the group judged to have used no humor was rated superior to the groups using humor in amount of respect shown by the therapist, the group in which the therapist used more humor was rated significantly lower than the group using a slight amount of humor. It was observed that subjects ratings on the condition of respect decreased as greater amount of humor were introduced by the therapists. No differences were found on the other five facilitative therapeutic conditions.

However, the pattern of ratings on empathy and warmth suggested that ratings given to therapists decreased as the

The Use of Humor in Counseling

29

use of humor increased. In their study on humor and its relationship to students assessments of the counselor, Foster and Reid (1983) found no differences in the way male and female college students rated the therapeutic characteristics of a female videotaped counselor. Their results also indicated that non-facilitative humor is less desirable than facilitative humor or no humor at all in terms of counselor likableness, approachability, or ability to create rapport but not in terms of leading the client to a better understanding of the problem.

Pinegar (1983) examined the relationship between client humor and self exploration within the psychotherapy process itself using Valliant's theory of humor and healthy integration which supports humor as one of the most functional coping mechanisms. , Thirty adult psycholllerapy taped sessions were scored. Results indicated -no sigm:ficant relationship between self exploration and humor. ,114Mray (1986) ,investigated the interaction of humor* aild, gender in .the context of psychotheriwy....1-lis lx24(po.thOrre.s...SiiateLthat (1) participants, regardless of gender, would perceive the relationship between the therapist and client as enhanced by the use-of humor by the therapist and (2) that male participants would rate the female therapist who uses humor with a male client lower on a level of regard scale than any other combination of therapist and client gender, within the humorous condition. According to the results there was no significant difference between the presence and absence of humor and the . participants perception of the rapport established by the therapist, regardless of the sex of the participant Results also indicated that participants, regardless of gender, perceived a female using humor with a male client as less warm and caring than other combinations.

A gender preference for same-sex therapist-client dyads was

30

•

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

indicated especially when therapist humor is utilized.

Salisbury (1989) examined the relationship between perceived effectiveness in Adlerian counseling and the use of humor in therapy. Specifically, the author investigated the relationship between the frequency and type of humor used by the therapist and client in the counseling sessions and the perceived effectiveness of humor. Both the therapist and the client evaluated each of the 32 sessions regarding frequency of humor and effectiveness of the session.

Salisbury reported a significant relationship between the frequency of humor used and evaluation of the sessions by the therapist but this was not significant when evaluated by the client He also reported a significant relationchip between frequency of humor used by the therapist and client, between the evaluation of sessions by therapist and client, and between the various types of humor used by the therapist and client Therapists and clients differed on the types of humor preferred. The use of sarcastic humor by the therapist makes the client more uncomfortable and less likely to feel the session was effective. Priddy (1990) investigated the role of client sense of humor on therapeutic outcomes. He reported a non-statistically significant correlation between client sense of humor and therapeutic outcomes, that clients with a high sense of humor would spend less time in therapy as compared to clients with a low sense of humor, and that females manifested a higher sense of humor and spend less time in therapy than males.

The relationship between personality traits and humor preference have been investigated by classifying individuals according to their locus of control as measured by the Rotter Locus of Control Scale (Haig, 1988).

Persons with 'an internal locus of control feel that they are charge of their own life and personal circumstances.

The Use of Humor in Counseling

31

Individuals with an external locus of control feel that their life and circumstances are not within their control and usually look outside themselves for answers, support, and guidance.

For example, in a study conducted by Lefcourt, Sardoni and Sardoni (cited in Haig, 1988), they found that participants with an internal locus of control tended to use all types of humor more than participants with an external locus of control, who also tended to use social humor less frequently than the superiority or tension relief forms. Lefcourt and Martin (1986) observed that Aindividuals who see themselves as being in control of the events that occur in their lives are more likely to respond with humor than are those who consider their lives to be in the control of external forces (P. 13).

Ellsworth (1985) examined differences in humor responses among the personality classifications of aggressive, depressed, and control group participants using single frame cartoons from the Mirth Response Test Her findings suggest that depressed participants had significantly lower humor appreciation ratings than aggressive or control participants.

Also, the control group had significantly higher humor rating than the other two groups. In all groups cartoons representing sexual themes received the highest appreciation scores while dependency theme cartoons received the lowest.

Rosenheim and Golan (1986) explored the preference of patients classified as hysterical, obsessive, and depressive for humorous or non-humorous therapist interventions.

They reported that the personality make up of the patients had a significant differential effect on the appreciation of humorous versus non-humorous therapist intervention.

Patients consistently fitvored the non-humorous interventions, but the extent of this preference varied according to personality type. Obsessive patients stood out in their consistent,

32

Leslie E Maldonado-Feliciano

decisive opposition to humorous therapist intervention of any type. These results were inconsistent with those of Maiman (cited in Haig, 1988) who found that individuals with a high degree of obsessiveness could enjoy humor as ntuch as those with & low degree of obsessiveness. Haig (1988) asserts that no conclusions can be drawn from stiviies exploring the relationship between personality and humor because of the many diagnostic systems, varied classifications, different measures of humor utilized and sampling problems observed in many of the existing studies. , To the author's knowledge, the study completed by Pappaterra (1996) is the only one providing some information on the' use, of humor by a particular ethnic group. In his exploratory study of the views of Puerto Rican psychologists regard* ',the, use of humor -in psychotherapy, Pappaterra (1996) found: that approximately 85% of the participants lad-a favorable opinion of its use,apd,reported using it in ;their psychotherapeutic work Moording to parficipants -opinions;-humor kelps.* reduce ' ,tension; improves rapport, and facilitates clients expression of anger. Male therapists tend to use humor with families, adult clients, elderly clients, , and male clients. Males also use humor more frequently with depressed clients, substance abusers, obsessive compulsive clients, and clients with panic or anxiety disorders.

Female therapists tend to use humor with children, adolescents, and female clients. Participants preferred spontaneous occurrences of humor that allow them to laugh with their clients, and the opportunity to help clients realize an important aspect of their problem, make a point, or evaluate progress of counseling. The author suggested that additional studies .are needed to explore how clients in Puerto Rico perceive this experience, as well as its effects

The Use of Humor in Counseling

• •33

on the therapeutic relationship and outcome. He also suggested that the use of humor be accepted as a legitimate counseling technique and training programs develop courses to teach future counselors and researchers about its proper and improper applications.

As these studies demonstrate research on the role of humor in counseling is still in an exploratory stage.

Realizing the growing professional interest on therapeutic humor as reflected in the scientific literature, Salameh (1983) suggested a third trend- in research directed to the exploration of the role of humor in various levels of the therapeutic experience. He encouraged the development of more studies investigating the following dimensions in connection with therapeutic properties of the humor experience (a) personal characteristics of therapists, (b) characteristics of clients, (c) match of client and therapist, (d) humorous techniques used in counseling interactions, (e) humor as a diagnostic and assessment tool, (f) use of humor for problem defmition and goal setting, (g) environmental humor or the affective and structural tones conveyed to clients by the .therapeutic letting,,J)11 motivational factors, (1) creativity, factors, and (j) outcome factors.

- Although researchers have already. initiated studies on some of those areas several questions, however, rein!in unanswered. For example, Is humor another core facilitative txait of effective therapists?, How do therapist training in effective uses of humor impact their psychotherapeutic work?, What is the relationship between clients conflicts and,their use of humor in therapy?, How humorous interventions facilitate clients exploration, understanding, and action or reduction of symptoms?, How do humorous therapists respond to clients who are nonhumorous and viceversa?, Which humor techniques are more facilitative ,

34

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

or most appropriate for different client populations?, Are humor techniques associated with particular therapist personality traits?, What is the effect of environmental humor on clients therapeutic progress?, What is the effect of using humorous interventions on clients motivational investment in psychotherapy?, Which humorous interventions help clients develop a greater awareness of creative problem-solving alternatives?, How can humorous interventions be used to teach creative problem-solving skills to various client populations?, Are therapeutic treatments implicitly or explicitly incorporating humor either more or less effective than those treatments that do not use humor?, and How supervisor's use of humor can facilitate or hinder clinical supervision?

Empirical validation of the theoretical perspectives explicitly incorporating humor in counseling and crosscultural issues in the use of humorous interventions stand out as two impOrtant areas of inquiry deserving more attention from researchers. Present theoretical perspectives incorpontting and supporting the use of humor in counseling are based on experiential clinical validation but not on research fmdings providing empirical evidence of their effectiveness. As in the case of other known theoretical perspectives neither Provocative Therapy, nor Natural High Therapy has yet received a systemalic research evaluation (Salameh, 1983). Thus, as pointed out by Salameh (1983) questions such as How do these two therapies compare to each other?, How do they differ in treatment outcomes?, Hoir do these humor therapies compare with other therapeutic modalities?, How do clients react to ttc constant use of humor in these approaches? remain open and deserve to be addressed hi future research.

Cultural background and ethnicity of the client and

The Use of Humor in Counseling

35

the counselor are two of the many variables to be considered in investigating their interaction in the counseling process: Cross-cultural studies examining the role of humor in different cultures, its role in social-personal adjustment, and its influence on social interactions in various cultural contexts are needed. Among the many dimensions open for research are the relationship between the use of humorous interventions and cultural beliefs of clients and counselors, the effectiveness of different humor techniques for different client populations, and how the use of humor by culturally diverse clients with humorous or nonhumorous therapists influences the therapeutic process.

Several authors have pointed out that humor is an especially elusive variable within counseling. Robinson (1983) noting the dearth of research, identified several factors contributing to the limited amount of research in this area. According to this author the attitude of seriousness (e.g., detached concern, objectivity, and professionalism) of health care within the health care system, difficulties associated with the observation and collection of data in the natural settings including fluctuations in humorous occurrences when being observed, hazards of being a participant-observec, variations in humorous response influenced by individual perception, length of time necessary to collect meaningful data, lack of reliable methodological tools, and the controversy of what constitutes Ahealthy humor and laughter (e.g., does humor reveal health or serious problems?) are some of the factors challenging the development of more research in this area.

According to Salameh (1983), research on humor in psychotherapy inherits the methods, problems, and promises inherent in the field of psychotherapy research.

He along with other researchers advocate for the combination -of -different 'tools and -varying methodologies (e.g.,

36

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

quantitative & qualitative) in studying processes and outcomes of psychotherapy using humor techniques.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The main purpose of this review of the literature has been to present a contemporary panoramic view of the use , of'huniorous interventions in counseling and psychotherapy Cehsistent with that purpose, relevant theoretical, empirical, and aPplied issues were discussed with particular attention to those aspects that can be influenced by the research and therapeutic work of counseling psychologists. As can be appreciaied, the nature and role that humor plays in our lives have been philosophically explored for centuries but empirically for only few decades. This suggests that research on the psychological dimensions of humor and its potential contribution to counseling is clearly needed and beginning its exploratory/descriptive stage.

Two questions appear of interest: (a) what do we know? and (b) what do we need to know? In response to the first question there is increasing evidence from medical, sociological, and psychological studies suggesting that humor has a strong influence on the nature and quality of interpersonal and group relationships as well as on our psychological and physical well-being. Gender, personality, cultural differences, and neuropsychological conditions hive been reported as influencing humor appreciation, comprehension, and production. A holt of prominent theorists and clinicians in psychology have recognized a person's sense of humor as one important characteristic of a healthy individual. Most contemporary practitioners consider the discreet use of humor in counseling as an effective assessment and therapeutic tool to promote

The Use of Humor in Counseling

37

therapeutic change in combination with non-humorous interventions in a wide variety of contexts (e.g, individual, group, family, and couples counseling): $ense of jiumor has been identified as a desirable chaiicipristic 9f the counselor, as an effective coping AllI-for the , professional, and as a sign of therapeutic „success., Many therapies, techniques, and potential uses and benefits of liamorous interventions are clearly and thoroughlY discussed in the literature as well as authors admonitions regarding the possible pitfalls and undesirable consequences deriN;ed from misusing or abusing humorous interventions.

In regard to the second question, counseling psychologists can increase and improve the current state of knowledge of the advantages and limitations associated with the use of humorous interventions by, dis9Ussing their clinical experiences using humor in journal articles, and addressing this issue in counselor/psychologists training programs, professional development aetiVities, and research endeavors. In classes and in clinical supervisiOn, psychologists-in-training might benefit from discussing how to process humorous incidents in counseling and becoming thmiliarized with the many therapies and techniques suggested in the literature. Presently, the literature on humor in counseling is characterized by anecdotical and conceptual contributions and a growing body of empirical studies, mainly doctoral dissertations. One of the principal problems that needs further attenticin is the formulation of an operational definition of humor. Areas requiring empirical examfriation include the use of humorous interventions with culturally diverse clients, client and counselor variables which relate to humor, the efficacy/outcome of proposed humorous therapies/techniques with different client populations, the reactions of clients toward counselors humorous interventions,

38

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

context variables moderating effects of humorous interventions, quality of working alliance and the use of humor, the role and nature of humor in clinical supervision, and methodological and ethical concerns regarding the use of humor. In other words, research that helps to answer the questions what type of humor, with whom, by whom, under what conditions, for what purpose, and at what stage of therapy is needed to understand how humor can be effective in counseling and psychotherapy.

References Adams, E. R., & McGuire, F. A. (1986). Is laughter the best medicine?

A study of the effects of humor on perceived pain and affect.

Adaptation and Aging, 8(3-4), 157-175.

Adelson, J. (1947). Ethnocentrism and humor appreciation. American Psychologist, 12(10), 413.

Adler, A. (1946). Understanding human nature. (H. Wolf, Trans.) NY: Greenberg. (Original work published 1927).

Allen, T. W (1980). A counseling psychology for the new age?

Counseling Psychologist, 8(4), 38-43.

Allport, G. W. (1937). Personaliv: A psychological interpretation.

NY: Holt.

Allport, G. W. (1961). Pattern and growth in personaliV. NY: Rinehart & Winston.

Banmen; J. (1982). The uses of humor in psychotherapy. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 5(2), 81-86.

Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. NY: Guilford Press.

Bergman, J. S. (1985). Fishing for Barracuda. NY: Norton.

Berk, L. (1989). Laughter and immunity. Advances, 6, 5.

Bernet, W. (1993). Humor in evaluating an treating children and adolescents. Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research, 2(4), 307-317.

Bloch, S. (1987). .Humor in group therapy. In W. F. Fry, & W A. Salameh (Eds.), Handbook of humor and psychotherapy: Advances in . the clinical use of hwnor Olp. 171-194). FL: Professional

The Use of Humor in Counseling

39

Resources Exchange.

Bloch, S., Browning, S., & McGrath, G. (1983). Humor in group psychotherapy. British Journa ofMedical P.sychology, 56(1), 89-97.

Bloomfield, I. (1980). Humor in psychotherapy and analysis.

International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 26(2), 135-141.

Carroll, J. L. (1990). The relationship between humor appreciation and perceived physical health. Psychology: A Journal of Human Behavior, 27(2), 34-37.

Cassell, J. L. (1974). The functioning of humor in the counseling process. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 17(4), 241-245.

Cattell, R., & Luborsky, L. B. (1946). Measured response to humor as an indicator of personality structure. Analysis of humor. American Psychologist, 1(7), 257-258.

Chapman, A. J., & Foot, IL C. (1996). Humor cmd laughter Themy, research, and applications. NJ: Transaction.

Clay, R. A. (1997a, September). Behavioral researcher harness humor's power: Laughter offers subtle -and not so subtle- boosts to our health. APA Monitor, pp. 1, 18.

Clay, IL A: (1997b, September). Laughter may be no laughing matter: Laughter signals mirth as well as dominance and submission. APA Monitor, p.

Clay, R. A. (1997c, September). Why are knock-knock jokes so funny to kids?: Our sense of humor changesas we age. APA Monitor, p. 17.

Clay, IL A. (1997d, September). Researchers help unravel the mechanism of laughter What is going on in our brains when we giggle and guffaw?

APA Monitor; pp. 17, 18.

Corey, G. (1986). Theory andpractice of counseling andpsychotherapy.

CA: Brooks/Cole.

Cousins, N. (1979). Anatomy of an illness. NY. Norton.

Cousins, N. (1989). Headfirst: The biology of hope. NY: Dutton.

Dillon, K. M., Afmchoff, B., & Baker, K. IL (1985). Positive emotional states and the enhancement of the immune system. International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 15, 13-17.

Dimmers, S. A., Carroll, J. L., & Wyatt, G. K. (1990). Uses of humor in psychotherapy. Psychological Report, 66(3), 795-801.

Donald, K. M., & Carlisle, J. M. (1983). Diverse decision makers: Helping students with career decisions. Vocational Guidance QuarterN 31(4), 270-275.

Driscoll, R. (1987). Humor in pragmatic psychotherapy, In W. F. Fry

40

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

& W. A. Salameh (Eds.), Handbook of liwnor and psychotherapy: Advances in the clinical use of humor (pp. 127-147).

FL: Professional Resources Exchange.

Dryden, W., & Ellis, A. (1988). Rational-emotive therapy. In K. S. Dobson (E.4), Handbook of cognitive-behavioral therapies, (pp.

214-272). NY: Guilford Press.

Ehrenberg, D. B. (1991). Playfulness and humor in the psychoanalytic relationship. Group, 15(4), 225-233.

Ellis, A. (1977). Fun as psychotherapy. Rational Living, 12(1), 2-6.

Ellis, A. (1987). The use of rational humorous songs in psychotherapy.

In W. F. Fry, & W. A. Salameh (Eds.), Handbook of humor and psychotherapy: Advances in the clinical use of humor (pp. 265-285).

FL: Professional Resources Exchange.

Ellis, A., McInerney, J. F., DiGiuseppe, R., & Yeager, R. J. (1989).

Rational emotive therapy with alcoholics and substance abusers.

NY: Pergamon.

Ellsworth, J. T. (1985). The perception of cartoon humor as a function of depressive and aggressive personality types. Dissertation Abstracp international, 46(05), 1729B. (University Ivficrofilms No. AAG85(*862).

Endlich, E. (1993). Teachin ' g the psychology of humor. Teaching Psychology, 20(3), 181-183.

Epstein, B. H. (1996). The use of humor in cognitive behavior therapy with outpatient depressed male adolescents. Dissertation Abstracts International, 57(09), 5915B. (University Microfilms No. AAG9703679).

Falk, D. R., & Hill, C. E. (1992). Counselor interventions preceding client laughter in brief therapy. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 39(1), 3945.

Farrelly, F., & Lynch, M (1987). Humor in provocative therapy. In W F. Fry, & W. A. Salameh (Eds.), Handbook of humor and psychotherapy Adsunces in the clinical use erihumor (pp. 81-106). FL: Pniessional Resources Exchange.

Farrelly, F., & Matthews, S. (1981). Provocative therapy. hi R. Corsini (Ed.), Innovative psychotherapies, (pp. 678-693). IsTY: John Wiley.

Fetzek, M. (1981). The impact of counselor humor on secondary students perception of facilitative conditions. Dissertation Abstracts International, 42(5), 1959A. (University Microfilms No: AAG8123751).

The Use of Humor in Counseling

41

Fine, G. A.11983). Sociological approaches to the study of humor: In P. E. McGhee, & J. H. Goldstein (Eds.), Handbook of humor research Vol I: Basic Issues (pp. 159-181). NY: Springer-Verlag.

Fisher, R. L., & Fisher, S. (1987). Therapeutic strategies with the comic child. In W. F. Fry &W. A. Salameh (Eds.), Handbook of humor and psychotherapy: Advances in the clinical use of humor, (pp. 107-125).

FL: Professional Resources Exchange.

Foster, J., & Reid, J. (1983). Humor and US relationship to students assessments of the counselor Canadian Counsellor, 17(3), 124-129.

Foster, J. A. (1978). Humor and counseling: Close encounters of another kind. The Personnel and Guirkeice Journal 57(1), 46-49.

Frankl, V. E. (1960). Paradocical intention: A logotherapeutic technique.

American Journal of Psychotherapy, 14, 520435.

Fry, W F. (1992). The physiologic effects of humor, mirth; and laugher Journal of the American Medical Association, 267(13), 1857-1858.

Fry, W. F., & Salameh, W. A. (Eds.) (1987). Handbook of humor and psychotherapy: Advances in the clinical use of humor.

FL: Professional Resource Press.

Fry, W. F., & Salameh, W. A. (1993). Advances in humor and - psy chotherapy. FL: Professional Resource Press. • George, R. L., & Dustin, D. (1988): Group counseling: Therapy and practice. NJ: Prentice Hall.

Glasser, W. & Wubbolding, R. (1995). Reality therapy. In R. Corsini & D. Wedding (Ed.), Current Psychotherapies'(5th ed, pp. 293-321).

IL: F. E. Peacock Goldstein, J. H. (1982). A laugh a day: Can mirth keep disease at bay?

The Sciences, 22, 21-25.

Goldstein, J. H. (1987). Therapeutic effects of laughter. In W. F. Fry, & W. A. Salameh (Eds.), HandbOok of humor and psycheitherapy: Advances in the clinical use of humor (p1. 1-19). FL: Professional Resources Exchange.

Greenson, R. (1967). The technique and practice of psychoana6Psis.

VoL L NY: International Priversiti Press..

Greenwald, H. (1977). Hurixi in psychOtherapY:In A. J. Chapman, & IL C. Foot (Eds.), It a funny thing, Huinour (pp. 161-164). 'Oxford: Pecgamon.

Greenwald, H. (1987). The humor deciiiOn. In W F. Fry"; & W. A. Salameh (Eds.), Handbook of humor and psychotherapy: Advances in the clinical use of humor (pp. 41-54). FL: Professional Resources

42

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

Exchange.

Grossman, S. (1977). The uses of jokes in psychotherapy. In A. J. Chapman, & H. C. Foot (Eds.), It a funny thing, Humour (pp.

149-151). Oxford: Pergamon.

Grotjahn, M. (1970). Laughter and sex. In W. Mendell (Ed.), A celebration oflaughter (pp. 61-66). CA: Mara Books.

Grotjahn, M. (1971). Laughter in group psychotherapy. International Journal of Gmup Psychotherapy, 21, 234-238.

Haig, R. A. (1986). Therapeutic uses of humor. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 40, 543-553.

Haig, R. A. (1988). The anatomy of humor: Biopsychological and therapeutic perspective. IL: Charles C. Thomas Publ.

Hashem, N. A. (1999; March). Humor in therapy. (Letter to the editor).

APA Monitor, p. 3. lEckson, J. (1977). Humor as an element in the counseling relationship.

Psycholov, 14(1), 60-68.

1E11, C. E., & 1:-.Brien, K. M. (1999). Hetving skills: Facilitating exploration, insight, and action.

Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Horowitz, M. W., & Horowitz, L. S. (1949). An examination of the social psychological situation of the physically disable as it pertains to humor. American Psychologist, 7(4), 256-257.

Huber, A. T. (1974). The effect of humor on client discomfort in'the counseling interview. Dissertation Abstracts. International 34 (4-A).

Isen, A. M., Daubman, K. A., & Nowicki, G. P. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personaliv and Social Psychology, 52, 1122-1131.

Johnston, R. A. (1990). Humor: A preventive health strategy. • International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 13(3), 257-265.

Kazdin, A. E. (1999, May). Humor in therapy. (Letter to the editor).

APA Monitor, p. 3. , Keith-Spiegel, P. (1972). Early conceptions of humor: Varieties and 'issues. In J. H. Goldstein, & P. E. McGhee(Eds.), The psychology of • humor: Theoretical perspectives and empirical issues (pp. 4-39).

NY: Academic Press.

Kemp, B., Farrell, M., lvfinoff, M., & Newirth, C., (Producers), & Shadyac, IV(Director). (1998). Patch Adams. [Film]. Universal Pictures, Inc.

The Use of Humor in Counseling

43

Kennedy, L. R. (1991). Humor in group psychotherapy. Group, 15(4), 234-241.

Kerringan, J. F. (1983). The perceived effect of humor on six facilitative therapeutic conditions. Dissertation Abstracts International 44 (06), 1694A. (University Nficrofilms No. AAG8322644).

Killinger, B. (1977). The place of humor in adult psychotherapy. In A. Chapman, & IL Foot (Eds.), Itk a funny thing Humour (pp. 153-156).

Oxford: Peigamon.

Koestler, A. (1964). The art of creation. London: Hutchinson.

Kohut, R (1971). The anaOsis of the seff. NY: International Universities Press.

Kolb, B., & Whishaw, 1(1996). FundTmemtds (Puma neuropsydwlogy (4th ed.). NY: W. H. Freeman.

Korb, L. J. (1988). Humor: A tool for the psychoanalysis. Issues in Ego Psychology, 11(2), 45-54.

Kotder, J. A. (1991). The compleat therapist . CA: Jossey-Bass.

Kotder, J. A. (1993). On being a therapist CA: Jossey-Bass.

Kubie, L. S. (1994). The destructive potential of humor in psychotherapy.

In R S. Strain (Ed.), The uses ofhwnor in psychotherapy (9p. 95-104).

NJ: Jason Aronson.

Kuhlman, T. L. (1984). Hunwr and psychotherapy. IL: Dow Jones-Irwin.

Lefcourt, H. M., & Martin, IL A. (1986). Humor and lift stress: Antidote to adversity. NY: Springer-Verlag.

Levine, J. (1977). Humor as a fonn of therapy: Introduction to symposium.

In A. J. Chapman, & IL C. Foot (Eds.), Itk aft:my thing, Humour (pp.

127-139). Oxford: Pergamon.

Lynch, T. D. (1987). Quantitative analysis of the use of humor in psychotherapy: The strategic humor model of Ericksonian psychotherapy. Dissertation Abstracts International, 51(06), 3138B. (University Microfilms No. AAG9020115).

Madanes, C. (1987). Humor in strategic family therapy. In W. F. Fry, & W. A. Salameh (Eds.), Handbook of humor and psychotherapy: Advances in the clinical use of humor (pp. 241-264).

FL: Professional Resources Exchange.

Maslow, A. H. (1987). Motivation and personality (3ni ed). NY: Harper & Row. McAninch, C. B., Austin, J. L., & Derks, P. L. (1992-1993). Effect of caption meaning on memory for nonsense figures. Current Psychology: Research and Reviews, II, 315-323.

44

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

McBrien, R. J. (1993). Laughing together: Humor as encouragement in couples counseling. Individual Psycholov, 49(3-4), 418-427.

McGhee, P. E, & Goldstein, J. H. (1983). Handbook of humor • research: Vol. I: Basic issues. NY: Springer-Verlag.

McGuire, P. A. (1999, March). Therapists see new sense in use of •humor: More psychologists are finding that discrete uses of humor • promote healing in their patients. APA Monitor, pp. 1, 10.

•McNary, L. (1979). The uses of humor in group psychotherapy, Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 17, 228-231.

Megdell, J. I. (1981). Relationship between counselor-initiated humor and client=s self perceived attraction in the counseling interview.

Dissertation Abstracts International 42(11), 45848.

(University Ivficrofilms No. AA8207042). /vfindess, H. (1961). Laughter and liberation. CA: Nash.

Nfindess, H. (1996). The uses and abuse of humor in psychotherapy. In A. J. Chapman, & H. C. Foot (Eds.), Humor and laughter: Theory, research, and applications 641 331-341). NJ: Transaction.

Morreaull, J. (1983). Taking laughter seriousk NY: SUNY Press.

Mosak, IL H. (1987). Ha ha and aha: The role ofhumor hpsyclwtherapy.

Et Accelerated Development.

Murray, S. P. (1986). The effect of gender on the perception of therapists who incorporate humor in psychotherapy. Dissertation Abstracts International, 48(04), 1158B. (University Microfilms No. AAG875084).

Nevo, O. (1986). Uses of humor in career counseling. Vocational Guidance Quarterk 34(3), 188-196.

New, A. M., Nezu, C. M., & Blissett, S. E. (1988). Sense of humor as a moderator of the relation between stressful events and psychological • distress: A prospective analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psycholov, 54, 520-525.

Nies; D. C. (1982). A role of humor in Psychotherapy: Reduction of • anxiety in males. Dissertation Abstracts International, 42(06), 1993B. (University Nficrofilms No. AAG8225522).

O'Connell, W. E. (1981). Natural high therapy. In R. Corsini, (Ed.), Innovative psychotherapies (pp. 554-568). NY: John Wiley.

O'Connell, W. E. (1987). Natural high therapy and its practice: The huniorist's game of games. In W. F. Fry, & W. A. Salameh (Eds.), -Handbook rihranor and psychotherapy: Advances in the clinical use of humor &p. 55-79). FL: Professional Resources Exchange.

The Use of Humor in Counseling

45

O'Connell, W. E. (1996). Freudian humor: The eupsychia of everyday life. In A. J. Chapman, & H. C. Foot (Eds.), Humor and bughter: Therapy, research and application (pp. 313-329). NJ: Transaction.

O'Maine, R. A. (1994). A training program to clinicians With the use of humor in psychology. Dissertation Abstracts Intirnational, 55(4), 1675B. (University Microfilms No. AAG94223I8).

Palmer, J. (1994). Taking humor seriousk NY: Routledge.

Pappaterra, D. (1996). Opiniones de los psicólogos en PueriaRico respect° al uso del humor en psicoterapia. Unpublished muters the8 1. s, Inter American University of Puerto Rico, Metropolitan Campus, San Juan, PR. Parry, R. (1975). A guide to counseling and basic psychotherwy.. NY: Churchill Livingstone.

Passalelli, V. (1999, June). Where's your sense of humor?. (Letter to the editor). APA Monitor, p. 3.

Paul, I. (1978). The form and technique of psychotherapy.

IL: University of Chicago Press.

Pierce, R. A. (1985). Use and abuse of laughter in psychotherapy.

1.

Psychotherapy in Nivate Practice, 3(4), 67-73.

Pinegar, P W. (1983). Client self explotation and humor in psychs:therapy.

(University Dissertation Abstracts Internatkmal 44 (10), 3018A. Ivficrofilms No. AAG8400978).

Poland, W. S. (1994). The place of humor in psychotherapy._ In H. Strean (Ed.) The use of humor in psychotherapy Op. 173,177),.NJ: Jason Aronson.

Prerost, F. T (1984). Evaluating the systematic use of humor in psychotherapy with adolescents. Journal ofAdolescew„7(3), -267-276.

Prerost, E T (1985). A procedure -using, imagery, and humor,* psychotherapy: Case application with longitudinal assessment Journal of Mental Imagery, 9(3), 67-76. •. - „., Priddy, M. W. (1990). The role of client sense of humor on therapeutic outcome. Dissertation Abstracts International 51 (1111), (University Nficrofilms No. AAG0569695). , Raley, A. L (1946). A psychometric study of humor. American Psychologist, 1(7), 265.

Reik, T. (1964). Listening with the third ear.: NY: Pyramid Books.

Reynes, L., & Allen, A: A. ,.(1987). Humor in,psychotherapy: A view. , American Journal of Psychotherapy, XL1(2),-260-270..

Richman, J. (1996).' Points of correspondence between humor and

46

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

, psychotherapy. Psychotherapy, 33(4), 560-566.

Robinson, V. M. (1983). Humor and health. In P. E. McGhee & J. Ii Goldstein (Eds.), Handbook of hwnor research Vol 2: Applied slides (pp. 109-128). NY: Springer Verlag.

Rogers, C. IL (1951) Client-centered therapy. MA: Houghton Mfflin.

Rogers, CR. (1961). On becoming a person. MA: Houghton Man. Rosenheim, E. (1974). Humor in psychotherapy: An interactive experience. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 28(4), 584-591.

Rosenhehn, E & Golan, G. (1986). Patients reactions to humourous interventions in psychotherapy. American Journal of PsychotheraN, XL (1), 110-124.

Rotton, J. (1992). Trait humor and longevity: Do comics have the last laugh? Health Psychology; 11, 262-266.

Rowe, C. E. Jr., & Mac Isaac, D. S. (1991). Empathic attunement: The Atechnique of psychoanalytic self psychology. NJ: Jason Aronson, Inc. Rutherford, K. (1994). Humor in psychotherapy. Individual psychology, 50(2), 207-222.

Ruvelson, L. (1988). The empathic use of sarcasm: Humor in psychotherapy from a self psychological perspective. Clinical Social Work Journal, 16(3), 297-305.

SaFranek, R., & Schill, T. (1982). Coping with stress: Does humor help? Psychologica I Report, 51, 222.

Salameh, W. A. (1983). Humor in psychotherapy: Past outlooks, present status, and future &intim. In P. E. McGhee & J. H. Goldstein (Eds.), Handbook of humor research Vol. 2: Applied studies (pp. 61-87).

NY: Springer Verlag.

Salameh, W. A. (1986). The effective use of humor in psychotherapy.

In P. A. Keller, & L. G. Rift (Eds.), Innovations in clinical practice: A source book (Vol 5, pp 157-175). FL: Professional Resource Exchange. $alameh, W. A. (1987). Humor in integrative short-tenn psychotherapy (ISTP). In W. F. Fry, & W. A. Salameh (Eds.), Handbook ofhumor and psychotherapy: Advances in the clinical use of humor (pp. 195-240).

FL: Professional Resources Exchange.

Salameh, W. A (1990). Critical equations in launching a clinical practice. hi E A.Margenau (Ed.), The encyclopedic handbook o fp ivate practice (pp. 48-66). NY: Gardner Press.

Salisbury, W. D. (1989). A study of humor in counseling among

The Use of Humor in Counseling

47

Adlerian therapists: A. statistical research project. Dissertation Abstracts International, 50(11), 5301B. (University Nficrofilms No. AAG9010763).

Sands, S. (1984). The use of humor in psychotherapy. Psychological Review, 71(3), 441-460.

Saper, B. (1987). Humor in psychotherapy: Is it good or bad for the client? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 18(4), 360-367.

Saper, B. (1988). Humor in psychiatric healing. Psychiatric Quarter4P, 59(4), 306-319.

Satow, R. (1991). Three perspective on humor and laughing: Classical, object relations, and self psychology. Group, 15(4), 242-245.

Schmidt, S. It. (1994). Effects of humor on sentence memoly. Journal of Everimental Psychology: Learning Memory, and Cognition, 20, 953-967.

Schnarch, D. M. (1990). Therapeutic uses of humor in psychotherapy.

Journal of&Ifni& Psychotherapy, 1(1), 75-86.

Scott, E. M. (1989). Humor and the alcoholic patient: A beginning study. Alcoholism Treatment Quarter41, 6(2), 29-39.

Shaughnessy, /vI. F. & Wadsworth, T. M. (1992). Humor in counseling and psychotherapy: A 20 year retrospective. Psychological Reports 70 (3 pt 1) 755-762.

Shultz, T. It. (1996). A cognitive-developtnental analysis of humour. In A. J. Chapman, & H. C. Foot (Eds.), Humor and laughter: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 11-36). NJ: Transaction.

Smith, IL E. (1973). The use of humor in the counter conditioning of anger responses: A case study. Behavior Therapy, 4, 576-580.

Sonstegard, M. A. (1998). The theory and practice of Acilerian group: Counseling and psychotherapy. Journal of Individual Psychology, 54(2), 217-250.

Spruill, T. E. (1992). Sense of humor as a mediator of the effects of stress on physical health and psychological well-being. Disswrtation Abstracts International, 53(12), 6575B. (University Nficrofilms No. AAG9311241).

Strean, H. S. (1994). The use of humor in psychotherapy. NJ: Jason Aronson.

Thompson, B. It. (1985). Appropriate and inappropriate uses of humor in psychotherapy as perceived by certified reality therapists: A delphi study. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47(01),

48

Leslie E. Maldonado-Feliciano

0090A. (University 11ficrofilms No. AAG8606095).

Tuttman, S. (1991). On utilizing humor in group psychotherapy.

Group, 15(4), 246-256.

Ventis, W. L. (1973). Case history: The use of laughter as an alternative response in systematic desensitization. Behavior Therapy, 4, 120-122.

Ventis, W L. (1987). Humor and laughter in behavioral therapy. In W F. Fry, & W. A. Salameh (Eds.), Handbook of humor and psychothempy: Advances in the clinical use of humor (pp. 149-169). FL: Professional Resources Exchange.

Ventis,,W. L., & Ventis, D. G. (1988). Guidelines for using humor in therapy with children and young adolescents. Journal of Children in Contemporary SocieV, 20(1-2), 179-197.

Von Wormer, K. (1986). Aspects of humor in alcoholism counseling.

Alcoholism Tivatment Quarter4P, 3(4), 25-32.

Yonkovitz, E. (1997). Program evaluation of a therapeutic humor training workshop. Dissertation Abstracts International 58(06), 2092A. (University Ivficrofilms No. AAG9737599).

Yovetich, N. A., Dale, J. A., & Hudak, M. H. (1990). Benefits of humor in reduction of threat-induced anxiety. Psychological Reports, 66, 51-58.

Ziv, A. (1976). Facilitating effects of humor on creativity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 68(3), 318-322.

Ziv, A. (1980). Humor and creativity. Creative Child and Adtdt Quarter4), 5(3), 159-170.

Ziv, A. (1988a). Using humor to develop creative thinking. Journal of Children in Contemporary SocieV, 20(1-2), 99-116.

Ziv, A. (1988b). Teaching and learning with humor: Experiment and replication. The Journal of Experimental Ethecatiom 57, 5-15.

Zwerling, L (1955). The favorite joke in diagnostic and therapeutic interviewing. Psychoanabdic Quark,* 23, 104-114.

Ciencias de la Conducta

0

2001, Vol 16, 49-62

2001 Universidad Carlos Albizu San Juan, Puerto Rico

"-;

Cognitive and Behavioral Profile of Puerto Rican Aggressive and Impulsive Children, JosÊ J. Cabiya, Ph.D., Darice Orobitg, M.S., Lymaries Padilla, M.A., Sean Sayers, M.S., Nashara Baydn, BA. & Maribelle De La Torre, BA. Universidad Carlos Mbizu Abstract The present study was directed at examining the behavioral and cognitive factors that characterize impulsive and aggressive children in Puerto Rico. Three groups were compared: a group of aggressive children, a group of hyperactive children who did not show aggressive behavior and a normal group. The impulsive — aggressive group included 28 children between the ages of 7-14 (22 boys and 6 girls) who were referred by their teachers and parents as impulsive and aggressive. The second group included 28 children (26 boys and 2 girls) who were referred for Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Combined Type, between the ages of 8 and 15. The normal group included 34 children (16 boys and 18 girls) between the ages of 9 and'15 who did not meet the criteria for the aforementioned groups. The Children Depression Inventory; the Piers Harris Self-Concept Scale and the Youth Self-Report (YSR) were administered to the participants. The Bauermeister School Behavior Inventory (BSBI) was administered to the teachers as an addirionalmeasure.

The Conners Abbreviated Symptom Questionnaire for Parents Para comunicarse con los autores, favor de eseribir a la UniversidatcadoqAlbizu, P.O. Box 9023711, San Juan, P. R. 00902-3711.

49

50

Cognitive and Behavioral Profile!

(CASQ-P) was administered to the parents. A mullivariate analysis of valiance was perfonned with the obtained mean scores of the total sample in all the scales. This analysis revealed significant results in the classification variable effect. Further analyses revealed significant differences between the Normal and Impulsive-Aggressive group (p<.003) for the CASQ-P and the BSBI's Irritabilityâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;Hostility Scale, the Impulsiveness Scale, Distraction-Motivation Scale and the Insufficient Control Scale.

Additional differences were found between the ImpulsiveAggressive group and the Normal group (p<.003) for the Irritability-Hostility Scale of the BSBI. No significant differences were found between the normal group and the ADHD-Combined Type group (p<.003).

Aggression can be defined as "deliberate actions directed towards other people or objects, with some intention to destroy or injure the target" (Lochman & Lenhart, 1993, p.785). These authors further indicate that "All individuals display aggression occasionally, such that aggressive behavior in and of itself is not necessarily cause for concern; of interest here is frequent or overly severe aggression (Lochman and Lenhart, 1993, p.785). Parke and Slaby (1983) divided the term aggression in two sub-categories: theoretical and empirical. These categories are focused toward the areas of interpersonal aggression (i.e. insults, threats, and cursing) and physical aggression (i.e. fights, attacks, and abuse). Feschback (1970) also categorized the term aggression as instrumental (directed to an object per se) or hostile (to infringe pain).

On the other hand, impulsiveness refers to specific behaviors such as interrupting others, not waiting turns, answering before a question is finished and acting quickly and without evaluating consequences (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Studies suggest that there exists overlap between these terms and that it is not

Cabiya, Orobitg, Sayers, y De La Torre

51

uncommon for children to display ,both types of behaviors.

In fact, the term known as externalizing behaviors is used to describe a set of negative behaviors that co-occur during childhood. These behaviors are referred collectively by DSM-IV criteria as "Attention Deficit and Disruptive Behaviors Disorders" (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). The three subgroups of externalizing behaviors include: Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (AMID), and Conduct Disorder (CD). These disorders include in their diagnostic criteria both impulsive and aggressive behaviors.

In Puerto Rico, an epidemiological study (Bird et al., 1988) revealed a 9.9% prevalence of defiant conduct in the children population. These behaviors included temper tantrums, arguing with adults, defiance or refusing to comply with adults' requests or rules, annoying people, being sensitive, angry, resentful, spiteful or vindictive and blaming others for mistakes or misbehaviors. For ADHD, which presents symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity, the prevalence in Puerto Rican children is 9.5%.

One of the disorders mostly associated with aggressiveness and impulsiveness is ADHD. Shelton et al. (1998) indicate that hyperactive-impulsive-inattentive children are at higher risk of developing socially aggressive behavior, oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder. Parents rated both groups of aggressive-hyperactive-impulsive-inattentive children as having significantly more problems on the eight scales of the CBCL than parents of the control group children.

Teachers rated both groups of aggressive-hyperactiveimpulsive-inattentive children significantly higher on the scales of Aggression, Anxious/Depressed, Inattention, Social Problems, and Delinquent Behavior than the control group. These authors indicate that children with ADHD with

52

Cognitive and Behavioral Profile

a pattern of high level of aggressiveness are at higher risk of developing psychological, academic, emotional, and social difficulties than children with ADHD, but without a pattern of aggressiveness. This study found that 60% to 76% of the aggressive/hyperactive-impulsive/inattentive children (n=154) also qualified for an oppositional defiant disorder.

In Puerto Rico, Bauermeister and colleagues have conducted several studies with ADHD children.

Bautifmeister, Alegria, Bird, Rubio-Stipec, and Canino (1992) performed a factor analysis on teacher ratings of symptoms in a sample of children 6 to 16 years (n=614) which yielded two factors: Inattention and HyperactiveImpulsivity. Subsequent cluster analyses ended at five clusters. These clusters were: 1) Hyperactive (characterized by high hyperactivity-impulsivity and moderately high inattention scores), 2) Inattentive (very high inattention but very low hyperactivity-impulsivity scores), 3) Inattentive-Hyperactive (high scores on both Inattention and Hyperactivity-impulsivity), 4) Normal (scores of both factors that approximate the total sample means), and 5) Highly adapted (had scores on both factors that were lower than the total sample). The authors found that the children in the Hyperactive, Inattentive and Inattentive-Hyperactive clusters showed more clinical impairments than children did in the Normal and Highly adapted cluster. Some of these clusters are related with symptoms of aggressiveness.

The Inattentive-Hyperactive children were rated by teachers as significantly more aggressive, self-destructive and showing more behavioral problems than the Normal and the Highly Adapted groups.

Among the efforts to study such disorders in Puerto Rico, Bauermeister, Matos, and Barldey (1999) conducted

Cabiya, Orobitg, Sayers, y De La Torre

53

a study with 119 children, ages six to eleven years. The authors found that mothers tended to rate hyperactiveimpulsive children and inattentive children as showing more oppositional defiant behaviors, externalizing behaviors and attentional problems than the normal group. In this study, teachers rated inattentive and hyperactive-impulsive children as having more oppositional defiant, aggressive and delinquent behaviors than inattentive children and the normal group Bauermeister, Matos, and Barkley (1999) identified three groups of children in their analyses: those with high scores of inattention only, those with high scores of hyperactivity-impulsivity only and those with a combination of inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity.

Bird, Gould, and Staghezza-Jaramillo (1994), conducted secondary analyses of the data from the Puerto Rico Child Psychiatric Epidemiology Study (Bird et. al.

1988) and found a high level of co-morbidity between ADHD and the Conduct/Oppositional group. These authors found that children with a comorbid diagnosis of ADHD and Conduct/Oppositional Disorder display a higher level of Conduct/Oppositional symptomatology than those children without Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.

The present study was aimed at assessing how children who exhibit both aggressive and impulsive behaviors differ from the ADHD-Combined Type and normal children. Thus, the present study is an initial attempt to start assessing how valid might be a separate diagnostic category for the children that exhibit these behaviors. Moreover, we want to develop a cognitive and behavioral profile of these children. This profile can be of use in the development of effective interventions for these children.

54

Cognitive and Behavioral Profile Method

Participants: The impulsive and aggressive group included 28 children between the ages of 7- 14 (22 boys and 6 girls) who were referred by their teachers and parents as impulsive and aggressive. The mean age for this group was 11.32 with a standard deviation of 1.49. This group included children from a public school in Old San Juan, a private school in the metropolitan area, and a clinical sample from the Mental Health Community Clinic at the Carlos Albizu University. Children in this group were selected in accordance with DSM-IV criteria for Conduct Disorder.

The criteria that was used for participants inclusion in this group included: bullying, threatening or intimidating others, initiating physical fights, using a weapon that can cause serious physical harm to others and being physically cruel to people or animals (DSM-IV, 1994). Children had to meet three of these criteria in order to be included in the group.

The second group included 28 children (26 boys and 2 girls) who were referred as having a diagnosis of ADHD-Combined Type, following DSM-IV criteria (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). The age range for this group was 8-15 years of age with a mean age of 10.82 and a standard deviation of 1.47. These children were selected from three other public schools, which matched in socioeconomic level the schools of the impulsive-aggressive group.

The normal group included 34 children (16 boys and 18 girls) between the ages -of 9 and 15 who did not meet the criteria for the aforementioned disorders. The mean age for this group was 10.85 with a standard deviation of 1.35.

Cabiya, Orobitg, Sayers, y De La Torre

55

These children were selected from all the schools from which children of the other two groups were selected.

Instruments:

Piers Hanis Self-Concept Scale (PHSCS)- The PHSCS is an 80-item instrument designed to evaluate what children and adolescents feel about themselves. The test evaluates attitudes as well as behaviors related to self-concept.

Self-concept is defined as a series of attitudes about one's self that reflect themselves in behaviors and attributes (Piers, 1972). This scale can be administered individually or in-groups and its administration takes between 15 and 20 minutes. Research indicates that this instrument may be administered to children and adolescents 8 to 18 years of age. The items are grouped in four categories: Happiness, Satisfaction, Behavior and Academic Status.

This scale was translated to Spanish and adapted taking into consideration cultural elements. The scale has a internal consistency of .94 and a reliability of .94 (Rosse116, Guisasola, Ralat, Martinez, and Nieves ; 1992).

Children Depression Inventory (CDI)- The CDI is a self-report scale consisting of 27 items related to depression.

The scale was adapted for children and youths by Kovacs (1985). Scores of 0-11 are considered as absence of depression. Scores of 12-18 are considered mild depression and scores of 19 or more severe depression. The scale was translated and adapted for the Puerto Rican culture. The scale has shown an internal consistency of .82 and an internal consistency of .79 (Bernal, Rosse116, and Martinez, 1997).

Child Behavior Checklist-Parent (CBCL-C) (Spanish version for children) (Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1983). This

56

Cognitive and Behavioral Profile

version includes descriptions about the child competencies, behavioral and emotional problems as perceived by the child's mother or father. The internal consistency of the scale is of .65. This instrument was translated and adapted for Puerto Rican children by the Puerto Rico Child Psychiatric Epidemiology Study (Bird et al., 1988).

Conners' Abbreviated Symptom Questionnaire for Parents (CASQ-P) (Conners, 1990) was administered to the parents. This questionnaire is designed to record observations of a child's behavior in a 10-item Likert type scale. The questionnaire specifically assesses hyperkinesis and impulsiveness.

Bauermeister School Behavior Inventory (BSBI) ("Inventario de Comportamiento-Escuela de Bauermeister") (IDC-E) (Bauermeister, 1994). (To be completed by the teachers). This inventory consists of six scales (for male children) and five (for female children) that evaluate anxiety symptoms, social alienation, depression, irritability-hostility, distraction-motivation and activity-impulsiveness. In addition, the inventory has three global dimensions that include insufficient/excessive control and a scale for total problems. Internal consistency fluctuates between .74 and .96; test-re-test relibility (four-week period) fluctuated between .52 a .89. This instrument was developed, validated and standarized for the Puerto Rican population.

Socio-demographic and developmental history interview.

The questionnaire used in the Children Psychiatric Epidemiology Project developed at the Medical Sciences Campus of the University of Puerto Rico will be administered (Bird et. al., 1988). This questionnaire provides sociodemographic and developmental information about the child as provided by the child's mother or father.

Cabiya, Orobitg, Sayers, y De La Tone

57

Procedure:

After obtaining the required consent forms for participation, the evaluation phase of the study began.

During this phase, the CDI, the Piers Harris Self-Concept Scale and the CBCL-C were administered to the participants.

The BSBI was administered to the teachers as an additional measure. The Conner's Scale was administered to the parents. The aforementioned scales were then scored and comparison analyses were performed.

Results Given the high number of comparisons, a multivariate analysis of variance was performed with the obtained mean scores of the total sample in all the scales. The results of this analysis revealed significant results as shown in Table 1.

The mean scores on the scales were obtained for all groups in order to compare the groups. An analysis of variance was then performed in order to evaluate any significant differences between these scores. Given the number of dependent measure used in the analyses following the Bonferroni formula, a level of significance at .003 was established.

Table 1.

Multivariate analysis of mean scores on total sample.

Effect Classification Effect - Pillai's Trace

Value

F

Significance

1.055

2.171

'0.003

Classification Effect - Willcs' Lambda

.217

2.165

'0 .003

Classification Effect - Hotelling's Trace

2.353

2.157

4

Classification Effect - Roy's Largest Root

1.539

2.992

'0.003

%003

58

Cognitive and Behavioral Profile

Table 2

Summmy ofANOVA results comparing the three experimental groups

Scale Piers Rands Self-Coneept Scale

Mean Scores and Standard Deviations Normal ImpulsiveAMID Group Aggressive Group Group (N= 28) (N-= 34) (N.â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;"` 28)

F

SIG.

48.35 (Sl>15.57)

58.32 (SE12.88)

57.88 (S19.45)

5.69 .005

15.07 (S1>9.32)

12.32 (SD=6.42)

12.09 (SD=6.18)

1.48 .233

15.94 (S.I> 5.01)

10.06 (S1>7.74)

5.68 15.52 p.001 (S13.76)

13.60 (SD=5.98)

9.63 (S1>5.39)

15.24 (SD=8.31)

- BM ., Scale ,

19.65 (Srfi12.26)

9.89 (Sl>3.18)

14.39 4,59 .013 (Sl>13.09)

, Scale-BSBI

16.80 (S1>7.66)

9.74 (S12.73)

15.06 4.00 (S1>9.24)

36.70 (SD=12.67)

21.47 (SE*8.02)

16.55 36.75 *.001 (SI>12.95)

32.40 (S1>8.79)

24.79 (Sl>18.92)

17.55 (SD=8.72)

42.75 (SD= 19.50)

31.32 (S113.72)

17.12 20.64 p.001 (Sl>10.06)

111.85 (SD=33.55)

77.58 (Sl>35.26)

51.21 28.44 1..001 (ST. -26.04)

Children's Depression Inventory Conners' Abbreviated Symptom Questionnaire for Parents Social Withdrawal Scale-BSBI

4,31 .017

Depression

.o.3

- '' ' InitabilityHostility Scale-BSBI DistractionMotivationSeale-BSBI ActivityImpulsiveness Scale-BSBI Insufficient Control Scale-BSBI Withdrawal Scale-YSR

5.07 (Sf.:w-4.45)

3.58 (S11.75)

4.59 (S1>2.62)

9.49 ..001

1.59

.21

59

Cabiya, Orobitg, Sayers, y De La Torre Somatic Complaints Scale-YSR Depression Scale-YSR - Social Problems Scale-YSR Thought Problems Scak-YSR Attendonal Problems Scale-YSR Delinquent Behavior Scak-YSR Aggression Scale-YSR Other Problems Scale-YSR 5

4.85 (S1>2.74)

3.77 (S1>2.79)

4.47 (S1:3.10)

.95

8.30 (ST5.26)

5.96 (Sl>3.28)

7.21 (Sl>5.34)

1.57 .214

.391

5.67 (S1>7.91)

4.73 (Sl>2.15)

4.53 (S1>2.64)

.45 .639

3.04 (S1>2.79)

2.92 (S1>1.94)

2.62 (SI>1.83)

.30

4.77 (S1>2.89)

3.82 3.32 .041 (Sli32.44) ,

6.52 (SD=6.18) 3.85 (S1-.2.41)

3.31 (Sl>1.67)

3.29 (SD=2.54)

.55

11.04 (SD=6.15)

7.35 (S13=-4.27)

7.09 (Sl>5.74)

8.88 (SC=4.13)

9.35 (DT=3.15)

10.53 1.48 (DT=3.98)

.741

.58

4.58 .013 .234

p<.003

As Table 2 summarizes, significant differences (p<.003) were obtained for the CASQ-P. Significant differences were also obtained for the Irritability-Hostility, DistractionMotivation, Activity-Impulsiveness and Insufficient Control Scales of the BSBI. Thus, both parents and teacher rated the impulsive-aggressive group as more impUlsive (CASQ-P, BSBI's Activity-Impulsiveness) than normals.

A Scheffe analysis was then performed in order to evaluate where these differences took place. That is to say, which groups were the ones that differed significantly. The analysis revealed significant (p<003) differences between the Normal and Impulsive-Aggressive group for the CASQ-P, IrritabilityHostility, Distraction-Motivation and Activity-Impulsiveness

60

Rodriguez, Cardalda y Garcia

Scales of the BSBI and the Insufficient Control Scale of the BSBI. Significant differences were also found between the Impulsive-Aggressive group and the ADHD-Combined lype group for BSBI's Irritability-Hostility Scale (See Table 3).

Table 3

Summary of Significant Scheffi Analyses comparing the three experimental groups Scale

OrouP

CASQ-P Irritability-Hostility Scale-BSBI Distractibility Scale-BSBI Impulsiveness Scale-BSBI Insufficient Control Scale-BSBI .003

SIG.

Impulsive-Aggressive vs. Normal

s.001

Impulsive-Aggressive vs. Normal Impulsive-Aggressive vs. ADFID

*001 *001

Impulsive-Aggressive vs. Normal

*.001

Impulsive-Aggressive vs. Normal

*001

Impulsive-Aggressive vs. Normal

*.001

Discussion and Conclusions Our results indicate that imixilsive-aggressive children scored higher in the CASQ-P as well as the Impulsiveness Scale of the BSBI than normal children. These results indicate that both the teachers and parents perceived the children in the impulsive-aggressive group as more impulsive than the normal children. In addition, the teachers rated the impulsive-aggressive group as more hostile, irritable and distractible than the normal group (BSBI's IrritabilityHostility, Distraction-Motivation, Activity-Impulsiveness and Insufficient Control Scales).

Taken together these finding provides further evidence that impulsive-aggressive children display a higher level of impulsivity and aggressiveness than normal children (Bauermeister, Alegria, Bird, Rubio-Stipec and Canino,

Cabiya, Orobitg, Sayers, y De La Torre

61

1992; Bauermeister, Matos and Barkley, 1999; Bird, Gouid and Staghezza-Jaramillo, 1994; Shelton, Barkley, Crosswait, Moorehouse, Fletcher, Barrett, Jenkini and Metevia, 1998). Furthermore, our results itichcate that the impulsive-aggressive group differed significantly from the ADM-Combined Type group only in the level of irritability and hostility according to the teachers' ratings in the BSBI. Moreover, no significant differences between the ADHD-Combined Type and the normal group were found.

The main limitation of the present study was the limited number of participants. Thus future research needs to validate these results with a larger sample. Also, more precise diagnostic classifications following well established interview procedures are needed to guarantee the appropriate assignment to the diagnostic groups.

References Achenbach, T. (1991). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/4-18 and 1991 Profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.

Achenbach, T., & Edelbrock, C.S. (1983). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist and revised Child Behavior Profile. Burlington, VT: Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont.

American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: Author.

Bauermeister, J. (1994). Desarrollo y utilizaci谩n del Inventario de Comportamiento Escuela (IDC-E) en la oviluaci贸n de nifios puertorriqueflos. San Juan, Puerto Rico: Author.

Bauermeister, J., Alegria, M., Bird, H., Rubio-Stipec, M., & Canino, G. (1992). Are attentional-hyperactivity deficits unidimensional or multidimensional syndromes? Empirical findings from a community survey. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 423-431.

62

Cognitive and Behavioral Profile

Bauenneister, J., Matos, M., & Barkley, R. (1999). Attention deficit disorder with and without hyperactivity in Hispanic children. Paper presented at the American Psychological Assvciation Convention, August 20-24, Boston, MA. Bernal, G., Rosse116, J., & Martinez, A. (1997). El Inventario de Depresi贸n para nifios y niilas: Propiedades psicomdtricas en dos muestras puertorriquefias. Psicolologia Contemporemea, 4, 12-23.

Bird, H., Canino, G., Rubio-Stipec, M., Gould, M., Rivera, J., Sesman, M., Woodbury, M., Huertas-Goldman, S., Pagan, A., Sanchez-Lacay, A., & Moscoso, M. (1988). Estimates of the prevalence of childhood maladjustment in a community survey in Puerto Rico. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 1120-1126.

Bird, H., Gould, M., & Staghezza-Jaramillo, B. (1994). The comorbidity of ADM in a community sample of children aged 6 through 16 years.

Journal of Child and Fami61 Studies, 3, 365-378.

Conners, C.K. (1990) Conners' Abbreviated Symptom Questionnaire for Parents (CASQ-P). Multi-Health Systems: NY Feschback, S. (1970). Aggression. In PH. Mussen (Ed.), Carlmichaelk manual of child psychology (pp. 159-259).

New York: Willey.

Kovacs, M. (1985). The Children's Depression Inventory (CDI).

Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 21, 995-998.

Lochman, J., & Lenhart, L. (1993). Anger coping intervention for aggressive children: Conceptual models and outcome effects.

Clinical Psychology Review, 13, 785-805.

Piers, E. (1972). Prediction of children's self-concepts. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 38, 428-433.

Rossell贸, J., Guisasola, E., Ralat, S., Martinez, S., & Nieves, A. (1992).

La evaluaci贸n de la depresi贸n en un grupo de j6venes puertorriquefios.

Revista Puertorriquefla de Psicologia, 8, 155-162.

Shelton, T., Barkley, R., Crosswait, C., Moorehouse, M., Fletcher, K., Barret, S., Jenkins, L., & Metevia, L. (1998). Psychiatric and psychological morbidity as a function of adaptive disability in preschool children with aggressive and hyperactive-impulsiveinattentive behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26 (6), 475-494.

Ciencias de la Conducta

C 2001 Universidad Carlos Albizu San Juan, Puerto Rico

2001, Vol 16, 63-78

Analisis Bibliom茅trico de las Revistas PsicolOgicas en Puerto Rico.

Alfonso Martinez-Taboas, Ph.D. Brenda Castm Diaz, B.A. Viviana Pagan, B.A. Hector Coca, B.A. Universidad de Puerto Rico Abstract In this study the authors present a bibliometric analysis of the only two psychological journals published in Puerto Rico: Ciencias de la Conducta and Revista Puertorriquefia de Psicologia. We document that only a tiny fraction of psychologists are involved in writing their ideas, theories or investigations in those journals. We also identify that nearly 70% of the authors are affiliated with Carlos Albizu University or the University of Puerto Rico. Also, we note that, with some notable exceptions, industrial, social and community psychologists are not actively publishing in those two journals. Other interesting findings are presented, such as the number of co-authors, areas of active interest and the use of empirical methodologies. The authors present some suggestions that may be helpful in improving the present situation.

Como toda profesi贸n, la psicologia en Puerto Rico plantea un diverso conglomerado de actividades que distingue y caracteriza su praxis. Asi, los/as psicologos/as han desarrollado y creado una Para comunicarse con los autores, favor de escribir a la Universidad Carlos Albizu, P.O. Box 9023711, San Juan, P. R. 00902-3711.

63

64

Martinez-Taboas, Castro, Pagan y Coca

AsociaciOn que los/as agrupa (AsociaciOn de Psicologia de Puerto Rico), escuelas graduadas especializadas, convenciones, seminarios, un código de ética, y otras actividades profesionales.

En este articulo nos proponemos exponer y analizar un tipo de actividad profesional muy particular: la publicación de articulos profesionales en revistas especializadas en psicologia. Este tipo de indagacion se conoce como un analisis bibliométrico. A través de este tipo de analisis se pueden apreciar diversas tendencias y patrones entre los/as psicologos/as que estan aportando al conocimiento psicolOgico. La contribuciOn del analisis bibliométrico no sOlo radica en identificar patrones ya establecidos, sino también en hacer recomendaciones que subsanen posibles deficiencias en el campo.

Debe notarse que este es el primer analisis bibliométrico que se realiza utilizando como base las revistas profesionales psicolOgicas publicadas en Puerto Rico. Esta tarea, sin embargo, es muy conocida y practicada en otras revistas intemacionales (vease a Aguilar & Lopez, 1997; Klappenbach, Camara, Barrozo & Lopez, 1999; Lopez & Calvache, 1998).

En este trabajo hemos decidido realizar la bibliometria en conjunto a las finicas dos revistas profesionales psicolegicas que existen en Puerto Rico. Estas son la revista Ciencias de la Conducta (CC) y la Revista Puertorriquefia de Psicologia (RPP). A diferencia de otras revistas psicolOgicas populares, tanto la RPP como CC han mantenido la consistencia de mantener una junta editora la cual revisa los articulos de manera ciega ("blind review"), procedimiento altamente recomendado en las revistas profesionales y cientificas (Cullen & Macauley, 1992; Thyer, 1994). A continuaciOn presentare-

La edad y los comportamientos

65

mos un breve recorrido histórico de la trayectoria de cada una de éstas y luego pasaremos al análisis bibliométrico.

Ciencias de la Conducta Esta revista comenzó a publicarse en el 1985 y es auspiciada por la Universidad Carlos Albizu. No ha sido un requisito que el Editor o los miembros de la Junta Editora estén relacionados de manera directa a la Universidad. Adicionalmente, en los ültimos atios la Junta Editora ha contado con la colaboración de distinguidos colegas latinoamericanos.

A continuación se ofrece un listado de los psicologos que han servido de editores en la CC: Volumen 1: Pedro Vales Volumen 2: José Toro Alfonso Volumen 3: Jose Toro Alfonso Volumen 4: Victor Alvarez & Noel Quintero Volumen 5: Victor Alvarez & Jose Santos, Volumen 6: Victor Alvarez, Jose Santos & Alfonso Martinez-Taboas Volumen 7 al volumen 14: Alfonso MartinezTaboas Es importante sefialar que el Dr. Salvador Santiago Neg.& fungi6 como editor invitado para el volumen del 1993, cuyo tema fue la drogodependencia.

Asimismo, la Dra. Aida Garcia fue la editora invitada para el volumen del 1998, en donde se publicaron articulos sobre el VIH/SIDA en Puerto Rico.

Debe indicarse que cinco numeros de la revista CC han tenido secciones especiales sobre temas particulares o,

66

Martinez-Taboas, Castro, Pagan y Coca

incluso, todo su contenido se ha dedicado a una tematica particular. Estos temas han abarcado a la familia puertorriquefla, la psicologia en America Latina, la drogodependencia, las investigaciones del VIH/SIDA y un debate sobre las ideas innovadoras del Dr. Ruben Ardila.

Los miembros de la Junta Editora han sido los siguientes: Saturnino Castro, Alba Nydia Rivera, Carlos Fernandez, Ana Maria Pi, Salvador Santiago Negrón, Mayra Huergo, Jose Navas, Jorge Dieppa, Rosa Elena Velez, Mariano Alemany, Alfredo Ardila, Evelyn Diaz, Kevin Keating, Mildred Roqueta, Monica Rosselli, Noel Quintero, Deborah Ann Van Harlinger, Yazmin Lugo Morales, Carlos Andiljar, Ruben Ardila, Jose Rodriguez, Giovanni Tirado, Orlando Pedrosa, Sara Malave y Aida Garcia.

La revista CC, desde sus inicios, también cuenta con la posiciOn de Director. Esta posición la ocupO el Dr. Salvador Santiago desde el volumen 1 hasta el 13.

En el yolumen 14 esta posiciOn ha sido ocupada por el Dr. Jose Cabiya. También, comenzando con el volumen 14 (1999), CC comenzO a contar con una secciOn de arte y cultura, en donde se exponen trabajos de corte histórico, cuentos, poesias y reflexiones culturales.

Revista Puertorriquefla de Psicologia La RPP aparece inicialmente en el 1981 y representa la revista oficial de la AsociaciOn de Psicologia de Puerto Rico (APPR). En ésta, el Editor y los miembros de la Junta Editora tienen que ser miembros activos de la APPR para poder asumir los cargos correspondientes.

Sin embargo, esto no se aplica a las personas que someten

La edad y los comportamientos

67

articulos a la misma.

A continuación un listado de los(as) psicologos(as) que han servido como editores de la RPP: Volumen 1: Manuel Viloria Volumen 2: Carmen Julia Rodriguez Volumen 3: No se especifica Volumen 4: No se especifica Volumen 5: No se especifica Volumen 6: Alfonso Martinez-Taboas Volumen 7: Alfonso Martinez-Taboas Volumen 8: Vivian Ortiz Aponte VolUmenes 9 al 12: Alfonso Martinez-Taboas Debe mencionarse que en el Volumen 9 la Dra. Irma Roca de Torres sirvi6 de Editora Invitada para una secci6n sobre la Historia de la Psicologia en Puerto Rico. Asimismo, en el Volumen 10 la Dra. Wanda Rodriguez Arocho fungi6 de Editora Invitada para una sección de Homenaje a Jean Piaget y Lev S. Vigotsky.

Los miembros de la Junta Editora han sido los siguientes: Carlos Arreola, Frances Boulén, Georgina Lopez, Carmen J. Rodriguez, Annette Miijica, Jeannette , Rosse116, Alicia Rivero, Augusto de Jesus, Miguel Martinez, Julio C. Ribera, Beatriz Rivera, Carol Romey, Salvador Santiago, Nydia Sostre, Ana M. Diaz, Jorge Gonzalez, José Santos, Eduardo Ysern, Margarita Francia, Domingo Luiggi, Carlos Varona, Carmen Rita Ducret, Nelly Zambrana, Rolando Diaz-Loving, Carlos Andiijar, Wanda Rodriguez, José Navas-Robleto, Guillermo Bernal, Aida Garcia, Irma Roca de Torres Carlos S. Alvarado.

68

Martinez-Taboas, Castro, Pagan y Coca

Una vez detallada la trayectoria de la composición de las diversas juntas editoras de la CC y la RPP, pasaremos al andlisis bibliométrico de las mismas.

Método

Universo de Estudio Se revise, la totalidad de los articulos publicados en la revista CC y la RPP. El analisis bibliométrico incluye las revistas publicadas hasta el momento en que escribimos estas lineas (enero de 2001). En la RPP se han publicado 99 articulos y en la revista CC un total de 114. En el analisis no se contabilizaron las revisiones de libros ni los editoriales.

Instrumentos y Procedimiento: Cada autor tuvo a su cargo el analisis de algunas de las siguientes variables: autores de los articulos; instituciOn del autor; namero de autores por articulo; y areai de la psicologia abarcadas. Se desarrolló una plantilla para ,cuantificar los hallazgos por sección.

Posteriormente, toda esta información fue verificada y corroborada por el primer autor del presente articulo (AMT).

Resultados

Productividad de los Autores Un area de , sumo inter& en los analisis bibliométricos consiste en conocer la productividad de los • autores. En la Tabla 1 se pueden observar los resultados

La edad y los comportamientos

69

de este andlisis. Los mismos se presentan englobando los resultados obtenidos en la revista CC y la RPP. Debe notarse que en esta lista solo se incluyen aquellos autores que han producido 4 articulos o mas. Asimismo, se excluyeron del anilisis los editoriales publicados ya que, a nuestro juicio, éstos no cualifican como articulos ni pasan por una lectura a ciegas ("blind-review7).

Tabla 1.

Productividad por autores.

Autores Alfonso Martinez-Taboas Miguel Martinez Lugo Salvador Santiago Negnin Irma Roca de Torres José J. Cabiya Morales Wanda Rodriguez Arocho Jeannette Rossell6 Carlos S. Alvarado Carlos Andtilar Robts Luis IL Colon Victor Alvarez Irma Serrano Garcia Maria Amelia R.odriguez Aracely Beatriz Llanos José Toro Alfonso

# de articulos 22 11 10 8 8 6.

6 5 5 5 4 4 4 4

Los resultados indican que solo 15 psicOlogos/as se han dedicado a publicar 4 articulos o más desde que se fundaron las dos revistas que estamos analizando. A nuestro juicio, este dato fundamenta la opinisin presentada por MartinezTaboas (1999), en el sentido de que el 95% de los psicOlogos en Puerto Rico no se dedica, de manera consistente, al4 tarea de publicar sus ideas o investigaciones. Es interesante sefialar que Martinez-Taboas resalta en nuestro anilisis como el autor mas prolifico en las revistas publicadas en Puerto Rico. Este hallazgo tiene su paralelo en el amilisis bibliométrico realizado por Lopez y Calvache (1998),

70

Martinez-Taboas, Castro, Pagan y Coca

quienes al analizar el contenido de la Revista Latinoamericana de Psicologia, encontraron que tanto para el periodo de 1979-1988 como pm el de 1989-1998, Alfonso Martinez-Taboas result() el autor mas prolifico en Puerto Rico y uno de los más productivos a nivel latinoamericano.

Otto dato de interés es que otros 213 psicologos/as escribieron 3 o menos articulos para la RPP o CC. La inmensa mayoria (82%) ha llegado a publicar solo un articulo.

Niimero de Autores por Articulo:

Una variable que puede ser reveladora es la que se relaciona con el niimero de autores por articulo. En la Tabla 2 podemos apreciar los resultados.

Table 2.

Minter° de autores por articulo.

0 de autores Uno Dos Tres Cuatro Cineo Seis

CC n (%)

RFT n (%)

Total. n (%)

69 (61%) 31 (27%) 9 (8%) 3 (2%) 1 (0.8%) 1 (0.8%)

60 (61%) 20 (20%) 11 (11%) 1 (1%) 4 (4%) 3 (3%)

129 (61%) 51 (23%) 20 (9%) 4 (2%) 5 (3%) 4 (2%)

De la Tabla 2 se desprende que la mayona de los/as psicOlogos/as tienen una preferencia por escribir sin la colaboraciOn de otros autores (61%). Escribir de esta manera tiene sus satisfacciones. Entre ellas: el articulo implica un esfuerzo concentrado y mayor de parte del autor; más horas contacto de EducaciOn Continua; y probablemente sea de mayor impacto en un Curriculum Vitae. Sin embargo, el acto de escribir en conjunto con

La edad y los comportamientos

71

otros colegas también tiene sus ventajas, en especial cuando se trata de investigaciones de tipo empfricio, ya sean cuantitativas o cualitativas. De hecho, si uno examina cualquier revista de psicologia intemacional, podri apreciar que son relativamente pocos los articulos en donde la responsabilidad recae en un solo autor. Si examinamos la Tabla 2, a nivel general se puede notar que solo un 16% de los articulos poseen tres o más autores.

Producción por Instituciones

También se estucliO la afiliaciOn institucional de los autores. Se hizo un anilisis de los datos por revista y a nivel global. En la Tabla 3 se pueden observar los resultados.

Tabla 3.

Produccidn por instituciones.

Afiliacion del autor

Universidad Carlos Albizu Universidad de Puerto Rico Universidad Interamericana Otras

CC n (%)

RPP n (%)

Total n (%)

122 (67%) 14 (8%) 0 45 (25%)

24 (14%) 82 (47%) 20 (12%) 49 (27%)

146 (41%) 96 (27%) 20 (6%) 94 (26%)

Un dato que resalta de inmediato es que en la revista CC la mayorf a de los autores (67%) identifican que su afiliaciOn institucional es la Universidad Carlos Albizu.

Esto indudablemente se debe a que tanto los/as estudiantes graduados/as, asf como la facultad de dicha Universidad tradicionalmente han identificado a la revista CC como una fuente enriquecedora y legftima de publicar sus trabajos profesionales.

Por otro lado, una situaciOn interesante tambi6n se da en la RPP, en donde casi la mitad (47%) de los trabajos

72

Martinez-Taboas, Castro, Pagan y Coca

publicados provienen de personas afiliadas con la Universidad de Puerto Rico. No sabemos la raz贸n exacta para explicar esta tendencia, pero una conjetura que se nos ocurre es que en ciertos momentos la directiva de la APPR ha sido percibida (de manera correcta o incorrecta) como muy intimamente relacionada al Departamento de Psicologia de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. Si esto fuera cierto, explicaria dos datos que se observan en la Tabla 3.

En primer lugar, hay una tendencia clara y marcada a que los psic贸logos afiliados con la Universidad Carlos Albizu casi no someten ni publican en la RPP. En segundo lugar, los psicologos afiliados con la Universidad de Puerto Rico casi no someten ni publican en la revista CC. De hecho, solo un 8% tiene publicado trabajos en CC. Sea nuestra conjetura cierta o no, creemos que dicha tendencia no es saludable para el crecimiento epist茅mico ni cientifico de la psicologia en Puerto Rico. La actividad cientifica y acad茅mica debe trascender afiliciaciones o instituciones, ya que el conocimiento no tiene duefios ni lares. Comprometido con esta opinion, el actual Editor de la RPP y CC se ha dado a la tarea de animar e invitar colegas de diversas instituciones y afiliaciones para asi crear un ambiente Mtelectual rico, diverso y retante. Esta postura editorial parece haber comenzado a rendir frutos. Por ejemplo, si analizamos los filtimos dos volumenes de la RPP, tenemos que 7 (21%) de los 33 autores estan afiliados a la Universidad de Puerto Rico, 9 (27%) a la Universidad Carlos Albizu, y los restantes 17 (52%) autores a otras instituciones o centros (Parapsychology Foundation; practica privada; Centro de Estudios Integrales; Hospital San Juan Capestrano; Universidad Interamericana). Esto contrasta, por ejemplo, con el Volumen 9 del ailo 1993, en donde el 73% de los autores de los articulos estaban afiliados a la

La edad y los comportamientos

73

Universidad de Puerto Rico.

Productividad por Areas

Otro tema importante se relaciona con aquellas areas en las cuales el autor muestra interes de contribuir.

Este asunto resulta vital para comprender los 茅nfasis y esfuerzos que se estan invirtiendo a la hora de escribir los resultados de nuestras rnvestigaciones, ideas o teorias. En la Tabla 4 se pueden apreciar los resultados.

Tabla 4.

Areas Espectficas Abarcadas en los Articulos.

Areas Psicopatologia Evolutiva Psicoterapia Psiconsetria Industrial Historicos Social Epistensologia Neuropsicologia Salad Transcultural Otros

CC n 14 18 10 10 11 2 5 10 7 7 6 14

RPP n 17 10 10 10 8 10 7 2 4 3 4 14

Total, n 31 (14.5%) 28 (13.1%) 20 (9.4%) 20 (9.4%) 19 (8.9%) 12 (5.6%) 12 (5.6%) 12 (5.6%) 11 (5.2%) 10 (4.7%) 10 (4.7%) 28 (13.3%)

Resalta de inmediato que los temas de psicopatologia y de psicoterapia, en conj unto, cubren una cugta parte del material publicado en dichas revistas. Esto ciebe sorprendernos ya que sabemos que la , gran mayor14 rcle los/as psic贸logos/as en Puerto Rico son psicologosfas clinicos/as (Rivera & Maldonado, 1999). Las psicopatologiii, mas discutidas son la esquizofrenia, los trastornos krOedad, los trastornos disociativos, los trastornos afectivos y diversas psicopatologias en niftos.

El tema de la psicologia industrial cuenta con ;una,

74

Martinez-Taboas, Castro, Pagan y Coca

débil participación en las piginas de dichas revistas. De hecho, debe notarse que casi todos los trabajos del area de industrial provienen del Dr. Miguel Martinez o del Dr. Carlos Andujar. Si no fuera por la productividad de estos colegas, el tema de la psicologia industrial estaria prácticamente ausente de la discusi6n profesional en nuestras revistas.

De manera analoga, los psicologos sociales y los comunitarios han hecho unos aportes muy escuetos y reducidos en la RPP y en la CC. También caen aqui las temiticas de la neuropsicologia, epistemologia, asuntos de interés hist6rico, psicologia de la salud y asuntos transculturales.

Finalmente, un analisis adicional fue dirigido para indagar el numero de articulos en donde se utilizó algim tipo de metodologia empirica, ya fuera 6sta cuantitativa o cualitativa. Los resultados reflejan que en la revista CC 51 de 114 articulos (45%) fueron presentados como investigaciones empiricas. En la RPP de 99 articulos, 42 (42%) fueron de esta indole.

Discusi6n Los anilisis bibliométricos son ütiles a la hora de percibir patrones en la actividad de escritura de articulos profesionales. Aunque hay varias maneras de contribuir al conocimiento en una disciplina (ofreciendo ponencias, dando clases, realizando investigacion), tradicionalmente se considera que la escritura de articulos profesionales es una de las formas mas rigurosas y productivas de acelerar el conocimiento en un area (Garfield, 1984; Thyer, 1994).

Las ventajas de publicar son varias e importantes, tales como la permanencia de las ideas del autor; la capacidad

La edad y los comportamientos

75

del autor de someter sus opiniones o investigaciones al imbito püblico profesional, la rigurosidad en la exposición de sus ideas y poner al alcance del pliblico en general aspectos sobre la disciplina con fines educativos. Por estas y otras razones es que la publicación de arliculos profesionales tiene un valor tan especial en el Cuniculum Vitae de cualquier profesional (Kirk & Corcoran, 1989).

El anilisis bibliométrico realizado a la RPP y a CC confirma algunas de las ideas ya expuestas por MartinezTaboas (1999), muy en particular su preocupación de que son exiguos los/as psicOlogos/as puertorriquefios/as que tienen la tenacidad y costumbre de publicar Solo un minusculo grupo de colegas, el cual calculamos en un 2%, publica de manera consistente en revistas profesionales. Esto contrasta con los hallazgos en otros paises (véase a Martinez-Taboas, 1999).

De nuestro analisis bibliométrico ,se desprenden varias recomendaciones. En primer lugar, las instituciones académicas deben exigir y propiciar que tanto sus facultativos como sus estudiantes se entusiasmen y practiquen el arte y la ciencia de presentar sus opiniones o resultados de manera escrita (véase las recomendaciones especificas en Martinez-Taboas, 1999). De esto no hacerse, puede continuar el patron de no preocuparse por este aspecto profesional.

Eventualmente, este patrOn puede resultar nefasto, como lo seria la cancelaciOn de las pocas revistas profesionales que tenemos en Puerto Rico. De hecho, ea los filtimos tres afios, la RPP ha tenido problemas en publicarse, debido en gran medida a que la Junta Editora no ha estado recibiendo • articulos para ser considerados a publicaciOn. En segundo lugar, creemos que poco a poco los/as • psicOlogos/as en Puerto Rico deben de ir substituyendo el habito de escribir articulos con una sola autoria, y

76

Martinez-Taboas, Castro, Pagan y Coca

plantearse los beneficios de escribir en conjunto con otros colegas. Aunque la escritura de articulos por un solo autor siempre sera valiosa, creemos que el porcentaje de articulos con mas de un autor es muy escueto (solo una tercera parte). Si vemos a la psicologia dentro de un discurso biopsicosocial, la colaboraciOn activa de varios autores, con diversas especialidades, puede ser un factor decisivo en la maduraciOn del campo y puede ayudar a trazar lazos con otras disciplinas cientificas.

En tercer lugar, los/as psicOlogos/as que laboran dentro de la psicologia social, la comunitaria y la industrial, casi no se han dejado sentir en las piginas de la RPP y CC. Su productividad, exceptuando unos pocos colegas, puede ser descrita como casi nula. No sabemos a ciencia cierta las razones de esto. Si sabemos que en Puerto Rico los psicologos industriales y los social-comunitarios comprenden una minoria significativa (alrededor del 10%) del universo de psic6logos (Rivera .& Maldonado, 1999). Sin embargo, aim asi creemos que estos colegas deben hacer un esfuerzo mayor para presentar sus ideas, investigaciones, criticas e inquietudes en nuestras revistas. El articulo que public6 la psicologa social Maria Milagros L6pez (1985), con el titulo de Prometeo Encadenado: Los Obstรกculos que Confrontan los Psicรณlogos para Asumir una Responsabilidad Social Alterna constituye un magnifico ejemplo de la aportaciOn que pueden hacer los psicOlogos sociales.

En cuarto lugar, aunque las revisiones de literatura, los analisis te6ricos y las presentaciones de tipo histOrico son de indudable valor, creemos que se necesita continuar la publicaciim de investigaciOn empirica (cualitativa o cuantitativa). En este sentido, el hallazgo de que un 44% de los articulos hayan estado dirigidos a diversos tipos de investigaciones empiricas nos parece encomiable. En โ ข

La edad y los comportamientos

77

Puerto Rico, en donde tantas veces nos quejamos de que no deseamos importar el conocimiento obtenido por los europeos o por los norteamericanos, resulta imperioso que se publiquen los resultados de aquellas intervenciones, terapias o instrumentos de evaluación que sean ütiles, confiables y vilidos en nuestro entomo cultural. La presentación de dichas investigaciones en tesis o disertaciones resulta de dudosa relevancia, ya que son muy pocos los colegas que tienen el tiempo o las facilidades para rebuscar disertaciones, las cuales, lamentablemente, muchas veces les aqueja el hongo y el polvo por no usarse ni consultarse.

Por filtimo, nos llama la atención y nos inquieta el hecho de que hasta hace muy poco la inmensa mayoria de los autores de los articulos analizados provienen solamente de dos instituciones académicas: la Uthversidad Carlos Albizu y la Universidad de Puerto Rico. Nos preguntamos: ipué sucede con los colegas de otras universidades o institutos?

LQué sucede con todos esos colegas en practica privada? LQué sucede con todos esos colegas que trabajan en instituciones psiquiitricas con niflos, adolescentes y adultos? Quiz& la respuesta radique en una mezcla letal de cansancio, desinterés o de un sistema que no valora ni recompensa la egaitura de artfculos. Sin embargo, y tal y como lo presentó MartinezTaboas (1999), la escritura de articulos profesionales no solo cuenta con refuerzos extrinsecos, sino también con ventajas intrinsecas, las cuales pueden ser un fuerte mecanismo motivacional por si solo.

Debemos de finalizar indicando que nuestro anilisis bibliométrico no ha pretendido ser del todo exhaustivo.

Algunos de estos trabajos, como el de Lopez y Calvache (1998), incluyen el tipo exacto de metodologia utilizado por el autor, tipos de diseftos experimentales, cantidad de estudios con animales, edades de los participantes y tipo de

78

Martinez-Taboas, Castro, Pagan y Coca

estadisticas utilizadas. Este trabajo lo podrian retomar otros colegas y seguir depurando el trabajo que aqui hems iniciado.

Referencias Aguilar, M. C., & LOpez, W. (1997). La psicologia organizacional en Latinoamerica: Un analisis bibliomĂŠtrico de la Revista de Psicologia Organizacional. Revista Interamericana de Psicologia Ocupacional, 16, 30-40.

Cullen, D. J., & Macauley, A. (1992). Consistency between peer reviewers for a clinical specialty journal. Academic Medicine, 67, 856-859.

Garfield, S. L. (1984). The evaluation of research: An editorial perspective.

En A. S. Bellack & M. Hersen (Eds.), Research methods in clinical psychology (pp. 353-369). New York: Pergamon.

Kirk, S. A., & Corcoran, K. J. (1989). The $12,000 question: Does it pay to publish? Social Work, 34, 379-381.

Klappenbach, H., Cimara, S., Barrozo, A., & Lepez, N. (1999). Estudio bibliomĂŠtrico de los primeros veinticinco afios de Acta Psiquiatrica y Psicologia de America Latina (1954-1979). Acta Psiquicitrica y PsicolOgica de America Latina, 45, 303-316.

LOpez, M. M. (1985). Prometeo encadenado: Los obsticulos que confrontan los psicOlogos para asumir una responsabilidad social alterna. Revista Puertorriquella de Psicologia, 4, 65-75.

Lopez, W. L., & Calvache, 0. (1998). La psicologia de habla hispana: 30 aftos de la Revista Latinoamericana de Psicologia. Revista Latinoamericana de Psicologia, 30, 401-427.

Martinez-Taboas, A. (1999). La publicaciOn de articulos profesionales: Reflexiones, anicdotas y recomendaciones de un editor. Ciencias de la Conducta, 14, 1-15.

Rivera, B., & Maldonado, L. (1999). PsicOlogos 1995-1998. Boletin Inforinativo Oficina de Estadisticas de Salu4 14, 1-11.

Thyer, B. A. (1994). Successful publishing in 'scholarly journals.

Thousand Oaks: Sage.

0 2001 Universidad Carlos Albizu

Clench= de la Conducta

San Juan, Puerto Rico

2001, Vol 16, 79-92

La Edad y los Comportamientos Asociados a la Gerencia de Calidad Total y Mejoramiento Continuo: Un Estudio Comparativo Miguel E. Martinez Lugo, Ph. D. Luz D. Hernandez, M.S. Glenda L. Velez, M.S. y Zoe Figueroa, M. S. Universidad de Puerto Rico Abstract The purpose of this study was to determine differences between young and older employees regarding behaviors related to quality management and continuous improvement. The Escala de Comportamientos Relacionados con el Mejoramiento Continuo (ECMC) was administered to 355 employees (208 young and 147 old) of different public and private organizations in Puerto Rico. Both groups were compared in the seven sub-scales of the ECMC and statistical analyses reflected significant differences in only two of the sub-scales: creative thinking and team work orientation. It is suggested that these groups are more alike than different in the behaviors examined. Stereotypes and prejudices commonly associated to older employees should be re-examined

Durante la filtima d茅cada, en las organizaciones han surgido una serie de cambios que conllevan la modificaci贸n en la forma de administrar las mismas.

Estos cambios buscan convertir las empresas en unas Para comunicarse con los autOres, favor de escribir a la Universidad Carlos Albizu, P.O. Box 9023711, San Juan, P. R. 00902-3711.

79

80

La edad y los comportamientos

más eficientes y eficaces (Diaz Garcia, 1997). Hoy dia el foco esti en desarrollar contextos de trabajo flexibles, adaptables, basados en aprendizaje continuo, organizaciones con estructuras de equipo multifuncionales, adiestramientos dirigidos al desarrollo de destrezas multiples, transferencia ripida de la informaciem y comunicacide a través de todos los niveles organizacionales (Avolio y Sosik, 1999).

Entre las filosofias administrativas que tienen como prop6sito fimdamental operar estos cambios en las organizaciones podemos mencionar la gerencia de calidad total. Esta filosofia busca una transformación en la manera en que se administran las organizaciones ya que conlleva enfocar las energias de la gerencia en el mejoramiento continuo de todas las operaciones, funciones y, sobre todo, los procesos de trabajo (Caudron, 1993). La gerencia de calidad total promueve la efectividad al dark importancia a la organización en lugar del énfasis en el trabajo especifico; apoyar el trabajo grupal en lugar del desempeflo individual; promoyer la igualdad en vez de la jerarquia; buscar el cambio eri ivgar de la estabilidad y, por ultimo fomentar la participacion en vez del control (Halachmi, 1993).

Los eambios que se generan en las organizaciones hoy dia han llevado a las empresas a apoderar tanto a los individuos - como a los grupos de trabajo para que planifiqudn, dirijan y controlen sus propios procesos de trabajo; se promueve el mejoramiento continuo de la fuerziliboral y se busca la diversiflcación de la misma para que de esa forma tenga representaciem de diferentes razas, grupos étnicos, estilos de vida, habilidades ftsicas y grupos de edad ( Amsden, Ferran y Amsden, 1996; Avolio y Sosik, 1999; Brull, 1996; Halachmi, ,

Miguel E. Martinez

.81

1993). Como se observa, los cambios mencionados requeriran comportamientos y destrezas diferentes de todos los individuos que forman parte de la fuerm laboral (Brull, 1996). Ante tales requerimientos, surige la preocupaci贸n de si aquellos empleados que estaban acostumbrados a las maneras de administrar previas a la gerencia de calidad total, podr谩n exhibir estos comportamientos asociados a esta nueva practica gerencial.

La flexibilidad se ha convertido en la norma de la mayoria de los ambientes de trabajo hoy dia, reemplazando asi los acercamientos mas tradicionales y rutinarios.

Esto ha llevado a que el mundo del trabajo requiera de parte de sus empleados un constante proceso de adaptaciOn (Yeatts, Folts y Knapp, 1999). Mucho se ha argumentado si aquellos empleados envejecidos pueden adaptarse a estos cambios o, si por el contrario, abandonaran las organizaciones al no poder o querer lidiar con ese nuevo ambiente organizacional. Para dstos, el redisefio de las organizaciones regularmente requiere desarrollar destrezas, habilidades y conocimientos que le ayuden a reestablecer el pareo individuo-puesto de trabajo (Yeatts, Folts y Knapp, 1999).

La resistencia al cambio no es exclusiva de los empleados envejecidos pues tambi茅n puede observarse en empleados j6venes. No obstante, autores como Mondy, Sharplin y Flippo (1988) y Thomas y Thomas (1990) entienden que el miedo al cambio es de importancia particular para los empleados envejecidos pues dicho cambio en el trabajo puede resultar en la perdida de privilegios y estatus. Privilegios que ban sido obtenidos como parte de su antigiedad en la organizaci6n.

Con esta preocupaci贸n en mente se desarrolla la

82

La edad y los comportamientos

presente investigaciOn La misma tiene como propOsito auscultar si existen diferencias estadisticamente significativas en algunas de las caracteristicas asociadas a los programas de calidad total y mejoramiento continuo al comparar un grupo de empleados jóvenes y un grupo de empleados envejecidos. Especificamente se auscultara si existen diferencias estadisticamente significativas entre estos dos grupos en las siguientes caracteristicas: flexibilidad y adaptaciOn; orientación de servicio a1 cliente; pensamiento creativo; disposiciOn para el aprendizaje; orientación al trabajo en equipo; ciudadania organizacional y por idtimo, compromiso con la calidad.

Para ello se tomaron como base las puntuaciones obtenidas por estos grupos en la Escala de Comportamientos Relacionados con el Mejoramiento Continuo (Andfijar Rojas, 1999).

Método Participantes:

Para la realización del estudio se contactaron 355 empleados de diferentes organizaciones püblicas y privadas en Puerto Rico los cuales fueron seleccionados por disponibilidad. En términos generales, la edad minima informada por los participantes fue de 18 altos y la maxima de 80 &los, siendo 41 anos la edad promedio.

El 57% pertenece al género femenino, 35% posee una preparación a nivel de bachillerato, el 66% procede del area norte del pais y un 58% esta casado. La mayoria trabaja en el sector privado (68%), especificamente en el area de servicio (68%). En términos de niimero de aflos trabajando, los mismos informaron un minimo de

Miguel E. Martinez

83

menos de 1 aflo a un maximo de 57 afios, siendo el promedio 17 afios. Los participantes se dividieron en dos grupos utilizando como criterio para ello su edad.

El primer grupo, denominado grupo de empleados jovenes, estuvo constituido por aquellos empleados que tenian al momento del estudio menos de 50 afios de , edad. El mismo estuvo compuesto de 208 participantes (59% del grupo total). La edad minima de este -grupo fue 18 aflos y la maxima 49 aflos, siendo 32 afios la edad promedio. El 62% pertenece al género femenino, posee una preparación académica de bachillerato (42%), vive en el area norte del pais (67%) y esta casado (46%). El 70% informó trabajar en compafiias privadas; especificamente en el area de servicio (69%). En tértninos de experiencia laboral, este grupo inform() Ilevar desde menos de 1 afio hasta 34 afios trabajando, teniendo como promedio 10 afios de experiencia.

Por otro lado, el segundo grupo, denominado grupo de empleados envejecidos, estuvo constituido por 147 empleados (41% del grupo total) que al momento del estudio tenian 50 afios o más de edad. La edad minima de este grupo fue 50 afios y la maxima 80 afios, siendo 56 altos la edad promedio. La mitad (50%) pertenece al género femenino, posee una preparaciOn académica de bachillerato (27%), vive en el area norte del pais (65%) y esta casado (74%). El 62% inform() trabajar en compaftias privadas, especificamente en el area de servicio (65%). En términos de experiencia laboral, este grupo inform() llevar desde menos de 1 afio hasta 57 afios trabajando, teniendo como promedio 28 afios de experiencia.

84

La edad y los comportamientos

Instrumentos Para la recopilacifm de los datos se utilizaron dos instrumentos. El primero de ellos fue una Hoja de datos demograficos. A través de la misma se recopiló información referente al género, edad, preparación acad6mica, lugar de residencia, estado civil, tipo de organizaciOn para la cual trabaja y Mos de servicio.

El segundo instrumento utilizado fue la Escala de Comportamientos Relacionados con el Mejoramiento Continuo (ECMC) desarrollada por Andfijar Rojas (1999). Esta escala fue desarrollada a partir de siete dimensiones que Morgan y Smith (1996) plantean que definen los comportamientos de una persona con alta probabilidad de éxito en una cultura de calidad total o mejoramiento continuo. Estas siete dimensiones se reflejan en las subescalas que conforman la ECMC: flexibilidad y adaptación; orientación de servicio al cliente; pensarniento creativo; disposicien para el aprendizaje; orientación al trabajo en equipo; ciudadania organizacional y por Ultimo, compromiso con la calidad. Los anAlisis estadisticos realizados a dicha escala reflejan unas caracteristicas psicométricas muy adecuadas. Especificamente, se observan valores eigen que fluctiian entre 2.3 y 4.2; indices de discriminacion promedio entre .41 y .60 y coeficientes alfa de Cronbach que varian desde .74 hasta .87 (Andiijar Rojas It De Jesus Clavell, 2000).

Procedimiento Los participantes fueron contactados de manera individual por estudiantes a nivel graduado en psicologia

Miguel E. Martinez

85

industrial organizacional para auscultar su disponibilidad para former parte del estudio. Se les entregaba una carta donde se les explicaba el propósito del mismo y Jos derechos que tenian como participantes del proceso investigativo. Especificamente se le garantith, su anonimato, confidencialidad, voluntariedad y su dereeho a abandonar la investigación en el momento en quelo considere necesario. Una vez la persona accediaA. participar se pasaba a la administración de los4nstrumentos, en este caso la hoja de datos demograficos y el ECMC. Luego de ésto se procedi6 a- codificar los datos para de esa forma ser analizados estadisticamente utilizando el programa estadistico conocido con el nombre de SPSS, Version 9.

Resultados En primer lugar se presentarán las puntuaciones obtenidas por cada uno de los grupos objeto de andlisis en esta investigaciOn. Luego se presentara el resultado del analisis estadistico cuyo objetivo era llevar a cabo la comparaciOn entre las puntuaciones promedio de cada grupo en cada una de las subescalas del ECMC. Como se observa en la Tabla 1, las puntuaciones promedio en las subescalas del ECMC para el grupo de empleados jOvenes fluctuaron entre 31.32 y 33.80. La puntuaciOn promedio más baja correspondi6 a la subescala de orientación de servicio al cliente mientras que la puntuaci6n promedio mas alta correspondiO a la subescala de disposiciOn para el aprendizaje. En la Tabla 1 se observan las puntuaciones obtenidas por el grupo de empleados envejecidos. Para este grupo la puntuación prornedio mas baja fue 30.37 en la

86

La edad y los comportamientos

subescala de orientación al trabajo en equipo y la más alta fue 32.67 en la subescala disposición para el aprendizaje.

Al comparar las puntuaciones promedio en las -subescalas del ECMC se encontraron diferencias estadisticamente significativas solamente en dos de estas. En la subescala de pensamiento creativo, los empleados j6venes obtuvieron una puntuación promedio significativamente más alta (M = 31.98, DE = 4.91) que el grupo de empleados envejecidos (M = 30.91, DE = 4.98), t (342) = 1.97, p < .05. Por otro lado, en la subescala de orientación al trabajo en equipo, el grupo de empleados j6venes obtuvo una puntuación promedio significativamente mas alta (M = 32.00, DE = 5.49) que el gxupo de empleados envejecidos (M = 30.37, DE = 5.92), t (334) = 2.60, p < .01 (ver Tabla 1).

Tab's 1 Puntuaci6n plomedio, de sviaci6n estandar y resultado de la ptueba t para cada subescala de la ECMC para el grupo de empleados Avenes y envejecidos.

Sub-escala Fludbilidad y adaptabilidad Oriented& servido al diode Pensandento creative DispositiOn pare aprendiaaje Chidadania organizacional Orientation trail* en equiPo Compromise con calidad

Grupo M

Aveues DE

Grupo Envejecidos M DE

31.37

5.37

30.69

31.32 31.98

4.25 4.91

31.36 30.91

4.42 4.98

-.09 1.97*

33.80 32.20

6.52 4.79

32.67 31.40

6.79 5.47

1.54 1.44

32.00 32.70

5.49 6.53

30.37 33.05

5.92 6.32

2.6044 -.50

6.71

1.02

*p<.05

Discusión Como se observa en los resultados presentados previamente,

.

Miguel E. Martinez

87

el grupo de empleados jóvenes y el grupo de empleados envejecidos obtuvieron puntuaciones promedio bastante similares en las subescalas de la ECMC. Si se analiza el orden entre las subescalas para el grupo de empleados jóvenes se tiene lo siguiente: disposición para el aprendizaje, compromiso con la calidad, ciudadania organizacional, orientación al trabajo en equipo, pensamiento creativo, flexibilidad y adaptación y, por ültimo, orientación de servicio al cliente. Por otro lado, el orden de las subescalas para el grupo de empleados envejecidos es el siguiente: compromiso con la calidad, disposición para el aprendizaje, ciudadania organizacional, orientaciOn de servicio al cliente, pensamiento creativo, flexibilidad y adaptacion y, por ültimo, orientación al trabajo en equipo.

Solo se encontraron diferencias estadisticamente significativas en dos de las subescalas: pensatniento creativd y orientaciOn al trabajo en equipo. Este patrOn de ausencia de diferencias marcadas entre estos dos grupos de trabajadores ya se ha observado en otras investigaciones realizadas en Puerto Rico las cuales han comparado estos dos gmpos generacionales. En las mismas se ha visto como en la Variable motivaciOn hacia el trabajo ambos grupos reflejan unos patrones motivacionales muy similares (Vélez y Martinez, 1995; Martinez y Mckenzie, 1997): En la primera subescala de la ECMC donde se encuelitran diferencias estadisticamente significativas es en pensamiento creativo. En ésta el grupo de empleados jOvenes obtuvo una puntuaciOn promedio mayor que el grupo de empleados envejecidos. Esta diferencia,pudiera exphcarse tomando en consideraciOn cOmo han evolucionado los contextos de trabajo en las filtimas décadas. Goldberg (2000) expone que en un pasado el énfasis en la creatividad e innovacion era muy poco. Aguellos trabajadores de la

88

La edad y los comportamientos

agricultura y de lineas de ensamblaje fueron socializados para desempear tareas donde el espacio para el pensamiento creativo era escaso; el empleado era considerado un par de manos que llevaban a cabo una tarea especifica Es muy probable que el grupo de empleados envejecido que particip6 en nuestra investigación pertenezca a este grupo que crecio en estos contextos especificos de trabajo que describe Goldberg. Por otro lado, afiade esta autora que en la era de la hifonnaciOn, las empresas estan abiertas a acercamientos nuevos y creativos. Este grupo generacional que se ha desarrollado en esta era de la informaciOn se caracteriza por ser uno creativo, que se siente cOmodo con la tecnologia y que asimila muy bien el cambio (City of Portland, 2000).

Es probable que en este tipo de empresa es que se hayan desarrollado y socializado nuestro grupo de empleados jOvenes.

La segunda subescala en la que se observan diferencias estadisticamente significativas es en la de orientación al trabajo en equipo. De nuevo en ésta, el grupo de empleados jOvenes obtuvo una puntuaciOn promedio mas alta que el grupo de empleados envejecidos. Es importante resaltar que es en esta subesca1a donde el grupo de empleados envejecidos obtuvo como grupo la puntuaciOn promedio mas baja. Esta diferencia significativa en promedios en esta subescala puede explicarse tomando en consideraciOn que el trabajo en equipo es una modalidad relativamente reciente en el mundo del trabajo. Como argumenta Ilgen (1999), los equipos de trabajo comenzaron a aparecer en las organizaciones pablicas y privadas de producciOn o servicio en la década de 1980 y no es hasta la década de 1990 cuando en la literatura del area de negocios se cpmienza a resefiar el valor de los mismos. Es muy probable que este grupo de empleados envejecidos no se haya

Miguel E. Martinez

89

enfrentado hasta aflos recientes a esta modalidad dentro de sus ambientes de trabajo y estO más expuesto a contextos donde el Onfasis fuera en el trabajo individual. De hecho, Zemke, Raines y Filipczak (2000) al describir el contexto de trabajo en el cual es muy probable que se desarrollaran estos empleados envejecidos, establecen que lo comfm era la division de trabajo estricta, donde el ejecutivo tomaba las decisiones y el empleado llevaba a cabo los planes y donde la estructura organizacional estaba claramente deflnida.

Yeatts, Folts y Knapp (1999) seflalan que existen diversos estudios donde se sugiere que los empleados etwejecidos muestran resistencia a aquellos ambientes de trabajo redisefiados que involucran equipos de trabajo. También infonnan estos autores que los empleados envejecidos tienden a percibir su inclusiOn en equipos de trabajo como un descenso en la jerarquia organizacional pues entienden que el pertenecer a estos equipos conlleva la perdida de estatus en la empresa. Es por ello que estos empleados resienten el cambio pues entienden que el mismo puede llevarles a perder privilegios alcanzados como resultado de sus aflós en la empresa (Mondy, Sharplin y Flippo, 1988 ; Thomas y Thomas, 1990). De igual forma, en un ambiente de equipo de trabajo, se espera que cada miembro del mismo desempefle las tareas de los demas y que comparta conocimientos y destrezas con los otros miembros del equipo. Esto conllevaria que este empleado envejecido tenga que invertir tiempo y esfuerzo para adquirir nuevos conocimientos, destrezas y habilidades (Yeatts, Folts y Knapp, 1999).

No obstante- a estas diferencias, se observa un patrOn muy similar entre ambos grupos en torno,a comportamientos relacionados al mejoramiento continuo. Ambos exhiben flexibilidad y adaptabilidad, orientaciOn de servicio al

•

90

La edad y los comportamientos

ciente, disposicion para el aprendizaje, ciudadanfa organizacional y compromiso con la calidad. Caracteristicas que, de acuerdo a lo que se ha observado en la literatura, son esenciales en aquellas organizaciones con programas de calidad y mejoramiento continuo.

Como toda investigaci贸n, la presente tiene como limitaciOn principal el que la muestra haya sido una seleccionada por disponibilidad. Esto implica que la misma es una no representativa limitando el alcance que se pueda hacer de sus resultados. Se observa ademis, que el mayor porcentaje de los participantes reside en el area norte del pais, lo cual limita aim mas la generalizaci贸n de los resultados a solo personas de esta zona geografica.

Tambi茅n se observa que la mayoria trabaja en empresas privadas, especificamente dedicadas a la prestaciOn de servicios. Dadas estas limitaciones se sugiere que en futuros estudios se trate de aumentar el porcentaje de participantes provenientes de otras areas del pais y que representen otros sectores empresariales y tipos de organizaciOn. A pesar de las limitaciones anteriormente sefialadas, los resultados de este estudio ayudan en el esfuerzo de acumular evidencia referente a las caracteristicas del empleado envejecido y ayudan a generar datos que podarnos utilizar yara combatir el prejuicio y los estereotipos que hacia este grupo generacional existen en los contextos de trabajo. En el mundo organizacional cambiante al cual nos enfrentamos, tenemos que poseer datos que nos indiquen que la edad no es un impedimento que limite al empleado para enfrentarse a los nuevos retos, realidades y paradigmas. Aim cuando los empleados envejecidos fueron socializados en una realidad organizacional diferente a la realidad del empleado joven, estos se han ido adaptando y han ido desarrollando los

Miguel E. Martinez

91

comportatnientos necesarios para encarar las exigencias de las empresas cuyo énfasis radica en el mejoramiento continuo.

Referencias Amsden, R.T., Ferran, T.W. y Amsden, D.M. (1996). TQM: Core paradigm changes. Business Horizons, 39, 6-14.

Andajar Rojas, C. (1999). Manual de la Escala de Comportamientos Relacionados con el Mejoramiento Continuo (ECMC). San Juan: El autor.

Andfijar Rcjas, C. y De Jesits Clavell, R. (2000). Desarrollo y validación de la Escala de Comportamientos Relacionados al Mejoramiento Continuo (ECMC). Revista Interamericana de Psicologla Ocupacional, 19, 23-37.

Avolio, B.J. y Sosik, J.J. (1999). A life-span framework for assessing the impact of work on white-collar workers. En S.L. Willis y JD. Reid. (Eds.). Lift in the middle: Psychobgical and social development in middle age (o. 249-274). San Diego: Academic Press.

Brull, H.P. (1996). Selection in the TQM environment: What's needed and how do we know who's got it? Public Personnel Management, 25, 495-506.

Caudron, S. (1993). Keys to starting a TQM program. Personnel Journal, 72, 28-33.

City of Portland / Multnomah County. (2000). Managing Generation X. http://www.ci.portland.or.us/affirm/GenX.html.

Diaz Garcia, G. (1997). El recurso humano en las empresas que forman parte de la globalizaci6n. Revista Acta Academica, 21, 116.

Goldberg, B. (2000). Age works: What corporate America must do to survive the graying of the workplace. New York: The Free Press.

Halachmi, A. (1993). TQM, performance appraisal, and training: Selected issues and implications. The Public Manager: The New Bureaucrat, 22, 67-68.

Ilgen, D.R. (1999). Teams embedded in organizations. American Psychologist, 54, 129-139.

Martinez Lugo, M.E. y Mckenzie Meléndez, A. (1997). Comparación del perfil motivacional de una muestra de empleados jóvenes y

92

La edad y los comportamientos

empleados viejos en Puerto Rico. Revista Interamericana de Psicologla Ocupaeional, 16, 127-134.

Mondy, R. , Sharplin, A. y Flippo, E.B. (1988). Management: Concepts and practices. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Morgan, R.B y Smith, J.E. (1996). Staffing the new workplace: Selecting and promoting for qualiv improvement.

Wisconsin: ASQC Quality Press.

Thomas, M.C. y Thomas, T.S. (1990). Getting commitment at work: A guide for managers and employees. North Carolina: Commitment Press.

Wlez Rodriguez, L. y Martinez Lugo, M.E. (1995) El mundo del trabajo en Puerto Rico: Perfil motivacional de un grupo de trabajadores. Revista Latfrvamericana de Psicologia, 27, 283-304.

Yeatts, D. , Folts, WE. y Knapp, J. (1999). Older worker's adaptation to a changing workplace: Employment issues for the 21st century.

Educational Gerontology, 25, 331-347.

Zemke, R., Raines, C. y Filipczak, B. (2000). Generations at work.

New York: AMACOM.

Secci贸n de Arte y Cultura

02001 Universidad Carlos Albizu

Ciendas de la Conducta

2001, Vol 16, 95-100

San Juan, Puerto Rico

Entre la voz y el silencio Maria Arrillaga Universidad de Puerto Rico

A mis compafieras dominicanas que tambi& escriben: Una doble vision puebla mi vida. Ante mis ojOs se deslizan las multiples embarcaciones que navegan el rio Hudson: barcazas, buque carga y cruceros, lanchas de motor de todo tipo, veleros. Por el aire globos anuncian productos; aparecen helic6pteros, pequefios aereoplanos.

De momento, sübito el incitante murmullo del mar Caribe, mar mitico de mi infancia. Giras de amigas y aznigos en la playa de Punta Arenas en Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. Fiesta de mangos, almendras y uvas playeras. El agua de coco helada, sabor a paraiso, limpia mi alma y entrafias. Soy de aqui, soy de alla, pertenezco, sobre todo, al pais de las mujeres. La doble visi6n crece infmita.

LQué es ello que viaja a través de los mares y el aire, hacia diferentes naciones y en cualquier tiempo, a dar testimonio de nuestros deseos y de nuestras inquietudes? nuestra polifemica, polisémica, polifonica, polifisica, abundante, exigente y rica vocaciOn? LQué es este fuego sagrado que no tiene nada que envidiar a los dioses? No es el super hombre. No es siquiera la mujer maravilla. Es Para comunicarse con los autozes, favor de escribir a la Universidad Carlos Albizu, P.O.Box 9023711, San Juan, P. R. 00902-3711.

95

96

Maria Arrillaga

nada menos que la voz que encarna en escritura. Hoy dia muchas mujeres reconocemos el poder de la voz, complices, hemos acordado un acendrado pacto: daremos voz a todo aquello que resulte en bien de las mujeres, como dijera Virginia Woolf: "Chloe liked Olivia". Esta frase, que traducimos como Clo6 es amiga de Olivia, seri nuestra consigna. La realidad es nuestra fiesta, festejamos la amistad.

Celebramos haber vencido todo aquello que pugna por separarnos. Celebramos nuestra colectiva union ut6pica.

Sin sonrojo, sin verguenza, con tranquilo orgullo proclamamos nuestra identidad: soy mujer, porque escribo soy. Esta fiesta cobra movimiento desde los muchos lugares de dOnde somos.

Celebramos, ademis, la sobrevivencia en nuestras conciencias de la persistencia de Filomela asi como de las palabras de la Sibila de Cumas. No tememos enfrentarnos con los mitos que en contra de nuestra expresiOn se ban construido y afirmar por siempre tenazmente el deleite que conlleva el ejercicio del poder de nuestra lengua.

La historia de Filomela es una historia terrible y cruel. Tereo viola a su cufiada Filomela. Para impedir que Osta le cuente lo acaecido a su hermana Progne, Tereo le corta la lengua a Filomela: Filomela preparaba su garganta y a la vista de la espada habia concebido la esperanza de su muerte. El, con la feroz espada, cort6 la lengua que habia agarrado con unas tenazas, mientras, indignada, invocaba incluso el nombre de su padre y luchaba por hablar. La raiz de la lengua se agita en el fondo de la boca, la lengua esti en el suelo y temblando murmura sobre la tierra negra, tal como suele dar saldos la cola de una serpiente mutilada y al agonizar busca el todo a que pertenece.

Filomela logra enviar un mensaje a su hermana

Entre la voz y el silencio

97

tejido en una tela. En venganza, Progne y Filomela se unen para matar al hijo de Progne y Tereo, y darselo de comer a Tereo.

El silenciamiento violento de la mujer que representa el mito de Filomela halla una manifestación mas sutil, no por ello menos efectiva en el dictamen de parte de San Pablo: "Como en todas las iglesias de los santos, las mujeres callense en las asambleas, porque no les toca a ellas hablar sino vivir sujetas, como dice la Ley". Siglos despues del caso Filomela y de las palabras de San Pablo todavia articulamos la presencia del silencio entre nosotras aun cuando escribimos. Mi se expresa la poetisa dominicana Sabrina Roman: Vivo escapando de los golpes del silencio que obstaculiza el transit° de voces que necesariamente deben llegar a mis oidos para decirme a solas la razón real de mi existencia.

Al considerar las estrategias silenciadoras que han afectado la existencia femeMna, no hallamos ninguna más penosa que aquella que proviene de parte de otras mujeres.

Carmen Imbert Brugal se ha encargado de identificar este mal en su inteligente y acucioso planteamiento sobre la varona intelectual.

Nuestra segura consciencia en torno al silencio femenino incluye atenci6n a otros mitos que tambien han regido nuestra vidas. Nuestra existencia se ha debatido siempre entre los extremos de degradacien e idealizacien.

Pandora es la degradacien. La mujeres ideales. Penelope y Maria entregan su identidad personal a las instituciones del matrimonio y de la maternidad. A la mujer degradada por las transgresiones que se le atribuyen se le castiga con la castración que supone el dominio sexual de parte de los

98

Maria Arrillaga

hombres. La idealización surge como paliativo del castigo que sufre la mujer con la negacian de su sexualidad. La idealizaciem es dispositivo mediatorio que prepara la consumación de la anulaci6n de la voluntad de la mujer dentro de los roles tradicionales de madre y de esposa.

Este filtimo mito es uno de los mas persistentes en nuestra lucha por la libertad. Virginia Woolf le Ham() "El angel del hogar" y Betty Friedan, en su libro La mistica Femenina, se refirió al asunto como el problema que no tiene nombre.

El problema de la domesticidad es el problema de la politica sexual. En al enlazan Filomela, Sabrina Roman, Virginia Woolf, Betty Friedan y todas aquellas de nosotras en busca de autenticidad para las relaciones entre humanos, hombres y mujeres.

Contra el silenciamiento de la mujer, contra los mitos que conspiran en contra de nuestras vidas nuestra mejor arma, no cabe duda, es nuestra cabezas. Por eso Perseo le corta la cabeza a Medusa. Aquellos (y aque1la.) que no nos quieren bien no van en pos de nuestros cuerpos.

Como Perseo, su atención esti sobre nuestras cabezas. Es a través de la dedicación de nuestro trabajo, del ejercicio de nuestra inteligencia y creatividad que finalmente transformaremos el mundo. Nuestro esfuerzos debe dirigirse a descifrar, re-construir, traducir, transcribir, re-crear y revisar la experiencia humana toda buscando atentas los hilos dispersos de nuestra tradición femenina.

Acogemos felices toda iniciativa que explore las condiciones y discursos de la creatividad femenina. Los nombres de Aida Cartagena Portalatin, de Esthervina Matos y de Hilma Contreras afianza el querido tapiz de nuestra tradición femenina.

Usemos nuestras cabezas sin miedo ni rencor para

Entre la voz y el silencio

99

conocernos cada vez mejor las mujeres creadoras, para ayudamos y, cuando sea menester, incluso perdonarnos.

Como dijera Chiqui Vicioso, evocando el deseo de Camila Henriquez Urefla, no hay "que desconocerse, o que odiarse, porque en ese mundo por decir hay espacio, siempre habra espacio para todos".

De este espacio habla la Sibila de Cumas cuando dice: "Y cuando nadie pueda Verme ya, no obstante se me reconocera por la voz pues los hados me la dejaran" Junto a la esperanza que representa las palabras de la Sibila de Cumas inventaremos nuestra propia manera de ver las cosas. Los hados de la Sibila de Cumas son su voluntad obstinada de expresi贸n. Las voces de Juana de Arco eran su propia voz interior. Para nuestro andar colectivo por este nuestro amplio mundo nada mas importante que nuestra alma individual. Regaremos el mundo con toda nuestra magnifica diversidad. Junto con nuestnis vittudes tradicionales de amor y espiritualidad estamos aprendiendo a gustar del Poder, a no avergonzarnos de alcanzar posiciones lucrativas, a afirmar nuestra sexualidad.

La compresi贸n, el amor, el crecer tolerante, la generosidad de la creaci贸n y de la inteligencia serail los dones que llevaremos con nosotras al final de nuestra travesia.

Ha llegado nuestro momento, compaileras, no hay nada que temer. El mundo es nuestro. ( c ) 2000 Maria Arrillaga Referencias Virginia Woolf, A Room of One's Own, Frogmore, &Albans, Triad/Panther, 1977, p.78.

Publio Ovidio Nason, Las metamorfosis, Mexico, Porraa, 1980, p.86.

100

Marfa Arrillaga

San Pablo, I "Corintios", en: Sagrada Biblia, Madrid, Bilbioteca de • autores ctiStianos,' 1955, p.1251.

Sabrina Roman, "Raz& de mi existencia", en: Daisy Cocco de Filippis, • .Sin otro profeta que su canto: Antologia de poesia escrita por • dominicanas, Repablica Dominicana, Tam; 1988, p.I41.

Carmen Imbert Brugal, "La varona intelectual", en : lbid, p.217-219.

Carmen Naranjo, La mujer y el desarrollo. La mujet y la cultura.

Mexico UNICEF y Secretaria de Educacion Publica, 1981, p.9-35.

V. Woolfi, Las mujeres y la literatura, Barcelona, Lumen, 1981, p. 6970; Betty, Friedan, The Femenine Mystique, New York, Dell, 1977.

Ica* Miget, Politica sexual , Mexico, Aguilar, 1975. ,Chiqui,Yiciaso, "La mujer en la literatura dominicana: a cuenta y siete afios de CiMila Henriquez, en: D. Cocco de Filippis, Op. Cit., p.207212.

PO. Nasen, Op. Cit, p.I98.

Ciencias de la Conducta

2001 Universidad Carlos Albizu

2001, Vol 16, 101-104

San Juan, Puerto Rico

Organza dreams of Cuban fragments ( For Julie) Elsa Beatriz Cardalda Sanchez Universidad Carlos Mbizu

When I recently went to Florida to visit relatives after a long absence I expected the worst: beehive hairdoos, pink cars, my father on a motorcycle or even more terrifying his wife in her new acquisition, a school bus. I pictured being at my cousin's double weddings and that my beloved father ( in his polyester suit circa 1965) with his Cuban nouveau wife ( in a satin decolletage) would meet my mother's clan and inspire such laughter that they would need Heimlich's maneuvers to unchoke the dinner steaks.

Now I know that the Florida that I left as a teenager was wildly enacted as such and that my self-conscious fears were adolescent â&#x20AC;&#x201D; no more. Shame is so close to pride. I mean this was the Florida where I had my first date at 13, I am sure that the guy is still in therapy from the side effects of that night. My parent's friends arranged for their son and his girlfriend to take me out and invited one of his friends to be my escort I eagerly waited for this Cuban prince but when I saw him I had to run to the nearest bathroom to compose myself, he seemed like the ugliest guy on earth, a frog with elaborate gallantly. Had I tried to keep my distance Para comunicarse con los autores, favor de escribir a la Universidad Carlos Albizu, P.O.Box 9023711, San Juan, R R., 00902-3711.

101

102

Organza dreams of Cuban fragments

anymore I would have fallen out of the car I tried to prepare myself for the trip by imagining a pessimistic scenario, - they'll ask me if I finished my dissertation, did I get married or would I go for some cosmetic suigery, possibly in that order. Luckily my brother had anticipated my trepidations and was already fielding the questions for me. Yes, she's practically finished school and when questions about my civil status arose, he quickly guided me to the dance floor. But he had conveniently quizzed me beforehand: how does your hair look, take out your braces, have you seen your dermatologist lately?... thank heaven for his helpful anticipation to defend me against any possible self-doubts. No Andre, I'll show up with a limp caused by cramps associated with sitting too long and a bitter rictus on my lips portraying cynical intellectual rigor. Although I was reticent and did not join the girls to snatch the wedding bouquet, I must admit that their priorities are mine as well, achievement, relationships, and esthetics, in that same order. So there is no black sheep or renegade, although challenged their values remain.

The thought of these others threatened to engulf and excite me for there is no kitch or rococo like these noble souls. Even in the photos with all my beautiful cousins in Tampa I look cheerfully trapped. I remembered how for the Sanchez clan nothing ever seems good-enough, you feel totally persecuted by their vigilance, plus a little odd.

When I was a teenager my aunt Nena got in charge of my visits, her surveillance was impenetrable, I had to sleep in her bedroom alarmed by 25 clocks ticking all at once, in a house cluttered with three living room sets some of them in boxes, and had to report to command station every hour so fear of contempt or she would call the local T. V. stations.

She was fun particularly denying reality and constructing

Elsa Beatriz Cardalda Sanchez

103

our family myths. This time as usual their radars were finely tuned when at my cousin Ronny's wedding I danced with anybody else than direct descendants, and had to face insinuations of WELL SO! as if mating was their game of choice.

This trip I didn't expect to be pulled -again- by their candid yet stormy ways and attempted a skeptical sweet look to shield myself from the cannibalistic experience of a family reunion. To no avail because in spite of secretly suspecting that whatever Cuban in me was fading, I am convinced now that besides my ambivalence, kin is origin and destiny, scapegoat and privilege, testament and creation.

Basking in the reflection of their gold jewehy â&#x20AC;&#x201D;heavy artillery- I truly felt admired. It is difficult to accept how much I have missed their exagerated love, their hysterical worry, their appreciation for things American, the honor code "la sangre que me fiama".

When I arrived to Orlando, there it was, the wall of blockade and division, the confusion of not actually knowing who was to receive :me at the akport. When I realized that nobody was there to pick me up I felt a little foolish trying to explain that I was supposed to meet somebody that I never met before who was presumably going to take me to a wedding that I didn't know where it was. Probably the guys at TWA thought I was delirious. But it was true,, I agreed to be greeted by a friend of my cousin Linda, who claimed she never found a person with my description ( I must say that I even wore a name tag). I had lost my Kindergarten line and upps, all I had was some pretzels to spend the long wait until somebody could come to my rescue.

As a matter of fact they came, but then we had to go to another terminal at the airport to try to find the boyfriend of my cousin Milly, somebody faceless for me, arriving from

104

Organza dreams of Cuban fragments

Miami but she couldn't remember neither the time nor on what airline. Very simple, just call his name real loud, in Spanish.the better. I am pretty sure the pagers at the airport got quite familiar with all our voices, I even felt an inkling of curiosity about meeting them, no, really I wanted to check if maybe something was wrong with their speakers and_.not at all with our loose relational ways.

My departure was no less bizarre as my father insisted immediately on measuring the distance and time that it would take us to get to my final gate, he had the shuttle figured out and his parking spot noted down in case of sudden memory loss. This is Cuban safety, first you scatter some pieces of bread marking your exit, then the hell with it and let's run out of here, get some expressos and reach the nearest exit to get a nicotine fix. As a special gift he had some juicy confessions which I am not to reveal, but I know he treats all his children in the same conspiratorial way, don't tell your sister this, leaving us in a temporary bind until we compare gossip and spy on each other for an indication of the forbidden knowledge. He said that he might move now, let's clarify that this is a person who has already lived in four countries, and I listened to this elderly man wanting to start again, meanwhile all I could think of was: My own pension plan! These are the restless Cubans with unpacked suitcases, 0. K. I also keep the boxes of even small picture frames just in case I want to move. For I. am forever leaving and longing to return, both Penelope and Ulyses in this epic for in shifting movement lies an identity displaced by history, Cubanness met in fragments, their seams a long organza fabric smooth and unfmished I keep to my chest.

0 2001 Universidad Carlos Albizu San Juan, Puerto Rico

Ciencias de la Conducta

2001, Vol 16, 105-110

Maria Arrillaga: Concierto de Voces Insurgentes 3 Autoras Puertorriqueilas Edelmira Gonzalez Maldonado, Violeta L6pez Suria y Anagilda Garrastegui

Margarita Ostolaza Bey Ph.D. IJuiversidad de Puerto Rico

Concierto de Voces Insurgentes 3 Autoras Puertorriguenas: Edelmira Gonzalez Maldonado, Violeta Lopez Suria y Anagilda Garrastegui es la obra magistral de critica literaria de Maria Anillaga, feminista epistemolOgica, poeta, ensayista, narradora. En Concierto de voces insurgentes la autora trabaja la insurrecciOn de tres mujeres escritoras comtemporineas de la literatura puertorriquefia desde su a1t01ebe116n, la de Maria Arrillaga. Dirige esta rebeliOn contra la lOgica investigativa de la correcciOn formal del pensamiento y su concordancia consigo mismo. Valida con la critica literaria feminista la bOsqueda de la verdad del pensamiento y su concordancia con el objeto: su origen, fundamento, esencia y trascendencia. Logra Para comunicarse eon los autores, favor de eseribir a la Universidad Carlos Albizu, P.O. Box 9023711, San Juan, P. R.., 00902-3711.

105

106

Margarita Ostolaza Bey

recapitular un modelo de investigacien feminista, luego aplicado al analisis de cedigos femeninos en voces de escritoras puertorriqueflas silenciadas por su condicien de ginero. Para ello articula voces pioneras del feminismo a través de la historia de occidente hasta fines de los ochenta-focalizada en America Latina y Puerto Rico con conviccien y verticalidad ideolegica, con rigurosidad critica y ausencia de dogmatismo. Pienso sin duda, que al integrar las corrientes de la critica feminista hace una aportacien sin precedentes y muy significativa. De esta forma, Marfa Arrillaga, autora critica — en ejercicio solidario — es al mismo tiempo directora, productora y voz que amorniza este maravilloso concierto de voces insurgentes.

Su concierto no es de un trio, ni de un cuarteto. Incluye, segon el juicio de su maestro Luis Rafael Sanchez, "el encuentro de argumentaciones con contenidos distintos efectuados por mujeres en diferentes alturas histericas".

Por, tanto, ,este conciento de voces insurgentes nos incluye a todos y a todas a quienes el feminism° ha tocado y celebramos que quede en la historia gracias al pensamiento referente, creativo e interpretativo que se articula en la palabra escrit2 por Maria Arrillaga.

En el texto la autora plasma la insurgencia frente al sistema patriarcal que nos niega el conocimiento inclusivo del género humano. La escritora feminista Carmen Lugo Filippi destaca la novedosa y dinAmica estructuracien del corpus analitico de este texto. Da testimonio " del trasfondo de erudicien y de documentacien de que se ha valido la autora... " para transgredir los enfoques del pensamiento formal y subvertirlos por pensamientos, posiciones y criterios innovadores con fund& transformadora. El maestro Marcelino Canino afiade que nos encontramos ante una eptica distinta y novedosa donde la "expresidn de una peculiar

Maria Arrillaga: Concierto de Voces Insurgentes 107 sensibilidad manifiesta el <<ethos sexuali>>:....de la creadora"... con lo cual"... nos convence hasta la saciedad de que hay una escritura femenina — (extra-feminista) — puertorriquefia". En fin, Maria Arrillaga ha alcanzado lo que Michel Foucault denomina "la ingurreccien de los conocimientos subyugados".

Y es que Maria Arrillaga es una creadora que ha querido dedicarle su principal energfa a los géneros literarios, a quien las circunstancias, la experiencia y la crianza por razen de género la Ilevan irremisiblemente a la insurgencia en la creacien y a buscar una base teerica feminista literaria para sustentarla. Por otro lado, la necesidad de ser autosuficiente y de hacerse un espacio en la catedra universitaria la conduce a elaborar investigacien exhaustiva desde la epistemologia feminista para la critica literaria. El impacto de la influencia de Simone de Behauvoir, de Viola Klein, Betty Friedan, Kate Millet, Tillie Olsen y otras, la hacen asumir la consigna — en palabras de la autora — " de ir al rescate de mujeres silenciadas". Sobre todas ellas, la mujer mas influyente, a quien mils quiere Maria Arrillaga, es a su tia abuela Maria Luisa Arcelay, primera legisladora de America Latina, empresaria mayaguezana, benefactora de la familia y su mentora, con qui& se crie y convivie en su juventud. A la influencia de Maria Luisa Arcelay atribuyo la estrella conductora de la prolffera obra creativa e investigativa de Maria Arrillaga: su capacidad amorosa, generosa, solidaria, su tenacidad y sus inquebrantables valores de aka y moral feministas.

Concierto de voces insurgentes, hoy publicada por Editores Isla Negra, es una sintesis apretada de la tesis doctoral de la autora. El escrito original consta de 832 piginas presentada en eL pepartamento de -Estudios Hispanicos de la Uninrsidad, de Puerto Rico en 1987.

108

Margarita Ostolaza Bey

Mereci6 entonces el premio Luis Llorens Torres conferido por la Academia de Lengua Puertorriquefia, y ademas, el reconocimiento de mejor tesis del afio de las presentadas en el Departamento de Estudio Hispanicos, calificada de sobresaliente o "Magna cum Laude" por unanimidad de sus jueces. Su director de tesis, Ram& Luis Acevedo, ha expresado que en este texto nos encontramos ante dos libros, uno que aplica su referente a la produccion literaria puertorriqueffa y latinoamericana.

Ahora, nos preguntamos tpor que tarda mas de una decada la publicacion de un texto sin precedentes en la crftica litenuia puertorriquefia? Hace diez afios no existfan las condiciones, ni el espacio, ni la vision editorial para la crftica Jiteraria feminista en el mundo hispanoparlante. Apenas comenzaban las y los academicos feministas a proponer los estudios de la mujer con miras a desarrollar los estudios del genero e insertarlos en las disciplinas del saber. Apenas comenzaban las voces insurgentes a cuestionar la legica de la correccien formal del conocimiento, a reconsiderar y reevaluar mucho de lo que dabamos por sabido. En otras palabras, no existfan las condiciones propicias para entender la relevancia de este texto que hoy, estoy segura, el pablico habri de recibir con beneplacito.

En la primera parte del texto, Marfa Arrillaga da cuenta del momento histerico â&#x20AC;&#x201D; a partir de la decada de los 60's â&#x20AC;&#x201D; en que las voces insurgentes a nivel internacional y a traves del pafs comenzamos a preguntarnos y quisimos explicarnos cemo las cosas habfan llegado ser del modo asimetrico en que las vivimos. Quisimos ademis saber cemo cambiar dichas inequidades. La autora dedica un capitulo al genesis de los Estudios de la Mujer, al presente institucionalizados a traves de las diversas disciplinas del conocimiento. La elaboracien e institucionalizacien de los

Maria Arrillaga: Concierto de Voces Insurgentes 109 estudios del g6nero parten de la denuncia que ni la ciencia, ni las disciplinas, ni ningon producto humano es neutral, objetivo o apolitico. Entendemos pues que las disciplinas son notablemente refomfistas, antirefonnistas o revolucionarias: nunca neutrales. Rechazamos que las teorlas o hallazgos se den independientemente de los sujetos, sus valores o intereses de clase. Por tanto, desde el punto de partida epistemologico, el feminismo tampoco es "neutral" ni "objetivo". Es mĂĄs bien un cuerpo unitario de pensamientos y acciOn dirigido al cambio individual y social.

Estas son premisas y fundamentos bisicos del feminismo. Toma como el objetivo central del conocimiento la emancipaciOn humana y que 6ste debe estar dirigido a la construcciOn de sociedades igualitarias.

Luchamos, sobre todo, porque las diferencias biolOgicai, de experiencias y de perspectiva de la mujer sean tan validas como son las de los hombres. Sin embargo, atm cuando este es el marco teOrico que se sustenta a tray& de tOdO ci texto, Marfa Arrillaga deja claro que el discurso critico feminista no es homogĂŠneo, monolitico o maniqueo.

Elevada a este nivel de la realidad, en la segunda parte del texto la autora logra, de manera magistral, sistematizar la abarcadora metodologia feminista rescatando a tres mujeres escritoras, pricticamente desconocidas de la literatura puertorriquefia: Edelmira Gonzalez Maldonado, Violeta Lopez Suria y Anagilda Garrastegui. Tres ejemplos de mujeres silenciadas y marginadas per la critica. Hace un estudio comparativo inclusivo de la trayeetoria de vida de las escritoras y descifra el denominador comĂĄn de sus respectivas obras literarias: un cOdigo femenino logra hacernos entender como sus infortunios 'personales inciden en sus respectivas obras y como ello explica lo tardio o su limitada cantidad. Esto Made gusto y emociOn al lector(a)

110

Margarita Ostolaza Bey

por la agudeza del pensamiento critico de Maria Arrillaga.

De modo que abre brechas "...dentro los fundamentospara un fruetifero e imprescindible diálogo que esta en proceso". y "...servith como sólida base referencial y esencial punto de partida para lecturas e investigaciones futuras", segim el juicio sabio de Ram& Luis Acevedo.

Debo apresurarme a serialar que esta critica a la obra de Maria Arrillaga puede sonar apologética, pero garantizado haberla pasado por mi estricto juicio feminista y no puedo más que coincidir con los colegas que la premiaron, ariadiendo que es una lecciOn para la critica feminista que predomina en nuestro ambiente. En ésta se practica, unas con otras, la censura, la inquisición y sobre todo la indiferencia. No es comun referirnos, reconocemos, splidarizarnos o citarnos. Es Maria Arrillaga quien establece precedente al construir una critica literaria como ejercicio solidario. Parafraseo a Ana Lydia Vega al expresar que cuando la critica feminista se digna atender el trabajo de una mujer que adopta " el lenguaje de los hombres _para decodificarlo y ensayar el poder, entonces !escribes como hombre', 'eres agresiva', 'vulgar', 'extremista', `machista al revés', de ésas que se meriendan a los nenes crudos".

Luego de esta obra, dudo que alguien se atreva tratar de silenciar, ocultar o subestirnar a Maria Arrilaga con la indiferencia. Tampoco creo que alguien se atreva volver a "marfillarle los deditos para que acabe de caerse del bote....", imagen que retomo de Ana Lydia Vega. Isla Negra ha dado a la luz palica una obra donde Maria ArrilIaga cae dentro del Bote de la historia, unida al cOncierto de voces insurgentes pioneras en direccion certera a la emaRcipación humana.

Ciencias de la Conducta REVISTA DE LA UNIVERSIDAD CARLOS ALBIZU SALVADOR SANTIAGO NEGRON Presidente

JUNTA EDITORA UNIVERSIDAD CARLOS ALBIZU JOSE CABIYA, Director ALFONSO MARTINEZ -TABOAS, Editor JOSE RODRIGUEZ, Editor Asociado MARIA VELEZ, Editora Asociada CARLdS ANDOJAR, Editor Asociado JOSE SANTOS, Editor Asociado ORLANDO PEDROSA, Editor Asociado SARA MALAVE, Editora Asociada MARIANO ALEMANY, Editor Asociado ANA MARIA PI, Editora Asociada SEAN SAYERS, Revisor Estudiantil MARIBELLE DE LA TORRE, Revisora Estudiantil

UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL AUTONOMA DE MEXICO EMILIO RIBES, Editor Asociado UNIVERSIDAD PEDAGoGICA EXPERIMENTAL DE BARQUISIMETO VENEZUELA

CARLOS RUIZ BOLiVAR, Editor Asociado

ARGENTINA

JOSE C. BARBOSA, Editor Asociado

JUNTA EDITORA SECCION ARTE Y CULTURA SALVADOR SANTIAGO NEGRON, Editor LOURDES GARCiA, Editora ELSA CARDALDA, Editora