The Dark Side of Advertising

the dark side of advertising

Ack n ow l e d g m e n ts Firstly, I would like to express my appreciation to all the respondents who participated in primary research, without this assistance the case study would not have been possible.

I would also like to thank my tutor, Stephen for his insight and patience throughout the duration of the project, my wonderful family for their constant support and words of encouragement in every obstacle I encounter. And finally to Emma, Aoife and Ashley who have provided fun and laughs along the way.

UNIVERSITY OF HUDDERSFIELD School of Art, Design and Architecture Department of Design

The Dark Side of Advertising; The Relationship between Celebrity Endorsement and Self-Esteem in Female Consumers.

CHELSEA WALLIS

A Major Project submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for BA (Hons) Fashion, Communication and Promotion.

Module THD1038 Fashion Communication Promotion Case Study

The candidate confirms that the work submitted is their own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others.

The University of Huddersfield School of Art & Design Department of Design Huddersfield West Yorkshire ENGLAND 01/02/14

THE dark side OF

advertising The Relationship between Celebrity Endorsements and Self-Esteem

Abstract The case study investigates the relationship between low self-esteem and celebrity endorsements within the fashion industry.

Celebrities and the media are pervasive influences in society, the study examines ments

how can

exposure have

a

to

harmful

the

ideals

impact

on

presented a

female

by

celebrity

consumer’s

endorseself-esteem.

A review of the literature regarding fashion as a marker for identity is analysed, as clothing plays a key role as an indicator for status, wealth, occupation, gender and self-expression which is fundamental to the concept of consumption as a means for self-enhancement.

A methodology of primary and secondary research was conducted to gain an understanding of the pressures presented in advertising and the implications it creates amongst women. The influence of celebrity endorsements has a significant impact on physical appearance, which is explored throughout the case study.

Research indicates that endorsements also fuel consumption habits as consumers strive to obtain the standards promoted by aspirational celebrities. Figures emphasise that the level of impact imposed on an individual’s self-esteem is dependent on the chosen celebrity endorser, and whether they are congruent with the brand image. However, research also presented a contrasting theme that media images can positively impact women through motivation and determination to maintain healthy lifestyles.

CONTENTS

01 05 23 Introduction

u n d e r s ta n d i n g celebrity endorsement

self-esteem and identity

conclusion

references

31 47 51 t h e i m pa c t o f celebrity on self-esteem

55 63

bibliography

appendix

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Rationale .................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Aim ............................................................................................................................................. 1 1.3 Objectives .................................................................................................................................. 1 1.4 Methodology ............................................................................................................................. 2 1.4.1 Primary Reseach .............................................................................................................. 2 1.4.2 Secondary Research ......................................................................................................... 3 1.5 Structure .................................................................................................................................... 3

2 . 0 u n d e r s ta n d i n g C E L E B R I T Y E N D O R S E M E N T 2.1 Chapter Introduction................................................................................................................ 7 2.2 Defining Celebrity Endorsement............................................................................................. 7 2.3 Celebrity Sells ........................................................................................................................... 8 2.4 Advantages & Disadvantages of Celebrity Endorsements................................................... 9 2.5 The History of Celebrity Endorsements................................................................................. 11 2.6 The Evolution of Celebrity........................................................................................................ 12 2.6.1 Fifteen Minutes of Fame................................................................................................. 12 2.6.2 Internet Superstars.......................................................................................................... 14 2.6.3 The Rise of the Supermodel............................................................................................ 14 2.7 Public Relations ........................................................................................................................ 16 2.8 The Popularity Machine .......................................................................................................... 16 2.9 The Selection Process................................................................................................................ 19 2.10 The Kate Moss Effect............................................................................................................... 22 2.11 Chapter Summary.................................................................................................................... 22

3.0 SELF-ESTEEM AND IDENTITY 3.1 Chapter Introduction................................................................................................................ 24 3.2 Self-Esteem................................................................................................................................. 25 3.3 Maslows Hierarchy of Needs.................................................................................................... 25 3.4 Fashion and Identity.................................................................................................................. 26 3.5 Fashion and Sub-Culture.......................................................................................................... 28 3.6 The Impact of Celebrity Media................................................................................................ 30 3.7 The impact of Celebrity on Everyday Life.............................................................................. 30 3.8 Chapter Summary...................................................................................................................... 30

4 . 0 T H E I M PA C T O F C E L E B R I T Y O N S E L F - E S T E E M 4.1 Chapter Introduction................................................................................................................ 32 4.2 The Impact of the Media........................................................................................................... 33 4.3 Examining the relationship between Celebrity Media and Self-Esteem............................ 33 4.4 Power and Influence ................................................................................................................. 34 4.5 Celebrities and Social Media.................................................................................................... 34 4.6 The Beauty Myth ....................................................................................................................... 37 4.7 The Influence of Celebrity Collaborations ............................................................................. 41 4.8 The Impact of Celebrity on Body Image..................................................................................41 4.9 Celebrity Diet Worship.............................................................................................................. 42 4.10 False Advertising...................................................................................................................... 42 4.11 Plastic Fantastic........................................................................................................................ 44 4.12 Chapter Summary.................................................................................................................... 46

5.0 CONCLUSION

6.0 REFERENCES 7.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY 7.1 Websites.............................................................................................................................................. 56 7.2 Journals............................................................................................................................................... 58 7.3 Books................................................................................................................................................... 60 7.4 Videos.................................................................................................................................................. 60 7.5 Images.................................................................................................................................................. 61 7.6 List of Figures..................................................................................................................................... 63

8.0 APPENDIX 8.1 Survey..................................................................................................................................................... 65 8.2 Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale............................................................................................................... 67 8.3 Focus Group.......................................................................................................................................... 68 8.4 Interview A Transcript........................................................................................................................ 71 8.5 Interview B Transcript........................................................................................................................ 74

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introduction 1.1

R AT I O N A L E

Advertising and media images play an important role in everyday life, and sometimes the messages being portrayed to young women about fashion; beauty and body ideals can be harmful and have a detrimental impact on self-esteem and confidence. The media is a very influential part of peoples’ lives, and even if they don’t remember all of them, Johnson (2006) reports that consumers’ are exposed to as many as 5,000 advertisements a day. Many of which are targeted towards females, and transmit messages regarding health, beauty, exercise, that are normally beneficial to women in terms of proper methodologies to care for oneself. However, some of these messages also relay a powerful message to women that they should aspire to look a certain way, encouraging negative self-esteem.

1.2

Aim

The aim of the case study is to explore the potential connections between a consumer’s self-esteem and celebrity endorsements.

1.3

Objectives

1. Outline the heritage and role of celebrity endorsements as a marketing strategy in the fashion industry 2. To illustrate how fashion and clothing shape an individual’s identity, and how celebrity’s influence consumption.

3. Analyse statistics collected from Primary research, to evaluate what encourages low self-esteem to develop amongst the target demographic.

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1.4

M e t h o d o l o gy

To ensure the subject topic of the case study is valuable and realistic, research has been undertaken from a variety of sources. This enabled a thorough investigation into the relationship between Celebrity endorsements and consumer self-esteem.

1.4.1

Primary Research

Primary research has been beneficial to the significance of the case study, as self-esteem it is a very personal issue to participants. Thus, primary research presented a potential limitation to the case study, as it relied on people’s co-operation. However, with patience and persistence, a focus group, several interviews and a survey were conducted to aid the understanding of the subject and to make certain that the case study is credible and insightful.

Initially, a survey was conducted to gain a basic overview as to how consumers are already reacting to the involvement of celebrities in the media, the effect it has had on the way they view themselves, and how the celebrity attachment boosts consumption habits. The online platform Survey Monkey was used to create and perform the research. The link to the online survey was distributed on internet forums and websites including Company Magazine, Mind.Org, All Walks etc., as well as utilizing social media outlets such as Facebook, Twitter and Tumblr to broadcast the survey to a wider audience.

This confirmed that the survey reached the 16-25 demographic it was aimed towards, and achieved a balanced audience of participants.

A focus group was also scheduled to prompt debate on the relationship between Celebrities and their impact on self-esteem. An informal questionnaire was completed to measure how the participant’s self-esteem is impacted throughout a series of visuals. Prior to the meeting, individuals were also requested to complete Rosenberg’s self-esteem test, in order to decipher the varying levels of self-esteem within the group. The focus group comprised of females aged 18-24, due to the ethical nature of the subject participants will remain anonymous. The focus group was subject to participant co-operation, and the group atmosphere led to minor limitations in the validity and reliability of data gathered.

However the views expressed by students were valuable to generate a detailed explanation as to how the media influences and manipulates consumer opinion.

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Interviews were secured with two females who had recently, or were at present still combating low self-esteem; they are referred to as respondent A and respondent B. The interview was informal, to attain an account of how the media has saturated their self-image. The opinions generated by participants were incredibly valuable to assist the sources gained from secondary research.

1.4.2

Secondary Research

Due to the psychological nature of self-esteem, sources from a variety of academic literature including books and journals have been retrieved. Magazines, websites, newspapers and videos were also accessed to gain a clear definition of what a celebrity is, and their influence in modern society. The impact of advertising is already an epidemic on the internet, and as an integral aspect of the case study, less academically trusted blogs, forums and zines were considered for further information.

1.5

Structure

The case study is segmented into five chapters as follows, excluding the introduction; Chapter 2 will introduce and define the status of celebrity in modern culture; as the meaning of celebrity has been blurred with the rise of social media, reality television shows and programmes such as the X factor and Big Brother becoming a machine for the fame hungry. This chapter will also define Celebrity endorsements as a marketing strategy; and explain how PR and advertising initiatives can create desire to influences consumer shopping habits. It will also illuminate how celebrities are chosen for such campaigns using the FRED and TEARS framework.

Chapter 3 will begin to explore the influence of fashion and media to shape and mould character, as clothing is a clear marker for self-expression and ultimately, identity. The chapter will define what self-esteem is, and begin to introduce the elements that contribute to a pessimistic self-attitude, using secondary sources.

Chapter 4 focuses on the figures obtained from primary research, and analyses the influence presented by celebrity advertisements on several factors such as body image, beauty, social networking and fashion. This chapter will provide examples of the dark side effects such pressures can lead to, and explanations provided by primary research.

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Chapter 5 will conclude the case study, providing an overall summary of the evidence gained to justify the harmful factors of celebrity culture. The conclusion will also highlight positive measures that are being introduced by the industry and celebrities to improve the negative connotation associated with the fashion industry and its advertising methods.

4

2

understanding

celebrity endorsement

6

2.1

chapter introduction

In modern society, image is everything. Many individuals live out their lives vicariously through the image world of media. Fashion advertisements and editorials have a pervasive influence amongst the general public, particularly those featuring a celebrity ambassador. In recent years, the idea of celebrity has evolved, reality TV stars, bloggers and the ‘vloggers’ behind YouTube videos are a new phenomenon who are idolised by their followers. This chapter will decipher the function of celebrity endorsement within channels of marketing communications, and introduce how fame plays a pivotal role in popular culture.

2.2

Defining Celebrity Endorsement

Nowadays, it’s nearly impossible to browse the Internet, open a newspaper or magazine, or watch television without seeing a celebrity selling something, whether it’s fizzy drinks, cars, phones, cosmetics, jewellery, clothing or even bank accounts (Creswell, 2008)

A Celebrity Endorsement is a form of branding or advertising, in which a celebrity uses their status in society to promote a particular product or service (McCracken, 1989). The use of celebrities as part of a marketing communications strategy is a common practice for large companies, particularly those within the fashion industry, to support and enhance brand image. Firms invest significant capital to endorse celebrities in an attempt to generate desirable campaign outcomes, by juxtaposing the brand with endorser qualities such as attractiveness or expertise. The use of celebrities is a result from the associative personal qualities of attractiveness, likeability, reputation, and believability of the celebrities toward the products being endorsed (Atkin and Block 1983; Nelson 1974). Celebrity Endorsements can result in large revenues for the company if the advertisement is shaped by the right celebrity, the factors used to select spokesperson or face of the brand will be explored further in the chapter.

Friedman and Friedman (1979) found empirical evidence that, in the promotion of products high in psychological and/or social risk, use of celebrity endorser would lead to greater believability, a more favourable evaluation of the product and advertisement, and a significantly more positive purchase intention. Thus, companies use celebrities to endorse their products.

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2.3

Celebrity sells

The use of celebrities in advertising campaigns has increased in recent years. The proportion of UK advertising featuring a celebrity now stands at one in five, an increase of almost 100% in the past decade (Pringle, 2004). Endorsement is a channel of brand communication in which a celebrity acts as the brand’s spokesperson and certifies the brand’s claim and position by extending his/her personality, popularity, stature in the society or expertise in the field to the brand. In a market with a very high proliferation of local, regional and international brands, celebrity endorsement was thought to provide a distinct differentiation (Roll, 2006).

There are multiple platforms a celebrity endorsement can be integrated within a marketing communications campaign but the majority are filtered between two core strategies; advertising or public relations. Endorsements are a common tool in advertising, as they can attract interest and increase the consumer’s desire for a product. This is often achieved by implying that the particular celebrity is successful, talented, or attractive at least partly because of the product.

Two forms of Celebrities exist in advertising, Celebrity License and Celebrity Endorsement (Mistry, 2006) The former is relatively redundant and not used very often due to the intense and long duration of the relationship, whereby the celebrity adds his/her likeness or name to a product; thereby the celebrity and product are directly associated with another. This method can be strength or a weakness depending on the status of the celebrity and the quality of the product. However in recent years the fashion industry has seen a growth of exclusive fashion lines created in collaboration with a famous personality. Kate Moss kick-started the trend for celebrity fashion lines with her collection for high street store Topshop in 2010. Her debut collection had fashion fans queuing around the block in anticipation for her designs. Topshop continued to work with fashion celebrity by producing a festival inspired collection with Kate Bosworth in 2013. Further examples include Rihanna for River Island and reality TV stars Kim, Khloe and Kourtney from Keeping up with the Kardashians collection for Lipsy. Celebrity collaborations create an aura of exclusivity, and by purchasing the products the consumers feel a connection to the celebrity because the item represents a symbolism of something that is recognised as fashionable and cool by somebody who is considered of high regard and expertise.

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Celebrity Endorsement is the most widely used strategy of using celebrities as a promotional tool. The method usually consists of hiring a celebrity on a short-term contract to model a product or collection within a seasonal advertising campaign. Media outlets can vary from print and internet to television commercials. This method usually combines with effective public relations to ensure the advertisement gains lots of publicity.

Another form of Celebrity Endorsement is using a celebrity as a brand ambassador. Through this marketing strategy a celebrity is contracted over a long time period, typically over four to eight seasons. Although expensive, ordaining a working relationship with a celebrity allows great integration possibilities and delivers lasting credibility to the brand. A brand ambassador acts as an on-going representation of the brand, attending special events and wearing products courtesy of the company. This method of celebrity endorsement is increasingly gaining popularity with high-end brands to establish a connection between the celebrity and their fan base. Therefore it is important the chosen Celebrity fits the image the brand wish to portray, as choosing the wrong celebrity can have a negative impact on the brand, and potentially the celebrity.

2.4

A d va n ta g e s & D i s a d va n ta g e s o f C e l e b r i t y Endorsements

The benefits of celebrity endorsement are palpable and can generate large publicity for the company involved, especially if they recruit a celebrity of particular social status. If the campaign is successful, endorsement can contribute to an increase in brand awareness and recognition.

A celebrity presence allows a campaign to stand out amongst today’s cluttered media environment and attract the viewers’ attention. Additionally endorsements can also encourage consumer purchases as the affinity consumers have for particular celebrities can have a significant power on their shopping habits. Customers who aspire to recreate the same beauty or hair trends as their favourite celebrity, are more likely to purchase products from the brand the celebrity uses.

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A Celebrity is somebody who receives public recognition by a large share of a certain group of people Friedman and Friedman, 1979

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Another advantage of celebrity endorsements is that they allow a brand to attract a new target audience or to re-establish their status amongst competitors. Fundamentally celebrity endorsers can build brand credibility and trust. Many consumers hold celebrities in high regard, so the endorsement of a product by a celebrity immediately influences the level of faith the consumer has in the associated brand.

Nonetheless there is a high level of risk and unpredictability to be considered when using a celebrity within a marketing communications campaign, especially if they receive negative press. The advocate might change their image or views, which may possibly contradict the essence of the endorsement.

In 2009, Tiger Woods’ public image crumbled after his infidelity with a chain of women hit the news.

Gillette and Gatorade dropped Tiger from their advertisement to avoid negative association; Nike continued to support him but as a result lost high revenue of custom.

Luminaries can also face the jeopardy of being overexposed, for example at the height of her fame supermodel Kate Moss endorsed over ten companies at once. When a celebrity works with many companies, their integrity can suffer. The public may regard the celebrity as greedy, and that they will endorse any product to make money or additionally that they have no natural belief or interest in the merchandise being promoted. Finally a large risk in celebrity endorsement is that their involvement will overshadow the brand, as consumers focus on the celebrity rather than the product being endorsed.

2.5

History of Celebrity Endorsements

The process of contracting a Celebrity to promote a product is not a new concept. The earliest known example of a celebrity endorsement is understood to have been cast by soap manufacturer, Pears in 1893 (Mistry, 2006). The advertisement starred actress Lillie Langtry who testified that “Since using Pears soap, I have discarded all others� to praise the virtue of the commercial product. Over the last decade, celebrity endorsements within the fashion industry have escalated with almost every luxury fashion house adopting a celebrity ambassador.

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Nowadays Celebrity Endorsements account for 20% of all advertising (Pringle, 2004), with one in four TV adverts employing a celebrity. In comparison, famous endorsers were found to be more competent, trustworthy and significantly more attractive than non-famous endorsers (Atkin and Block, 1983). Because of these qualities, the use of illustrious personalities in company advertisements can give a competitive advantage in differentiating a firm’s products from competitors, as ultimately nothing sells like celebrity.

2.6

the evolution of celebrity

Celebrities are figures who enjoy public recognition by a large share of a certain group of people.

Whereas attributes like attractiveness, extraordinary lifestyle or special skills are just examples and specific characteristics cannot be observed, it can be said that within a corresponding social group celebrities generally differ from the social norm and enjoy a high degree of public awareness.

The term Celebrity refers to an individual who is known to the public (actor, sports figure, entertainer, etc.) for his or her achievements in areas other than that of the product class endorsed (Friedman and Friedman, 1979). This is true for classic forms of celebrities, like actors (e.g., Kate Winslet, Johnny Depp, Angelina Jolie, Kiera Knightley etc.), models (e.g., Kate Moss, Jourdan Dunn, Cara Delevingne, Miranda Kerr, Naomi Campbell, Gisele Bundchen etc.), sports figures (e.g., Andy Murray, David Beckham, Jenson Button, Kelly Holmes etc), entertainers (e.g., Jonathan Ross, Jimmy Carr, Oprah Winfrey etc), and pop-stars (e.g., Lady Gaga, One Direction) - but also for less obvious groups like businessmen (e.g., Donald Trump, Bill Gates) or politicians.

2.6.1

F i f t e e n M i n u t e s o f Fa m e

In modern culture the ideal of a celebrity has significantly changed, the title of ‘Celebrity’ is no longer reserved for highly credited leading Actors, Actresses, Musicians or public figures.

The inception of reality television has welcomed a new generation of starlets, who are famous for simply being themselves, rather than a specific talent. Programmes including The Only Way is Essex (TOWIE), Big Brother, The X Factor and Geordie Shore to name a few have propelled ‘regular’’ people into the land of fame and glamour. The Cambridge dictionary defines Reality Television as ‘television programmes about ordinary people who are filmed in real situations, rather than actors.

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Conversely, Lawrence (2009) believes that reality TV is making celebrities out of people not shouldn’t be famous, and that it is encouraging others to follow in their footsteps. The first example of Reality TV surfaced in the early 1990s, ‘The Real World’ was showcased on MTV and depicted contemporary issues such as sex, religion, politics, drugs etc. amongst the young adults. Such programmes exploded as a phenomenon in the late 1990s and early 2000s following the global success of Big Brother. The premise of the show was focused on a group of strangers who live together, isolated from the outside world and unaware of outside events. The housemates are continuously monitored by in-house television cameras throughout their stay. To win the final cash prize, the competitors had to survive weekly eliminations to become the last remaining housemate. Past contestants on the series became public figures following eviction from the ‘house’, starring on the covers of weekly newspapers and gossip magazines, attending lavish events and mingling with other famous celebrities. Due to the relentless exposure that participants in the Big Brother house receive, the audience begin to connect with them generating a keen desire to follow their fortunes, their highs and their lows (Pringle, 2004).

Jade Goody emerged into the spotlight while appearing on the 2002 series of Big Brother, her stint led to her own television series and her own range of products including a fragrance, which became Superdrug’s third best-selling fragrance behind Kylie Minogue’s, showcasing the power of ‘low-level’ celebritys. Subsequently, Reality TV has become a permanent fixture with a surge of channels dedicated to the broadcast of reality programmes, to support the consumers’ growing interest to watch ‘real life’ situations involving figures they can relate to and understand.

The evolving nature of reality programmes as a part of popular culture has blurred the perception as to how celebrity status is gained. By definition, a celebrity is perceived as a well-known persona who is identified by the public for his or her achievements (Friedman and Friedman, 1979). Furthermore, some Celebrities are also known by the public for having a famous partner or relation for example; Paris Hilton, Nicole Richie, Peaches Geldof, Rumer Willis etc. (Lea-Greenwood, 2012). The accessibility to celebrities has positively impacted a brand’s opportunity to include a celebrity endorsement within promotion strategies, and is fundamental to the issue of self-image that will be explored further in the case study.

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2.6.2

I n t e r n e t S u p e r s ta r s

More recently, fashion and beauty bloggers have become more powerful within the industry, they have developed a 'celebrity' status to followers of their platforms. Their expertise and knowledge is what separates them from their admirers, they are invited to exclusive press events and fashion shows, show followers how to style and wear the latest trends. Their savvy integration of social media allows an individual to develop a connection to them, as they can interact and respond to the media they post. Due to their influential nature, bloggers often contacted by brands to review or style their products not only because they are more powerful and exciting than other celebrities, but because they are honest and relatable as they are often on the same budget as their audience.

The success of Maybelline’s tinted lip balm 'Babylips' was highly affiliated with the anticipation spread across the blogging network; the ‘must-have’ products were hyped and talked about by many bloggers that positive word of mouth spread quickly leading to a sell-out when they were released, which has led to many brands gifting products to bloggers.

2.6.3

the rise of the Supermodel

The 1990s welcomed a new phenomenon where models such as Kate Moss, Naomi Campbell, Heidi Klum and Claudia Schiffer were regarded as ‘Supermodels’ and became famed for ‘not getting out of bed for less than £10,000 a day’ (Pringle, 2004). The inception of supermodels is still prevalent in modern society with new faces such as Cara Delevingne, being leading fashion icons and role models to young adults. Such supermodels lead glamorous and enviable lifestyles; their off-duty wardrobes replicate the designer clothing they model on the catwalk, they have VIP privileges, access to exclusive events and they are often captured by the paparazzi socialising with other famous musicians, actors and various other celebrities. Models contribute to some of the highest paid salaries (fig 1) in society that encourages an alarming rate of young girls aspiring to be models or celebrities in favour of doctors or teachers, because they view celebrities as more successful leading to a connotation with popularity. The characteristics of beauty and sex appeal associated with Victoria Secret models such as Adriana Lima and Miranda Kerr makes them inspirational to individuals. Not only do they have beautiful skin and physical appearance, they dress well and are often linked to famous boyfriends or husbands which transmits a harmful message to vulnerable

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consumers that only if they have the same features, they too can be successful and attract handsome partners.

Fig 1. Highest Paid Models of 2013, Forbes 1. Gisele Bundchen - $42m 2. Miranda Kerr - $7.2m 3. Adriana Lima - $6m 4. Kate Moss - $5.7m 5. Liu Wen - $4.3m 6. Hilary Rhoda - $4m 7. Carolyn Murphy - $3.6m 8. Joan Smalls - $3.5m 9. Candice Swanepoel - $3.3m 10. Lara Stone - $3.2m

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2.7

P u b l i c R e l at i o n s

Whilst advertising and marketing techniques can establish a want or need by portraying that item as desirable and cool. It is public relations that shapes the consumers opinions about the fashion item and the companies that manufacture and sell it (Sherman and Perlman, 2010). Positive exposure in the media reinforces the corporate message expressed in advertising and promotional campaigns. In comparison to advertising techniques, public relations is primarily concerned with generating media coverage about the brand or company without compensation.

The Chartered Institute of Public Relations (2014) defines public relations as: “The discipline which caters to reputation with the aim of earning understanding and influencing opinion and behaviour. It is the planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding between an organisation and its audiences”.

The fashion industry is an extremely competitive market; therefore a positive reputation can be a company’s biggest asset and offers them a driving force to compete with other brands. Consumer opinion is also a dominant factor, if the consumer has never heard of a designer, or has heard a negative factor attached to the brand, and then it is unlikely they will support or shop with the organisation. Therefore creating a positive perception amongst customers, suppliers, employees, investors and journalists can have a powerful impact on the success of the company. PR is a fundamental management tool that can drastically affect the longevity and future of the company.

Fashion is an industry dominated by image, a photo of a celebrity can shape a person’s fashion sense consciously as well as subconsciously. In many cases, the image of a famous celebrity wearing a label or a particular item of clothing can trigger a fashion trend that other people aspire to emulate so that they too are considered with the same recognition as their celebrity fashion idols.

2.8

The popularity machine

Celebrities have a powerful relationship with public relations; we live in an era of consent that is highly influenced by celebrity culture, members of the general public aspire to identify with successful people and celebrity stories that appear in the media (Pringle, 2004). Images of celebrities wearing or using

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a product or service can project a powerful message about the brand credibility and helps to establish recognition.

Matching the right celebrity to the right product can result in high profits as it has a dynamic influence to shape public opinion, publicity is a brilliant conspiracy when paired with photographers like Mario Testino and David Lachapelle who have the ability to seduce consumers with self-affirming notions of glamour and elegance (Lim, 2005) “Publicity, it is thought that offers free choice.... Publicity is not merely an assembly of competing messages: it is a language in itself which is always used to make the same general proposal. Within publicity, choices are offered between this cream and that cream, that car and this car, but publicity as a system only makes a single proposal. It proposes to each of us that we transform ourselves, or our lives, by buying something more. This more, it proposes, will make us in some way richer – even though we will be poorer for having spent our money. Publicity persuades us of such a transformation by showing us people who have apparently been transformed and are, as a result, enviable. The state of being envied is what constitutes glamour. And publicity is the process of manufacturing glamour” (Berger, 2008).

The protocol of the ‘photo opportunity’ was implemented by pioneering fashion publicist Percy Savage in the 1950s – a time when fashion advertising in the press was frowned upon by the Chambre Syndicale de le Couture. In 1954, Savage arranged for Elizabeth Taylor to be pictured arriving at a Parisian film premiere in a Lanvin dress, ensuring that photographs of the gown decorated the front page of every front page the next morning (Hogg, 2008). The PR stunt initiated the ritual of celebrities wearing designer dresses to exclusive events, to generate thousands in free publicity for the fashion houses involved.

Gifting is another form of public relations, in which celebrities are sent products in the hope that they will like it, wear it, speak about it on social media or to the press. Ultimately the goal is that the celebrity will be captured wearing the item and obtains media attention. This method is cost-effective but relies on the status and popularity of the proposed celebrity, therefore results can be unpredictable. After numerous, admirable female personalities including Jennifer Aniston and Kate Moss were captured by the press wearing Birkenstock sandals on a regular basis, members of the public began to associate the footwear brand with young, stylish celebrities, rather than old people.

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This strategy reinforced Birkenstocks credentials as a fashionable and affordable product. Product placement and gifting have cemented an unambiguous relationship with stars of reality television, viewers of programmes including TOWIE are highly infatuated with the clothes and accessories which are worn by the cast, so that they can copy their style. Handbag entrepreneur Claire of ClaireaBella, sent personalised designs of their totes to popular cast members including Amy Childs, Chloe Simms and Frankie Essex. The bags were featured during scenes of the show, which garnered interest from fans of the show, propelling the start-up business into a well-known brand amongst the target audience.

In comparison to gifting, a figure may choose to use a product/service or wear an item of clothing to satisfy their personal tastes which can also generate large coverage for the affiliated brand.

Hunter boots were relatively unknown until Kate Moss attended the Glastonbury music festival in 2005 wearing a pair of their trademark wellington boots. Her ‘short-shorts’ and Hunter boots combination quickly became a quintessential part of the Kate Moss effect and set the cultural norm for festival fashion.

The rise of digital media and social networking has enabled personal interaction with brands and celebrities. Social applications such as Twitter and Facebook have closed the gap between celebrity and non-celebrity; consumers can follow the profiles of our favourite celebrities for instant updates about what they’re up to the minute it happens. More recently personalities have taken to twitter to post about what products they are wearing, using and most importantly loving, and by doing so stimulates positive word of mouth and interest. A testimonial or recommendation from a celebrity about a hair or beauty product can spark a frenzy as fans rush to purchase items in the hope that by using the product they will generate similar attributes as the celebrity who promoted it.

2.9

the selection process

A successful celebrity endorser is knowledgeable, experienced and qualified in order to be perceived as an expert in the category (McCracken, 1989). An endorser is selected on the personal attributes they can transfer as a positive extension of the brands existing values. The TEARS model (Shimp, 2000) encompasses five core attributes that should be reflected in the chosen endorser for a successful marketing communication strategy;

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Trust - The celebrity is honest, dependable and believable; they have a good moral standing.

• Expertise - The celebrity is perceived or acknowledged as an expert within their field, strengthened by personal experiences or skills.

• Attractiveness - The endorser is physically or intellectually attractive; they may lead a desirable lifestyle with a network of attractive friends or partner.

• Respect - The celebrities opinions are considered important by the target audience, they may have achieved success or alternatively overcome or accomplished a powerful obstacle.

• Similarity - How compatible is the endorsers perceived personality with the brands image or values, does the celebrity match the audience’s demographics and does the audience aspire to the celebrity’s lifestyle.

The FRED model (Lalwani, 2006) offers a similar framework, as an endorser, one has to fulfil all the FRED objectives: • Familiarity - The target audience finds them friendly, trustworthy and approachable.

• Relevance - The link between the endorser and the product should reflect the relationship between the endorser and their audience.

• Esteem - The credibility to the mass.

• Differentiation - The celebrity is considered to be one among the masses, yet they tower above them. They are different.

McCracken (1989) also believes that the choice of the celebrity should be congruent to the cultural and societal level associated with the product being endorsed to be effective. Each of the theories highlighted above repeat basic attributes, the stability of which suggests them to be a foundation for celebrity endorser selection.

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2.9

T h e K at e M o s s E f f e c t

Celebrity vamping is the condition where over-exposure weakens public trust in celebrity product endorsements (Rojek, 2012). At the height of her career, Kate Moss was endorsing multiple brands (Calvin Klein, Burberry, Rimmel, Dior, Louis Vuitton, H&M, and Roberto Cavalli etc.) at one time which transmits a state of confusion and contradiction to the consumer. There is no exclusivity and the brands involved may suffer from poor brand credibility, Representing multiple campaigns at the same period can also transfer negative aesthetics of Moss having no particular belief in the products she is endorsing, opposed the financial gain of such actions.

2.10

chapter summary

The purpose of this chapter was to introduce the phenomenon that is celebrity and how the definition of celebrity has evolved as a direct result of the growth and rise of social media to welcome bloggers, socialites and reality TV stars, who do not particularly reflect a generic talent or expertise that was once the essence of celebrity. Secondly the protocol of celebrity endorsement, and the many outlets in which it is flaunted were outlined, with an explanation of the selection criteria that is considered by brand management before an endorsement is nurtured. The following chapter will examine how celebrity and the media impact everyday rituals and influence the 16-24 age demographic.

22

3

SELF-ESTEEM

and identity

3.0

Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to introduce and examine celebrity endorsements from a psychological perspective, particularly the issue of low self-esteem amongst females within the 16-24 age segment. The introduction of the chapter will focus on how fashion shapes and moulds an individual’s identity, and what contributing factors can influence self-expression.

24

3.4

Self-Esteem

Self Esteem refers to the way in which an individual views themselves, particularly the thoughts and values that are placed by the individual as a person (Fennel, 1999). Self-image, self-concept, self-perception, self-confidence, self-acceptance, self-efficacy, and self-worth are umbrella terms that are regularly used to explain self-esteem; however each has varying shades of meaning. Self-esteem is the overall opinion one has of themselves, how they judge or evaluate their character.

The mental health charity Mind (2014) defines self-esteem as a fluid motion that can change dependent on personal experiences and circumstances, opinions form the basis of self-esteem, and affect the way an individual regards and values themselves. If a person has high self-esteem they will have a positive opinion of themselves, contrariwise somebody who suffers from low self-esteem will experience negative beliefs about their ability and appearance. People with low self-esteem tend to experience virtually every aversive emotion more frequently than people with higher self-esteem (Leary and Macdonald, 2005). Self-esteem isn’t a recognised mental illness; however those who suffer from low self-esteem have a higher risk of developing problems such as eating disorders, depression or social phobia that are closely related to mood and self-belief (Mind UK, 2014). Self-esteem is intensely personal, in part because it says something about who a person is and how they live their lives (Mruk, 2006).

3.5

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a psychology theory developed by Abraham Maslow who proposes that human behaviour and emotions can be explained by classifying human needs into five hierarchal categories; physiological, safety, love, esteem and self-actualization. The needs are stacked in a pyramid layer format (fig 2), with the lower needs being met first. Higher needs in this hierarchy are made visible once the lower needs in the pyramid have been satisfied. If a lower set of needs is no longer being met, the individual will temporarily reprioritise their needs and focus attention on the lower, unfulfilled needs (Maslow, 1943). However Maslow points out that any of the lower needs and their resulting behaviours can serve as channels for higher needs for example, a person may think that they are hungry but what they may actually be seeking is more for comfort or independence than for nourishment.

25

S E L F -A C T U A L I S AT I O N Personal growth and fulfilment ESTEEM NEEDS Acheivement, Status, Responsibility, Reputation BELONGING AND LOVE NEEDS Family. Affection, Relationships, Work Groups etc SAFETY NEEDS Protection, Security, Order, Law, Limits, Stability etc PHYSIOLOGICAL Basic Life Needs - Air, Food, Water, Shelter, Warmth, Sleep etc

Fig 2. Maslows Hierarchy of Needs, 1943

Esteem forms the fourth layer of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and highlights that members of society have a need for a stable, high evaluation and respect for themselves, by themselves and by others.

Within the context of public opinion, it can be seen that an individual will have a positive opinion of a product because it fulfils, consciously or subconsciously, more than one need. Thus, a female who purchases a dress to look stylish, may in fact purchase it to fulfil their esteem needs and feel acceptance from a peer group (Sherman and Perlman, 2010). Therefore we can elaborate that celebrity endorsements can influence or satisfy an individual’s ‘Belonging’ and ‘Esteem’ layers, as advertisements promoting products worn and used by popular celebrities may encourage a person to buy such products to fulfil a need to belong, or gain respect from peers.

3.2

Fa s h i o n a n d I d e n t i t y

Clothing and Identity are intimately linked. Clothes display, express and shape identity, imbuing it with a directly material reality. (Twigg, 2009) It is important to recognise that fashion is a form of self-expression and that the clothes we decorate our body with, are a visual indicator of our occupation, social class, gender and also regional origin (Crane, 2000).

26

Each morning members of society are confronted with the choice of “What do I feel like wearing today?” This question can have many different influences on what we wear each day, but the choice that is made is highly subjective of an individual’s mood. Clothes give an individual the power to make a statement about how they wish to be perceived by society. Garments also have the ability to improve physical appearance and can change how a person is labelled by peers. Crane (2000) highlights that clothing performs a key role in the social construction of identity, and that it is therefore one of the most visible markers of social status and gender. If an individual wears branded or designer clothing they are perceived to be of high-class as such garments are exclusive to a minority who can afford such luxuries. On the other hand an individual who wears a bright mixture of prints may be considered artistic or eccentric because of their colourful dress. Members of adolescent subcultures, often at low social class levels, are sometimes the most avid consumers of luxury fashion items, which is likely to be a result of images in the media that promote the latest ‘IT’ handbag or accessory adorned by celebrity. Adolescents are vulnerable to the toxic body and physical ideals promoted in magazines, and may feel under intense pressure to conform to social identities of teenagers that are promoted in the media.

Therefore the brands and designer garments a celebrity wears projects a message to society indicating their status and wealth, the majority of society are intent to feel accepted by their peers, thus by emulating the style of a popular celebrity they are expressing a similar statement about their position in society. This behaviour adds an explanation for the success behind celebrity collaborations and PR initiatives introduced in chapter 1.

Bourdieu (1984) believes that within social classes, individuals compete for social distinction and cultural capital. He refined the role of clothing as marker of class distinction in which dress is an aspect of cultural capital and part of how elites establish, maintain and reproduce positions of power.

In relation to modern society, designer garments or products can be purchased as a signal of wealth that emphasises exclusivity which influences those of lower social status to own, so that they can escape the meanings associated with low social class, and enhance their self-image.

The ‘Trickle-Down’ theory (Veblen, 1899; Simmel, 1904) describes fashion as a process of emulation, by which new fashions introduced by the dominant class diffuse down the social hierarchy as they are 27

successively adopted and abandoned by elites, as lower groups indulge in the fashion.

Competitive class emulation is thus, and continues to be the engine of fashion in modern society.

However the trickle-across theory (Blumer, 1969) describes fashion as a social process, likely to occur in times of rapid change. It is the notion that the adoption of a particular fashion will spread horizontally within several socio-economic classes at the same time. For example; peplum waist silhouettes introduced by Dior on the catwalk, are worn by celebrities and the fashion elite, the designs are then reproduced by high-street retailers so that fashions are accessible to the masses until the next trend arises. Making elite fashions accessible to the masses allows members of society to emulate the styles demonstrated by celebrity and thus enhancing their self-esteem by purchasing garments that are socially accepted.

3.3

Fa s h i o n a n d S u b - c u lt u r e

Fashion allows the possibility for an individual to enhance or change their clothing to symbolise their values, interests and beliefs. It also enables a person to distinguish their character or belonging within a social group or sub-culture, which is exemplified by the Punk movement in the early 1970’s. The philosophy of punk embraced a spirit of independence and anarchy, resulting in a stance that was at first was resolutely anti-fashion, its outrageous wardrobe suggested a clear agenda for disruption and conflict (Breward, 2003). The ethic of Punk has introduced a scenario in which an explicit self-expression through dress has become an unquestioned norm, the growth of sub-cultures using dress and music to express political issues or rights in society and as an identification of their belonging to a social group.

Sub-cultures play a large role in modern society, as the clothes members wear to conform to a particular social group in society express a set of beliefs, values and rituals. Mark Waters (2004) representation of American high-schools and teenage culture in Mean Girls identifies the power of social groups amongst adolescents to conform and fit in to trends introduced by ‘popular’ individuals that resembles modern societies’ infatuation with celebrity. The film outlines how society is fragmented into peer groups such as Goths, cheerleaders, jocks and geeks etc. who all wear certain items of clothing to reflect their social status, and how naive adolescents seek affirmation from their peers and compete to belong to such sub-cultures. Although fiction, the motion picture demonstrates the aspect of fashion as an integral indicator of social hierarchy, status, gender and identity.

28

3.1

T h e i m pa c t o f C e l e b r i t y M e d i a

Through the use of fashion advertisements promoting unattainable standards and glamorous celebrity

models,

celebrity

endorsements

have

transformed

members

of

society

to

become self-critical of themselves and of those around them. The effect of attractive media on self-esteem is negative for both sexes, causing a significant impact on self-image and self-consciousness after viewing images in the media (Kates, 2007). Other studies have concluded that the difference in self-esteem levels is significant in females only, while males’ self-esteem remains at the same level after being exposed to attractive images in the media (Van den Berg et al, 2007).

3.6

T h e i m pa c t o f C e l e b r i t y o n e v e ry d ay l i f e

Celebrities shape an individual’s perception of society, whether it is culturally, politically or physically. Celebrities have the power to influence everyday lives without direct communication to a person. The accessibility to celebrity gossip, images or advertisements via 24/7 media outlets such as the internet, smart-phones, television and magazines dominates how an individual regards their self-worth and self-image. The media is bombarded with images of celebrities’ exciting and attractive lifestyles, that when combined with the high proportion of celebrity endorsements promoting a set of beauty or fashion ideals, can have a destructive effect on a person’s self-esteem.

From a Marxist perspective the capitalists (celebrities) who impose a set of ideas about how society should behave, are considered the dominant class of society. This suggests that if a celebrity’s perceived influential stature is compromised, they struggle to reinforce masses into a state of false consciousness (Bavilacqua, 2013). To illustrate, Chanel promote brand ideologies of class, sophistication, style and grace to the masses using celebrity endorsements because they attract interest and are influential figures of society.

3.7

chapter Summary

The aim of this chapter was to highlight the role of clothing in society, and how it acts as a marker for an individual’s beliefs, values, taste and upmost –identity. The chapter also explained the sociological role of clothing to explain the influential gap between celebrity and non-celebrity, as a tool to enhance social identity. The chapter also defined self-esteem and the damaging impact of celebrity and the media.

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4

THE IMPACT OF CELEBRITY ON

SELF-ESTEEM

4.0 I n t r o d u c t i o n Celebrity has soaked into every part of modern culture; images of celebrity bombard the media and the notion of celebrity sets aspirational goals to millennials. The increasing impact of celebrity culture and exposure to 'ideal' images means that people are likely to experience a decline in their self-esteem levels. Using a methodology of questionnaires, interviews and a focus group this chapter will evaluate the damaging impact of celebrity endorsements on an individual’s self-esteem.

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4.1

T h e i m pa c t o f t h e m e d i a - A d v e r t i s i n g

The media has a powerful influence and plays a pivotal role in the exposure of celebrity images that express socio-cultural ideals (Tiggerman, 2003). The average UK consumer watches 4 hours of TV a day, and spends an estimated 43 hours browsing online (Ofcom, 2013). Statistics highlight that an individual is exposed to potentially 600-625 advertisements daily (Media Matters, 2007) and that 25% of advertising accounted features a celebrity (Shimp, 2000).

E x a m i n i n g t h e r e l at i o n s h i p b e t w e e n C e l e b r i t y M e d i a /// a n d S e l f - E s t e e m 4.2

Media coverage of celebrities’ glamorous, rich lives put a lot of pressure on us to spend (Lawrence, 2009) and to look a certain way; therefore celebrity endorsements that promote unrealistic expectations of physical appearance can have an unfavourable impact on a person’s self-esteem. Banister and Hogg (2004) regard self-esteem as a motivational drive for consumption involving both the acceptance and rejection or avoidance of symbolic goods. Primary research highlighted that 27% of participants read celebrity related articles daily, whilst 8% admitted to reading celebrity gossip more than once a day. A survey of 109 internet users indicated that females aged 18-29, were the most interested in celebrities in the media with 64% stating that they paid more attention to adverts featuring celebrities. Opinion was divided when probed if they have or would buy a product because it was endorsed by a celebrity; 48% of respondents said they may be persuaded, while 17% said they woul¬d purchase an item if it was associated with a celebrity. Three quarters of millennials stated that they had previously had, or were currently suffering from low self-esteem. Primary research showed a distinct correlation between celebrity endorsements and low self-esteem, as 69% of the demographic had attempted to change their appearance because of celebrity images in the media. To gain an understanding of what celebrity endorsements have had the biggest impact on an individual’s self-image, and the damaging lengths to which consumers will undertake to emulate the look of celebrity role models, further research was addressed. The most important question that was prompted throughout the process of primary research was why consumers feel the need to transform their image.

33

4.4

Power and Influence

Advertisements targeted at young women manipulate female insecurities to make products more attractive and boost sales. These adverts destroy self-esteem then offer to sell it back to an individual, one product at a time.

Jean Kilbourne (2010) believes that advertising is the foundation of the mass media and that its primary purpose is to sell products, however she believes that it also sells image, concepts of love, sexuality, romance, success and most importantly normality. Fundamentally advertising tells a person what they are and who they should aspire to be. Russell (2013) adds to the debate of the powerful influence of the media stating that whilst modern society is a world dominated by image, the image it projects is superficial, leaving a high proportion of females with low-confidence and striving to meet standards that are unattainable. Despite this, many young adults continue to be manipulated by advertising believing if they do not look like the perfect model projected in advertisements, they won’t be successful, beautiful or happy. Consumers live vicariously through the products and services a celebrity is linked to, the reality is that ‘people want a piece of something they can’t be’ (Creswell, 2008).

Advertising teaches consumers that what’s most important about women is how they look, from an early age a person is brainwashed by the media that they must spend enormous amounts of time, energy and money aiming to achieve ideals promoted through advertising (Kilbourne, 2010). This emphasis of beauty, being thin, and self-image is publicised to girls at a young age and continues well on after their teen years, and can provoke eating disorders and compulsive exercising in the future.

4.5

Celebrities and Social Media

An emerging trend underlined by primary research was the growing relationship between consumers and celebrities due to the rapid incline of social media. Statistics produced by Ofcom in their annual media consumption report (2013), points out that the average UK citizen currently owns 11.4 different types of media. The accessibility to electronic devices has changed the way society engages with the media, with over half the UK’s teenage population now owning a Smartphone. Today’s culture is heavily reigned by social media, 62% of 18-24 year olds admit to accessing social networking sites like Facebook and Instagram on the go. Primary research also demonstrated that 85% of consumers 34

followed celebrities on one or more social platform. Following celebrities on social media, allows an individual to establish a connection to them, or part of their circle because they can keep updated with what they are doing or how they are feeling through status updates, images and videos. Whilst social media also gives the opportunity for the non-famous to gain an insight to how the famous live, it can have a detrimental impact on an individual’s self-esteem as they compare their own lifestyles to the celebrities they admire. Respondent A quoted that from seeing images from exotic holidays, freebies from designers, and ‘selfies’ posted by celebrities they felt that they ‘weren’t good enough and never going be successful’(Appendix 8.4). Instagram is a photo-sharing platform that allows users to share visual markers of their daily rituals. It is an extremely effective marketing tool and can create a want for a product if it is merchandised by an influential role model. The application has a circulation of 180 million active users (D’onfro. 2014) and is popular amongst receptive young adults. Celebrities, beauty and fashion bloggers are also avid users of the software, and influence ‘wants and needs’ for the products they use and share (fig 3). Photos can also impact self-esteem as followers may feel that they do not look as beautiful, share the same status, have as many friends, or that they will never afford the same products as the celebrities.

Fig 3. Top 10 most followed celebrities on Instagram (Roosevelt, 2014).

1.

Justin Bieber – 13m followers (musician)

2.

Kim Kardashian – 12m followers (reality star)

3.

Rihanna – 11m followers (musician)

4.

Beyonce – 9.9m followers (musician)

5.

Miley Cyrus – 9.1m followers (musician)

6.

Kendall Jenner – 8.5m followers (reality star)

7.

Khloe Kardashian – 7.9m followers (reality star)

8.

Taylor Swift – 7.8m followers (musician)

9.

Kylie Jenner – 7.4m followers (reality star)

10.

Kourtney Kardashian – 6.8m followers (reality star)

35

4.6

The beauty myth

Marketing literature is replete with the positive effects of using an attractive endorser, conclusively it has been demonstrated that advertising campaigns featuring a physically attractive communicator are more successful than a plain or unattractive messenger (Antioco & Smeesters et al, 2012). However, as mentioned beforehand, attractive endorsers promote highly idealised stereotypes of physical beauty.

When questioned about portrayals of ideal beauty demonstrated by celebrities, respondents A and B (Appendix 4;5) mentioned Zooey Deschanel, Jennifer Lawrence, Cheryl Cole, Cara Delevingne, Blake Lively, Mila Kunis and Scarlett Johansson, all of whom have featured in some form of celebrity endorsement. “I feel that if I buy that foundation; use that skincare brand or hair product that I’ll look as flawless as the celebrity who’s in the advert” (Appendix 8.3). Celebrities are aspirational examples and role models for young women who seek affirmation from members of their social group. Model of the moment Cara Delevingne, who has featured in advertising campaigns for a plethora of high fashion designers and fragrances, has (through her own style) caused a trend for statement eyebrows so much so, that cosmetic surgery clinics have reported a rise in enquiries regarding eyebrow transplants as women strive to emulate the model (Kirkova, 2014).

Consumers who view an advertisement engage in a self-evaluation process and, in those cases comparing oneself to a model or celebrity can affect a person’s self-esteem (Antioco & Smeesters et al, 2012). Research that asked respondents to mark the level of influence several celebrity endorsements had on their self-esteem showed a high impact with many marking their esteem levels as low after being exposed to the beauty ideals demonstrated in cosmetic advertisements. Social comparison is a central feature of human behaviour, as people have a natural drive to evaluate their own attributes by comparing themselves to others (Festinger 1954).

Nearly all cosmetics brands know that celebrity sells; the list below gives examples of famous stars and models who have endorsed a hair or beauty product:

37

INFLU

ENCE

MAC: Rihanna, Nicki Minaj, Lady Gaga, Fergie, Missy Elliot, L’Oreal: Cheryl Cole, Barbara Palvin, Doutzen Kroes, Beyonce, Eva Longoria, Lea Michelle, Jennifer Lopez, Julianne Moore, Scarlett Johansson Neutrogena: Vanessa Hugens, Hayden Panettiere Rimmel: Kate Moss, Georgia-May Jagger, Rita Ora, Zooey Deschanel Max Factor: Gisele Bundchen, Gwyneth Paltrow, Elizabeth Taylor, Claudette Colbert, Ginger Rogers Revlon: Emma Stones, Jessica Alba, Halle Berry, Jessica Biel, Olivia Wilde Lancôme: Julia Roberts, Penelope Cruz, Kate Winslet, Anne Hathaway

Hair is a distinctive characteristic and a key aspect of a celebrities iconography, Jennifer Aniston’s ‘Rachel’ haircut is recognised as one of the most popular hairstyles of the 1990s and was the most imitated globally (Pringle, 2004), more recently celebrities such as Alexa Chung and Cheryl Cole have sparked hair trends amongst young adults, who feel the need to adapt so they too are considered fashionable and on-trend. “I tend to buy L’Oreal hair products because celebrities like Cheryl Cole use them, and I trust her instinct, she wouldn’t endorse a product if she didn’t believe in it” (Appendix 8.4). One of the key factors in the effectiveness of an advertisement is the sources of information including the featured model. Evidence suggests that the more relatable the model is to the consumer the more they will self-reference the product being advertised. For example; despite being a famous member of society, Cheryl Cole has a friendly and honest demeanour that consumers relate to, which makes her a successful endorser as consumers can relate to her, thus trusting the product she is endorsing.

Fans treat celebrities’ likes gods and goddesses in another important way: by considering them to be fundamentally perfect and good; regardless of what they do (Lawrence, 2009). When Kate Moss was exposed to be consuming class A drugs, she was dropped as an endorser for several high profile brands, however the general public were still interested in her lifestyle and sympathised with her downward spiral portrayed in the media. Her downfall increased many consumers self-esteem. “I believe we find joy in stars’ misfortunes because we resent the pressure to strive for star-like lifestyles, which is unrealistic and unachievable for most” (Lawrence, 2009).

40

4.7

C e l e b r i t y C o l l a b o r at i o n s

Celebrity fragrances add an aspect of escapism, as do celebrity collaborations with fashion brands which enable consumers to access and emulate fashions deemed acceptable by their role models at affordable prices. “When I purchase products such as celebrity perfumes or a dress that’s been designed

by Rihanna I feel better about myself, I feel more confident and stylish” (Appendix 5).

4 . 8 t h e i m pa c t o f c e l e b r i t y o n b o dy i m a g e The most damaging effect advertising has on impressionable young females is how it forces them to conform to the ‘perfect’ body shape glamorised by celebrities and models. Advertisements graced with thin models or celebrities pressure young adults to lose weight and can lead to body dissatisfaction.

Fashion magazines add to the idealised image of the modern woman and how they believe their lifestyle should be. A recent issue of Marie Claire (March 2014) features a celebrity cover star sharing advice to the female readership, and by following the guidance from Claudia Schiffer, consumer’s believe they will benefit from an enhanced mood and self-reflectance. Research generated by Bradley University (2014) suggests that an average three minutes spent looking at fashion magazines caused 70% of women to feel depressed, guilty and shameful.

Body dissatisfaction as a result of exposure to the media’s body ideals results in unhealthy attitudes to physical appearance and the measures young adults will take to fit the socially accepted body image.

Exposure to advertisements increase body dissatisfaction, negative mood, levels of depression and lowered self-esteem (Bassenoff, 2006) such changes result in unhealthy and harmful weight control habits.

Prior to participating in the focus group, respondents were directed to complete the Rosenberg scale to establish their current level of self-esteem. Results highlighted that three quarters undervalued their skills and personal attributes; disagreeing with the following statements ‘On the whole, I am satisfied with myself ’ and ‘I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on an equal basis with others’. Such research shows evidence that the media has already caused a damaging impact on the female respondents.

41

Participants were then asked to score the impact a series of celebrity advertisements had on their self-esteem. Advertisements for skin or beauty products had the highest impact on their self-image.

When questioned about the reason why the adverts had such a large impact on them, general comments about the flawlessness the image promoted was common; “They represent an image or beauty that I wish I had”, “They have a good figure and great skin” (Appendix 8.3). Results from the focus group indicated that celebrities who the panel considered trustworthy triggered the highest impact on an individual’s esteem. “I feel more connected to reality TV stars because of the pervasive nature of their shows and the content they share on social media, so when they are pictured looking perfect, I feel bad about myself because they are more relatable and like me, and I still don’t look that good” (Appendix 8.3).

4.9

Celebrity Diet Worship

Celebrity gossip magazines such as OK and Star! add to the pressure of conforming to the thin ideal, because the covers are bombarded with headlines such as ‘How I lost 10lbs in 2 weeks and 42 Best Beach Bodies’ (fig 4) such statements encourage girls to lose weight or diet. Diets and fitness videos endorsed by celebrities such as the Atkin’s diet has become a household name due to its famous clients such as Jennifer Aniston, Victoria Beckham and Ben Affleck (Pringle, 2004). Buying into fitness routines and regimes popularised by celebrities makes consumers believe that by following such regimes that they will be able look as good as the celebrity who endorses it. Fitness DVDs are a popular option for consumers to buy their way to their favourite celebrities body shape; ‘I follow Lucy Mecklenburghs’ (The only way is Essex TV star) fitness videos and diet tips because I want to look as good as her’ (Appendix 8.5).

Primary research also indicated that 90% had felt mildly depressed about their body shape, physical appearance or personal style, which correlates with the statistics highlighted by Bradley University’s regarding the growing number of teens feeling negative about their self-worth.

4.10

Fa l s e A d v e r t i s i n g

It is no myth that the majority of advertising in the fashion and beauty industry is manipulated by editing software. The media employs image retouching, lighting techniques and camera filters to distort photographs to generate an unrealistic illusion of natural beauty. The flawless imagery of 42

unobtainable perfection invites young girls to compare their reality to physical ideals that do not exist.

Participants within the focus group were all aware of the image trickery used to create advertisements, and admitted despite this, advertisements still had a prominent influence on their opinion of beauty.

“I always use editing applications on my own images before I post them to social media, so I present the best version of myself online” when questioned about such a shocking statement respondent A argued that “It’s the norm, everybody does it” (Appendix 8.4). The pervasive acceptance of unrealistic beauty and physical ideals creates an impractical standard that is damaging to the body ideals of most (Hoffman, 2004).

When young women look at pictures in magazines or watch TV programs that portray beautiful women, they are unknowingly coerced into believing that they are seeing true beauty. These advertisements educate young women how they should look, if they want to comply with society’s expectations of women, which is not always a realistic or healthy expectation.

4.11

P l a s t i c Fa n ta s t i c

Cosmetic surgery is yet another extreme measure that young women take in a desperate attempt to achieve the unrealistic ideal that is portrayed in the media. Girls under the age of eighteen are going under the knife to perfect their noses or augment their breasts to imitate the thin ideal demonstrated by celebrities such as Lindsay Lohan, Paris Hilton and Katie Price. According to the American Society of Plastic Surgeons (ASPS) 14.6 million cosmetic surgery procedures were performed in 2012 (ASPS, 2013). Since the inception of the ‘#Belfie’ - self portrait of the buttocks, made popular by Kim Kardashian, there has been a growing trend in buttock implants as consumers strive to mirror the reality TV stars curvy figure.

44

1.6 Million people in the uk are affected by an eating disorder beat, 2014

45

4.12

Chapter Summary

The purpose of this chapter was to highlight the responses gathered from primary research. It reinforced the concept of celebrities function as role models; they are a very public form of human research and development. The chapter also explained how companies like Chanel exploit customers want for a better lifestyle or appearance by creating false needs through celebrity endorsers, and image manipulation that promotes unattainable standards. However one of the key factors generated from the chapter was the many criticisms of the advertising industry, and how celebrity endorsements create idealised stereotypes that in some form encourage or force ordinary women to live up to. Research highlighted that by doing so, celebrity advertising makes women feel dissatisfied with the way they are, lowering their self-esteem and persuading them to spend an unnecessary amount of time and finance , often resulting in debt which further damages their self-esteem, attempting to conform with impossible images of physical beauty that have become the social norm.

46

5

Conclusion The purpose of the case study was to explore the potential connections between a consumer’s self-esteem and celebrity endorsements, to do so a methodology of primary and secondary research was conducted to examine the relationship between celebrity and an individual’s self-perception. Results and analysis indicate that the notion of fame is a very influential selling point, not only because it exudes status and power but it also generates role models in popular culture. Indications of fame entice the target demographic to follow the trends implied by the dominant ‘rulers’ of society.

To fully understand the concept of self-esteem and self-enhancements, it was important to research the history of identity in fashion, as self-esteem is also a very personal matter, and fashion is a form of self-expression. Research specified the power of clothing, and how it can be used to project different attributes or discrepancies about an individual such as status, power, occupation and wealth. Thus, clothing is an outlet for self-enhancement which is why fashion trends are capitalised, so that followers of such trends fulfil their own self-esteem needs by projecting the images produced by the rulers of society.

Whilst researching literature for the subject, it became evident that celebrity endorsement is no longer confined to print or television advertisements. The accessibility to the internet and the growth of social media has not only enabled consumers to attain a close connection to the celebrities they admire, but it has also led to a new wave of marketing communications and PR strategies to encourage sales.

Celebrities are endorsing brands via their social feeds more than ever. For example, pictures posted by a popular celebrity showcasing their flawless skin because of such a product etc. encourages the audience to purchase the products because they feel that by doing so, they will achieve an image of ‘beauty’, the images harm self-esteem because consumers feel that they do not look as good as the image posted, this outcome is similar to the theme affiliated with celebrity advertisements. Researchers believe that such parasocial relationships with celebrities on the internet allow individuals with lowself-esteem feel closer to their ideal selves.

48

The influence of celebrity is so pervasive, that the case study was split into many subjects to gain an understanding of the power celebrity has on areas such as; body image, lifestyle, cosmetic surgery, beauty and fashion. However the main focus for concern is the impact celebrity endorsements have on a consumer’s body image. Studies show that consumers who actively indulge in the media had suffered a decline in self-esteem due to the unhealthy body ideals promoted in the media by celebrities, and had dieted, or developed an eating disorder as a result of exposure of ‘ideals’ in magazines, advertisements, television shows, blogs etc. However, it can be argued that the influence a celebrity endorsement has on a consumer’s self-esteem is dependent on the choice of celebrity. To illustrate from a marketing perspective, celebrity endorsement can only be effective when the celebrity image, brand image, and customer aspirations are taken into consideration. Furthermore, advertisements that feature a celebrity that the individual considers aspirational had a higher impact on their self-esteem.

A similar issue demonstrated that media images can positively affect women through motivation and determination to maintain healthy lifestyles.

Although the study was investigating the effect of celebrity endorsements and low self-esteem from a female perspective, further research could be carried out to examine the impact on males, as similar concerns reflecting the masculine’s ideals are also promoted in the media.

A limitation of the case study is that the primary research conducted is not significant, a larger sample size would have been beneficial due to area of study. Additionally, the honesty of views expressed by participants may be a limitation as they didn’t resonate with the views expressed in the online survey. On the other hand, it is evident that the media disguises irrational and manipulative messages to consumers in attractive packages, and that exposure to the ideal images promoted in magazines does affect the way consumers evaluate themselves in comparison to the celebrity models within advertisements. Consumers began to comprehend themselves with negative traits such as failures, ugly, overweight and lonely as a result of the images within the media.

However initiatives implemented by healthcare brands such as Dove, who introduced their ‘Self-Esteem Project’ which aims to educate and create more awareness to vulnerable female about fabrications in the media, and introduce concepts of real beauty into the media by using ‘real’ models of different ethnicities and body sizes.

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Celebrities who are positive role models to society such as Jennifer Lawrence and Kate Winslet have also voiced their opinion on the unrealistic ‘airbrushed’ nature of fashion editorials and advertisements, and have encouraged body confidence attitudes amongst their fans. Some fashion designers and editors are also showing their support to change the expectation of ‘thin ideals’ in society by hiring curvier models rather than the Size 0 norm. However calling such average sized models ‘Plus Size’ could also lead to low self-esteem as women who are of a healthy and beautiful size will associate themselves as ‘Plus Size’.

To conclude, whilst many outlets are attempting to change the beauty and body ideals promoted within the fashion industry, they are faced with failure. Advertising is such a powerful medium that it is imperative to the economy, so the ideals that are constantly promoted by such brands are ultimately presented to encourage consumers to purchase such products with the aspirations that they will achieve definitions of success, beauty and popularity for their own self-enhancement until the next ideal is presented to them by the media.

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7

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Turner, G. (2004). Understanding celebrity. London: SAGE.

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Chanthabandith, P. (2013). Body image & the media. Available at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jgz4_G8p7TM Kilbourne, J. (2010). Killing us softly. Available at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PTlmho_ RovY&list=PL80A36AC2B0F84807

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Newsom, J. S. (2011). Miss representation. Available at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hZkC_fNxmQk The Bling Ring. (2013). [DVD] America: Sofia Coppola, Studiocanal.

7.5

images

1. Photo of a Skinny White Girl. (n.d.). Available at: http://roflnlol.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/ photo-of-skinny-white-girl.gif 2. Lillie Langtry for Pears Soap Advertisement. (1887). Available at: http://www.ebay.com/itm/LILLIE-LANGTRY-ENDORSES-PEARS-SOAP-ANTIQUE-1887-COMPLEXION-SOAP-ADVERTISEMENT-/400280613770 3. Victoria’s Secret Models. (2013). Available at: http://www.pinterest.com/pin/81064862016593254/ 4. Candice Swanepoel at Victoria’s Secret Fashion Show 2013. (2013). Available at: http://media-cacheak0.pinimg.com/originals/fd/19/39/fd19393b17fa05f1627ad6190d07d241.jpg 5. Beyonce being photographed at the Met Gala in Givenchy. (2013). Available at: http://bebeautifulandperfect.tumblr.com 6. Isabel Marant. (2011). Kate moss for isabel marant f/w 2011. Available at: http://www.designscene.net/ wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Kate-Moss-for-Isabel-Marant-00.jpg 7. Kate Moss for Louis Vuitton A/W 2006. (2006). Available at: http://www.ruedechic.com/blog/tag/louis-vuitton 8. Kate Moss for Alexander McQueen SS 14 campaign. (2014). Available at: http://media-cache-ak0. pinimg.com/originals/db/8c/e2/db8ce21db596e90738693b68ea66605b.jpg 9. Advertising Archives. (1992). Kate moss and mark wahlberg for calvin klein 1992. [image online] Available at: http://www.advertisingarchives.co.uk/?service=asset&action=show_zoom_window_popup&language=en&asset=24543&location=grid&asset_list=8751761 10. Advertising Archives. (2009). Kate moss for ysl parisienne perfume. Available at: Advertising Archives. (1992). Kate moss and mark wahlberg for calvin klein 1992. [image online] Available at: http:// www.advertisingarchives.co.uk/?service=asset&action=show_zoom_window_popup&language=en&asset=24543&location=grid&asset_list=8751761 11. Kate Moss for St Tropez. (2013). Available at: http://www.vogue.co.uk/beauty/2013/06/14/kate-mossnude-st-tropez-adverts-boost-sales 12. Kate Moss for Just Cavalli. (2010). Available at: http://www.advertisingarchives. co.uk/en/asset/show_zoom_window_popup.html?asset=57274&location=grid&asset_ list=57274,52691,52690,52689,52688,52687,52686,45731,42806,38762&basket_item 13. Kate Moss x Rimmel - Wake Me Up Foundation. (2012). Available at: http://whymoda.blogosfere. it/2012/04/kate-moss-testimonial-di-wake-me-up-di-rimmel-london.html 14. Advertising Archives. (2013). Kate moss - versace hangbag campaign. Available at: http://www. advertisingarchives.co.uk/?service=asset&action=show_zoom_window_popup&language=en&asset=87519106&location=grid&asset_list=8751 61

15. Advertising Archives. (n.d.). Kate moss for burberry. Available at: http://www.advertisingarchives. co.uk/en/page/show_home_page.htm 16. Vivienne Westwood during the Punk movement. (n.d.). Available at: http://www.pinterest.com/ pin/555631672747214734/ 17. Instagram. (2014). Various instagram pictures taken by justin bieber. Available at: http://instagram. com/bizzl 18. Instagram. (2014). Various instagram pictures taken by kim kardashian. Available at: http://instagram.com/kimkardashia 19. Instagram. (2014). Various instagram pictures taken by rihanna. Available at: http://instagram.com/ badgalriri/ 20. Instagram. (2014). Various instagram pictures taken by beyonce. Available at: http://instagram.com/ beyonce 21. Instagram. (2014). Various instagram pictures taken by miley cyrus. Available at: http://instagram. com/mileycyrus/ 22. Instagram. (2014). Various instagram pictures taken by kendall jenner. Available at: http://instagram.com/kendalljenner 23. Blake Lively for Gucci Premiere Fragrance Advertisement. (2012). Available at: http://kentonmagazine.com/watch-the-full-gucci-premiere-commercial-starring-blake-lively/ 24. Vanderperre, W. (2013). Jennifer lawrence in dior advertising campaign. Available at: http://www. fabsugar.com/Celebrities-Fall-2013-Ad-Campaigns-Pictures-31055515#photo-31579059 25. Zooey Deschanel x Pantene. (2012). Available at: http://www.celebrityendorsementads.com/celebrity-endorsements/celebrities/zooey-deschanel/ 26. RIhanna for Balmain SS 2014. (2013). Available at: http://www.thetrendreport.gr/moda/ad-campaigns/rihanna-for-balmain-spring-summer-2014-ad-campaign/ 27. Charlize Theron for J’Adore Dior Advertising Campaign. (n.d.). Available at: http://www.pinterest. com/pin/81064862016593212/ 28. Beyonce for L’Oreal True Match Foundation Advertisement. (2011). Available at: http://www.celebrityendorsementads.com/celebrity-endorsements/magazine-ads/2011/03/ 29. Scarlett Johansson for Dolce & Gabanna Beauty Advertisement. (n.d.). Available at: http://www. pinterest.com/pin/81064862016593209/ 30. Gwen Stefani for L’Oreal Preference Advertising Campaign. (2012). Available at: http://www.celebrityendorsementads.com/celebrity-endorsements/celebrities/gwen-stefani/ 31. Jennifer Lopez for L’Oreal Eversleek Argan Oil Advertisement. (2012). Available at: http://www.celebrityendorsementads.com/celebrity-endorsements/celebrities/jennifer-lopez/ 32. Kiera Knightley - Chanel Coco Mademoiselle Advertisement. (2011). Available at: http://www.pinterest.com/pin/81064862016547028/ 62

33. Ok! Issue 911 Magazine Cover - Sam Faiers. (2014). Available at: http://i3.mirror.co.uk/incoming/article2973677.ece/ALTERNATES/s615b/sam-faiers-cover-2973677.jpg 34. Now Magazine Cover - January. (2011). Available at: https://default.secure.media.ipcdigital. co.uk/11140/000020928/9f30/03-NOW-COVER-web.jpg 35. US Star Magazine Cover - March 26. (2012). Available at: http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/17gfnq36c6dmkjpg/original.jpg 36. USA OK! Magazine Cover March 6. (2011). Available at: http://2-ps.googleusercontent.com/x/www. thehollywoodgossip.com/images.thehollywoodgossip.com/iu/t_xlarge_p/v1364526113/xkendra-wilkinson-weight-loss.jpg.pagespeed.ic.OxHh09C0o-.jpg

7.6

list of figures

1. Forbes (2014). The world’s highest-paid models of 2013. Retrieved from: http://www.forbes.com/pictures/eimi45mdj/no-1-gisele-bndchen/#gallerycontent 2. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological review,50(4), 370.

3. Roosevelt, H. (2014). The 50 most popular people on instagram in 2014. Retrieved from: http://www. rsvlts.com/2014/01/07/popular-people-instagram-2014/

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8

8

8.1

Survey

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8.2

Survey

67

What is your gender?

Male

What is your age category?

Female 16-24

25-35

Prefer not to say 35-45

45+

On a scale of 1-5, please circle your level of self esteem about your body, with 1 being ‘Low Self-Esteem’ and 5 being ‘High Self Esteem’ |----------------|---------------|-----------------|-----------------| 1 2 3 4 5 Low Self Some Self Neutral Moderate High Self Esteem Esteem Self Esteem Esteem What is your perception of an ideal body type? (Circle number)

What is your opinion of fashion advertisements featuring celebrities, do you feel envious of their physical attributes?

On a scale of 1 to 5, please circle the importance of fashion and beauty in your life |----------------|---------------|-----------------|-----------------| 1 2 3 4 5 Not Less Neutral Somewhat Very Important Important Important Important Why is fashion and beauty important to you? If it is not important, please explain why?

On a scale of 1 to 5 , please circle the importance of dieting and exercise in your life |----------------|---------------|-----------------|-----------------| 1 2 3 4 5 Not Less Neutral Somewhat Very Important Important Important Important Why is dieting and exercise important to you? If it is not important, please explain why?

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Have you ever had any beauty, dental, or hair treatments to improve your appearance?

Yes

No

If yes, please explain why and what influenced you to change your physical appearance

Please circle the level of impact the following advertisements have on your self-image:

|----------------|---------------|-----------------|-----------------| 1 2 3 4 5 Low Some Neutral Moderate High Impact Impact Impact Impact Impact

|----------------|---------------|-----------------|-----------------| 1 2 3 4 5 Low Some Neutral Moderate High Impact Impact Impact Impact Impact

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|----------------|---------------|-----------------|-----------------| 1 2 3 4 5 Low Some Neutral Moderate High Impact Impact Impact Impact Impact

Do you feel pressured by the images popularised within the fashion media?

Yes No Would you say you have ever felt mildly depressed about your body shape, physical appearance or personal style?

Yes

No

If so, please could you explain what has led to such negative thoughts about yourself?

Thank you for participating in this survey!

All information will remain anonymous and strictly confidential

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8.4

Interview a

DO YOU EVER FEEL ENCOURAGED TO PURCHASE A

WOULD YOU SAY THAT YOU AREN’T VERY CONFIDENT IN

PRODUCT BECAUSE IT IS ENDORSED BY A CELEBRITY?

YOUR APPEARANCE BECAUSE OF THE IDEAL PROMOTED IN

Yes

ADVERTISING AND MAGAZINES?

Yeah I think a lot of people feel that the image is to ARE THERE ANY PARTICULAR PRODUCTS YOU’VE BOUGHT be skinny, and especially because there are so many BECAUSE THEY’VE BEEN ADVERTISED BY A CELEBRITY? celebrities pictured with this ideal of being skinny.

Pefumes such as Christina Aguilera, Katy Perry and With all the paparazzi showing this thin image of Taylor Swift. Clothes that are featured in celebrities all the time, I think it does impact how I magazines as well, they’re spread out with a picture feel. The desire in the media is to be thin and perfect, of a particular celeb and tell you what clothes to buy so when you’re not mirroring this ideal it does affect to copy the look, I always seem to buy into those. I how you feel. also tend to buy L’Oreal hair products because celebrities like Cheryl Cole use them, and I trust her HAVE YOU EVER SUFFERED FROM LOW SELF-ESTEEM? instinct, she wouldn’t endorse a product if she didn’t Yes believe in it WHAT WAS THE REASON THAT IMPACTED HOW YOU JUDGE ARE YOU MORE INCLINED TO BUY A CELEBRITY FRA-

YOURSELF?

Just the fact that I’m not as pretty as everyone else out Yeah, because they’re associated with a celebrity so there, you can compare yourself to your friends, but you kind of feel like you’ve got the celebrities brand when it comes to celebrities in the limelight, they’re in a way. You feel that you’ll match their scent, and the ones that everybody compares themselves to, essentially smell like they do, so you’ll be cool too. so they’re like your main inspirations and you want to be like them because their famous and because ARE THEY ANY PARTICULAR CELEBRITIES WHOSE FASHION they’ve got all this so when you’re not as skinny or SENSE YOU ADMIRE, OR WHO YOU OFTEN SEARCH FOR? not as pretty you kind of, it really brings you down I wish I had the same dress sense as Alexa Chung, because you want to be like them. she always looks so effortless and cool.

GRANCE THAN A DESIGNER ONE, AND WHY?

HOW SEVERE HAS IT EFFECTED YOUR SELF-ESTEEM?

HAVE YOU EVER FELT A NEED OR DESIRE TO LOSE WEIGHT, AFTER SEEING CELEBRITY IMAGES IN THE MEDIA OR A CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENT?

Yeah when you see images in magazines or on television and they’re stick-thin or the way clothes look on them, you feel that you won’t look as good as them in the same clothes or that you don’t look like that which makes you feel down and want to look as good as them.

HAS THIS EVER EFFECTED YOUR SELF-ESTEEM?

Yeah, it’s the same as I said before, you see these pictures of celebrities looking so thin and effortless - it doesn’t look like they really consider or worry about their size. They’re really skinny and you just look at yourself and you’re not, so it sucks.

DOES THIS LEAD TO A PRESSURE THAT YOU FEEL YOU NEED TO TRANSFORM YOUR IMAGE?

Yeah, you don’t really ever see anything plus-size in the media, unless it’s a celeb being criticised for putting weight on.

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Extreme lengths, it really has over the past year, several years, I’ve had really low self-esteem with everything projected in the media and like, all the publicity celebrities get. Seeing it, just pushed me into the position that I’ll do anything to change the way I look so that I’m perceived as pretty. It’s also led to me feeling extremely negative thoughts and impacted my depression, once you start feeling crap about yourself you then start to think about the rest of your life and like I’ve tried to be skinny for as long as I can remember, you just get tired and then you begin to feel crap about your life, because you can’t be bothered to do anything else and then obviously you start to get attached to some of the celebrities you look at.

IS THERE A PARTICULAR IMAGE OF A CELEBRITY, YOU CAN

DO YOU FEEL THAT INSTAGRAM IS VERY INFLUENTIAL I.E.,

REMEMBER SEEING THAT HAD A LARGE IMPACT ON YOU?

THE PICTURES CELEBRITIES POST FEATURING PRODUCTS,

I remember when Lindsay Lohan was suffering from an eating disorder and she became really skinny and got lots of attention. She was the girl that I grew up with in the media, she was in all my favourite movies like Lifesize, Mean Girls. I even dyed my hair ginger at one point so I could look more like her, so then when she started getting skinnier, it was all that was reported in the newspapers and on the cover of magazines like Now, Look etc., it made me feel like I had to look like that.

DOES THIS EFFECT ENCOURAGE YOUR SHOPPING HABITS?

I follow a lot of boutiques and high-street stores and the pictures they post of people wearing their products makes me want to go out and buy them.

There’s also people who aren’t perhaps famous but have thousands of followers, and their ways of editing their photographs or theme influences what I post myself because I feel that is copy what they do I’ll gain more followers and become popular too.

IF A CELEBRITY OR BLOGGER POSTS AN IMAGE FEATURING

HOW OFTEN DO YOU CONSUME CELEBRITY GOSSIP ETC.?

A PRODUCT OR WEARING A PRODUCT, DO YOU FEEL MOTI-

A lot, I enjoy reading magazines and newspapers.

But I also follow blogs online, I try to keep up with the latest gossip.

VATED TO BUY IT AS WELL?

Yeah, I’ve actually just done it, this blogger Zoella posted a ‘selfie’ and in the written description recommended the foundation she was wearing which was quite expensive, but because her skin looked really good and I’d been feeling down about mine it encouraged me to buy it too, so hopefully my skin will look better.

WHAT WOULD SAY IS MORE INVASIVE, WHAT DO YOU FEEL HAS A BIGGER IMPACT ON YOURSELF; BLOGGERS OR CELEBRITIES?

Celebrities easily, as they get a lot more notice... Even when you’re just walking through the supermarket you see it, or watching television, commercials come on - a lot of news reported or posted online is regarding celebrities.

DO YOU FEEL FASHION IS A VERY IMPORTANT VISUAL FORM OF IDENTITY?

Yeah definitely, you can tell a lot about somebody based on their appearance. For example if they wear bright colours or just wear black it says a lot about their personality. The simple things about choosing different colours, print and textures does leak a lot of your personality. It gives people an impression of the person you are, so you want to make sure you look good so you don’t get judged negatively.

WHAT IS YOUR IMPRESSION OF REALITY TV STARS, DO YOU FIND THEM INFLUENTIAL?

It can be now, reality TV is really big thing like the Kardashians, TOWIE etc. They are seen as celebrities too, you kind of feel more of a connection to them because they share so much of their life on television.

You feel like you’re a part of their life as well, so when something comes out about one of them dieting or having cosmetic surgery, you feel like you should be doing that as well so you fit in. I know that if a reality star was to go and get hair extensions and she looked amazing, I’d go out and get them too, despite the cost because If she looks gorgeous with long hair, then I’ll look gorgeous with long hair.

DO YOU HAVE CONFIDENCE ON YOUR OWN ABILITIES, OR DO YOU FEEL THAT RELY ON THE OPINIONS DICTATED BY THE MEDIA, CELEBRITIES ETC.?

I always thought I had faith in my own opinions, but as lately I feel like I do stray towards other people’s opinions. Like the foundations, I’ve always said that I’m not going to spend loads of money on clothes and make-up, yet people that I know for example bloggers and celebrities, who wear expensive brands like MAC - it makes me feel like it’s worth the cost if I’ll look as good as them if I wear it.

DO YOU FOLLOW CELEBRITIES ON INSTAGRAM?

I do

WHAT’S YOUR OPINION ON FASHION BRANDS COLLABORATING OR USING ADVERTS WITH CELEBRITIES?

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It’s good for the designers and business, but it makes me feel like crap to be honest. It’s rubbish that they get all these opportunities just for being famous whereas I’m working loads to pay bills. It makes you want to try harder to emulate them, so that you might get the perks of looking like a celebrity.

RELATING BACK TO SOCIAL MEDIA, DO YOU EVER PUT ON A FRONT WITH THE CONTENT YOU POST FOR EXAMPLE AN ENHANCED VERSION OF YOURSELF?

I barely ever post a status on Facebook because I worry about what other people will think when they read or see the things I post, it’s the same with photos I don’t feel confident about the way I look and really do worry about what people think of me. Nowadays, if you don’t have like 30 ‘likes’ on your photo its not worth it, so I always worry that if i post a photo and don’t get that many likes, people will see it and look down on me because I’ve not put a nice photo on, or more that I’m not pretty enough to get a like even though it’s just a click on a computer. Its all about numbers - how many friends you have, likes, followers etc. I do worry about what people think about me, I’ll take about 27 photos then select the best one and edit it on an app before I upload it.

ARE YOU AWARE OF PHOTO-MANIPULATION IN CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENTS, FASHION EDITORIALS AND MAGAZINES?

I see a lot of articles raising awareness about it, telling you that models do have pores, breakouts, pale skin and that they are considerably shorter and curvier in real life. But when you see the images, you forget about all of that it doesn’t come to your mind.

You just see how perfect and flawless they are.

IF YOU DISCOVERED THAT A BRAND YOU ADMIRED OR PURCHASED FROM, WERE USING MANIPULATED IMAGES IN THEIR ADVERTISEMENTS, WOULD YOU STILL BUY THE PRODUCTS?

Yeah, even though I know it’s probably most likely photo-shopped it still doesn’t matter because you want to look that way.

IF YOU SAW AN ADVERTISING FEATURING A ‘REAL’ WOMEN, OR ONE FEATURING A CELEBRITY WHICH MODEL WOULD YOU ASPIRE TO LOOK LIKE?

I definitely feel that there should be curvier role models in advertisements, because it’s realistic. It’s all well and good to aspire to look like a Victoria’s Secret model, but it’s not always attainable. For example if I were to see images of Jennifer Lawrence half-naked on the front of a magazine cover without Photoshop, I’d personally be more body confident, knowing that hey she has stretch-marks, oh I have stretch-marks etc., our bodies aren’t that different.

But when you see models with perfect skin you feel like why do I have stretch-marks and that it isn’t fair.

The media has a very dominant effect on girls.

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8.5

Interview B

DO YOU FEEL INFLUENCED TO PURCHASE A PRODUCT IT IS ASSOCIATED WITH A CELEBRITY?

Yes I do, particularly beauty products like make-up and hair because I feel that if the celebrity is using it and looks good that if I use it, I will look good aswell

HAVE YOU EVER HAD ASPIRATIONS TO BE FAMOUS, OR THAT YOU WISH YOU WERE A CELEBRITY?

Yeah in magazines and on TV, celebrities lifestyles always seen so amazing and care-free. It doesn’t look like they have to cope with any of the same stresses we do, like worrying about finances, paying bills etc.

ADDITIONALLY, HAVE YOU EVER FELT A NEED TO CHANGE YOUR APPEARANCE AFTER SOMETHING YOU HAVE SEEN IN

IS THE ENVIABLE LIFESTYLE, ONE OF THE REASONS WHY

AN ADVERTISEMENT?

YOU ARE INTERESTED IN CELEBRITY GOSSIP AND MEDIA?

DO YOU FEEL UNDER A PRESSURE FROM IDEALS PROMOT-

DO YOU HAVE ANY CELEBRITY ROLE MODELS?

Yeah, I feel bombarded with imagery that makes me Yeah, in some cases I think that they are role models feel inadequate every day for example Beyonce and her talent for dancing.

Yeah I admire some celebrities, both for their talent and appearance. Marilyn Monroe is a big inspiration Erm... Not so much pressure, but just a sense that in to me because she was described as being very humorder to fit in and be accepted as normal, you have to ble and sweet. She was also a size 14, she didn’t care look the same as the models and celebrities in them about how she looked in comparison to the celebrities who are in magazines nowadays. Everything is HAVE YOU EVER SUFFERED FROM LOW SELF-ESTEEM? related to diets, how they look, boobs ....

Yeah, but sometimes I feel that it can leads me to think even more negatively about myself, I’ve also WHAT IS YOUR IMPRESSION OF AVERAGE/LARGER SIZE suffered from depression but it wasn’t especially ROLE MODELS IN THE MEDIA SUCH AS GEMMA COLLINS linked to how I looked, although it is often a nega- AND ADELE? tivity for me I admire Adele because she is very reclusive and not in the media as much as Gemma Collins. I feel that HAVE YOU EVER PURCHASED A PRODUCT BECAUSE IT WAS even though Gemma Collins promotes this characPROMOTED BY A CELEBRITY? teristic of being body confident about her size, her Yeah - I buy Beyonce perfume, and I also follow Lucy columns paint a different story because they are alMecklenburghs’ fitness videos and diet tips because I ways about weight, and how she doesn’t want to lose want to look as good as her weight to fit into society, then the following week she’ll be showing off her extreme weight-loss following a harmful diet plan. Everything still revolves DO YOU BUY IT BECAUSE YOU FEEL THAT BY DOING SO, around this whole its the way you look judgement ED THROUGH IMAGES THAT ARE PRINTED IN FASHION MAGAZINES?

YOU’LL GAIN SIMILAR ATTRIBUTES TO BEYONCE?

I might smell nicer and perhaps like Beyonce, so HOW OFTEN DO YOU READ CELEBRITY GOSSIP/FASHION boys might be attracted to me and I’ll be be as flaw- MAGAZINES? less as her I tend to spend a lot of time reading articles on the internet more than magazines, I probably spend TO WHAT LENGTHS WOULD YOU GO, TO FIT THE IDEALS about 6 hours a day on the internet, or on social netPROMOTED BY SOCIETY? working sites like Instagram and Facebook reading I would never consider something permanent or too or looking at celebrity pictures. extreme like cosmetic surgery. I would go on a diet, and change the way I dress but nothing that is too WHAT CELEBRITIES DO YOU FOLLOW ON SOCIAL MEDIA? expensive.

On Instagram, I follow Peter Andre, all of the Kardashian sisters, all the famous dance choreographers WHY DO YOU HAVE THAT OPINION? such as Brian Friedman etc.

Yeah I feel like people should love you and judge you on who you are, not how you look 74

BY FOLLOWING THEM AND HAVING ACCESS TO PRIVATE

ADDITIONALLY, HAVE YOU EVER FELT A NEED TO CHANGE

ASPECTS OF THEIR LIFE, DO YOU FEEL A CONNECTION TO

YOUR APPEARANCE AFTER SOMETHING YOU HAVE SEEN IN

THE CELEBRITIES YOU FOLLOW?

AN ADVERTISEMENT?

Yeah, you begin to relate to them and when they share moments with you such as parties etc. it makes me feel special and a sense of belonging.

Yeah, I feel bombarded with imagery that makes me feel inadequate every day DO YOU FEEL UNDER A PRESSURE FROM IDEALS PROMOT-

DO YOU THINK INSTAGRAM HAS MORE OF A INFLUENCE

ED THROUGH IMAGES THAT ARE PRINTED IN FASHION

ON YOUR SELF-ESTEEM?

MAGAZINES?

In a way yeah, because you see all these free gifts they get simply because their famous, or the expensive designer clothes they can afford and I get jealous that they can have all these luxuries we can’t but how hard must it be that they are constantly harassed, judged and criticised in everything they post.

Erm... Not so much pressure, but just a sense that in order to fit in and be accepted as normal, you have to look the same as the models and celebrities in them HAVE YOU EVER SUFFERED FROM LOW SELF-ESTEEM?

Yeah, but sometimes I feel that it can leads me to think even more negatively about myself, I’ve also suffered from depression but it wasn’t especially linked to how I looked, although it is often a negativity for me

WHAT IS YOUR IMPRESSION OF CELEBRITY?

You do question why some celebrities are in fact celebrities! Kim Kardashian is a celebrity because her dad left her a load of money, and she made a sex tape, Katie Price is famous for getting her boobs out, its not a talent and because these kinds of celebs are always in the news it doesn’t send out a good role model to young girls. I don’t deny that they probably work hard to keep up this status, but you have to question why we continue to make them famous, because it’s us the public that are making them popular. Other celebrities like Katy Perry and Beyonce can sing, they work really hard but people don’t seem as interested in them.

HAVE YOU EVER PURCHASED A PRODUCT BECAUSE IT WAS PROMOTED BY A CELEBRITY?

Yeah - I buy Beyonce perfume DO YOU BUY IT BECAUSE YOU FEEL THAT BY DOING SO, YOU’LL GAIN SIMILAR ATTRIBUTES TO BEYONCE?

I might smell nicer and perhaps like Beyonce, so boys might be attracted to me and I’ll be be as flawless as her TO WHAT LENGTHS WOULD YOU GO, TO FIT THE IDEALS

DO YOU FEEL LIKE REALITY STARS SUCH AS KIM KAR-

PROMOTED BY SOCIETY?

I would never consider something permanent or too extreme like cosmetic surgery. I would go on a diet, and change the way I dress but nothing that is too expensive.

DASHIAN ARE LESS INFLUENTIAL TO YOU ?

Yeah, I admire celebrities like Beyonce because they work incredibly hard and I feel like because they have a talent, that they have had to prove and work for to get the recognition they have. I feel I can relate to Beyonce more because Kim Kardashian seems to have just inherited her fame.

Do you feel a strong influence by advertisements?

Yeah I do, I see them and think oh I need that! and then when I go to buy I get a sense of oh actually you don’t need this for the price it is, simply because of the brand or celebrity face attached to it which adds about £20 onto something that you can get for half the price without it.

WHY DO YOU HAVE THAT OPINION?

Yeah I feel like people should love you and judge you on who you are, not how you look.

HAVE YOU EVER HAD ASPIRATIONS TO BE FAMOUS, OR THAT YOU WISH YOU WERE A CELEBRITY?

Yeah in magazines and on TV, celebrities lifestyles always seen so amazing and care-free. It doesn’t look like they have to cope with any of the same stresses we do, like worrying about finances, paying bills etc.

DO YOU FEEL INFLUENCED TO PURCHASE A PRODUCT IT IS

IS THE ENVIABLE LIFESTYLE, ONE OF THE REASONS WHY

ASSOCIATED WITH A CELEBRITY?

YOU ARE INTERESTED IN CELEBRITY GOSSIP AND MEDIA?

Yes I do, particularly beauty products like make-up and hair because I feel that if the celebrity is using it and looks good that if I use it, I will look good aswell

Yeah, in some cases I think that they are role models for example Beyonce and her talent for dancing.

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WHAT IS YOUR IMPRESSION OF CELEBRITY?

DO YOU HAVE ANY CELEBRITY ROLE MODELS?

You do question why some celebrities are in fact celebrities! Kim Kardashian is a celebrity because her dad left her a load of money, and she made a sex tape, Katie Price is famous for getting her boobs out, its not a talent and because these kinds of celebs are always in the news it doesn’t send out a good role model to young girls. I don’t deny that they probably work hard to keep up this status, but you have to question why we continue to make them famous, because it’s us the public that are making them popular. Other celebrities like Katy Perry and Beyonce can sing, they work really hard but people don’t seem as interested in them.

Yeah I admire some celebrities, both for their talent and appearance. Marilyn Monroe is a big inspiration to me because she was described as being very humble and sweet. She was also a size 14, she didn’t care about how she looked in comparison to the celebrities who are in magazines nowadays. Everything is related to diets, how they look, boobs ....

WHAT IS YOUR IMPRESSION OF AVERAGE/LARGER SIZE ROLE MODELS IN THE MEDIA SUCH AS GEMMA COLLINS AND ADELE?

I admire Adele because she is very reclusive and not in the media as much as Gemma Collins. I feel that even though Gemma Collins promotes this characteristic of being body confident about her size, her columns paint a different story because they are always about weight, and how she doesn’t want to lose weight to fit into society, then the following week she’ll be showing off her extreme weight-loss following a harmful diet plan. Everything still revolves around this whole its the way you look judgement

DO YOU FEEL LIKE REALITY STARS SUCH AS KIM KARDASHIAN ARE LESS INFLUENTIAL TO YOU ?

Yeah, I admire celebrities like Beyonce because they work incredibly hard and I feel like because they have a talent, that they have had to prove and work for to get the recognition they have. I feel I can relate to Beyonce more because Kim Kardashian seems to have just inherited her fame.

HOW OFTEN DO YOU READ CELEBRITY GOSSIP/FASHION

DO YOU FEEL A STRONG INFLUENCE BY ADVERTISEMENTS?

MAGAZINES?

Yeah I do, I see them and think oh I need that! and then when I go to buy I get a sense of oh actually you don’t need this for the price it is, simply because of the brand or celebrity face attached to it which adds about £20 onto something that you can get for half the price without it.

I tend to spend a lot of time reading articles on the internet more than magazines, I probably spend about 6 hours a day on the internet, or on social networking sites like Instagram and Facebook reading or looking at celebrity pictures.

WHAT CELEBRITIES DO YOU FOLLOW ON SOCIAL MEDIA?

On Instagram, I follow Peter Andre, all of the Kardashian sisters, all the famous dance choreographers such as Brian Friedman etc.

BY FOLLOWING THEM AND HAVING ACCESS TO PRIVATE ASPECTS OF THEIR LIFE, DO YOU FEEL A CONNECTION TO THE CELEBRITIES YOU FOLLOW?

Yeah, you begin to relate to them and when they share moments with you such as parties etc. it makes me feel special and a sense of belonging.

DO YOU THINK INSTAGRAM HAS MORE OF A INFLUENCE ON YOUR SELF-ESTEEM?

In a way yeah, because you see all these free gifts they get simply because their famous, or the expensive designer clothes they can afford and I get jealous that they can have all these luxuries we can’t but how hard must it be that they are constantly harassed, judged and criticised in everything they post.

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chelsea wa l l i s