Chocolate Teacher is...
An AmericAn negro Super Hero? Michael Lang Book Review February 11, 2009
Remember Americans, that we must and shall be free and enlightened as you are, will you wait until we shall, under God, obtain our liberty by the crushing arm of power? Will it not be dreadful for you? I speak Americans for you good. We must and shall be free I say, in spite of you. You may do your best to keep us in wretchedness and misery, to enrich you and your children; but God will deliver us from under you. And wo, wo, will be to you if we have to obtain our freedom by fighting. - David Walker, Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World
In his book, The Civil Rights Movement, Bruce Dierenfield posits that the movement was born due to Negro slavery and the his continued mistreatment at the hands of his oppressors after “emancipation.” In addition, it is his opinion that sans postReconstruction, leaders such as Ida B. Wells-Barnett, W.E.B. DuBois, and Booker T. Washington spurred the Civil Rights movement via open discussion, scholarly writing, and the creation of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). World War I, World War II, and the Great Depression also contributed to the general unease of blacks about their lack of an “American Dream.” Once the movement began, it was bigger than simply on individual, this individual usually being Martin Luther King. It was the brain child of many men and women, black and white, Catholic and Protestant, gay and straight, with many of its members never really being recognized for their achievements and contributions. Personalities and egos constantly clashed as different visions of “America” and the subsequent actions to achieve those visions differed. Though helmed originally by older blacks, it was the nascent attitudes and urgent action adopted by its younger members that truly caused the movement to spread be effectively. The civil rights movement was an endeavor that eventually produced mixed results in our society. Though it achieved an amelioration of the Negro condition in America, in addition to inspiring similar downtrodden groups to act in kind, the vestiges of its leadership are now seen as ineffectual against the current ravages of the black and poor communities.
One of the most significant events in the Civil Rights movement was James Meredith’s integration of the University of Mississippi. It was important not only because Meredith was a veteran of the American Armed Forces, but also because it defused the arguments made by many racist (read: unintelligent) Americans. Despite being shipped to America for the expressed purpose of free labor, the constant historical caricature of the American Negro has been that of a slothful, lazy, meandering, womanizing, jiggaboo who must be constantly encouraged, usually through coercive means, to perform a task. Meredith was the antithesis of this argument. A Southern black man that was pursuing a law degree deflated this asinine theory and forced Southern “gentlemen” to reveal that their hate was predicated only on the visceral: one’s skin color. That a state’s governor would deny one of his taxpayers an opportunity for advancement or that lives would be lost or threaten because one wanted to give his education is a situation that one would like to believe never occurred in our “great” country. The Meredith case “humanizes” blacks as individuals that only desire the same right to success and failure that is availed others in the American landscape. Much as the Brown case and the Little Rock Nine before, Meredith proves that it was not handouts that blacks wanted or preferential treatment, but opportunity to prove their worth. It is unfortunate that they were blatantly denied that opportunity and that many urban dwellers, predominantly minority children, are continually denied that opportunity to this day.
The actions taken by four gentlemen on Monday, February 1, 1960, changed the Civil Rights movement. Not order to do so by a ‘leader,’ the gentlemen sat at the segregated counter in a Woolworth store due to the direction of their won consciences. Though they had been privy to the message of the movement, they acted of their own accord in a manner they had devised themselves. Their actions and success sparked others to do similar things all over the country. That they were not the “stars” of the Civil Rights movement is the most important thing. Their image is not the image that one conjures when one is asked to think about the Civil Rights movement, yet their actions rival those taken by the more famous of the movement. Four teenagers made a difference that is indelible in American history and did so without malice or violence.
Remembered for helping to craft one of the singular images of the Civil Rights movement, Bayard Rustin quickly became a fixture in the movement. He would become, amongst other things, the right hand man of Dr. Martin Luther King, aiding him in the formation of the Southern Leadership Christian Conference (SCLC). Raised by pacifist NAACP members who often hosted DuBois and James Weldon Johnson, one could predict that Bayard Rustin was predetermined to be a heavy contributor to the Civil Rights movement. Rustin helped to plan the initial “March on Washington” in 1941 with his mentor, A. Philip Randolph, which was postponed due to FDR’s signing of the Fair Employment Act. He was a founder of the Congress on Racial Equality (CORE). Heavily influenced by both Thoreau and Gandhi, Rustin refused to serve in the Armed Forces and was imprisoned for 3 years. However, it is for organizing the “March on Washington” that he is most recognized. Though his former membership in the American Communist Party and homosexuality put his being offered the job in a tenuous position, he was eventually was given charge of planning the historic march. With a purported 250,000 to 400,000 participants, the “March on Washington” is one of the most famous events in American history. His importance for organizing the “March” notwithstanding, he also went on to champion gay rights in America.
The greatest winner in the history of professional basketball, William Felton “Bill� Russell also struck major blows in the name of equal rights in America. Though largely unrecruited out of high school, Russell went on to star at the University of San Francisco. His stellar player caught the eye of Boston Celtics legend Red Auerbach, who traded for him, and also drafted his teammate, K.C. Jones, another black player. Russell would go onto win a gold medal in the 1956 Olympic Games as a member of the U.S. basketball team and 11 championships in 13 seasons as a member of the Celtics. It is due largely to his presence that defense, preventing teams from scoring points, became an invaluable part of game of basketball. He also has the distinction of being the first black coach in NBA history as he was player-coach for the Boston Celtics for three seasons (1966-1969). This achievement and his success, one finals lost and two championships, he proved that blacks had not only had the ability to be successful athletes, but also successful tacticians . His accomplishments debunked racist attitudes that blacks could not outthink their white counterparts and be successful when placed in positions of leadership.
http://www.freewebs.com/ucdjudoclub/JesseOwens_1936Olympics.jpg
Never recognized by FDR or Truman and much maligned by those of the Civil Rights movement as an “Uncle Tom,” Jesse Owens was nonetheless integral to the rise of the American Negro and therefore the Civil Rights movement. Born in Alabama, but raised in Cleveland, Owens would star at the Ohio State University. At Ohio State, he was segregated from his teammates by having to sleep in “black only” hotels and eat at “black only” restaurants. Despite his prowess, he never received a scholarship and worked part-time to pay his tuition. His importance to the movement comes from his dramatic athletic display in the 1936 Olympics, which struck a blow at Nazi German assertions of superiority, inspired Americans, and further evinced American hypocrisy. In front of “the Fuhrer,” Owens would win four gold medals in the 100 m, 200m, 4x 100m relay, and long jump. He also was able to stay in the same hotels with teammates for the first time. Once he returned to the United States, Owens was given a parade, but was forced to use a freight elevator to attend his own party at the Waldorf-Astoria. Just as WWII veterans would perceive, Owens began to understand that there was a different reality to be lived. After deciding to return to the United States to cash on lucrative endorsement deals rather than compete with the US track team, Owens would be stripped of amateur status and therefore could not longer compete. He would languish for years, working at a gas station and racing horses, amongst other things, before succumbing to cancer at age 66. His inspiration for the generation that would become the Civil Rights generation was profound and gave them confidence that they too could stand toe to toe with their oppressors and gain victory.
1.Blacks were given opportunities to vote, free of molestation. 2.The number of blacks seeking and achieving political office increased. 3.Black access to quality education increased. 4.Black Northerners returned to the South, helping to create a more robust economy. 5.The Black middle class has increased. 6.Blacks still have a large unemployed block. 7.Dr. Martin Luther King is the only non-white male with a Federal holiday. 8.Resegregation has occurred in schools. 9.Urban decay continues. 10.Many other groups (the disabled, Latinos, women) have sought to increase their standing in the American landscape.
Dierenfeld’s book is divided into five parts and thirteen chapters of text. There are also documents and reference materials at the end of the book, which include a “Who’s Who” of the Civil Rights movement and timelines. The book begins with a summation of the problems which arose to necessitate a Civil Rights movement. Part One, entitled “The Mississippi Plan,” is comprised of only one chapter (Jim Crow South) which gives the reader background on the racial tensions between blacks and whites in the Reconstruction and Post-Reconstruction South. Jim Crow laws and their racist proponents snuffed out the early inklings of the Civil Rights movement. Part two of the book, “The New Negro” is three chapters long. The first, “Origins of the Movement,” informs the readers as to the foundation and founders of the Civil Rights movement. The second chapter, “The Brown Decision,” tells one of the impact and history of the Brown v. Board of Education case, the Southern attempts to circumvent or disallow the ruling, and black rebuttals. The final chapter, “The Little Rock Crisis,” tells the tale of the ‘Little Rock Nine’ and their ordeal integrating Little Rock public schools. It details the intervention of the Federal government, the rise of Orval Faubus, the governor of Arkansas, as an archracist, and the eventually installation of integration. Spanning six chapters, Part three, “Freedom Bound,” informs one of the “heyday,” if you will of the Civil Rights Movement. In chapter five, the motivation, manifestation, and results of the Montgomery Bus Boycott are discussed as well as the ‘rise’ of Martin Luther King as one of the focal points of the movement. Chapter Six, “Sit-ins,” introduces a new tool, made famous by four college students in Greensboro, NC, to combat racist. Sitins, simply installing oneself at a segregated place and waiting to be arrested, assaulted, or worse, would become a powerful tool in the Civil Rights Movement. “Freedom Ride,” chapter 7, details the motivations, planning, and results of the “Freedom Ride,” brainchild of James Farmer. The Freedom Riders, who rode buses through South to cause ‘crisis’ and civil disobedience, were able to aid the movement in getting national exposure to the problems faced by blacks in America. Chapter Seven’s, “Battle of Ole Miss,” is the story of James Meredith’s struggle to be admitted into the University of Mississippi. Like the
chapter on the Little Rock Nine, Meredith’s tale is one about integration educational facilities albeit the “Nine’s” did so in a high school and Meredith’s occurred on the playing field of higher education. This chapter details the trials and tribulations involving the case including the intervention of Ross Barnett, Mississippi governor, the Federal Government, and the Citizen Councils. Chapter Nine’s tale of “Bombingham,” details the struggles of blacks in Birmingham, Alabama and the rise of George Wallace, the “most dangerous racist in America,” according Martin Luther King. Birmingham gained the moniker due to amount of violence and vehemence of the white Southerners in response to the Civil Rights movement. Due to pressure placed on the Federal Government, Birmingham was eventually desegregated. The final chapter, “March on Washington,” identifies the necessity, politics and key figures in sculpting what is one of the centerpieces of the movement. From Bayard Rustin’s homosexuality, to J. Edgar Hoover’s meddling, to John F. Kennedy’s fears that the march would damage his ability to face the Soviet Union, the chapter takes one on a journey of all facets and perspectives on the March. Part Four of the book called “The Movement Fractures,” details the fall of the Civil Rights Movement. “Freedom Summer” (Chapter 11) recalls the SNCC led movement to engage, educate, and vote register Mississippians and the barrage of hate and disdain that was encountered there. This chapter also mentions the exploits of Fannie Lou Hamer and the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party and their blackballing at the hands of Hubert H. Humphrey. This event caused SNCC to fracture into two parts: a militant wing and a moderate wing. “Bloody Sunday” (Chapter 12) is the story of Selma, Alabama and the struggle for voting rights and equality there. On March 7, 1965, marchers, in defiance of Gov. George Wallace, attempted to cross the Edward Pettus Bridge and were summarily beaten. This incident mobilized many to the cause of the Civil Rights movement. Though the Selma incidents led to positive change, it also led to the increase feelings of abandonment by some blacks and the rise of the Black Power movement. The final part of the book, “The Dream Deferred,” consists of only chapter thirteen (Black Power) and an assessment of the Civil Rights movement. Though the Civil Rights movement was in many ways successful, many, especially those left in the ghettoes and underprivileged areas that began to be even more so after white flight and the ‘liberation’
of the black middle class, began to question their place in America once again. Rioting began from Watts to Detroit. MLK’s overtures in Chicago yielded no relief for residents there. Many turned to donning traditional African attire or to organizations like the Black Panthers that proposed more violent means of insurrection. In the end, King would be assassinated which would lead to more rioting, the Panthers would be destroyed, facilitating the rise of the modern urban street gangs and gang culture in California, and the movement’s effectiveness was reduced greatly.
Dierenfield does a very nice job of summarizing the entire movement in such a short book. He is able to discuss and reveal many facets of the movement and this use of quotes and primary source materials is also a positive. The book is a great reference for those that are unfamiliar with the Civil Rights movement and need a crash course or the individual that does have some background into the movement’s history and wishes a refresher. It is written rather simply, but would be too mature for elementary students to read. It would be an invaluable text in a high school classroom as a seminar, especially due to the wealth of resources found in the back of the book. I do wish however more would have been made of Malcolm X and A. Philip Randolph’s contributions. Though mentioned, they are not treated with the same depth as Martin Luther King is. Once could argue that Randolph in many ways is the ‘father’ of the movement sans the charisma evinced by MLK. Overall, the book is a fine text and would that should be referred to whether as a reference source or a seminar book.
The product of all majority black schools in Washington, DC, the concepts of this text are not new ones. My teachers constantly reminded me as a youngster of the sacrifices and lessons not only of the Civil Rights movement, but also of the antebellum blacks, Civil War blacks, Reconstruction and Post-Reconstruction blacks as well. Overall the idea that there is a universality to humanity and that all organisms only desire an equal opportunity is something has pervaded and will pervade my instruction. Using the Civil Rights era as an example and this text with its bounty of resources could aid me greatly in that task. The inclusion of lesser known black individuals in history like David Walker, Hiram Revels, and Oscar DePriest would also evince to students that the Civil Rights Era did not spontaneously generate, but was the product of years of pressure. It would also be beneficial to compare and contrast civil rights in America and Canada something that is rarely done. I will endeavor to refer to the Dierenfield text because I did enjoy reading it and believe it to be a worthwhile resource.