Electric Planes - the future or science fiction?

Max Rosenblatt Lower Sixth

Whether one watches the news every morning on a TV, or still prefer a newspaper, it seems that we are constantly bombarded by the same prevalent problems. I’ll refrain from mentioning the bureaucracy of the “B-word” and turn to something else that is completely unavoidable - climate change. Every day there seems to be a new story about Greta Thunberg, or another celebrity denounced for flying first class, or how we seem to be ploughing towards a “point of no return”. It’s clear that actions are being taken internationally towards reducing the rate of this possibly apocalyptic change, and it feels like something is looming which could be nothing short of revolutionary - electric planes (i.e. planes in which propulsion comes from an electric motor, not an internal combustion engine).

Some knowledge of current plane engines is useful when evaluating how an electric plane would be structured. Today, plane engines can be categorised into three main categories: Turbofan (the simplest form of engine, used in present-day military jets), turboprop (in which the engine drives a propellor to generate thrust, most efficient at slower speeds) and turbofan (designed to merge the best features of the turbojet and turboprop, used in modern day passenger range as its larger counterparts. On the planes). subject of size, larger planes can often A plane’s efficiency is often characterised be burdens for airports and airlines. by its engine’s bypass ratio, that is, the ratio For example, the Airbus 380, the largest between the mass flow rate of the bypass current passenger aircraft, theoretically stream to the mass flow rate entering the should have a wingspan of 90 metres for core. A 10:1 bypass ratio, for example, optimal efficiency, but airport restrictions means that 10 kg of air passes through the (maximum size of 80 metres by 80 meters) bypass duct for every 1 kg of air passing have forced Airbus to shorten this to less through the core. than 80 metres, which reduces the 380’s fuel One of the main aims for aircraft efficiency. manufacturers over the last few years With this in mind, we can see that airlines has been to fit planes with engines that prioritise efficiency over size, which is have high bypass ratios - leading to better important when theorising about a new fuel economy. form of aircraft. Notably, Boeing’s 787 Dreamliner, commonly fit with [A]irlines prioritise The other issue that plagues the concept of electric planes either Rolls Royce efficiency over (or rather, electric vehicles or General Electric engines (both of which have high size, which is important when in general) is the extremely low energy density that is currently achieved by cuttingbypass ratios), is theorising about edge batteries compared to being used in place of larger aircraft like Boeing’s 747 a new form of aircraft. fossil fuels such as kerosene. For comparison, one kilogram of aircraft fuel will store or Airbus’ 380, around 42.7MJ of energy. as the 787 can The current “best” battery, be more easily filled, and so can operate in terms of energy capacity, will hold only more bespoke routes with the same around 1MJ per kilogram. That being

said, this specific type of battery, NCA (or Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide) Although this may make the idea of electric batteries, is a poor choice for aircraft planes seem somewhat confined to surreal energy storage due to its high cost. This science fiction, there have been various specific battery type is currently used in concepts in recent times. Mainly, these Tesla Motors powertrains, a testament to applications have been for short-medium its comparatively high energy density. range flights (the current consensus Due to the breadth of the characteristics suggests that electric long-haul flights are when selecting battery not even remotely types, there are reasons why visionary battery manufacturers shouldn’t [T]here are reasons why feasible at the moment due to the aforementioned just be investing their visionary battery problem of battery resources into researching NCA batteries for their high density, but also into manufacturers shouldn’t just be density), and have considered the idea of hybrid Li-manganese (LMO) and/ investing their technology, enabling or Li-phosphate (LFP) batteries for their high thermal stability - this resources into researching NCA airlines to cut CO2 emissions significantly by could prove vital on batteries for their switching on aircraft, where power requirements fluctuate. high density. the electrical component of their Analysing the current propulsion at the state of batteries, therefore, it’s clear key points in a flight - take-off and landing. that considerable work needs to be done Large names such as Airbus, Rolls-Royce in order to bring the energy density of and Siemens are working together on the batteries much closer to that of current E-Fan X aircraft, which aims to be flying by aviation fuel before long-range electric next year. planes begin to become feasible. A study ran the numbers for a Boeing 787 Similarly, the Israeli business Eviation and calculated its theoretical range if all of says that its aircraft - called Alice - will its fuel were replaced with batteries with carry nine passengers for up to 1,040km an energy density of 1.08MJ (i.e. conserving (650 miles) at 10,000ft (3,000m) at 440km/h its fuel mass fraction), and found that it (276mph). It is expected to enter service in only had a range of 740km, compared with 2022. 15,400km when powered by fossil fuels. This is less than 5% of its original range and For something less theoretical, the provides some clear evidence that batteries e-Genius, developed at the Institute simply are not ready yet. of Aircraft Design at the University of 20 Stuttgart in 2010-11, made a flight over 340 km (211 miles) and an average speed of more than 160 km/h (100 mph), powered entirely by a fuel cell system. This was claimed to be the longest distance ever flown with an electric aircraft by that time. There is only one e-Genius in existence, so the project doesn’t provide much of a testament to the possibility of mass-produced electric planes, but provides some hope that progress is being made.

More recently Harbour Air, a Vancouver-based seaplane airline, retrofitted their De Havilland Beaver with an electric engine. According to The New York Times: “The aircraft will be able to fly for 30 minutes with a 30-minute reserve on a one-hour charge. They will plug-in and charge at the Vancouver Harbour Flight Centre dock, and pull from BC Hydro, the provincial energy utility’s hydroelectric power grid, itself a renewable source of energy”.

De Haviland Seaplane

In Harbour Air’s case, not only is the between the United States and China under aircraft powered by an electric motor, the Trump administration, but the initial but the energy that is provided is from plans for the reactor show great prospects hydroelectric power (HEP). This is a twofor nuclear power - which would further part success, since HEP itself does not reduce the National Grid’s dependency pollute. One of the main arguments against on fossil fuels, and make electric planes electric aircraft (and electric vehicles in even “greener” (although nuclear power general) is that the energy source of the is not renewable, there are no immediate batteries often is not renewable. In the past pollutants, and Terrapower’s reactor uses year, the UK National Grid has averaged depleted uranium, a natural waste product only 22.3% of all of traditional reactors). energy generated [I]f efficient With all of these factors in from renewable sources. Some 42.9% was from electric planes were mind, allow us to consider the changes that would occur if the world’s fleet fossil fuels (only implemented of planes were replaced 2.1% from coal, however), and the remaining internationally, the consequences with electric equivalents. Theoretically speaking, if efficient electric planes were 26.2% was from would not be as implemented internationally, mainly nuclear and biomass. Renewable energy large as one might imagine. the consequences would not be as large as one might imagine. The aviation is becoming more industry only produces 2% of prevalent, however, all human-induced CO2. and one should hope to see this proportion increase in the coming years. Furthermore, Unfortunately, a large proportion of the revolutionary work is being done in nuclear world’s aviation CO2 emissions comes from power to make it safer and more efficient. long-haul flights, and so there will have to Terrapower, an American company with be immense increases in battery efficiency investment from Bill Gates, was close to before a sizeable difference is made to building a breakthrough nuclear reactor overall aviation emissions. However, for in China, to be constructed by 2022. These airlines, electric aircraft would massively plans were halted by worsening relations reduce operating costs, since electricity is significantly cheaper than current aircraft fuel. Furthermore, it could be said that electric aircraft would be more comfortable for passengers, since electric motors are much quieter than internal combustion engines (anybody who has been in an electric car will probably agree with this statement).

In conclusion, it is clear that there is a long way to go before one will be boarding an electric plane in the same way one would today, but it is promising that many of the most powerful companies are working towards such a feat, with consistent breakthroughs in battery technology and aircraft design. Electric planes are not here yet, but they certainly are not science fiction. If anything, they are inevitable.

Nature in relation to architecture

Bella Mearns Upper Sixth

Milwaukee Art Museum

In modern and contemporary design, ‘form’ in the vast majority of cases, follows function, as coined by Louis Sullivan. Centuries ago, however, architecture was a far more aesthetically driven discipline focussing on displays of grandeur and wealth, which can be seen in late Roman architecture. This was highly characterised by its formalised qualities of decoration along with structures developed by ancient Greeks balancing out the two components of functionality and form. Although a return to design led by function dominated 20th-century architecture, more recently architects have experimented with aesthetics based on animals and nature, enabling them to create, arguably the most advanced structures that have ever been seen. Ancient Greeks were also inspired greatly by natural forms which can be seen within the decorative elements of their columns and pillars and in other art. However, contemporary architects have been able to develop these ideas with technology where the inspiration from nature encompasses the entire building rather than any singular or superficial element. As each species has developed schools of architecture to embrace nature over millions of years, it is able to function as opposed to restricting the organic form with the minimum means as the ultimate which is seen commonly in modernism structure within its environment, therefore suggesting the old authoritative opinions of the design industry is moving towards a both the modernists and their repudiators more nature-inspired understanding of has crumpled. Occasionally, architects how manmade structures employ animal can echo these strengths. From looking at a vast range of architecture Ancient Greeks were also inspired greatly forms for symbolic and metaphoric today, it is evident that by natural forms reasons, Nature contemporary architects are more readily taking up these ideas in order to which can be seen within the decorative motivates an idea of structure or create the best designs elements of their skin or building visually and functionally possible. columns and pillars and in other art. function. Sometimes architects have Nature used in been inspired architecture or Zoomorphic architecture to inject playful animalistic motifs into takes animal forms or animal components their building plans, such as Santiago (such as bones or select limbs) as the Calatrava, Le Corbusier, and Basil al inspirational basis and outline for Bayati, just to name a few famous ones. architectural design, using nature as Some common examples of Zoomorphic a metaphor between the living and architecture can be found in the TWA inanimate. The practice is said by some to Flight Centre building in New York City be a response against some of the modern by Eero Saarinen, or the Milwaukee Art 22

Museum by Santiago Calatrava, both inspired by the form of a bird’s wings. While animal forms have constantly played a role in adding some of the most profound layers of importance to architecture, it is now becoming clearer that a new strand of bio-morphism is emerging where the meaning derives not from any specific portrayal, but from a more general allusion to biological processes. The many new structures that suspend masses like amoebae within otherwise Cartesian volumes are illustrative of this new Nicholas Grimshaw’s expansion to Waterloo Station phenomenon; so are those computerised manifestations that use ever developing algorithms as their preferred methods of did to our sense of connection with nature, generating structures. Now more than and even when it has not been seen in ever, this startling new trend is surfacing fashion, there have been influential figures more frequently with the use of computers such as Alvar Aalto, Le Corbusier, and and new materials. This allows designers Wright, whom all strove to lay emphasis on to create more fluid shapes and a new this connection. grandiosity among structural engineers that allows forms envisioned on a computer Nature to the exclusion of everything else screen to be constructed, fuelling a was Wright’s most inspirational force. For revolution of appearance that is now him, organic architecture was a translation filtering through to other areas of design. of nature’s principles presented in buildings that were in concordance with their general Every so often, architects tend to play with surroundings. Wright was interested in the the possibility of organicism. There was connection between buildings and their a break in this enthusiasm following the surrounding environments. He believed Art Nouveau and the First World War, and that a building should complement its restoration during environment in order to the 1950s, before the present resurgence The alluring create a single, unified space that “grows which started in convolution of its naturally” out of the the 1990s. The intervening periods of the 1920s-1930s light-drenched platform hall ground. He additionally imagines that a building should work like a and 1960s-1980s were makes Waterloo cohesive organism, where ruled by the austerities of innovation and late modernism. The international Terminal a glory each part of the design relates to the entirety of the function. Wright’s revival, if that it was to rank with organic architecture often of organic architecture in the late 40s and 50s was made possible the greatest Victorian railroad incorporates natural components such as light, plants, and water into his by the Second World architecture. designs. His well-known War developments celebrated design of in concrete construction as much as Fallingwater is one of many examples of his art nouveau was by the use of steel and organicism, with the title being a primary glass. Architects and engineers such clue to the building’s inspirations and as Luigi Nervi and Gio Ponti as well as appearance. His romantic vision of man Oscar Niemeyer exploited reinforced living in congruity with nature is finalised concretes structural potential, while others by the native rhododendron colourings. pushed in a biomorphic direction. The It also becomes complete because of the triumphant projects of this decade are mature trees that scatter the rough slopes Eero Saarinen’s aquiline TWA terminal of the forested glen and a waterfall that at New York’s Kennedy Airport and Jørn feeds into a mountain stream, which all Utzon’s Polysemous opera house. In fact, enlivened the design of this dwelling. organicism has been fairly prevalent at least Additionally, rather than attempt to move since the Art Nouveau. Despite the damage a large boulder, Wright incorporated it into that the modern movement undoubtedly his design to serve as the hearth, which coordinated perfectly with the flagstone floor and set walls with irregularly sized stones, creating a more natural appearance. He provided a place for natural foliage by opening up spaces with mass expanses of glass and wrap-around corner windows. There is also a hatch that opens to a suspended stairway with provides ventilation as well as access to the stream below. Furthermore, more zoomorphically, at the Guggenheim Museum, it is thought that a nautilus shell inspired the spiral ramp and that the radial symmetry of a spider web informed the design of the rotunda skylight.

Opposing to the sublime side identifying with biomorphic architecture, there is additionally the ridiculous side. For there is a vernacular tradition of buildings that represent animals in the most literal way. Specimens such as the Big Duck – a shop in the shape of a duck selling decoys, commended by Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown who began to proliferate the 20th century, despite the fact the trend was perhaps started by Lucy the elephant, a coastline attraction in Margate.

A partial example of zoomorphic architecture closer to home would be Nicholas Grimshaw’s expansion to Waterloo station. The alluring convolution of its light-drenched platform hall makes Waterloo international Terminal a glory to rank with the greatest Victorian railroad architecture. The 400-metre roof-top structure is made out of 36 squashed 3 pin, bowstring curves spanning between 35 and 50 metres. Each glass plane that creates the curved ceiling is hung from the steel structure along one edge by means of adjustable sections but is left free to move at its different edges, the other lower edge being fixed vertically, while windscreen-wiper-like connections allow for a sliding horizontal seal. The result looks

rather like the scales of an animal such as a plated lizard. The structure is similar to the human skeleton of a finger. The rounded finger curves over the track to create an enclosure of the space. Although the design is more genuine to anthropomorphic ideals yet in translation, it loses a significant part of the principles of the human finger or hand, such as the relationship of the skeletal structure, in the final structural arrangement. In the human hand, the more upholstered bones are found nearer the wrist, so you have fewer motor skills in this area, and as the bones extend to the fingers, they become progressively delicate. So to match this with the station, Grimshaw has placed the bulk of the structural support towards the finger region, making the wrist thinner. Although many of the principles of the human structure are broken here, this needed to occur in order to provide

a large span across the tracks and have a sound structural system that could be installed and manufactured at a reasonable cost, an unfortunately large limitation for architects.

Although zoomorphism can present opportunities, it also has its limitations. In nature, the structure of the body becomes smaller as less force is applied upon the member, as the body varies in order to accommodate its various parts and forces. Along these lines, it is important to note that animals don’t achieve a satisfying state of symmetry; their development is a procedure of symmetry loss. Bilateral symmetry is all that is left after development from a spherically symmetric fertilised egg. Imagine this egg at the point of intersection of three lines, running up and down, left and right, and front and

Le Corbusier back. As the cells divide over and over throughout the course of development, the organism loses symmetry. Although as we build, the redundancy of specific components becomes more practical as it is more affordable for produce and it means you can carry uniform loads throughout the structure, additionally in a timely manner, so exceptions must be made to the rules of nature.

One of many ideal candidates for the inspiration of architecture zoomorphically would be the skeleton of a fish. They are extremely symmetrical (except until they squirm) and although very delicate, the fish can withhold substantial amounts of pressure as the bone structure allows for variance in stresses at different parts of the body with its varying size of elements based upon the forces exerted at their location. The ribs and the spine perform the majority of the structural stabilisation, where the spine connects to the skull and tail fin bones. The spine in any mammal’s body is one of the most important structural elements, so applying this idea to a building would be a preliminary exercise. Practically and financially, it is perfect as the elements of the skeleton are repetitive and flexible, allowing the fish body to warp itself and drive itself through the water.

Food for thought – how is veganism affecting the economy? This was written for the Bank of England blog competition

Jack Ramseyer Lower Sixth

From full fat milk to almond milk, beef solid foundation for investors. Moreover, mince to tofu, the number of vegans in the the market is regulating itself as in 2018, UK has grown fourfold in the past four the US Vegan Climate Index (VEGAN) years from 150,000 to 600,000 according to was established to differentiate companies the Vegan Society, and this could be the that contribute to the usage of animals answer to climate change. from those trying to decrease their carbon footprint. Since then VEGAN has unfailing Companies are already beginning to realise scored higher returns than that of the this change as in 2017, Elmhurst (one of Solactive US Large Cap Index with a 10% America’s longest return, showing the real running dairies) made the decision to switch to entirely produce [I]f people continue to follow surge in popularity. Companies have been and distribute plantcurrent trends of hugely affected by this based milk. This was after the company was impacted by a 7% meat consumption it could cost real surge in popularity, as Tesco suggest the demand for vegan decline in the index the US between ready meals and snacks in 2015 and now milk is seen as surplus due to the fall in demand. $197bn and $289bn each year. increased by 40% in 2018 and this is very likely to increase into This fall in demand the future. Here are would force dairy companies to sell at a some problems and it will impact farmers; cheaper price causing profits to plummet, they believe that they just need to prove so surely other companies are going to and that they produce food in a healthy manner should follow Elmhurst’s path. to counteract this rise of veganism and that they are not too worried as dairy products Plant-based dairy alternatives have made still infiltrate into 98% of UK homes. In a notable profit on the market and with a the future, farmers will not be able to just surge of 20% in growth, producing $700 show that they produce meat in a ‘healthy million in sales, producers are building a manner’, as in reality they are still killing animals to attain their meat for consumers.

So, will enough people change their diet? With the ever-growing influence of veganism, surely, we will all be on a plant-based diet sooner rather than later. The switch could be driven by prices of meat being increased by an indirect tax from the government, but rising prices may have this effect anyway. The University of Oxford estimate that if people continue to follow current trends of meat consumption it could cost the US between $197bn and $289bn each year - $1.6 tn globally - by 2050. As well as this, and more importantly, the number of obesity and chronic disease related deaths could be averted, this would be at least 320,000 deaths saved per year in the USA, which cannot be ignored.

In the future, veganism is going to have a transformative effect on the economy due to how climate change is ever-present, and I most definitely see it as a potential answer to this catastrophic situation.