WINTER 2015
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RESEARCH IN FOCUS
T BLE /CONTENTS 10 18 26 31
from the
Editors
This issue was an education both
OF\
5
BOUNDLESS LOVE O FOR A MUSE OF FIRE
for us and all the people who made it
rubric inspired by one used by
possible. We discovered new
Professor Ricardo Gomez and his
research subjects like measuring
TAs in LIS 570. We also received
ASD accessibility in library services
special guidance from Professor
and information overload in the
Helene Williams, our advisor and
online dating scene. Students
cheerleader. Finally, none of this
learned first-hand about the peer
would have been possible without
review process, a new experience for
the leadership of Mia Klaus, who
our reviewers as well as authors who
coordinated peer reviews, contacted
took their comments into
the reviewers, and made sure the
consideration.
process ran smoothly.
This has also been our most
This issue of Circulation is a
difficult issue to put together to date.
reflection of the broad spectrum of
Fortunately for us, though, there are
research areas in the iSchool and the
more people than ever who stepped
dedication that fuels them. Our
THE INFORMATION BEHAVIOR OF
up and made it possible! A team of
writers reveal both their passion and
ASTROPHYSICISTS
iSchool students dedicated their time
curiosity on every page. We hope
to reviewing every article that you
that Circulation continues to be a
will read in this issue. They were
forum for students to express their
Erin Gordenier, Ashley Farley, Brian
ideas and research—and we hope you
David, Bree Norlander, and Audrey
will be inspired in your own research
YOU CAN’T BACKSTAB WITH A BALLISTA
INVESTIGATING NEURODIVERSITY IN ACADEMIC LIBRARIES
36
ONLINE TUTORIALS AS TOOLS FOR INFORMATION LITERACY
42
GENDER ASSOCIATIONS IN PICTURE BOOKS Megan Carlin Co-Editor-in-Chief MLIS Candidate
Becky Ramsey Co-Editor-in-Chief MLIS Candidate 2
Lorberfeld. We provided them with a
3
CIRCULATION: RESEARCH IN FOCUS
how users deal with the
Boundless Love, Endless Possibilities
The Illusion of Unlimited Choice in Online Dating Leizel Jackson Case , MLIS
of unlimited choice
It is interesting to think about how my parents’
Introduction
story would play out today. A limited dating market
The search for a significant other is often a major
surely played a part in their coming together. At the
priority in a single person’s life. When faced with the
time, placing a personal ad cost money. As my
challenge of finding a suitable romantic partner,
mother did not have an interest in advertising for
people often turn to a third party, family,
pen pals, she had limited options with foreign pen
matchmakers or their social circle. In recent years,
process information
pals. My father was limited by which publication he
people have introduced the internet into this process
purchased for a list of pen pals. Additionally, had
relying on science to help them find the perfect
they put up profiles on dating websites and viewed
match. In the past, people were often limited by
each others profiles, they probably would have come
geography when finding potential partners. Even
to the conclusion that they had nothing in common.
with newspaper personal ads, people were limited in
On the surface they didn’t. My mother was a recent
ability to reach potential partners by newspaper
make decisions about
college graduate and my father was an auto-worker.
circulation.
She liked the BeeGees and dancing; my father liked
My parents were an unlikely pair who met
the Eagles and never danced. However, they were
through a personal ad and luck. My father who lived
great partners and balanced each other out . Would
in Ohio answered an ad for a woman in the
they have chosen to meet each other when faced with
Philippines who was looking for a husband who lived
thousands of potential partners online?
abroad. The woman who had placed the ad was a
With the advent of the internet, people can find a
friend of my mother’s. After exchanging a few letters
partner on the other side of the globe with a click of a
with my father, this friend decided she wasn’t
button and can have an entire romance
interested in him, but thought my mother might be
online. Interest and rejection are conveyed nearly
and passed on his address. It worked out for the
instantaneously, and with the addition of smart
best, because after corresponding for three years,
phones to their technological arsenal, people can
they fell in love and remained happily married until
constantly check their profile views and messages on
my father passed away in 2009. 4
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CIRCULATION: RESEARCH IN FOCUS
the go or download dating apps. With online dating,
with user. Dating sites refers to “web sites that
sampling booth with 24 jams; on the next Saturday,
relationship too high? What if the prospect of finding
the options available for a romantic partner seem
primarily focus on offering the user opportunities to
they did the same but with just six jams.
an ever-more-compatible mate with the click of a
endless; there are thousands, if not millions of online
form a relationship that has the potential to become
daters out there all over the world. However, this
a dating and perhaps a long-term committed
seem to like the idea of having a lot of choices:
which we keep chasing the elusive rabbit around the
perception of endless possibility in online dating
relationship, such as marriage (Finkel et al, 2012,
More customers approached the 24-jam booth
dating track? (2013)". Slater found that a number of
raises a number of questions: do seemingly limitless
p.7).” The term also applies to apps that serve the
than the six-jam one. But people visiting the 24-jam
executives at dating companies felt that "the rise of
choices in mates make it easier to find a romantic
same purpose. However, his paper focuses on sites
booth tended to try only one or two jams—the same
online dating will mean an overall decrease in
partner? How does the perception of unlimited
and apps that are geared towards relationships
number as people in the six-jam group. When it
commitment(2013)." When Slater interviewed Gian
choice affect an online dater’s decision on who to
rather than sexual encounters. The illusion of
came to buying jam, people in the hella-jams
Gonzaga, a relationship psychologist at eHarmony, a
date? Does this perception of unlimited choice affect
unlimited choice is the perception by the user that
condition shut down, exhibiting what researchers
site that focuses on bringing together online daters
commitment? Are the choices of romantic partners
there is an endless number of potential partners due
call choice paralysis; only 3 percent bought any
seeking long-term relationships, he “acknowledges
truly unlimited?
to the numerous options presented to them in the
jam, whereas 30 percent of people in the six-jam
that commitment is at odds with technology. ‘You
world of online dating.
booth took home a jar.
could say online dating allows people to get into
And this study dealt with jam! Imagine how
relationships, learn things, and ultimately make a
Online dating and the illusion of unlimited choice is an information problem. How users deal with the illusion of unlimited choice affects how they process
Choice Overload
information and make decisions about romantic
Faced with seemingly unlimited choices when it
partners. This paper will explore how perceived
comes to potential partners, people may become
unlimited choice affects users and why choice is
overwhelmed and find themselves facing choice
really not unlimited.
overload. The choice overload hypothesis is defined as “although the provision of extensive choices may
Definitions
sometimes still be seen as initially desirable, it may also prove unexpectedly demoralizing in the end
For the purpose of this paper, online daters are people seeking a romantic partner using online
(Iyenger and Lepper, 2000 p. 996).” Hu (2014)
dating sites or apps, or those using social media for
summarizes one of the studies:
the purpose of finding dates. An online dater is not a
It may seem liberating to live in a land of infinite
person who seeks potential partners via more
choices, but research in decision-making suggests
established means such as meeting through friends
otherwise. In a classic study, Stanford researchers
or family; through venues such as bars or social
set up shop at an upscale grocery store chosen for
events; or through personal advertisements in
its “extraordinary selection” of items, including 300
printed media. The term is used interchangeably
types of jam. One Saturday afternoon, they set up a
6
mouse means a future of relationship instability, in
In a study of jam, They found that people did
much more anxiety online daters must feel when
better selection,’ says Gonzaga. ‘But you could also
evaluating user profiles, especially when they are
easily see a world in which online dating leads to
looking for a potential life partner. Choice overload
people leaving relationships the moment they’re not
has relevance in the world of online dating because
working—an overall weakening of
dating sites that give online daters a limited number
commitment’(2013).”
of matches may be more successful in uniting online daters.
The Illusion of Choice
However, when faced with seemingly infinite
Is choice truly unlimited on a dating website?
choices, online daters may feel more regret over their
One of the reasons that romantic possibilities seem
decision of who to date. Blummer and Kenton point
endless is because there are so many sites, and many
out that “too many choices produce ‘bad decisions’ as
of them claim thousands of users. In truth, however,
well as anxiety, stress, and dissatisfaction (as cited in
as Bridges states "...we have no idea how many active
Schwartz, 2004, 2014).” They may always wonder
members are signed up with how many online
just what else is out there. Slater raises these
services, how many online services (of all types) are
questions in his article, "A Million First Dates,"
in operation, how many are legitimate and so
"...what if online dating makes it too easy to meet
on. Very little regulation of these companies or their
someone new? What if it raises the bar for a good
operations has been implemented…(20, p 4)"
7
CIRCULATION: RESEARCH IN FOCUS
variety of other causes, including a lack of
Additionally, as Amy Webb found out when she thought she finally found the perfect match after
understanding of the information environment in
figuring out how to game the system, “…I’ve done it!
which one is working (Bawden & Robinson, 2009 p
I have just found the Jewish Prince Charming of my
184).” In addition to information anxiety caused by the
family's dreams. There was only one problem: He
References Bawden, D., & Robinson, L. (2009). The dark side of information: overload, anxiety and other paradoxes and pathologies. Journal Of Information Science, 35(2), 180-191. Blummer, B., & M. Kenton, J. (2014). Reducing Patron Information Overload in Academic Libraries. College & Undergraduate Libraries, 21(2), 115-135.
didn't like me back. And I guess the one variable that
abundance of perceived choice, people creating the
Bridges, J. (2012). The illusion of intimacy: problems in the world of online dating. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
I haven't considered is the competition.” For online
algorithms have not yet figured out the optimal
daters, the person they are interested in may not like
formula to match people together on online dating
Finkel, E.J., Eastwick, P.W., Karney, B., Reis, H.T., & Sprecher, S. (2012). Online dating: a critical analysis from the perspectives of psychological science. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 13(1), 3-66.
them for any number of reasons.
sites. What makes people fall in love may never be quantified, but information professionals can
Some online dating sites have tried to limit the dating field by giving people a limited number of
minimize choice overload that online daters may face
matches. For example, eHarmony only allows you to
by contributing to research on information seeking
see profiles of people that they think you are
behaviors of online daters and offering ways to
compatible with; there are also mobile apps like
improve the search process of online dating sites.
Coffee Meets Bagel, which only allows you to see one profile per day. More research should be done on
Conclusion
whether limiting the number of profiles users can
The illusion of unlimited choice in online
view allows online daters to find romantic partners
dating may have an impact on how online daters
more efficiently.
choose potential romantic partners and may have an effect on commitment in relationships. Furthermore,
An information problem?
Hu, J. (2014, October 12). Drowning in jam: “how to conquer decision fatigue.” Slate. Retrieved from http:// www.slate.com/articles/business/productivity/2014/10/ decision_fatigue_ego_depletion_how_to_make_better_decisions.html Iyengar, S. S., & Lepper, M. R. (2000). When choice is demotivating: can one desire too much of a good thing?. Journal Of Personality & Social Psychology, 79(6), 995-1006. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.79.6.995 Slater, D. (2013, January 2) A million first dates. The Atlantic. Retrieved from http://m.theatlantic.com/magazine/ archive/2013/01/a-million-first-dates/309195/ Schwartz, Barry. 2004. The paradox of choice: why more is less. New York: Harper-Collins. Webb, A. (2013) How i hacked online dating. TED transcript. Retrieved from http://www.ted.com/talks/ amy_webb_how_i_hacked_online_dating/transcript?language=en Fisher, K.(2014). Lectures for INFX 598. Retrieved from http://canvas.uw.edu Five laws of library science. Wikipedia. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_laws_of_library_science
online daters may be restricted in their choices because it is difficult to tell how many profiles are of
The illusion of unlimited choice is an information problem because it is related to information
people actively searching for dates, and people the
overload. When faced with too much information on
online daters are interested in may not be interested
potential partners, online daters may not make the
in them. Ultimately, perceived unlimited choice can
most optimal decisions. When faced with so many
cause choice overload and information anxiety. Just
choices, they may feel information anxiety, “a
as there is a book for every reader, there is also a
condition of stress caused by the inability to access,
good match for every online dater. Information
understand, or make use of, necessary information.
professionals can help to figure out how best to
The cause of this may be either information overload
navigate the seemingly limitless options and bring
or insufficient information; it may equally be due to
these online daters together.
poorly organized or presented information, or a 8
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CIRCULATION: RESEARCH IN FOCUS
O for a Muse of Fire
Making Sense of Actors’ Information Behavior
Fisher’s information grounds theory. With their
feelings may have on any given stage of their ISP
focus on social and affective contexts of information
(Kuhlthau 1991). This emotional context is important
seeking and use, these theories and the models that
in understanding the information behaviors of
describe them can be applied to the behaviors central
actors, as there is a significant emotional component
to the acting profession.
to their work. Kuhlthau’s theory fails to be a good fit
Cathy Hardin , MLIS
blocking); attending rehearsals with a director, stage
“We’re actors – we’re the opposite of people!”
manager, and other actors; making choices to
Tom Stoppard, Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead
develop a character that may sound, move, and Actors, like other artists, are often referred to as a
behave differently than the actor herself; and
special breed. The arts are regularly under attack in
consistently reproducing his performance for each
the United States, whether from business managers
presentation during a play’s run. In this analysis, I
concerned with art’s bottom line (Stubbs 2012) or
focus on the class of actors with which I am most
censors concerned with artists’ bottoms (Nelson,
familiar: actors working in regional, professional
2013). Thus, actors’ quixotic commitment to a life of
theaters (not film, not Broadway), primarily in the
suffering for their art makes them noteworthy to and
United States. In the theater, where working in
set apart from “normal” people. This is not to say we
ensembles is inevitable, successful actors are often
aren’t drawn to them at the same time. The fact that
extroverted individuals who thrive in a collaborative
most humans understand the concept of
environment. In short, actors are highly social
“Hollywood” is a testament to our bipolar fascination
creatures whose lives and professions typically occur
and even obsession with actors, even as we may
in the public eye, and whose behaviors are highly
chide non-celebrity actors for making a questionable
influenced by the social context of the theater
choice of profession.
community.
It is clear then that actors are a unique group
In this analysis, I will review a number of
with requirements for membership that are definable
theories of information behavior in an attempt to
and observable. Actors are those individuals who
identify those that best fit actors as a group. The
regularly participate in professional or amateur
majority of actors’ professional experiences are best
productions of live theater. This participation
described through the lens of Brenda Dervin’s sense-
includes auditioning for roles; being able to
making theory, Elfreda Chatman’s theories of life in
memorize dialogue and movement (referred to as
the round and normative behavior, and Karen
10
for the creative process of actors, however, as it emphasizes a linearity of search with a purposeful
Preparation and Performance
quest for a specific piece of information that ends
“How do I be a Canadian Prince of Denmark?” –
with attaining and using the information, thus
Michael R. Olsson (2010)
completing the process (Pettigrew, Fidel, & Bruce 2001).
As actors begin work on a play, they encounter a
Belkin’s (1980) theory of anomalous states of
wide range of events that require them to pursue new
knowledge (ASK) is an attractive one to apply to an
information. Typically, an actor will begin this work
actor’s process of delving into the world of a play or a
alone, reading and re-reading the script to begin
character. With its description of a search process
memorizing and creating a personal sense of who the
that begins with a feeling of missing information that
character is. As rehearsals begin, actors continue the
may be difficult to quantify, the ASK theory is in
work of memorization, memorizing their dialogue as
many ways a better fit for typical actors’
well as developing and memorizing blocking in
conundrums. Often, an actor will recognize that he is
concert with the vision of the play’s director. The
missing a piece of information necessary to truly
creation of character is further enhanced as actors
understand his character’s actions (and thus improve
work together and form relationships with each
his performance), and yet not be able to identify
other both as themselves and as their characters
what the missing element is. In Noises Off, a farce
(Trumbull). Through all of these processes they will
that lampoons actors and the theater itself, the
encounter information that is relevant to the process
character of Frederick is an actor playing the part of
but that they did not seek out in a purposeful
Philip in a fictional production. Frederick captures
manner. There are several theories that can be
the experience of an ASK perfectly in one scene when
applied to this process with greater and less success.
he complains to his director that he doesn’t
Kuhlthau’s information search process (ISP)
understand why Philip carries his luggage offstage to
theory incorporates affective and cognitive aspects of
an illogical location, “I just don’t know why I take
the search process such as the effects that users’
them…all the same, if you could just give me a reason
11
CIRCULATION: RESEARCH IN FOCUS
one of his interviews:
I could keep in my mind…” (Frayn 44-5). Although
memorize dialogue is asking one’s self, “What am I
trying again. Mace and Ward (2002) support this
he can’t explain why it is important, Frederick senses
saying?” This is perhaps the most fundamental level
proposition. From their study of artists creating
an ASK in the scene, and hopes to have it resolved by
of making sense, to define the meaning behind one’s
works of art, they developed a model that “is
everything they had on As You Like It. And I was
seeking additional information. Thus, Belkin’s theory
words. From there, an actor may begin to ask “Why
dynamically interactive with multiple feedback
reading one…it made me so angry I threw it across
can see us through the initial phase of an actor’s
am I saying this? Why am I doing this?” and begin to
loops” (182) and shows creativity occurring across a
the room! And then I went ‘Wait – anger’s good. It
process in identifying gaps in knowledge, but
develop and test likely explanations during
span of time “rather than being actualized at a single
means you must know something. Why does it make
becomes less useful in describing an actor’s
rehearsals (Trumbull). This positions actors as
point in time” (189).
you angry?’ And that was a really big breakthrough
continuing process of seeking out the information
theorists, and aligns their behavior with another
needed to resolve these anomalies.
assumption of Dervin’s (1999) methodology: that
example of the importance Dervin places on all
individuals are, by nature, developers of theories. As
experiences used in sense-making. She emphasizes
It is clear from these examples that actors are
play, from memorizing dialogue to developing
a production nears its opening night, actors may
the roles of social context and emotions, which are
actively engaged in a process best described by sense
characters, is best analyzed through the sense-
become more focused on questions such as “How do
inherent to the collaborative process of acting.
-making methodology. Actors continuously bridge
making methodology developed by Dervin (1992),
I convey this to the audience?” This moves them into
Olsson’s (2010) interviews showed that actors saw
knowledge gaps in diverse ways in which emotional
and vice versa. In his 2010 study of actors making
another aspect of sense-making in which
their sense-making as a social endeavor and
and social contexts assert at least as much primacy as
sense of Shakespearean texts, Michael Olsson
“information” is considered as a verb and it is
described interactions with others (actors, directors,
cognitive methods of seeking and knowing.
embraces this idea, noting that actors’ focus on an
reasonable to expect multiple outcomes, seeing
technicians) as being the most useful sources of
ongoing, often-changing, sense-making journey
outcomes as a part of rather than the end of a
information. In particular, he found that informal
highlights the holistic nature of sense-making
process. There are many ways to play any role, and in
exchanges with colleagues were looked to as more
methodology in a way that other information
fact throughout the run of a live performance, actors
favorable for character development than formal
behavior studies have neglected. In fact, Dervin
may slightly modify their performances,
sources of information. Similarly, in their study of
(1999) might have been describing actors and acting,
experimenting with character choices, and
the research process of students at California
limited only to the time they spend in rehearsal and
rather than sense-making, when she wrote
experience new outcomes within their performance.
Institute of the Arts (CalArts), Gatten and Bryant
performance. Because actors are typically under
(2010) found that students viewed the research
contract for single productions at a time, they must
Actors’ process of constructing the world of a
This is not to suggest that constructing the world
Sense-Making thrusts itself between chaos and
I went to the university library…and got out
for me. (Portia, actor) (250)
Actors’ sense-making process is also an excellent
Professional Development “There’s no people like show people” Irving Berlin, Annie Get Your Gun Actors’ professional social interactions are not
order, structure and person, facts and illusions,
of a play is a linear process with momentary
process as a highly social one and prized personal
constantly work to develop connections with theaters
external worlds and inner, universals and
information gaps that are tidily bridged and moved
interactions as part of this process. Actors also spend
and other professionals who they hope to work with
particulars. Sense-Making posits reality as ordered in
past. As Dervin posits about humans, actors are
a significant amount time focusing on the emotional
in the future. This networking, as well as the shared
part, chaotic in part, evolving in part. Sense-Making
rather “involved in a constant journey through sense-
aspect of sense-making. Because their goal is to
experience of working in the field, creates a
assumes a human being that is also ordered in part,
makings and sense-unmakings” (1999, 731). The
present emotionally complete and believable
community that clearly exemplifies Savolainen’s
chaotic in part, evolving in part. (730)
rehearsal process is just that: a process, at times
performances, they take great note of how emotions
(2009) synthesis of Chatman’s and Fisher’s theories.
torturous, of exploring ideas for characters, noting
influence their understanding of a role.
At each step of the process, actors engage in
what works and what is still missing, and trying,
sense-making. The first step in beginning to
12
It is relatively simple to identify actors as a small
Olsson (2010) includes a fascinating quote from
13
CIRCULATION: RESEARCH IN FOCUS
world population. They are frequently viewed by the
bit flamboyant. As seen in Olsson’s study, actors also
often constants as well. Actors often describe
non-actor general public as an insular, and often
exhibit behavior in line with Chatman’s (2000) fifth
themselves as being their own instrument, artistic
“To all the dumb chumps and crazy broads—past,
eccentric, group. They share a common but
and sixth proposition of life in the round: they will
journeymen bringing their tools with them wherever
present, and future—who thirst for knowledge and
specialized language and culture, which create
rarely seek out information from sources outside
they go: their voice, their body, their mental abilities.
search for truth…”
legitimized others that define the boundaries of
their world. This behavior was also found by
One can also imagine actors like hermit crabs:
behavior within their world (Chatman 2000). The
Medaille (2009) when she interviewed professional
carrying their information grounds with them like
acting community also fulfills Chatman’s other
theater artists about their information seeking
homes on their backs and setting them up wherever
propositions that make up her theories of life in the
behaviors. She found that 89 percent of respondents
they go. Thus, rehearsal halls and dressing rooms
to provide a wealth of data for studies of information
round and normative behavior. Through their
learned of new job opportunities through colleagues
become information grounds as each group of actors
behaviors. Not only do they represent a small world,
specialized knowledge of plays and stagecraft, and
and friends within the theater community.
move into these spaces for the process of mounting a
as defined in Chatman’s work, but in the profession
performance. Although these spaces are not
of acting, individuals are constantly initiating and
Upon first encountering the lives of professional
the commonality of practices used to create
Conclusion
Garson Kanin, Born Yesterday The community of actors is uniquely positioned
performances, actors have created a worldview which
actors, one is likely to note a certain nomadic quality.
expressly designed for the purpose of sharing
continuing sense-making activities in a way that
they take largely for granted.
Not unlike the travelling troupe of actors enlisted by
information, actors often report that some of the
other professions do not. If we consider that each
Hamlet to unseat a king, modern actors often move
most insightful information they receive comes by
person, throughout their life engages in behaviors to
artists, one will often find actors segregating
from one job to the next, at theaters across the
way of casual conversations with their peers. This is
make sense of their everyday life, then consider the
themselves to enthusiastically “talk shop”, and many
country, rarely staying in residence for longer than
especially true of inexperienced actors having the
actor’s process. Each time they begin a new
actors will admit they find it difficult to socialize
the run of a single play. This vagabond lifestyle may,
chance to interact informally with more seasoned
production they are essentially delving into the life of
outside their social milieu. They share a specialized
on its surface, seem to lack the rootedness it takes to
professionals, listen to their tall tales, and learn from
a new person (character) and must engage in sense-
professional language that can be difficult, if not
form communities that can foster information
their experiences.
making for a new set of everyday life circumstances.
impossible, for an outsider to decipher. Actors can
grounds. However as Savolainen (2009)
spend hours discussing beats, and blocking (neither
demonstrates, information grounds need not solely
constitute small worlds and information grounds as
information-seeking process. It may not serve any
of which have anything to do with fighting another
be defined by physical space. In fact, Fisher, Landry,
both spatial and social. Actors’ small worlds include
specific information need to find out how a woman
person), and their most recent productions of
and Naumer (2007) define an information ground as
an expectedly limited range of physical spaces. When
in the 18th century would lace a corset, but an actor
“Godot” or “R and J”, using a kind of agreed-upon
a people-place-information trichotomy, in which
not in a rehearsal space or in the theater itself, actors
playing such a character may still encounter this
jargon unique to their community. Within this
individuals’ perspectives play a significant role in
often identify “the bar”, a specific and singular bar
piece of information and that knowledge may help
worldview, certain behaviors and social norms are
forming such “locations.” While actors are rarely in
that is typically adjacent to the theater, which is the
the actor feel she has a more informed
expected and valued, both expectations relating to
the same physical space for very long, one sees
only acceptable place for the actors and their friends
understanding of her character’s life. By further
work (how to prepare for auditions, rehearsals, or
continuity in the individuals themselves who often
to socialize. These spaces also are in line with the
study of this unique profession’s information
performances) and social settings. Common social
work together in different spaces and on different
definition of an information ground, as a physical
behaviors, researchers stand to develop a greater
behaviors for actors typically include being open to
projects over time. Additionally, while the locations
space in which information sharing is a secondary
understanding of the ways in which people interact
new experiences, being outgoing, and often being a
may be different, the types of physical spaces are
and often serendipitous event (Pettigrew 1999).
with information. It is comfortable to think of
Even when in social settings that include non-
14
Savolainen conceptualizes the factors that
To this end, actors often engage in a less-purposeful
15
CIRCULATION: RESEARCH IN FOCUS
information transactions as being clearly defined, a
ways. The study of actors then can be of great benefit
reference question resulting in an answer, an
to the literature that seeks to understand these
anomalous state of knowledge being resolved by new
behaviors, particularly the ways in which this
understanding. The reality, however, is aptly
interaction with information is an ongoing process
described by Dervin, Chatman, and Fisher as being a
with a very blurry (if any) beginning, middle, and
continuous process of learning, seeking, and
end.
Nelson, Joe. “Removed paintings from San Bernardino County Government Center spur allegations of censorship.” San Bernardino County Sun, September 25, 2013. Accessed January 13, 2015. http://www.sbsun.com/socialaffairs/20130925/removed-paintings-from-san-bernardino-county-government-center-spur-allegations-ofcensorship. Olsson, Michael. 2010. “All the World’s A Stage – the Information Practices and Sense-Making of Theatre Professionals.” Libri: International Journal of Libraries & Information Services 60: 241-52. doi: 10.1515/libr.2010.021.
absorbing information in an almost infinite variety of
Pettigrew, Karen. 1999. “Waiting for chiropody: contextual results from an ethnographic study of the information behaviour among attendees at community clinics.” Information Processing & Management 35: 801-17. doi: 10.1016/S0306-4573(99)00027-8
References
Pettigrew, Karen, Raya Fidel, and Harry Bruce. 2001. “Conceptual frameworks in information behavior.” Annual Review of Information Science and Technology 35: 43-78.
Belkin, Nicholas. 1980. “Anomalous states of knowledge as a basis for information retrieval.” Canadian Journal of Information Science 5: 133-43. Berlin, Irving. 1990. Annie Get Your Gun. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Corporation. Chatman, Elfreda. 2000. “Framing Social Life in Theory and Research.” Keynote address at the annual Information Seeking in Context conference, Goteborg, Sweden, August 16-18. Dervin, Brenda. 1992. “From the mind's eye of the user: The sense-making qualitative-quantitative methodology.” In Qualitative research in information management, edited by Jack D. Glazier and Ronald R. Powell, 6-84. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.
Savolainen, Reijo. 2009. “Small world and information grounds as contexts of information seeking and sharing.” Library & Information Science Research 31: 38-45. doi: 10.1016/j.lisr.2008.10.007. Stoppard, Tom. 2010. Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead. New York: Samuel French, Inc. Stubbs, Ryan. 2012. “Public Funding for the Arts: 2012 Update.” GIAReader 23. Accessed January 13, 2015. http:// www.giarts.org/article/public-funding-arts-2012-update. Trumbull, Dr. Eric W. “Introduction to Theatre – The Actor.” Last modified January 4, 2008. http://novaonline.nvcc.edu/ eli/spd130et/acting.htm.
Dervin, Brenda. 1999. “On studying information seeking methodologically: the implications of connecting metatheory to method.” Information Processing and Management 35: 727-50. doi: 10.1016/S0306-4573(99)00023-0. Fisher, Karen, Carol Landry, and Charles Naumer. 2007. “Social spaces, casual interactions, meaningful exchanges: 'information ground' characteristics based on the college student experience.” Information Research 12: 291. http://InformationR.net/ir/12-1/paper291.html. Frayn, Michael. 2001. Noises Off. New York: Samuel French, Inc. http://www.paololandi.it/theater/testi/Noises% 20off.pdf. Gatten, Jeff and Mike Bryant. 2010. “Rock the CASBAH: CalArts’ Student Behaviors and Habits.” Art Documentation: Bulletin Of The Art Libraries Society Of North America 29: 63-9. Kanin, Garson. 1945. Born Yesterday. New York: Gardenside Theatre. Kuhlthau, Carol. 1991. “Inside the search process: information seeking from the user's perspective.” Journal of the American Society for Information Science 42: 361-71. Mace, Mary-Anne and Tony Ward. 2002. “Modeling the Creative Process: A Grounded Theory Analysis of Creativity in the Domain of Art Making.” Creativity Research Journal 14: 179-92. Medaille, Ann. 2009. “Creativity and craft: the information-seeking behavior of theatre artists.” Journal of Documentation 66:327-47. doi: 10.1108/00220411011038430.
16
17
CIRCULATION: RESEARCH IN FOCUS
You Can’t Backstab with a Ballista
game world creates a magic circle where its
information gaps require players to bridge them with
boundaries form a barrier between their knowledge
new knowledge in order to understand the game
of the real world and the fantastic social-information
world (Dervin, 1992; Harviainen & Lieberoth, 2012).
environment created for the game (Harviainen &
In this example, the sense-making exercise started
Lieberoth, 2012). The game master (GM) is both the
with other players expressing their
created by the game rather than what is found in the
designer and controller of the game world and the
misunderstanding of how the troll could throw his
real world (Harviainen, 2007; Harviainen &
information contained within it. Knowledge in the
coin faster than a speeding bullet in response to
Lieberoth, 2012).
game is subject to the GM’s imagination and will
being attacked by a street gang in the game world.
differ from the players’ understandings from outside
Initially, the troll player simply stated that their
of information seeking behavior in the real world
the game. As a result, players are often confronted
character was operating under the rules of the game
work within the magic circle of an RPG using
with gaps in information as the rules of the game
even if that did not make sense in the real world.
examples from my own experience as a player.
world clash with their own experiences from outside
Dervin’s Sense-making Theory (Dervin, 1992),
this magic circle (Harviainen, 2007).
Information Behavior in Role-playing Games Frank Branch, MLIS
Game Master: You’re going to backstab him with a ballista? Player: Uh huh. Game Master: With a fucking siege weapon. Player: Uh huh. Game Master: There has to be a rule against this. … There is nothing against it in the rules. … I can’t believe I am doing this … Well that’s 264 points of damage. You splatter Hunk all over the common room … (Rosenblum, 2002, 4:25 min.)
This paper explores how several existing models
This scene from “The Gamers” is common across
As described by Dervin’s model, these
and the information inside the game world. The
However, the information coming from the player could not be completely trusted because the player’s interpretation benefited their own character.
This divergence of knowledge creates the kind of
the living rooms of over two million avid role-players
Byström and Järvelin’s Theory of Task Complexity in
a month ("Tabletop Role-Playing Game," 2014). The
Information Seeking (Byström & Järvelin, 1995), and
dissonance Dervin describes, in her Sense-making
This created another information gap regarding the
popularity of role-playing games (RPG) has
Lihui et al. Sender-Receiver Framework of
theory, as an information gap (Dervin, 1992). For
credibility of the player provided information. The
skyrocketed with the advent of the massively multi-
Knowledge Transfer (Lihui, Xianjun, & Whinston,
example, the game Shadowrun (Boyle, 2008) puts
GM ultimately needed to provide additional
player online role-playing game (MMORPG). The
2005) can all be applied to the various parts of the
the player into a dystopian future where high
knowledge for the game to proceed. In this case, the
MMORPG has opened up the same kinds of
information-seeking behavior demonstrated by
technology and magic exists simultaneously. In this
rule book served as the ultimate authoritative source
immersive fantasy worlds that I experienced on the
players playing an RPG. The paper will then propose
world, there are trolls, orcs, elves, dwarves and magic
to confirm the player’s information. The troll player
tabletops of friends’ homes since I was fifteen to over
a new model that combines the relevant aspects of
powers existing in combination with objects from our
proceeded to throw his quarter according to the
fifty million players online (Schutte, 2012). These
these models into a single one providing a more
own world such as guns and computers. In one game
altered laws of physics in the game world. In terms
games form an information environment that
complete explanation of the information seeking
I participated in, a player created a troll character
of Dervin’s model, an information gap was created by
Harviainen describes as a magic circle. Inside the
behavior exhibited by those players. Finally, the
that with a magic power could throw a coin harder,
the difference between information about magical
circle commonplace knowledge, such as the laws of
implications for using this model to explain
further, and more accurately then an expert
powers versus knowledge of real physics; the gap was
physics, is not applicable; knowledge is controlled by
information seeking behavior in other environments
marksman could fire a pistol in either the real or
bridged twice by different sources, and finally the
the game; and you navigate the world using game
similar to those found in RPGs is reviewed.
game world. This situation is a good example of
information was used to kill a street gang. This example does reveal a couple of issues in
information gaps in action because the common
mechanics rather than your real skills (Harviainen,
Making Sense in RPGs
2007; Harviainen & Lieberoth, 2012). In these magical circles, typical information seeking and
RPG participants are constantly confronted with
giving behaviors are manipulated by the situations
gaps between their knowledge from the real world 18
understanding of the laws of nature differs
applying Dervin’s model directly to RPGs. First,
drastically from what is experienced in the game
Dervin does not deal explicitly with situations where
narrative (Harviainen, 2007).
there is an asymmetric balance in power between the 19
CIRCULATION: RESEARCH IN FOCUS
information giver and the information receiver that
to the players. Players often make their information
creates mistrust. In this example, was the player
needs more complex when simpler information can
lying? Given the magic circle effect in the game, how
be used instead (Harviainen, 2007; Harviainen &
would a player know? Dervin explains this with
Lieberoth, 2012). Byström and Järvelin’s Theory of
successive bridging attempts until sense-making is
Task Complexity in Information Seeking is often
complete, but that does not satisfactorily explain how
used to explain the choice of more complex
the information comes to be trusted by the other
information seeking behaviors over simpler ones.
players (Dervin, 1992).
The model illustrates how personal and situational factors can add complexity to apparently simple
Second, Dervin doesn’t explain why the troll chooses to explore throwing a magic coin when there
tasks by increasing the level of information needed to
is information about many other possible alternative
deal with them above what is needed to complete the
actions within the game. This example created
tasks (Byström & Järvelin, 1995, p. 197). For example, I played a greedy merchant
multiple potential tasks, courses of action, and potentially different information gaps for each. For
character in a campaign of the Star Wars Role-
example, the troll was a huge physically imposing
playing Game (Slavicseck, Collins, & Wicker, 2002).
character that could just as easily sliced the gangers
In the game, the players were escaping from a prison
head off with the razor sharp axe he was carrying.
ship and my character was confronted with a
RPG game sessions consist of many distinct choices
situation where I could choose to kill an injured
where multiple different information gaps appear
guard or leave them immobile while escaping. A
simultaneously (Harviainen, 2007). Why did the
simple analysis of the task reveals only the goal of
there were no consequences for evil enforced by
and not just looking at the objective situation alone
troll not pursue information about using their axe?
escaping the ship and a single situational factor of an
game mechanics. For me, the task was not to simply
(Byström & Järvelin, 1995).
How and why do players pursue some information
injured trooper with no ability to prevent the players
escape but to do so in the most evil way possible.
gaps and not others when presented with multiple
from escaping. Additional complexity can be found by using the
choices? Dervin’s model does not seek to explain any
However, the model does not explain any issues
The now more complex task required more
associated with an asymmetric balance of power in
information about the situation in order to be
the information exchange. In this example, the
of these questions (Dervin, 1992), but simply
Byström and Järvelin model’s full range of factors
completed. I had to find out how many Dark Side
information provided by the GM was deliberately
explains what happens once a choice is made.
including a person’s internal goals and motivations.
points (a measure of evil in the game) I would earn
inaccurate. The GM indicated I could earn two Dark
In this example, my personal factors and motivations
for unnecessarily killing the trooper, how long it
Side points by killing an injured man; it would take
contributed the additional complex information
would take, and if taking that time would affect my
me six extra turns to do it and there was no other
needs. I was playing a character immune to the
ability to escape and complete the original task. The
troopers around to stop me. The GM lied to me and
negative game effects of being evil that come from
Byström and Järvelin model explains this additional
then added more troopers to fight my way through
the Dark Side of the Force. I was trying to see how
complexity by dissecting all the factors involved in
as a punishment for my evil act.
bad the character could behave in the game when
the information need associated with a given task
The Importance of Tasks in RPGs The complexity of the information needed to execute a game task does not always correspond to the purely objective factors of the situation presented
20
The Byström and Järvelin model focuses only on 21
CIRCULATION: RESEARCH IN FOCUS
additional factors that add complexity generated
ascertain the value of information being exchanged
aboard the ship. We were provided complete
found in a game’s magic circle (Harviainen, 2007;
from the information seeker. It fails to take into
before “buying” it. Their model proposes that an
blueprints, access codes, etc. by Mr. Smith, the
Harviainen & Lieberoth, 2012; Wooldridge, 2012).
account that the information sender might have a
economic game is played between the information
character the GM used to send information to the
However, the complexity these norms play in
similar set of factors that might lead them to mislead
receiver and sender in situations where one party has
players. None of the players believe the information
information exchanges can be explained by the
the information seeker when providing the
more knowledge about the subject than another. The
being provided was true and refused to investigate
personal factors found in Byström and Järvelin’s
information (Byström & Järvelin, 1995) or how a
receiver does not know enough about the subject to
because they were convinced the situation was a trap.
model.”
player might determine the accuracy of the
determine if the information being provided is valid
The GM needed to add value to the signal to get
information provided. In this example, the GM
(of high value) or invalid (of low value). As a result,
the players to accept the information and engage in
provided misleading information based on their own
the sender does more than simply package
the game narrative. The GM added additional
personal desire to punish a player for an evil act
information to be sent to the receiver, but must also
information to the original content about how much
explain part of the information behavior found in
when the game’s rules failed to provide any
add a signal about the validity of the knowledge
the weapons were worth, that there was additional
RPGs, none of the models do a complete job of
consequences to their character.
being transferred.
cash on the ship in a safe, Mr. Smith’s impeccable
explaining the complexity of information seeking and
reputation as a character in the game, and eventually
giving behavior found in the magic circle.
by the sender, such as their reputation, external
the combination to the safe in an effort to provide
Combining elements of each of these models into a
incentives or emotional pleas. The added value is
enough value for the players to accept the original
new model can explain this increased complexity.
intended to convince the receiver the information is
information about the yacht. In terms of the Lihui et
This new model can be broken down into a three step
of high value. The receiver will only accept the
al. model, the GM was increasing the signal by
information flow.
information when they perceived value exceeds some
adding incentives so the players would evaluate the
internal price they may not even be consciously
information as being of high enough value to “buy” it
information gap as the result of some dissonance
aware of (Lihui et al., 2005). A number of studies
(Lihui et al., 2005).
between the game world and the real one that
This signal consists of some investment of value
Asymmetric Information Exchange in RPGs It is not uncommon for GMs to lie about or hold back information from their players as in the previous example. The GM has a disproportionate amount of power in information exchanges inside a game’s magic circle because they act as the designer of the world, controller of the game, and arbiter of
have shown that both competitive and cooperative
the rules. As a result, the GM always has more knowledge than the players about the game’s world, its rules and its evolving story narrative (Harviainen, 2007). As a result, most information seeking and providing behavior found in RPGs is asymmetric in nature. Knowledge Transfer attempts to explain this type of information imbalance using Game Theory methods borrowed from the field of economics. They describe the transfer of knowledge to be a marketplace where information senders and receivers are attempting to 22
A New Model Although each of the explored models can
First, the information seeker forms an
In this example, the players never accepted the
requires sense-making. The complexity of the
knowledge sharing is often dictated by this kind of
information as valid and declined to take on the
information needed to bridge the gap is determined
information exchange (Chua, 2003; Cyr & Choo,
game task. The Lihue et al. model accurately
by various factors including the task (e.g. escaping an
2010; Ghobadi & D'Ambra, 2011) and it occurs
predicted the GM’s signaling behavior in this
Empire prison ship), personal factors (e.g. a desire to
regularly in RPGs (Harviainen, 2007; Harviainen &
example, but failed to account for the social norms
play an evil character), situational factors (e.g. being
Lieberoth, 2012).
around consensus decision making. RPGs create a
jumped by a street gang) and social norms (e.g. the
strict set of social norms that are part of the bonding
need for player consensus before information is
Modern (Slavicseck, Grubb, Redman, & Ryan, 2002)
experienced while playing in the game world
actionable). To bridge the gap, the seeker formulates
where the GM had created an elaborate scenario
(Harviainen & Lieberoth, 2012). Models based on
a query by applying filters derived from these factors
aboard a yacht anchored in a marina owned by a
game theory often fail to account for the effects of
such as game rules (e.g. ability to throw a quarter
local gangster. Our player group was asked recover a
social norms on purely rational behavior, particularly
really hard), personal experiences (e.g. GM lying
cache of illegal weapons that were supposed to be
where social norms have chaotic inputs like those
about more troopers on the way) and proposed usage
For example, I was playing in a game of D20
Lihui et al. Sender-Receiver Framework of
23
CIRCULATION: RESEARCH IN FOCUS
of the information itself (e.g. to determine if they
should just leave the injured trooper) otherwise the
information environment with foreign social norms,
information markets, and complex tasks will benefit
should attack the yacht). The query once it is
information is assimilated by the information seeker
personal biases, and parties with unequal access to
from using a model that can more accurately explain
formulated is sent to the information giver in the
and the dissonance caused by the gap vanishes.
information. These information environments show
information behavior in these situations. Additional
similar cooperative/competitive characteristics with
research should be conducted using this model in
the magic circle of an RPG (Ghobadi & D'Ambra,
these situations to validate its approach, determine if
2011; Harviainen, 2007; Harviainen & Lieberoth,
there is broader applicability than just RPGs, and
form of one or more questions (e.g. How many Dark
Implications and Conclusion
Side points do I get if I kill the trooper?). Second, the information giver reviews the query
RPGs create a magic circle where knowledge
and packages up their knowledge in the form of
about the real world clashes with the rules of the
2012; Lihui et al., 2005). Any information
how based on this model information services can be
information to answer the questions. However, the
game world. Thus, players have information gaps
environment dealing with foreign world views,
improved in these environments.
information provided is never as straightforward as
that need to be bridged to play the game. Multiple
combinations of cooperative and competitive
the query would suggest. Instead the giver injects
existing models can account for the sense-making
additional complexity into the answer by adding
activity, information task complexity, or asymmetric
filters derived from additional factors such as
information exchanges found in these magic circles.
personal motivations (e.g. the desire for a story
However, they do not completely explain the
driven setting), situation (e.g. having storm troopers
behavior of information seekers and givers in RPGs.
in reserve if the player doesn’t make a quick get-
The proposed new model does account for this
away), and social norms (e.g. desire to have a game
information behavior by incorporating the relevant
free of personal conflicts). The information is then
elements from models by Dervin, Byström &
passed through those filters and a signal is added to
Järvelin, and Lihui et al. into a single flow of
increase its ultimate value such as reputation or
information within a magic circle. For example,
incentives.
validity signals in the D20 Modern game; sense-
Third, the information and the signal is delivered
making of the magical powers in Shadowrun;
back to the seeker (e.g. it is legal for the troll to throw
personal factors adding to the complexity of
their coin according to the rulebook). The
information seeking in the Star Wars game; and even
information is then filtered using the same factors
how it is not against the rules to use a ballista in a
used to create the original query in an attempt to
bar fight are all found inside the information flow of
determine the information’s value and assimilate the
the new combined model.
knowledge it contains (e.g. does the player believe
Tabletop RPGs are not the only situation were
References Boyle, R. (2008). Shadowrun (4th ed.). Seattle, WA: Catalyst Game Labs. Byström, K., & Järvelin, K. (1995). Task complexity affects information seeking and use. Information Processing & Management, 31, 191-213. doi: 10.1016/0306-4573(94)00041-Z Chua, A. (2003). Knowledge sharing: a game people play. Aslib Proceedings, 55(3), 117-129. doi: 10.1108/00012530310472615 Cyr, S., & Choo, C. W. (2010). The individual and social dynamics of knowledge sharing: an exploratory study. Journal of Documentation, 66(6), 824-846. doi: 10.1108/00220411011087832 Dervin, B. (1992). From the Mind's Eye of the User: the Sense-Making Qualitative-Quantitative Methodology. In J. D. Glazier & R. R. Powell (Eds.), Qualitative Research in Information Management (pp. 6-84). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited. Ghobadi, S., & D'Ambra, J. J. (2011). Coopetitive knowledge sharing: an analytical review of literature. Electronic Journal of Knowledge Management, 9(4), 307-317. Harviainen, J. T. (2007). Live-action, role-playing environments as information systems: an introduction. Information Research, 12(supp.), 1-12. Harviainen, J. T., & Lieberoth, A. (2012). Similarity of social information processes in games and rituals: Magical interfaces. Simulation & Gaming, 43(4), 528-549. doi: 10.1177/1046878110392703 Lihui, L., Xianjun, G., & Whinston, A. B. (2005). A sender-receiver framework for knowledge transfer. MIS Quarterly, 29(2), 197219. Rosenblum, J. F. (Producer). (2002, Feb 24, 2014). The Gamers: Chapter 2. [Streaming] Retrieved from http:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=yTccvj0gc58
there are no other troopers around). That knowledge
complex tasks and social environments can create a
Schutte, W. (2012). The Global MMO Market; Sizing and Seizing Opportunities. Retrieved Feb 24, 2014, from http:// www.newzoo.com/infographics/the-global-mmo-market-sizing-and-seizing-opportunities/
is then reassessed against the original information
magic circle where the knowledge of a user’s world
Slavicseck, B., Collins, A., & Wicker, J. (2002). Star Wars Roleplaying Game (Revised ed.). Renton, WA: Wizards of the Coast.
gap. If it does not bridge the gap or it is determined
conflicts with the understanding of the situation. For
Slavicseck, B., Grubb, J., Redman, R., & Ryan, C. (2002). D20 Modern Roleplaying Game. Renton, WA: Wizards of the Coast.
not to be of value then the process starts all over
example, businesses interested in the Chinese
again (e.g. the GM might be lying so the player
market often have to deal with a complex
Tabletop Role-Playing Game. (2014). Wikipedia. Retrieved Feb 24, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabletop_roleplaying_game
24
Wooldridge, M. (2012). Does game theory work? IEEE Intelligent Systems, 27(6), 76-80. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ MIS.2012.108 25
CIRCULATION: RESEARCH IN FOCUS
The Information Behavior of
Astrophysicists Gabbie Barnes, Dan Schrader, and Nicole Gustavsen , MLIS
“any research that is related to the field, but not tied
A b s t r a c t
to a specific research question or problem.” Our goal
Within the general subject area of the hard
being to understand how these professionals keep up
sciences, each field has a specific culture of
-to-date with one of the fastest-growing fields in the
information behavior which influences and is
hard sciences. We did not gather any data about the
influenced by the research that’s being done. In
information behavior of undergraduate astronomy
these rapidly changing times, fields must adapt their
students, nor did we gather data about how
research methods or fall behind, and perhaps no
astrophysicists research specific topics for projects.
scientific discipline is a better example of
Our user group is comprised of popular culture
successfully adapting to these changes than that of
icons such as Carl Sagan and Neil degrasse Tyson,
astronomy. One of the fastest-growing fields in the
but also everyday geniuses like those we interviewed.
hard sciences, modern astronomy is awash in
Astrophysicists ensure the safety of Earth, and
published research, and astrophysicists must learn to
consider human existence within the context of this
handle this information saturation or quickly lose
galaxy and ALL of the galaxies in the cosmos. Most
pace with the times and be left in the dust.
professional astrophysicists are connected somehow
to a research institute—either a university like the
Introduction
UW, or a government agency, such as the National
The research question which we settled on, and
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Our
which guided our work throughout the process of
research focused solely on the behaviors of faculty
conducting research and synthesizing results, was,
and professors within the Astronomy and Physics
“How do established astrophysicists at the University
department at UW, in order to make the research
of Washington (UW) keep up to date with
more practical for the purposes of our assignment.
developments in their field when they aren’t working
However, we believe that the general trends
on a specific project?” The focus of our analysis was
indicated in the literature review, as well as the
on the casual researching habits of practicing
results of our findings may be common to most
astrophysicists. We defined “casual research” as 26
primary source of information seeking.
astrophysicists—more research is needed.
Sahu & Singh’s 2013 study of astrophysicists and
Literature Review
their information behavior found that, even with the
The information in this field is created and
majority of information being retrieved from
disseminated at an alarmingly rapid pace—what is
electronic resources, when it came to actual
written today can be obsolete information come
consumption, most of the participants preferred to
tomorrow. This is the nature of the speed at which
print out a physical copy. There are many limitations within the current
the galaxy is changing; therefore it can seem impossible to stay abreast of the most current trends
literature to be addressed in further study. First,
and conversations. In response to this overload,
current research does not differentiate between
astrophysicists have taken to a bottlenecked
specific disciplines within the hard sciences. While
information system to help facilitate the sharing and
understanding the behavior of the field as a whole
archival of this rapid-fire literature. It is important
has its merits, it does not account for the behavioral
to understand the information behavior of this group
nuances and varying information needs of each
because their solutions to information access,
group individually. Second, current research groups
retrieval, and storage may have profound effects on
students, faculty, and staff into one user group.
other fields and disciplines in the future.
However, clear distinctions between the research behaviors of individuals within a discipline based on
While the ways in which one can search for and access information has changed significantly over
academic rank may uncover significant differences in
time, the preference for interpersonal
behavior. Larger sample sizes and considerations for
communication in the field of astrophysics and
geography and culture may also increase the data’s
astronomy has steadfastly held its place at the top.
value. Following our own findings, further areas for
Interpersonal communication includes text messaging, attending conferences, face-to-face
research include: a user experience assessment of the
meetings (both in-person and mediated through
open access database interfaces, in addition to
video chat services), and informal email chains.
understanding effective systems for assessing
Cecilia Brown’s 1999 study of the information
credibility.
behavior of scientists at the University of Oklahoma
Methodology
found that monographs and print journals were the
Our fieldwork consisted of 3 distinct parts:
primary sources of information for scientists in most of the hard sciences. However, for our user group,
interviews, observation, and an online survey. The
interpersonal communication proved to be the
interviews were conducted with two faculty members 27
CIRCULATION: RESEARCH IN FOCUS
from the University of Washington’s Astronomy
learn about new research than they do by searching
more than 11.2 million records covering publications
it can be verified and formally published.
Department, and the Astrophysics subject librarian.
the internet for relevant information.
in Astronomy and Astrophysics, Physics, and the
Conclusion
arXiv e-prints” (SAO/NASA website, n.d.). This
Each of the interviews lasted 30-45 minutes-What makes astrophysicists vastly different from
conducted in the interviewee’s offices on campus. The observation was held at one weekly
most other user groups is the use of literature
employed by our user group in that it indexes peer-
departmental meeting that lasted for approximately
databases arXiv, Astrophysics Data System (ADS),
reviewed work, in addition to crowd-sourced,
one hour. The survey was distributed electronically
and VoxCharta, which act as open access e-print
endorsement papers hosted on arXiv.
and consisted of 25 multiple-choice, select-all-that-
archives. The most frequently used resource, arXiv,
apply, and fill-in-the-blank questions. We received
also known as Astro PH “is an openly accessible,
sources of information, serving the most basic needs
eighteen responses, representing 40% of the UW
moderated repository for scholarly papers in specific
of astrophysicists: quick distribution and open-
astronomy department.
scientific disciplines. Material submitted to arXiv is
access. To varying degrees, each database bypasses
expected to be of interest, relevance, and value to
the time-consuming process of formal peer-review,
those disciplines” (arXiv.org, n.d.). The site utilizes
utilizing more simple systems of up voting. The
The three main conclusions we drew from this
an endorsement system, which is not to be confused
entire system allows new research to reach the hands
research in answer to our initial research question
with peer-review, but does enables users to maintain
of astrophysicists more quickly and efficiently, while
were: (1) interpersonal sharing is vital, (2)
a relative level of credibility through crowd-sourced
maintaining at least a certain level of credibility until
experience plays an important role in research
quality control. Just anyone cannot upload to the
methods, and (3) the adoption of specialized
arXiv database unless another scholar--who has
databases has made sorting through the piles of
published on the same topic--endorses the
research being published every week a much more
contributor first. The second tool, VoxCharta, is a
manageable task.
companion tool for Astro PH developed at Harvard
Findings
University, aggregates papers from Astro PH and
Survey results indicated that the majority of astronomy faculty at UW considers interpersonal
asks users to “vote up” what they find most
communications at least somewhat important to
interesting in an effort to give credibility based on
their knowledge of the field. Personal interviews and
popularity. Our users used this tool primarily to act
observations confirmed this finding, with specific
as a democratic tool in choosing papers to discuss
examples of varying methods of sharing being either
during weekly literature review meetings. Lastly, the Astrophysics Data System “is a Digital
in-person or through some medium of technology. Similarly, survey results—supported by personal
Library portal for researchers in Astronomy and
interviews—indicated that as astrophysicists grow
Physics, operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical
more comfortable within the professional culture of
Observatory (SAO) under a NASA grant. The ADS
their field, they rely more heavily on each other to
maintains three bibliographic databases containing 28
Why it should matter to information
database serves as the most “official” e-resource
professionals how astrophysicists conduct casual research? The reason being that astronomy is one of the most information-intensive fields in the hard sciences, and the varying ways that astrophysicists
Together, these databases act as bottlenecked
have developed to deal with their information needs might help scientists in every discipline to conduct research—casual or otherwise—more efficiently and effectively. Astrophysicists aren’t information professionals by definition, but they can teach us a lot about solutions to information overload, a problem which is spreading to all academic disciplines and beyond, into the lives of everyone in the modern world.
References ArXiv.org help. (n.d.). Retrieved February 27, 2014, from https://arxiv.org/help/endorsement Brown, C. M. (1999). Information seeking behavior of scientists in the electronic information age: astronomers, chemists, mathematicians, and physicists. Journal Of The American Society For Information Science, 50(10), 929-943. Hemminger, B. M., Lu, D., Vaughan, K. L., & Adams, S. J. (2007). Information seeking behavior of academic scientists. Journal Of The American Society For Information Science & Technology, 58(14), 2205-2225. doi:10.1002/ asi.20686 Jamali, H. R., & Asadi, S. (January 01, 2010). Google and the scholar: the role of Google in scientists' informationseeking behaviour. Online Information Review, 34, 2, 282-294. Jamali, H. R., & Nicholas, D. (2009). E-print depositing behavior of physicists and astronomers: An intradisciplinary study. Journal Of Academic Librarianship, 35(2), 117-125. Jamali, H. R., & Nicholas, D. (2008). Information-seeking behaviour of physicists and astronomers. Aslib Proceedings, 60(5), 444-462. Jamali, H. R., & Nicholas, D. (2010). Interdisciplinarity and the information-seeking behavior of scientists. Information Processing and Management, 46(2), 233-243. Sahu, H., & Singh, S. (2013). Information seeking behaviour of astronomy/astrophysics scientists. Aslib Proceedings, 65 (2), 109-142. doi:10.1108/00012531311313961 SAO/NASA ADS: ADS Home Page. (n.d.). Retrieved February 27, 2014, from http://adswww.harvard.edu/ 29
CIRCULATION: RESEARCH IN FOCUS
Investigating Neurodiversity in Academic Libraries
As students, getting acclimated to the information field involves understanding both research that has been done and also potential areas of
future inquiry.
Erica Trotter, Jenn Parent, Debra Pointer, Ashley Farley, MLIS
undergraduate degree, so it is essential to
Introduction
understand how students with ASD interact with
There have been many studies on Autism
these resources. This study is a foundational effort to
Spectrum Disorders (ASD) but there is an apparent
expand knowledge concerning the information
lack of research that specifically investigates the
seeking behavior of individuals with ASD. Once a
information-seeking behavior of those on the
strong understanding is established, opportunities
spectrum (Anderson, 2014). Many universities,
may be uncovered for adaptive technologies and
including the University of Washington, provide
In this
therapies to improve any gaps found in library
opportunities for students with ASD to seek support
services or resources. This could lead to improved
for managing some areas of their disability in college,
teaching curricula, advising techniques, library staff
but it is unclear if they are marginalized in their use
training and adaptive technologies.
section, we identify three research areas ripe for future study. Will one
of academic libraries.
How do University of Washington
perspective that the affected students are in the best
of these be the next
undergraduate students with ASD utilize
position to reveal if gaps exist in library services. The
their academic library and library
lived experience of these students is the foundation
resources? How do these students perceive
for our work, and guides our research. This approach
their academic library and library
is best suited to qualitative methods because we are
resources?
exploring both actual patterns of behavior and the
big study?
Theoretical Perspective
This study is intended to address the following questions:
We are approaching this research from the
It is our view that the students’ perception of the
motivations that drive that behavior.
library directly affects their use of the library, so it is
Scope
important to investigate these issues concurrently.
The proposed study focuses on registered
Purpose
undergraduate students of the University of Washington, Seattle campus, who are diagnosed with
The services and information provided by the
or self identify as falling somewhere on the autism
library are increasingly necessary to complete an 30
31
CIRCULATION: AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
spectrum.
and assistance in using resources available to all
has been monitored in children the number of
(Smith, 2007). Although there are organizations like
Limitations
students. As little research exists in how students
children affected has more than doubled. In 2000, 1
the Association on Higher Education and Disability
with ASD interact with their university's resources
in 150 children were diagnosed with ASD, whereas
proposing numerous accommodations for students
our study is filling a very significant gap and could
by 2010 the rate increased to 1 in 68 children (CDC
with ASD (AHEAD, 1991) they are primarily
lead to creating ways to help ASD students perform
2014). This is a considerable jump from the 1990s
suggestions, meaning it is up to the college or
at their highest potential. Without a foundational
where there were only 31 documented cases per
university to interpret and determine what
study on how undergraduate students interact with
10,000 children (Nordin & Gillberg, 1996). This rise
“reasonable accommodations” need to be established
their university library and its resources it becomes
in documented cases may be attributed to
for their student population with ASD (Smith, 2007).
difficult for institutions to offer effective support for
considerable advances in early identification. Early
students. The results we obtain could satisfy gaps in
identification and intervention treatments of
supports needed by college students with ASD could
current literature as well as potentially inspire other
children with ASD will result in an increase of college
take the form of extended deadlines, extra time on
researchers to conduct similar investigations.
bound individuals with ASD (Wei et al. 2013).
exams, alternatives to group projects and
Literature Review
Currently, 35% of individuals with ASD have entered
assignments involving public speaking, separate
two- or four-year college programs (Shattuck et al.
locations for exams, tutors, note-takers or even
2012). A growing college population with ASD
coursework modifications (Gobbo and Shmulsky
necessitates the need for academic and personal
2012; Gelbar, Smith, Reichow, 2014). However, the
accommodations to aid in a successful educational
practical application of these supports remains
experience.
theoretical. Without considerable study into what
Our research also has some structural limitations. Since we are limiting our study to the Seattle campus of the University of Washington, we are losing the perspectives of students at the Bothell and Tacoma campuses. Furthermore, the potential sensitivities of our target population means that the measures we use to collect data (in this case a survey and an interview) must be carefully considered for tone, clarity, time, and environment, among other potential factors. Responses may be skewed if participants do not understand the questions or
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a lifelong
become uncomfortable and answer haphazardly in
developmental cognitive disability. In most cases the
an effort to end the process quickly.
cause is unknown. The spectrum is comprised of
We also face the ever-present limitations of time, space and funding. Training the interview team will
those diagnosed with autistic disorder, pervasive
take both time and resources. Finding an interview
development disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-
space that puts our subjects at ease may impose
NOS), and Asperger syndrome. An individual with
constraints on our ability to conduct interviews.
ASD mostly exhibits deficiencies in social skills and
Because this research involves not only human
communication and can suffer from many symptoms
subjects but also a vulnerable population, we must
including hyperactivity, anxiety, and sensory
obtain Institutional Review Board approval. Finally,
sensitivities (CDC 2014). ASD is a single diagnosis,
we must actively work to eliminate any potential bias
yet because it is a spectrum disorder there are
in the research team due to either over or under
variations in severity and consistency of symptoms,
familiarity with the subject.
and each individual has their own strengths and weaknesses. Variability in symptoms leads to a need for a variety of techniques or therapies to be
Significance
implemented and made available to assist those with
Research has shown a rise in ASD diagnoses in
ASD in overcoming obstacles in everyday life.
all age groups and as these individuals attend college
The prevalence of autism is increasing at an
they might need an alternative approach to learning
alarming rate. In the relatively short time that ASD 32
Authoritative studies have concluded that the
specific accommodations a university ASD
Accommodations are federally mandated for school age children through the Individuals with
population may require, the accommodations remain
Disabilities Education Act of 1975 (IDEA) which aims
general and may be out of sync with what the
to provide a free and appropriate public education
students need. Studies have not addressed if any
for disabled children that is equivalent to their non-
technological accommodations might be needed. Technological accommodations are common for
disabled peers with individualized supports (Iovanne et al. 2003). Once the student with ASD is enrolled in
those with disabilities through the United States
college or university they may also need to decide to
Access Board 508 Standards. These are in place to
receive support services through their disability
ensure access to technologies developed, bought,
resource office, as it most likely will be needed in
maintained or used by federal agencies. It is unclear
order to graduate (Wei et al. 2013). These supports
whether universities that receive federal funding fall
are also federally outlined in the United States
under this scope. Compliance with the standards by
Access Board 508 Standards ensuring access for
universities has been voluntary and not mandated,
adults with physical, sensory, or cognitive disabilities
which may be why there is a dearth of research on IT 33
CIRCULATION: AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
accessibility accommodations for ASD students at
undergraduate students in the library settings at the
universities. While a typical student at University of
University of Washington.
Washington is expected to learn and navigate various technologies in order to be successful without
Conclusion
technological accommodations, ASD students may
Our research helps to ameliorate a lack of
be being marginalized.
understanding of how undergraduate students with
Without needed supports there is a risk of
ASD use and perceive University of Washington
isolation and marginalization (Zager, Alpern 2010)
libraries and library resources. It can also be used to
(Adreon, Durocher, 2007). Inclusion in the college
impact practice within the University of Washington
environment is vital to the success of an ASD post-
library system as data gathered will be used to
secondary student and support is needed to ensure
identify areas for practical application of
socialization with peers due to their general lack of
accommodation practices which are not covered by
social and communication skills. It has been
the current ASD literature. In addition, this data will
determined that college success hinges on a student’s
be beneficial to all information
ability to engage in the college environment both
professionals. Although its primary significance
academically and through participation in organized
would be to academic librarians, we believe that the
learning opportunities and activities (Whitt et al.
data will give insight into missing or lacking services,
2008). Since library usage is key to a successful
skills, and tools for any librarians or libraries that
undergraduate experience at an university, research
serve ASD students. These insights will provide
is needed to determine what role libraries can play in
opportunities for other information professionals to
support of university students with ASD.
implement services or improve skillsets in areas that
Although research on ASD is expanding along
affect their service to ASD information
with the number of cases, research on ASD in college
seekers. Finally, this research study contributes to
context remains scarce. Most research has been
the ASD field literature by providing foundational
aimed at lower functioning ASD individuals and
data in an area that is under-studied. This study
those enrolled in early intervention programs
aims to be a starting point and model for other
through middle school (Gelbar et al. 2014). The
universities to conduct their own research and
majority of these students will most likely not be
contribute data towards filling the gap in the area of
attending a university. For those individuals with
ASD research around higher education-seeking
ASD that are higher functioning, this study hopes to
individuals.
References Adreon, D., & Durocher, J. S. (May 01, 2007). Evaluating the College Transition Needs of Individuals with HighFunctioning Autism Spectrum Disorders. Intervention in School and Clinic, 42, 5, 271-279 Anderson, J. M. (2014). A qualitative inquiry into the two-year college experiences of students with autism spectrum disorder. http://uwashington.worldcat.org.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/oclc/897090971 Basit, Tehmina (Summer 2003), Manual or electronic? The role of coding in qualitative data analysis. Educational Research, 45, 2, 143-154 Gardiner, E., & Iarocci, G. (May 01, 2014). Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder in the University Context: Peer Acceptance Predicts Intention to Volunteer. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44, 5, 1008-1017. Gelbar, N. W., Smith, I., & Reichow, B. (January 01, 2014). Systematic review of articles describing experience and supports of individuals with autism enrolled in college and university programs. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44, 10, 2593-601. Gobbo, K., & Shmulsky, S. (January 01, 2012). Classroom Needs of Community College Students with Asperger's Disorder and Autism Spectrum Disorders. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 36, 1, 40-46. Hart, J. E., & Whalon, K. J. (May 01, 2011). Creating Social Opportunities for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder in Inclusive Settings. Intervention in School and Clinic,46, 5, 273-279. Iovannone, R., Dunlap, G., Huber, H., & Kincaid, D. (September 01, 2003). Effective Educational Practices for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Focus on Autism & Other Developmental Disabilities, 18, 3 Logan, K. R., Bakeman, R., & Keefe, E. B. (January 01, 1997). Effects of Instructional Variables on Engaged Behavior of Students with Disabilities in General Education Classrooms. Exceptional Children, 63, 4, 481-498. Nordin, V., & Gillberg, C. (January 01, 1996). Autism spectrum disorders in children with physical or mental disability or both. I: Clinical and epidemiological aspects.Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 38, 4, 297-313. Shattuck, P. T., Narendorf, S. C., Cooper, B., Sterzing, P. R., Wagner, M., & Taylor, J. L. (January 01, 2012). Postsecondary education and employment among youth with an autism spectrum disorder. Pediatrics, 129, 6, 1042-9. Smith, C. P. (September 01, 2007). Support Services for Students with Asperger's Syndrome in Higher Education. College Student Journal, 41, 3, 515-531. Wei, X., Yu, J. W., Shattuck, P., McCracken, M., & Blackorby, J. (July 01, 2013). Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Participation Among College Students with an Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43, 7, 1539-1546. Whitt, E. J., Kinzie, J., Schuh, J. H., & Kuh, G. D. (July 01, 2008). Assessing Conditions to Enhance Student Success: How Six Campuses Got Started. About Campus, 13, 3, 9-18. Zager, D., & Alpern, C. S. (September 01, 2010). College-Based Inclusion Programming for Transition-Age Students with Autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 25, 3, 151-157.
discover what supports are needed by ASD
34
35
CIRCULATION: AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Online Tutorials as Tools for Information Literacy Jessi ca Dawn Humphri es, Eri n Kennedy, Miri am Heard, Emily Yeaton, MLIS
Introduction Teaching technologies are continually evolving. minds and information that will educate them require continual evaluation and critique. The benefits of technological advances to the teaching profession have been apparent; however, to ensure promoting student learning, those who teach must take time to probe the appropriateness of technology’s use in the classroom. Since technology
instructions have students received outside of online
information literacies into their curricula (Houston
tutorials? How do students evaluate information they
16; Asselin 30). In particular, teachers lack the time
find during the online search process?
and necessary knowledge to impart these skills to their students (Purcell et al. 55). New strategies for
Prior to completing and analyzing our research, it
supporting teachers in information literacy
ocean of knowledge to find the information that best
Internet will have provided students with some
instruction, particularly in the absence of a
answers the questions being asked?
research skills. More refined techniques such as
collaborating library media specialist, could
using Boolean search terms and how to effectively
potentially bridge this skills gap among students. The literature reviewed contains a number of
interactive tutorials an effective instruction
evaluate online sources may need to be explicitly
tool for teaching high school sophomores
taught to students. Our goals are three-fold: (a) to
studies examining Internet search behaviors of
(age 15-16?) to search and evaluate web-
determine web-searching behavior of high school
middle and high school students. A survey to analyze
based information?
sophomores; (b) to evaluate the effectiveness of
Internet search strategies of high school students by
online tutorials on research and web searching; and
Scott and O’Sullivan found that students used only
tutorials are effective tools to teach high school
(c) to contribute to educational research in hopes of
basic search techniques to locate information (21).
students (ages 15-16) how to search for and evaluate
providing more resources to educators in the
The study revealed an inability among students to
web-based information. Previous research has shown
ongoing success of students.
create effective keyword searches, narrow searches,
We seek to evaluate and identify if online
these advances yield the utmost effectiveness in
shown that teachers struggle to integrate these
is our expectation that widespread access to the
Research Question: Are online,
The tools educators use to bring together young
growing up with Internet access? What existing
or determine the relevancy and reliability of the
that interactive tutorials have proven successful for
is ever evolving, the process of evaluation must
undergraduate students (Sachs et al.) and we hope to
mimic the tools it seeks to understand: it must be
find whether these results can be duplicated with
continually changing, developing and reflecting. Of all the new technologies currently available, the one that bears most reflection and evaluation is the Internet. The unprecedented scope for information storage and accessibility that the Internet offers provides both a huge opportunity and challenge to educators. The opportunities to improve learning have so many students had access to such boundless sources of information. Yet it is this vast scope that poses many challenges to the modern-day student. How does one begin to wade through the immense
36
by a 2009 study of ninth-grade students by
Middle and high school students’ lack of skill in
high school sophomores. Learning to effectively
finding and evaluating web-based information,
search the Internet is a skill that is becoming more
particularly as the use of Internet searches for
essential in today’s world. It is important that
information seeking has become prevalent among
effective searching and source evaluating skills are
this population, is a concern. In a 2012 study
taught to more than just those pursuing post-
conducted by Pew Research, it was found that
secondary education.
“teachers worry about students’ overdependence on
To discover the success of online tutorials in
that the Internet provides are clear; never before
information retrieved. These results are corroborated
Literature Review
Walraven, Brand-Gruwel, and Boshuizen, which concluded that students were concerned with finding information about a specific topic rather than assessing the information for reliability, with 82% of study participants admitting they rarely check information for accuracy (235). A 2014 study by Watson explored the criteria
search engines; the difficulty many students have
teaching sophomore students, many other questions
judging the quality of online information; [and] the
must be asked and answered. What do students’
general level of literacy of today’s students” (Purcell
searching patterns look like before, after, and
et al. 2). Despite acknowledging that instruction in
without an online tutorial? What sort of existing
using and analyzing electronic resources has become
knowledge have students gained from simply
a critical pedagogical issue, several studies have
high school students used to judge the relevance and reliability of web-based information. Watson determined that students sought the least challenging path to locate information, relying on the rankings of search engines to determine relevance. 37
CIRCULATION: AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Watson noted that students used superficial criteria
time nor resources to adequately address
perform and evaluate web content when provided
will allow the researchers to observe the study
when evaluating the accuracy of information, such as
information literacy in their classrooms (29), a
with an online tutorial. Our results will follow on
subjects in their classrooms, eliminating the
the graphics of a website, URLs, and finding two
concern also noted in Pew’s 2012 study (Purcell et al.
questions and concerns noted in previous studies of
artificiality of a laboratory experiment. The use of
sources that agree (often with Wikipedia as a
55).
high school students’ information literacy when
naturally occurring groups in the field strengthens
using the Internet.
the external validity of the study’s investigation of
Web-based tutorials present a possible solution
source). Alarmingly, he determined that students felt their intuition and “impressions of trustworthiness”
to these instructional dilemmas. A 2013 study
were sufficient criteria for incorporating information
showed that online, interactive tutorials have proven
into their projects (Watson 1401). These findings
successful in improving search practices and
echo the conclusions of a 2009 study by Julien and
information evaluation among college
Barker, which found that high school students
undergraduates (Sachs et al. 339). The study also
exhibited minimal understanding of “critical
noted that such tutorials have been used extensively
evaluation criteria such as authority, accuracy,
in public libraries, and have grown more effective
objectivity, currency, and coverage” (15).
with continued development, but did not include an assessment of their potential use in middle or high
Researchers have been working to identify
school settings.
effective methods for instructing students in finding
Throughout the literature and past studies, we
and evaluating information on the Internet. Asselin, Kymes, and Lam found that instruction was most
can gather that there is a distinct need to address
effective with frequent lessons guided by a teacher or
web-searching behavior early on in students to foster
librarian (Asselin, Kymes and Lam). Kules and Capra
effective search habits that the students will take
discovered in their 2012 study of college students
with them into later years. Previous investigation
that video training helped students utilize the facets
into the subject by our peers has resulted in the
of an online resource more (133). Barack’s 2014
overall discovery that college and high school
study found that students’ abilities to find and
students perform better when provided adequate
evaluate web-based information improved most
tools. As the focus of this study pertains to high
when they received instruction from both a teacher
school sophomores, our research aims to supplement
and a school librarian (14). However, these studies
past findings by providing insight into the search
do not offer suggestions for teachers who lack access
tendencies of high school aged students, specifically
to a certified library media specialist. Houston notes
sophomores. High school sophomores, given the
that teachers often have no training in information
rigor of their curriculum, will be required to conduct
literacy and find it difficult to articulate criteria for
research either independently, or as a group, at some
evaluating web-based information (14). A 2005 study
point in their learning. Our three-fold study will
by Asselin concluded that teachers had neither the
provide a breadth of knowledge as to how students 38
online, interactive tutorial’s applicability in realworld settings (Wildemuth 94). Furthermore, the use
Research Methods
of already formed classes as the study’s units of
We will employ a nonequivalent control group
analysis will ease recruitment of subjects, the high
experimental design to determine whether an online,
school sophomore students, and ensure a relatively
interactive tutorial is effective in teaching high
stable study sample over the course of the
school sophomores to search and evaluate web-based
experiment.
information for academic purposes. The research
A weakness of the nonequivalent control group
method will allow us to compare students’
design is the potential lack of functionally equivalent
information-seeking and evaluation behaviors across
groups as represented by the selected classes
two groups: an experimental group completing an
(Krathwohl 500). Because individual students will
online tutorial and a control group receiving no
not be randomly assigned to groups, there may be
supplemental instruction. The study sample will be
significant variation in the makeup of the classes,
drawn from two high school sophomore classes in
such as students’ past experience with web-based
one school, taught by the same instructor, with each
searches and socioeconomic status. The design’s use
class randomly assigned to either the experimental
of a pretest, or pre-treatment observation, will help
or control group.
to identify any variation between the experimental
As noted by Krathwohl, an experimental research
and control groups, and adjust our data analysis
method will provide the best evidence of a causal
accordingly.
relationship between the tutorial instruction and any improvement in students’ ability to find and evaluate
Conclusions
information on the Internet (501). While this design
Our aim in conducting this study is to provide a
does not offer the highest level of control achieved through random assignment of individual students
practical, applicable tool that will aid teachers and
into the experimental and control groups, it has
other educators in helping students learn to search
many attributes that make it particularly appropriate
effectively. We have found, in our literature review
for the study. A nonequivalent control group design
and preliminary efforts, that high school students
39
CIRCULATION: AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
often exhibit behaviors when conducting online
studies with other groups would be helpful in
References
searches for educational purposes that lead them to
discovering the applicability and generalizability of
less trustworthy sources, or to evaluate trustworthy
such research.
Anderson, Stacy, and Emily Mitchell. “Life After TILT: Building An Interactive Information Literacy Tutorial.” Journal of Library & Information Services in Distance Learning 6 (2012): 147-158. Taylor & Francis Online. Web. 3 Dec. 2014.
sources incorrectly. On the information thus far,
Second, we discussed earlier that similar
there is general consensus that these behaviors exist,
studies have been done with undergraduate college
and this lack of information literacy skills could
students, and part of our goal was to extend the data
affect the students’ education and ability to learn in
that has been gathered to include a younger group of
the future, both in further education and outside the
students. In addition, it seems potentially helpful to
bounds of high school or college. Our question,
continue extending that data to include middle
therefore, is how to go about solving this problem.
school, or even grade school students as well. Since
If our research concludes that the tutorial helps
the current generations of these students have grown
students learn to search in ways that will further
up with these Internet resources and have never
their education more effectively than the ways in
known school without them, they could exhibit
which they are currently searching, we believe we
search behaviors that other groups of students in the
will have accomplished something worthwhile. To be
past had never been able to access, and the findings
able to claim that the tutorial has been shown to be
of such studies could tell us more about the
helpful to some group of students, and could be
trajectory of Internet resource use by other, similar
helpful to others, is the eventual aim of this research.
groups.
This is not to say, however, that this research
As information professionals, we believe
would be the end of the line in this area of study. In
research of this nature to be of great importance. The
the future, we would love to see others build off our
path that information access and use has taken to get
research, particularly in a few key areas. First, our
to where it is now has been unpredictable in many
limited subject samples and methods could prevent
ways, leading to an under-serving of the information
applicability to other schools or populations of
literacy needs of the younger generation. In the
students, and the potential variance is significant.
future, it will be helpful to have a thorough
We acknowledge the possibility of questions such as
understanding of how students are likely to use the
whether the data would vary between socioeconomic
search tools provided to them, in order to figure out
groups, between grades, types of schools, location,
how to meet their needs and how those tools will
etc. To conduct similar experimental, tutorial-based
evolve over time.
Asselin, Marlene. “Teaching Information Skills in the Information Age: An Examination of Trends in the Middle Grades.” School Libraries Worldwide 11.1 (2005): 17-36. Education Source. Web. 29 Nov. 2014. Asselin, Marlene, Angel Kymes, and Virginia Lam. “A Critical Examination of Information Literacy Instruction During Grade 9 Research Projects.” Simile 7.4 (2007): 1-18. Library & Information Science Source. Web. 29 Nov. 2014. Barack, Lauren. “Good Research Habits Pay Off.” School Library Journal 60.9 (2014): 14. MasterFILE Premier. Web. 29 Nov. 2014. Houston, Cynthia. “Commonwealth Schools in the Information Age: The Status of Information Services in Kentucky Middle Schools.” School Libraries in Canada 26.3 (2009): 9-19. MasterFILE Premier. Web. 29 Nov. 2014. Julien, Heidi, and Susan Barker. “How High-school Students Find and Evaluate Scientific Information: A Basis for Information Literacy Skills Development.” Library & Information Science Research 31.1 (2009): 12-17. ScienceDirect. Web. 29 Nov. 2014. Krathwohl, David R. “Experimental Methods and Experimental Design.” Methods of Educational and Social Science Research: An Integrated Approach. 2nd ed. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, 1998. 498-547. Kules, Bill, and Robert Capra. “Influence of Training and Stage of Search on Gaze Behavior in a Library Catalog Faceted Search Interface.” Journal of the American Society for Information Science & Technology 63.1 (2012): 114-138. Business Source Complete. Web. 30 Nov. 2014. Ping, Li. “Science Information Literacy Tutorials and Pedagogy.” Evidence Based Library and Information Practice 6.2 (2011): 5-18. Library & Information Science Source. Web. 10 Oct. 2014. Purcell, Kristen, Lee Rainie, Alan Heaps, Judy Buchanan, Linda Friedrich, Amanda Jacklin, Clara Chen, and Kathryn Zickuhr. “How Teens Do Research in the Digital World.” Pew Research Internet Project. 2014. Pew Research Center, 1 Nov. 2012. Web. 29 Nov. 2014. Sachs, Dianna E., Kathleen A. Langan, Carrie C. Leatherman, and Jennifer L. Walters. “Assessing the Effectiveness of Online Information Literacy Tutorials for Millennial Undergraduates.” Proving Value and Improving Practice: Assessment Strategies for the Small Academic Library. Spec. issue of College & Undergraduate Libraries 20.3-4 (2013): 327-351. Taylor & Francis Online. Web. 29 Nov. 2014. Scott, Thomas J., and Michael K. O’Sullivan. “Analyzing Student Search Strategies: Making a Case for Integrated Information Literacy Skills Into the Curriculum.” Teacher Librarian 33.1 (2005): 21-25. Education Source Publications. Web. 29 Nov. 2014. Walraven, Amber, Saskia Brand-Gruwel, and Henry Boshuizen. “How Students Evaluate Information and Sources When Searching the World Wide Web for Information.” Computers & Education 52.1 (2009): 234-246. ScienceDirect. Web. 29 Nov. 2014. Watson, Curtis. “An Exploratory Study of Secondary Students’ Judgments of the Relevance and Reliability of Information.” Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology 65.7 (2014): 1385-1408. Print. Wildemuth, Barbara, and Carol Hank. “Quasi-experimental Studies.” Applications of Social Research Methods to Questions in Information and Library Science. Westport, Connecticut: Libraries Unlimited, 2009. 93-104.
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CIRCULATION: AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Finding Gender Associations in Picture Books The focus of this study is the gendering of literature from a young age. The study will examine how children start to gender books, and what factors inform their decisions that certain books are more appropriate for one gender. Previous research has children. This study will gather data from preschoolaged children as they are forming their gender biases in literature.
While we acknowledge that book selections do not
gender, and can accurately apply their culture’s
happen in a vacuum and are tied to significant
gender expectations by the age of three (Freeman,
factors other than gender (e.g., race, class and
2007). External influences reinforce gender
culture), these other factors are not within the scope
stereotypes at young ages, as research on preschool
influences of peers, parents or teachers. Picture
of this study. To address these limitations, we will
toys has found (Cherney & Dempsey, 2010;
books refer to any book for young children with a
collect demographic data on each child’s family to
Weisgram, Fulcher & Dinella, 2014). Cherney and
visual narrative. Examples of gender-stereotypical
account for other variables, but further studies on
Dempsey found young children used color to assign
colors, themes and characters might include pastel
the impact of race and economics are recommended
gender to unfamiliar toys (2010). Weisgram et al.
and pink colors for girls, and bold or blue colors for
to gather a full scope of social factors involved in
(2014) not only found gender-specific toy marketing
boys; nurturing themes of love, romance and family
choosing books.
to preschoolers, but asserted that such practices hurt
What are common factors for children between 48 and 65 months of age, for determining a picture book is “for girls” or month-old children prefer books with gender -stereotypical colors, themes or characters? The age range is the youngest with dependable verbal skills, and reflects a common age range in a
directing them to build only skills and competencies
conforms to the aforementioned themes for each
experimental design that might introduce harmful
associated with toys for one gender.
gender.
stereotypes. However, the school environment
to any factor appearing to influence how a child designates a book as “for girls” or “for boys,” and may include colors, gender of main characters, or
42
Although sexism in picture books has diminished
setting could yield rich data, as well as commentary
(Worland, 2008), publishers are still finding success
observation and interview in this qualitative study,
about off-site influences, all of which can form a
by targeting books to either boy or girl readers
using a critical theorist paradigm. We operate under
foundation for future research and focused, safer
(Sellers, 2007), often indicated by color scheme. The
the assumption that our observations and values are
experiments.
gender of the book’s main character is another
The importance of this study lies with further
important factor. In an Israeli study of coloring
that imposed gender stereotypes constitute a
awareness of the areas that may impact very young
books, children were found to make selections based
harmful false reality. We hope our findings may be
children in determining which books they choose to
on whether the book’s character was masculine or
used to neutralize or minimize gender stereotyping
read, with an aim to correcting or neutralizing
feminine, regardless of color scheme (Karniol, 2011).
of books at the youngest age possible.
influences that impose gender stereotypes, at as early
Other variables not necessarily related to gender, but
an age as possible. It is our hope that this research
that can influence a child’s book selection, are the
are only studying preschool-aged children in Seattle
could eventually inform teachers’ approach to
placement of the book in the library and whether or
metropolitan classroom environments. Factors that
literacy, media marketing to children, and the
not the child is familiar with the subject, series, or
may contribute to determining if books are “for girls”
programs that libraries endorse and create for
author (Reuter, 2007).
or “for boys” may vary greatly between different
children.
Significant limitations of this study are that we
pre-Kindergarten classroom. Common factors refers
children’s social and cognitive development by
causation since ethical considerations preclude an
subjective within the context of social behavior, but
“for boys”? To what extent do 48-to-65-
Finally, we will not be able to determine
for boys; as well as main characters whose behavior
We will use combined methods of field
Our Research Questions are as follows:
During the preschool years, children form strong opinions about what behaviors are expected for their
for girls, and themes of independence or adventure
used only survey methods, or focused on older
observe all possible influences, including home environment, sibling behavior or media influence.
Emily Grantz, Allison Reibel, Kathl een S ullivan, Reed Garber-Pearson, MLIS
Introduction
Literature Review
geographical locations. Further, we will not directly
Existing literature has shown that preschool
43
CIRCULATION: AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
children of both sexes prefer stories that are
select books, but Reuter (2007) points out that much
this stage (testing negative, stereotype-reinforcing
appropriate classrooms including at least 15 children
consistent with the child’s gender identity (Kropp &
of this research has relied on surveys and not direct
influences) might actually introduce children to
who speak fluent English. The classroom size is large
Halverson, 1983). Boys prefer violent stories, girls
observation of children. Reuter’s research (2007)
harmful gender stereotypes. By carefully listening
enough to generate approximately 10 child and 10
prefer romantic ones, and these preferences
uses observation, but is specific to older children
and watching now, we may uncover promising
parent interviews per class, maintain a boy-girl split
strengthen as children get older and become more
browsing digital books. Previous research into
correlations or influences that can then be tested in
among child interviewees (i.e., 5 girls, 5 boys) and
attached to their gender identity (Collins-Standley,
gendering influences for very young children has
future, safer experiments, where intervention aims to
allow for one or two families who opt out of the
Gan & Yu, 1996). One of the biggest influences on
focused on toys rather than books. Our study
neutralize gender stereotypes rather than reinforce
study. We will divide the list by geographical sections
this preference is the reinforcing of it by peers, with
examines book behavior specifically, in the youngest
them.
of the city to include various demographics, then
Baker-Sperry (2007) noting that a group of boys may
age group that is both vulnerable to gender-
perceive the reading of Cinderella as a feminizing
conditioning influence and verbally advanced
65 months of age, who live in urban areas and speak
section until we secure 15 sites where the school,
activity. Focus on peer reaction is especially true for
enough to discuss preferences.
fluent English. We want to catch gender association
classroom teacher and most families agree to
influences at the youngest possible age where
participate. (Researchers will work with cooperating
children have strong enough verbal skills to talk with
classroom teachers to contact parents, address
each other and with a researcher. The age range
concerns and secure consent, prior to any site visit.)
reflects that of a pre-Kindergarten preschool
We will visit as many sites and interview as many
classroom, excluding especially younger or older
subjects as needed to achieve saturation and
children in order to maintain developmental
sufficiency, and add more randomly chosen sites if
similarity. Urban residence and fluency in English
necessary.
boys who may be seen as participating in feminine behaviors (Fagot, 1997). Children also anticipate that
Research Methods
items they have determined as belonging to their sex
This study uses a cross-sectional combination of
will be enjoyed by others in their group and that they
observation and interviews of young children, their
will be rejected by the opposite sex (Martin &
parents and their preschool teachers. Observation
Eisenbund, 1995).
allows us to gather information about children’s
Parents may also influence a child’s thoughts on
book behavior in a natural setting, without any
appropriate gender behavior without being aware of
leading interference (Westbrook, 2010), while
it. Freeman (2007) notes that even though many
interviews give us more controlled, specific
parents explicitly reject gender stereotypes, children
information about that behavior and inner thought
predict parents will apply such stereotypes when
processes (Patton, 2001) from children themselves
approving or disapproving of children’s choice of
and adults who are often nearby. This triangulation
activity or toy. Librarians and teachers can also have
gives us rich, comparative perspectives on the
unconscious influence by creating book lists
complicated interaction between children and books
specifically targeting boy or girl readers (Scott,
(Westbrook, 2010).
2014).
Although we ultimately seek a nomothetic
Our research synthesizes the previous literature
explanation for why young children associate a book
and fills a gap on the gender-related book behavior of
with boys or girls, ethical concerns preclude an
very young children, who are already forming gender
experimental design that is best for illuminating
identity. Previous research examined how children
nomothetic factors (Schutt, 2009). An experiment at
randomly select and contact a preschool from each
Our target population is children between 48 to
Since we are not gathering data for statistical
give the sample cultural consistency, as influences in non-urban and recent immigrant households may
significance or generalization, we will simply seek to
differ substantially from the broader urban
observe and interview equal numbers of girls and
population.
boys, while gathering income, ethnic and other demographic data about children’s households. This
Individual children will be our units of analysis, while our observation setting will be a group
way we can compare our final sample with the
(preschool) environment. (The familiar environment
general preschool population, and possibly draw
allows for relaxed, natural interaction, along with
inferences for preschool children in culturally and
observation of peer influence on individual choices.)
demographically similar populations.
Interviews with children, parents and teachers will take place individually, in a semi-private space at the
Ethical considerations
preschool.
Working with child subjects requires strict ethical
To select sites and recruit participants, we will
attention to their well-being. Following are measures
create a list of Seattle preschools with age44
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CIRCULATION: AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
to avoid harm and minimize distress:
Limitations
Gain parent/guardian consent prior to visiting
Research with young children comes with
the classroom, using email and generous lead time (2
inherent risks, particularly in interviews. Young
-3 weeks) so parents/guardians can address any
children may answer off-topic or broadly, or simply
concerns.
not participate. Uniformity and attention to
Work with classroom teachers to make
children’s well-being also limits our ability to clarify
researchers’ classroom presence as neutral as
with probes (which can particularly upset or confuse
possible. Researchers should blend in and react
children). If unaddressed, these risks could inhibit
pleasantly if children approach, with an aim to
our ability to gather enough data or sufficiently
returning children to their natural everyday activity.
relevant data, a threat to validity.
Minimize disappointment about which children
Still, interviews are our best chance for
are picked for an interview. Teachers can show
understanding children’s inner thought processes,
children that picks are random (choosing names out
and can provide important data to compare with
of a cup, for example), and discreetly ask children to
observed behavior. We will attempt to minimize
step away for an interview during open playtime. All
interview complications through excellent design
children receive a new book at the end of the day
and researcher training, and through sufficient
regardless of participation.
sampling to allow for interviews that go awry.
Design child interview protocols and
A threat to reliability (or dependability) is the
environments to put the child at ease and in charge
extent to which our findings require researcher
as much as possible. Interviewers might sit side by
interpretation, which others might not share.
side with the child, for example, to avoid the
Observation especially presents the risk of over- or
appearance of interrogation, or have the child hold
under-interpreting certain behavior. Gender
the books and “guide” the researcher. The interview
association is a complicated behavior, rarely limited
space should allow the researcher and child to see
to one activity or influence. If insufficiently
others and be seen.
addressed, these risks would make our findings seem
Train researchers who interview children in
subjective to the point of irrelevance.
establishing rapport and neutralizing events that easily distress children, such as confusion or concern
Conclusion
over disappointing the interviewer.
We hope our research will establish promising
Establish clear guidelines for when children’s
correlations between outside influences (e.g., peers,
distress requires pausing or terminating interviews
parents, book characteristics) and gender association
or observation. 46
with picture books in preschool-aged children. If we
intentionally involve elements such as race, class and
are able to provide compelling data on how often
economics to gather a holistic look at factors that
girls or boys choose gender-stereotypical books and
convene to impact socialization and how children
under what circumstances, or how often children
choose picture books.
verbalize that books are for one gender over another,
This research will provide a valuable extension of
we will have a sound basis for refined future research
existing literature that examines how preschool aged
and more enlightened practice by caregivers,
children assign gender to toys and unfamiliar toy
educators and information professionals.
objects. The theory that children will reject toys based on an assumed other-gendered intention is
By expanding understanding of gender conditioning and book behavior, this research has
thought to have a large impact on which skills girls
the potential to impact practice in educational
and boys will learn through their play (Weisgram et
systems and libraries that teach literacy to preschool
al., 2014). If this theory can be applied to book
children. Understanding that gender bias starts at a
selection as well, it will be an important addition in
young age -- and how it starts -- can help parents and
understanding how book selection can impact future
other caregivers who want to raise children free of
reading habits and future areas of interest. This
gender stereotypes. This is also beneficial to writers,
research will also be of interest to the existing “books
publishers, marketers, and librarians who are
for boys” discourse (Scott, 2014), which looks at why
committed to gender equality and who want children
boys are thought to read less than girls. If we can see
to be empowered to choose books regardless of
how gender affects children’s book choices in the
perceived gender norms.
preschool years, we can perhaps find some clues as to why their reading behavior further diverges as
This project provides a solid stepping stone for
they grow older.
further research into factors that impact the
The results of this research have several
gendering of picture books. Our study can form the foundation for future studies replicating these
implications for information professionals. The
methods in different geographic areas, or among
results could help librarians, such as those in schools
other demographic populations not included here,
or public institutions, to refine their storytime, book
such as recent immigrant households. Future
selection and book recommendation practices. It has
research can use our findings for safer experiments,
the potential to provide information to publishers
ones whose interventions attempt to neutralize likely
and writers on how children are choosing books
gender-stereotyping influences on book choices,
based on gender. With this knowledge, different
rather than introduce them. Future studies could
marketing strategies could be devised to target a
47
CIRCULATION: AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
the
CIRCULATION: AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
broader scope of audience with each book. Our
preschool children, could provide other researchers
triangulated research methodology, plus the
in the information sciences field with a new model
innovation of doing this type of research with
for conducting ethically sound research.
References Baker-Sperry, L. (2007). The production of meaning through peer interaction: Children and Walt Disney's “Cinderella.” Sex Roles, 56 (11/12), 717-727. Education Source. Cherney, I. D. & Dempsey, J. (2010). Young children's classification, stereotyping and play behaviour for gender neutral and ambiguous toys. Educational Psychology, 30 (6), 651-669. Education Source. Collins-Standley, T., Gan, S., & Yu, H.J. (1996). Choice of romantic, violent, and scary fairy-tale books by preschool girls and boys. Child Study Journal, 26 (4), 279-302. Education Source. Fagot, B. I. (1977). Consequence of moderate cross-gender behavior in preschool children. Child Development, 48 (3), 902-907. Library & Information Science Source. Freeman, N. (2007). Preschoolers’ perceptions of gender appropriate toys and their parents’ beliefs about genderized behaviors: Miscommunication, mixed messages, or hidden truths? Early Childhood Education Journal, 34 (5), 357366. Education Source. Karniol, R. (2011). The color of children’s gender stereotypes. Sex Roles, 65 (1), 119-132. Print. Kropp, J. J. & Halverson, C.F. (1983). Preschool children's preferences and recall for stereotyped versus nonstereotyped stories. Sex Roles, 9, 261-272. Education Source. Martin, C.L. & Eisenbund, L. (1995). Children's gender-based reasoning about toys. Child Development, 66 (5), 14531471. Education Source. Patton, M.Q. (2001). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Reuter, K. (2007). Assessing aesthetic relevance: Children's book selection in a digital library. Journal of the American Society for Information Science & Technology, 58 (12), 1745-1763. Library & Information Science Source. Schutt, R. K. (2009). Investigating the social world: The process and practice of research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
study
STARTS WITH
Scott, D. (2014). Deconstructing the "books for boys" discourse. Progressive Librarian, 42, 115-122. Library & Information Science Source. Sellers, J. (2007). Entering ‘dangerous’ territory. Publishers Weekly, 254 (39), 21-22. Library & Information Science Source. Weisgram, E. S., Fulcher, M., & Dinella, L.M. (2014). Pink gives girls permission: Exploring the roles of explicit gender labels and gender-typed colors on preschool children's toy preferences. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 35 (5), 401-409. Education Source. Westbrook, L. (2010). Qualitative research methods. In L.S. Connaway & R.R. Powell (Eds.), Basic research methods for librarians (207-222). Santa Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited. Worland, J. (2008). Girls will be girls...and so on: Treatment of gender in preschool books from 1960 through 1990. Children & Libraries: The Journal of the Association for Library Service to Children, 6 (1), 42-46. Library & Information Science Source. 48
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call for submissions
Spring 2015 Submission Guidelines Theme Creativity Inspiration
Mission Statement Circulation is the student-run journal of the Information School at the University of Washington. We seek to foster and publish student creative expressions and academic work. We also support student interest in literature, scholarly communication, and publishing through special events and partnerships with organizations within the Information School and beyond.
Circulation wants to see your most creative works from the past year. What do you do when you let your mind wander? Did you write a short story over winter break? Have some illustrations on the margins of your notes? What about that photo you took of the first bloom of spring? Contact Send submissions to circulationmag@gmail.com. For more information, visit us on the web: www.circulationmag.wordpress.com
Staff Co-Editor-in-Chief
Megan Carlin
Deadline
Co-Editor-in-Chief
Becky Ramsey
Please have your work in by March 25, 2015
Treasurer
Susie Cummings
Social Media Coordinator
Rebecca Brothers
Peer Review Coordinator
Mia Klaus
Peer Review Board Members Brian David Ashley Farley Erin Gordenier Audrey Lorberfeld Bree Norlander
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