1![;A
IDCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH CENTER Vaiversity of Puerto Rico
lllo Piedras, Puerto Rito
PUERTO RICAN EMIGRATION
CLARENCE SENIOR
ONE DOLLAR
SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH CENTER UNIVERSITY OF PUERTO RICO RIO PIEDRAS
1947
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152 156 158 163
LIST OF T J.BLES I
Migrntion Stntus of Puorto Ricnn PopuJ.ation Fourtoen Yenrs Old a.nd Over, by Occupntion,
1935 - 1940
II III
• 0 • 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • • • • • • • • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • • • • • •
Occupational Stntus of Mig,rants to Sen Junn and Río Piedrr.s by Sox, 1935 - 1940 •••• •• . • • • . •• • • Bclance of Out-migrntion nnd In-migration, Puerto Rico, 1908-1909 to 1945 - 46 (fiscal ycars)
5 6
ª• • • • •º• ••• ••• • ••• •• ••• •• ••••• ••••••••••
7
IV
Vitc.l Statist:i.cs for the Territory of Hawaii ond the Puerto Ricuns: 1937 - 1946 •••••••·•·•·•••
12
V
Indices of Disorgnnizntion •• • ••••••••• • •••• •••••• •
13
VI
St. Croix: Puerto RicQn Estimutes of Favorable Fnctors º • • • • • • • • • • • • • • º • • • • • • • • • • º • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
17
VII
St. Croix: Puerto Ricen Estimntos of Unfo.vorn.ble Fc..ctors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . º • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
18
Attitudes Toward Living Conditions in thc Sta.tes
29
IX
Rating of Most foportant Favorable Factors in Life on Continent º º º º º º º º º º º º e º º º � º º º º º º ª º º º º º º• • •
30
X
Rnting of r.::ost Importc1nt Unfavorc.ble Factors in Life on ContinGnt • • . . º º º " º º º º º º º º º º º º • º º º º º " • º º . º .
31
XI
Skin Color of Puerto Ricen Vfo.r Workers on Contincnt º º º º º º º º º º • º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º • º º • º • • •
32
XII
Distri�ution .of Rccruits by OccupQtions Followed ••
33
VIII
XIII
XIV XV XVI
Distribution of Recruits by Occupationnl Groups ••• 34 Distribution of thc Numbcr of Yeo.rs of Schooling ••
F['J]lily Size: Migrc.nts and Sc.mple of Puerto Ricen Hous0holds ( Percontc.ges) •• • ••••••••••• •• • • • • ••••• • 37 Agc Distríbution of Wnr Workers cnd Puerto Ricr.n Ivíeles in kbor Force . º- º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º • • • º º • • º º º . .
37
Distribution of Maximum V!eekJ.y Income •• • ••• • • •••• •
43
11
XVII
35
iv
LIST OF TABLES - Continued Puerto Ricnns (born in Puerto Rico) in United Statos Cities of over 100,000 - 1910, 1920 nnd 1940 ..
45
XIX
Puerto Ricnns (born in Puerto Rico) in the U.S., 1910, 1920 o.nd 1940 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•
48
XX
Employoes in Privo.to Uonc.griculturnl Esto.blishments, 1944 nnd 1950 º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • •
51
XXI
Rol2.tion of Out-migro.tion frov Puerto Rico to Economic Conditions in the U. S. ••····•··•··•••·••
57
XXII
Stnto Residcnco Rcquire:ments for Public Assisto,. • • • • • c.ncc , 1945 ....................... º •
58
XXIII
Distribution of Labor Force by Princip2l Groups in Seven Lutj_n American Countries o.rid Puerto Rico, far H.ecent Ycc.rs •... º . . . . . . . . . . . ... .
64
Average W2.eo Po.id to F2.rm Workers, by Provinces, i940
71
XXV
Dominico.n Rcpublic: Industricl Invostr.i.ent, by Nationality, 1939 ••·•··•·••·•··••·•••·•·••·••·•••••
76
XXVI
Sale.ries rnd Wnges Pnid in Agricul ture and Livestock by Federal Units, 1937 ••••••··••••······•••••
80
XXVII
Net Expenditures Insular o.nd Lunicipal Governments, 192L:. - 25 to 1943 - 4L� • •••• ••••• • •••••• . • •• •
110
XXVIII
Numb0r of Childrcn Born ilivo to Mot.hors, by Educa.tion of r Iother º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º º . º
11.3
XVIII
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CHAPT R I Puerto Rico 1 s Po�ulation Problem Puerto Rico's population problern. is too ornnipresent to require more than a rccapitulation of the crucial points. The number of persons on the island is now ovor twice as large as in 1898. Each of the 3423 squarc miles averaged 618 persons in 1946, compared with a density of only 47 per scuare mile in the continental United States. The death ratc has docroased sharply in the past fifty years but tho1�e has been no significant dec:rease in the birth ratG. The rate of natural increase in 191+0 wo.s socond only to that of the Soviet Union in the period im::iodiatoly before the war. The Russian rato was ?3. 2; thc Puerto Rican 21. These rc1.tes might well be compnred uith the following¡ United Statos, 6.1; Gormany, 7.5; Italy, 9.3; India, 11.5; and Japan, 12.5. Countries which come closer to the Puerto Rican figures are Egypt with 16.0; Jamaica, 15.7; a.nd tho Phili¡.)ines, 15.L•• Every characteristic of the population indicatesthat a continued high rate of increo.se is to be oxpected in tho absenco of a thorough 1 program of population planning. Tho Puerto Ricans are younger, for in stance, than continentals. Sixty-three percont of the island's in habitants are below 24 yoars of age co:nparod with 43 percont in the States, Puerto Hican woi-;ien start reproducing several years earlier than their sistors on the mainland, a.nd koep it up several years longer. Their productivity is considorably greator at all age levels. Thc cummulative effect of tho high rate of natural increase anda projection of pa.st experiences indicates that the population will multiply as follows: 1945 1960 1980 2000
2,094,000 2,880,000 1�, 23r, ooo 11 6,136,0001'
Thcse numbers must be seon in rolation to natural resourcos, thc basic of which is land. There is now only 1/2 acre of arable land p_•r person; by 1960 thor·e will be onJ.y about 1/3; by 1980, only about 1/4 and by 2000 around 1/6. 0nly 6 porcent of the soil arcias of the island aro ratod as firct class i� productivity; and 71.8 percent are of less than average productivity • .='.I1 Agriculture, with these handicaps, furnishes employment for the larc;est group of workers: ;;29,754 out of 516,730 omployed listed by thc 19/4.0 census. It also contributes the largest private share to tho insular J:ncome: 31 percont of the total in 1940 • .1/ There might be so!'le GJC:)a.nsion of arable land anrl there. undoubtedly could be an incr,�aso in effectiveness of land utilization. These mea.sures, plus the most wii:1espread possible industrialization, must of course be tried, but the likolihood is small that they will even bcgin to overcome the lead which overpopulation has on resources and resource utilization. Tho three docades bctween 1910 a..11él. 19L.0 showed population
2
inc1�casing 67. 2 percent whil3 persi:ms en3aged in inc.1.ustry increased only 47.4 percent and r1e total of gainfully employed 1-JOrkers went up only 32.6 percent.6!:.i The :meaning o.f popula.tion pressure to the "average person 1i 011 the island is shown by the d:lfference between tho j_ncrea.se in the insular net inco11e c.nd the por ca.pita incorr.e from 1940 to 1944, the period of th0 isla.n·l' s gre2.test prosperity. The insular income, in 1940 dollo.rs, b.creased from �;,22� to · ::;305 millions or a Jain of 34 p8rce�·�, but the er cap-ita incone increased from ·:•,121 to ·::,151 or l only �J percent. 0f course this does not mean that the futu· e must follow ',he pattern of the past. It does mean t.hat new uethode rnust be tr:ied, It gives somo measure of the problcr,1 1ith whi.ch thG Puerto Rico Developm.ent Corupa.ny, the Developrnent Bank a:i:1'...1. oth3r public an-1 privatc institutions L:u,st cope. 'l'he 1Jev0lopmcnt Coupai.1:.r it.se1f, in its 191�5 Annual lLeport, ��ecognizes th..t.Ei when the general manager writes, "Our worlcing populnt.ion co:itinued to incr3a.:::e at the rute of 17,000 per year. Tho Comp:.i.ny 1,el:i.eves th.J.t im1ustrial expansion, both by private industi7 ari_,1 t.he Corlpé,,llY, cannot keep pace w:i. th such a rapid incree.se in our labor force. r:21 Em.i.gration is 1)ersistentJy recorrrrnendod f1.s a solution to the over popula tio;1 problem.. The Be11 Con·:r,ú ttee, c3.mong mar1:r other groups which havo concernod the1nselve3 wit.h Puerto TI:tcEJ1 affairs, i;su �c�tecl that practic2.11�� the onl�' effective sol11-tion ,,,as emi�r-:i.tion ti • .u
1
Puerto fl.ican public opi;.1i.on tcn rJ.s to pola:rize arounrl. diametrically op1Josed posi tions on the issue. 0nc holds, in the words of a prominont figure, ';Puerto :Lic2.11s ha.ve no er;.i;;raU.on tr2.dition; -�hey love"' t¡hoj_r count.r-y- a1rl their �Jeople too much to take risks goin:; abroad. tt;.1 The opposite position is st2.terl ns follows ty Prof. Salvador Tió; · Ca-la pue')lc ti,_me a.13:0 oue c:::poI'tar, y si tmos tienen petróleo, y otros nitratos, y otros azÚcc..r, nosotros somos el 1mico 1Jueblo ele .Amórica 0ue . 8.�'.0rnás L�e ez1íc.1.r, tiene tma incalcul;:..blo ricueza cue debo exportarse y debe .:iprovecharse para bien el e todos. l i osot.ros tenemos ho,"'.lbr-::s, intelige,1cia y brazos. Lo one se necesita par2. hacer la /u:;Órict=1. - para voncer la celva ¿•· el llano - y pa:c8. levL'.J1tar en ellos una, Ari.iérica :nejor • ·•
.'.?/
The Social Scionce ;.._,s9.:.rch CentGr, consiJer.i.ng the urr;oncy of' the :'.)Opulc.tion p•.:'oblem L•.n·� tho lc.c1.� o? inforrnction on t�10 basis of whlch to arrive at a jud�omont on thc contribution cr1ie;re.tion ni3ht mako, h2.s undert.;.l::en to cXE.min0 the c;.uestj_on. It wc.s folt that r.io1·e mus'i:. be lmowl"'. about p:-..st euigr tion cx:JC'lrinnce, including SO':ie of tho charr.c t0ristics c,f the mi�;rants; tho..t possi1Jilitios in ·i:,he -:Jn:.'..ted StatGs and La.tin 1i.raer.ici2. shoul 1 be acsayed; t_1at the oreruüzational forms and 1
3 criteria of poss:tble omi;;ra-cion should o.t least :Jo outlinéd; and that e:r,igration should be compared with othor approachos to a solution of the population problem. A tentative program is suggested on the basís of this study. It also may sup- ,ly sugc:estions for further research into as;:-ects of mi�;rc-.tion uhich are importc=;nt, bu·l; which have had to be touch3d on lightly or neglected in this report.
PUERTO RICJ\.N rnGRATION Inkr1gü 1\1,j.PTation
4
Puerto Ricans do a considerable amount of moving abont on the island. Between 1935 and 1940, 108,293 persons, or 5.É percent of the population moved from one municipio to another • ..l:2.../ Twelve percent of the total population of the continental United States moved from one state to another in the same f:i.ve years._1!_/ Ame ricans are reputed to be the r:1ost mobile people in the world. The comparison would suggest that Puerto R:icans are not as rooted to their ancestral homes as one is sometimes told. In the same period, 54 of the 77 municipalities lost population. Calculatious for the 1930-/4.0 decade shciw that, 61 municipalities lost people; 33 lost ten percent or more of the 1930 population and six lost twenty percent or more •. 2:3.../ Most of the movement has been from rural to urban areas or froro open country to rural comrnunity centers. Urban centers (over 2500) accounted :i.n 1940 'ror 30.3 parcent of the population compared with 21.8 percent in 1920, and 27.7 percent in 1930. San Jua� increased its numbers by 47 .6 percent from 19.30 to 1940; Río Piedr,.ts, 67. 2; Guaynabo, 35.7; �f:ayaguez, 31.2; and Arroyo, 31, but the total popula tion increasec. only 21. l percent. Past analyses of mieration would lead onn to ar:;sume that those who move from one mud.c�.:iality to another on the i:::land o.re more likoly to continue theJr migration -t..o another r,lntor of attraction. There is an indicat:l on thn.t this iG true in .:1.9·:,a �athered by the Di vision of Stat.istics of the Insnlar Bnrerrn of the ..:h.:de;et jn November, 191+6• Forty-six percent of the 965 p0,rsons :·Lterviewed wbilo leaving tho island reported théit the:,- had uovod f'rorn [,,)me other ry_nicipio to the one in which they were residing • .Als':J, the survey showed that the urban populntion supplied ernj grr.ntc to tl.e eYtent of two and a half times its proporc:ion of the total popvlation, and San Juan, tbe greatest receiver of internal migration, SU?Plied three anda helf times its "share 11 .-21.J Li¡:;ht :i.s shed on the rnobility of occupat:l.onal groups by the Con sus bu:'..letin on inte:imel migration (TA.ble I). Groups which flre re presented among the micrants to a substa11tiall:r hit h'3r decree than their perce::-itage of tne total population include: professional and semi-professional people, clerical and sales pe:rsons, crRftsrr.en, do mestic ano othe'.l'.' S8rvice people, and non-far□ laborer::. The greatest difference is f0und anon3 the dorr.estic servar.ts. Tho opposi to expe:::ience is found among farrners a.nd farm rrane.gers, operatives, and farn laborers.
5 TABLE I Migration Status of Puerto Rican Populat5.on 14 Years 0ld and Over, by 0ccupation, 1935 - 1940 (Percent in total population compared with percent of migrants) 0ccupational Group Professional anc semi professiona.l Farmers and farm man agers Proprietors, managers, etc. Clerical, sales, etc. Craftsmen 0peratives Domestic service other service Farm laborers Laborers, except farm Source:
Percent Total Population
Percent Migrants
2.8
7.0 3.0
4.7 7.9 5.3 16.7 7.0 3.5 34.5 5.1
4.6 10.9 7.6 13.8 15.3 5 .7 19.5 8.3
Sixteenth Census of the United States, Pue;r:t,o Rico: Migration Betwe_e_p._ l\iiunicipalities.
The occupationa.l group of those attracted to San Juo.n between 1945 and 1940 is sho\�1 in Table II. Cl�rical and sales jobs attracted the largest Group of men, but a close second was common labor. Domestic service attracted 62.5 percent of the women, with no clase contender for second place. Río Piedras experience is different from that of San Juan in that occupational groups ar.e more evenly ropresented among the males. The figures indicate the grovJing importance of the University town as a suburb of San Juan.
6 TABLE II
Occupational Status ot Migrants to San Juan and Río Piedras by Sex, 19�- 1940 OccupatiOl\ Group
Males Professional and semiprofessional Farmers and farm managers Proprietors, managers, etc. Clerical, sales, etc. Craftsmen Operatives Domestic service other service Farm laborers Labqrers, except farm Occupation not reported Females Professional and semiprofessional Farmers and fann managers Proprietors, managers, etc. Clerical, sales, etc. Craftsmen Operativas Domestic service other service Farro laborera Laborers, except farm Occupation not reportea Source:
Total
San Juan
Total Río Piedras
5,060
3,661
239 15 352
204 46
233 454 62 932 319
276 603 559 452 103 212 475 5.35 196
3,996
1,917
300
236 1
1(1'/"/
791 586
.32 .362
6
469 2485 139
10
19.3
25 196 5
294 959
85 4 9 103
Sixteenth Census of the United States, Puerto Rico: Migration Between Municipalities.
Extent of Out-niqration
7
History provos that sone Puerto Ricnns r.t le�st do lea.ve the island and mcJco t.heir homes olsewherc. Records, unfortunatoly avc.ilnbL.; only since 1908, indicute thnt the not loss of population by out-migration frora 1906-09 to 1945-46 was 102,123. (Table III). Persons who left the isla.nd during thnt period totr.led 748,288.__5! TABLE III Balance of Out-□igrc.tion �nd In-cigrution, Puerto Rico 1 1908-09 to 1945-46 (fiscal years)
Fiscal Year
Gain
1908-09 1909-10 1910-11 1911-12 1912-13 1913-14 1914-15 1915-16 1916-1.7 1917-18 1918-19 1919-20 1920-21 1921-22 1922-23 1923-24 1924-25 1925-26 1926-27
3111 3500 1475 195 22 33
612 633
Loss
588 339 2354 4212 3312 4139 l'i56 3720 2137 5621 8729
Fiscal Year 1927-28 1928-29 1929-30 1930-31 1931-32 1932-33 1933-34 1934-35 1935-36 1936-37 1937-38 1938-39 1939-40 19/1-0-41 1941-42 1942-43 1943-41-� 1944-45 1945-46 Total
Source:
Gain
1938 2708 1082 2966
Loss 6144 4637 5676
1017 3448 4518 2362 4488 1904 988 1837 2599 7548 14794 21631
18,275
120,398
Net out-migration
1c2,123
U. S • .J)epª-rtment of Justi�IlllP.'�,.g_ration and Naturalization Service.
It is important to note that the five year period, 1941-46, ac counted far 47 percent of the total far the 38 yearso There was an additional net out-flow of 28,787 in the first ten months of the 1946-47 fiscal yea1. The loss far the full year, if we assume that the next two months may maintain the average, would be 34,436. Most of those who leave the island permanemtly move to the conti nent, but there ure Puerto Rican coJ.onies of various sizes in several other are?.s. The olde.st large group is found in Hawaii. The Domini can Re_public holds second place and probably Cuba is third. The 1919 Cuban census showed 3450 Puerto Ricans living there • .l2tl St. Croix occupies fourth place with around 3000. St. 1:'homas lags far belünd far next place, with only between 700 nnd 800. -1É..../ Mexico is said to have 500 members of the Puerto Rican colony in the capital alone
8 and recent travelers to Venezuela report that there are probably 200 or 300 there. Forty sorne Puerto Ricans in Brazil protested their possible loss of citizenship in Aueust, 19/4.6 j_n view of the imminent application of Section 404 of the United Statos Nationality Act of 1940. Only those born befare 1898 are affected, There are undoubted ly several times 40 Puerto Ricans in Latin America's largest country and sorne at least in the majority of the 21 American republics, ..E../ It is probable that the urge to travel will h ave been increased through service in the armed forces by sorne 76,000 young men and a few wornen, many of whom served off the island. There are indicntions that Army lif e appeals to many discharged Puerto fü.can soldiors. The recruiting officers announced the need for from 400 to 500 rnen in November, 1946. They were besieged by more than 1300 applicants who started standing in line at 5 a.m. More than 20 percent of the up plicants had been recently discharged,_lLJ
9 Hnwaiian E..xpcricnce Aeonts of the Kingdom of Hawaii wero sont to Puerto Rico to re cruit cano ffold labor just before both arces wero brought undcr tho sovcroignty of the United Stctes in 1898 • .1:2../ There e.re now c.round 9,300 Puerto Rice.ns in Hawaii • .1.9.} Most of them are descendnnts of the fiold workers who went to the Pncific islands in the first docade of this century. Thc plc.nto.tion systom, introducod into Hawnii by the white man in the first third of the lnst century, der:1andod o. depcmdable labor supply. Pnrt of the slowly evolvcd pnttorn of na.tive resistance to conquest wcs rofusal to work under feudal conditions on tho large es to.tes. Forcign workcrs were thon rocruitcd. Tho first big wr.ve con sisted of Chinose; the second of Japcnoso; thc third, Filipinos. Sm2.J.lor groups of Portuguesa and lo.ter Puerto Ricnns 1 Koreans, Span ia.rds c.nd Russic.ns foThwed. A dcliberatc policy Hes ndopted of im porting r,1or0 lo.bor than wc.s needed nnd of plr.ying ono rc.civ.l group off c.gainst cnothor us nethods of labor control. Thc Puerto Rice.ns thus ontorcd n highly comp0titiv0 situ::i.tion. Thcro he.ve been no spcci�l studios of how thoy ndjusted but scattered de.ta indicnte thc.t thoir position loQvos �uch to bo desirod. Throe c.spects of thc life of tho Puerto Ricn..."ls in Harmii me.y be oxnmincd skctchily vlith tho do.tu a.t hr.nd: ( 1) occupc.tiond stntus, (2) birth nnd dco.th ro.tos, nnd (3) indic2tions of social disorganizntion. Most Puerto Riccns wcro pl.:;ntntion workors in 1930, according to Lind.� Census dntn fer 1940 indica.to somo shift from country to city, although only 40 percent livod in Honolulu City, thc main urbwn concentrntion. Ton yer.rs beforo, 3-3 porcent were found in thc.t city. Lind� constructcd c.n occupationo.l j_ndex in which 100 indico.tes the number which might bo expectcd in each occupntion. "Tho indox is socurcd by dividing tho proportion of the gainfully omployed in n given racial group who are ernployed in u spocific occupution by the propor tion of the crilployod populo.tion of oll racos ongr.ged in the sume occup2.tion. Thus, an index of 100 indico.to$ thut tho civon raco hns GXactly it s o:�pccted r3prosentr0.tion in the po.rticulc.r occupa.tion. An index abovo or bolow 100 mnrks a deviation from the norm, eithor in tho dircction of concontrnting in or of avoiding a particulc.r ficld. 11 This index givcs us a picturc of tho w2.ys Puerto R:i.cnns r:ado n living. The Puerto R:i.cnn indc:x for plo.ntation lc.borers vms 190 in 1920, but hr.. d fallen to 128 by 1930. Tho indox for profcssionnl pursuits was 9 nnd 20 for the snI:10 yec.rs. No Puerto H.icens rrcrc. listad r:s physicians, d,mtists, surgeons, lewyers or toach0rs, nor o.s benk officials in 1930, On tho pluntations thcr_�solvcs, unskilkd lcborurs nccounted for 51,6 percont of nll Pu.orto Rica.ns cmployod and somiskillod 38,4 pcr·cont in 1930. Thc indcx for tho chiof non-r:i.griculturc.l occupo..tions in 1930 wns
10 ns follows: soilors �nd deckhnnds, 179; blncksmiths, 101; longshore mon 1:nd st0vcdoros, 100; pnintcrs, glnzicrs o.nd v,1rnish0rs, DJ; mechi nists, 39; carpontors, 20; nnd fishermon, 19. Thero \!ere no builders, reto.il der:lors, policer.1cn, shoemnkors or tr.ilors. Anothor study of Hcn:;aii, publishod in 1937, reports: 1 1Tho· Puerto Ricnns ,. c. 1mr:ll group, contro.ry to thc.; rulo, show li ttle tendoncy to concontratc 5.n tho cities, considcring the longth of their Hnwniic.n rosidonce, Appnrently they are less ablo thcn the members of othor ir.lliligrunt groups to mo.kc n sntisf�ctory econ01nic adjustment nnd moro of thcm, thoreforo, remain on tho planto.tions. 11
..3:I./
Thero wero only 24 Puerto Rican ferro opcr�tors in Hawo.ii in 1940, Eleven ·�vorc mmers, 2 part-owners and 11 tcnunts. Thoy mmod cnly 320 ['.Crcs of lnnd o.nd plnced lo.st nmong o.11 the ethnic groups in farm owncrship�.3!:_/ Tho porsistonco of the plc.ntntion lnbor pv.ttern must bo csso.yed 2go.inst tho bc.ckground of locnl attitudes. LiP-d quotos o.n investign- tor of lebor conditions in 1�15 c.s snying tho.t 11 no ro.ce north bring ing to tho isknds will be contEmt to rerr:c.in porr:innently with its only prospoct n lifc lived nt tho cnid of n planto.tion hoe. 11 Ho gocs on to se.y thc.t th:ts 11 hc.s ropros0nt0d the nttitudo oí' most of Hawc.ii I s peoples o.lmost up to tho prcr.cnt. 11
..'3:J_/
Bi:rth 2.11d dco.th rr.t,,s 0ffor n socond set of clt1.,3s to thc stc.tus of tho Pm�rto Ric::i.n in Hnw�ii. Th0 rc•fined birth ro.to (i.e., the ra tio of the nunbor of childron born to th:, womcn in thc 15 to 44 o.ge group) in 1932 v..-as 225 for t.he Puerto Rico.ns. Only tho Filipinos sur pnssod it, nith 253. Othor groups showrJd t.he ratos given: total, 178; Hmvniir..n nnd purt-Hc.wnii2.n, J.88; Jc.pnnoso, 17·;3; Koreun, 178 ¡ Por tuguesc, 1Li2; Chino se, 137; Caucnsinn not nlrc.ndy included, 74.-3!:.../ Tcble IV cor:.pc..ros Puerto Rico.n and t.he total populution by years from 1937 to 1946. It shows -cho crudo birthre.to rising nlthough nt no tirie in the docedo did it approe.ch thc ins1Jl2.r rr.to closor thnn 5. 5 points c.nd sorne of tho tir:-ie it wns 15 to 20 points lowGr. The stillbirth and illcgitiLo.ú�Y rntes ero high. Most sociotics display a direct ré.'.tio bot1·;oc,n c.. high birth rnte c.nd a lm: lovel of living. Thosc figures, tbcrcforo, buttrcss the evidonc�, prcviously proscnted. De.to. on denths ttnd death rntcs elso furnish sor:0 clncs. Thc cruda dccth r::::.to por 1000 in 19,,30 wo.s 15. 1 for tho Puerto Rice.ns, tho socond highost of the othnic groups. Tho others vmrc,: Hmw.iio.n nnd pc.rt Hc.vmiicm, 21.1; Koronn, 12.5; Chinose, 11.8;,- Filipine .t 10.9; Portu guose (1931), 9.1; c.nd othcr Cc:ucl•.sion (1931), 7.7 • �f.oro signi ficant aro th . re.tos for hcr.rt dis0as0s, 334 per 100,000 ¡md pneurno nic., 183. The gonorra populr.:.tion shorn:d re.tos of 179 cnd ll2, rC3 s pcctively ., for tho snrJo cnuses of dor.th. A high rr.te for hoc.rt disoa.se genorr.lly indicdos v.n o.ging populntion. Pnmm:onin in Hc.\7cii h2.s becn
.32../
11 found to be "n singulo.rly cccurata indcx of the ple.no of liYing achioved by the severul imr:iigrant groups. 11 Death-ratus due to pnoumonia are highest a.nong thc most recent if'.'lr.:i::rrant groups and lowest c.mong those who ere farthost e.long thc way townrd econonic o.nd social stabilize:.tion. This correlation was equr..lly evident in 1920. Tho pnounonin rato ho.d droppod to only ono point o.bovo thnt of the total populntion by 1946. The crudo doath r&to had also como Jorrn to o.pproximm,oly tho se.me c.s thnt of the total popub.tion. (Table IV ) Hcre, again, v,o find ovidencos of un undosirable situntion but with sorne i�provem0nt between 1930 and 1946. Gr0at pro:!ross wns shown in the reduction of info.nt ó.ea�.:,hs, which in 1944 wcre 20 per 1000 li ve Puerto Ricr.n births in He.wuii compD.red with 99. 5 in Puerto Rico in the sane yoc.r. Similnrly, in 19/4.2 thcre were only 8 mc.tornal deaths por 1000 livo births contrest0d vrith L�l• 7 in Puerto Rico nnd 5.4 in the continental United St.etes. Lack of ::mccclis in the now environment is sbo\rm even moro clearly by tho 1930 do.ta on social disorgnnization • .3!} Adams .3!l..;' givos two indices of disorgnnizution, juvonilo del:!.nquency nnd men on rcliof. (Tnblc V )
TABLE IV Vital Statistics for the Territory of Hawaii and the Puerto Rice.ns: 1937 - 1946 · (Number and Re.tex ) Maternal Infant Illegitimate StillPoQulation Re�aths Deaths Deaths Bir_ths Births Births s::
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937 Number 306,715 7,629 ·3,684 114 651 13 42 1 8,763 173 20 1 1 512 19 1-5.2 74.3 75.1 4.6 5.8 22.2 23.1 22.9 5.8 9.3 58.4 109.6 Rate 938 Number 411,485 7,639 3,210 81 532 16 31 8,986 191 195 5 525 19 59. 2 83.4 3.5 22.2 25.2 21.2 26.2 58.4 99.6 8.0 10.7 Rate 939 36 2 9,036 79 523 15 178 227 3,216 7 554 24 Number 414,991 7,736 21.7 3.8 10.9 15.7 24.5 40.0 61.3 10.3 57.9 85.2 136.4 7.8 Rate 940 2 9,524 459 13 29 140 74 3,025 216 7 505 13 Number 426,654 8,322 0 48. 2 2 .8 22.6 19.2 2 2 .2 41.�-9 87.3 3. 1 7.2 9.5 62.5 87.3 Bate 941 1 19 170 210 9,603 414 8 72 3,047 15 530 5 Number 466,339 8,46C 4-7 2 1.5 2 5.0 17.4 23.3 55.2 71.4 6 43.1 38.1 2 .0 6.8 8. Rate 942 2 10,377 240 251 27 3,272 76 401 11 7 547 28 Number 474,351 8,617 8.0 22.0 29.1 21.8 2.6 27.3 52.7 8.8 38.6 41�.2 112.5 7.8 Bate 2 288 10,977 25 41.:-1 17 196 12 93 3,373 603 ��ber 483,363 8,775 26 2 58. 0 2 .3 6.9 2 2.8 33.l 17.5 40.0 54.9 6. 2 1 0 .7 40. 90.3 Rate 944 382 6 24 12,211 300 Number 452,379 8,932 3,613 73 196 2 834 25 31.3 20.0 1.9 28.0 33.9 16.1 6.7 83.3 7.4 8.2 68.3 Rate 19 -. 12A597 328 87 383 11 2i840 198 3 ��ber 502 ,122 9,09C 918 50 2J.5 ,.7 1.5 36.4 9.6 30.3 33.5 15.7 9.1 Rate 72.9 162.4 ...,. N � 11,945 18 281 3,068 73 342 5 176 5 Number 519,503 9,298 910 45 b.0 7.9 23.4 28.4 17.8 1.5 30.6 Rate 14.7 17.8 76.2 160.1 � Rates for deaths anál,irths based on number per 1,000 pop;lation;;ate; for infant deaths, maternal deaths, stillbirths, and illegitimate birtrs ba�ed on number per 1,000 live births. Source: Board of Hecl.th, Hon�lulu, T. H. ,:i..
13 TABLE V
Indices of Disorganizo.tion Average Annual Number of C�ses Ju.venile Dolinquency to 100,000 Children 10-17 years of age far Tho Territory far the two Yoars 1929-1930 l. 2. 3.
4. 5. 6. 7.
Japanese 341 Chinese 812 White Y. 1250 Korcun 1391 Filipino 1664 He.wniic.n c.nd part Hnwaiian 1701 Puerto Rict�n 2810
Numb0r of Persons Employed by the Foderal &nergenay Rolief Ad ministration in Honolulu County in November, 1934, to each 1000 Man 20-54 Years of Age as Enumerated in 1930 15 l. Filipino 2. Japnnese 47 3. CMnese 57 66 4. White tt 5. Hawniian and partHawaiian 122 6. Korean 133 293 7. Puerto RicEn
11: On account of the character of the data it wns noces sary to combine the Hawaiian nnd pnrt-Hawaiian ínto oneJ group and nlso the Portuguesa, Spf,nish nnd other Co.ucasians into one group, the white. tt Far tho purposo of this corr,putation the men in military and navv.1 forvice werG excluded from the male population 20-54. yeo.rs of nge. Scurce:
Romanzo
Adams:
Inte_IT-ª.Q..ial �i.cyrfoge in f.awai:i_, p. 283.
Puorto Ricans display the highest rates in both cuses. The Puerto Rican juvonile dolinquency rate v,i,s 8 times that of the Japanese; the relief re.te wcs 19 timos that of th0 FHipinos. Further evid0ncü on the lack of 0conornic success is found in the condition of the a.¡:;ed Puerto Ricans. There \'!ero 126 single Puer�o Ri cans over 50 in 1939, of which L�6 were in need of institutional ea.re. 'l'here are no comparable figures for other ethnic groups, but 36.5 pet 30 / cent would seem to be a high percentuge of indigenceo
.
Le.ter datn are not rof ined tul:, they seem to india ato that tbB Puerto Ricans aro still contributing more than their 11 ¡:¡haro 11 to arresits, di varees, criminal and juvonile coUrt e.mes. The pcrcent that Puerto Ri oá.ns representad of a11 adults arrestod in 1945 was 1.89; 191�6, 1.93; juveniles, 1945, 5.68; 1946, 5.78. Court cas1.'ls far 1946 showed the following e:xporfonce for Puerto Ricans: divo3'c,es, 8.3 of the total; criminal actj ons, l. 69; ,juvc-mile, 6. 08. The Puerto Ricans consti tute only 1.7 porcent of tho total population. 3� ,
14
.l3:..J
Lind states that the Puerto Ricans per capita have constitut ed an exceptionally heavy charge upen the community, while the Japanese and Chinese have required .the least. At another point he says, 11 The Puerto Ricans have been less responsiv€ to the opportunities for econQ mic and social advancement in Hawaii than any other bf the major immi grant groups • .J]/
.l!:.J
Adams gives the explanation of a careful student in the fol lowing paragraph: The Porto Ricans ore at a considerable disadvantage. The general social situation in Porto Rico prior to their departure was bad and there was an adverse selec tion of individuals. They are few in numbor and widely scattered. Except for such organization as is created by the plantations they have been almost unorganized. In the city they are found in prison and jails and in an exceptionally high <logree they depend on thc agen cies of charity. More than thirty years have passed since the main body of Porto Rican immigrants came to Hawaii, but even in Honolulu where more than a third of them reside they have made only a slight beginning towarq the creation of an organized social life for themselves and they have made little progress towo.rd satisfactory status in relation to the rest of tho com munity. Nevertheless, soma families are gradually working out a better adjustment. 11
11
This would seern to express as close to n woll-roundod judgment as the circumstances permit. Further study, particule.rly o: the bases of sel�tion and the type of person chosen would probr.bJ.y Cé.:.St much-noeded light on the reason for the general fo.ilure of tho n:igrants to make satisfactory �djustments. l ,
�qgrntiQn to St. Croix
15
St. Croix, tho L'lrgost of tho Virgin Islc.nds, has been tho goal of Puo:btoJican migra:tion for 2.bout twenty years. Püorto Ricans now constitute a.round ;-5 perc,mt of tho popuL:: tion .1nd a:c-e playing 2.11 increas ingly important role in the lif'e o.f the com1'lunity. Whilc th:;y movo into the island, the nativos continu0 the cxodus from their homola.nd which has ma.rked tho islo.nd I s history s:i.nco 1835. A stu-::1.y of how, whon, why c.nd how many Puo:rto Rica.ns co.me, how they fare and how the Crucians re act to them seemorl to offer possibilities of throwing light on the gen eral pro'· l8r,: of emigr2.tion from Fuc:rto Rico. The a.uthor undc¿:r4ook such a study, tho roa.in aspects of which ar,J sunr:mrized horewith.W Therc are abr::ut J i 5'.)0 Puerto Rica.ns on St�. Croix, of whom at least 75 p(3rcent came from Vieques and 9 parcent from Culebra. These two small islands a::.�e both ai:-oas of high out-migrntion. They lost 26 and ';7.2 percent of their populations, rnspoc -'i,;ivoly, betwcen 19.30 and 19/+0• Our datn indice.to that a few pcrsons :.-enched thc falo.nd in 1917, the year sovcreignty passed from Domnark to the Unitod Sta.tos, but tho.t migratíon did not bocomo irnpo;�tant tmt:i.l imnigro.tion luw enforcement was tightened up in 19�7. Most of the mi::;rants re,_chcd St. Croi:x secking work in the cane ficlds. Sovcnty-onc porcont of those intervicwod said thoy bad de cidod to le�ve Puerto Rico becauso of bo.d economic conditions; six porcer.t wcre 11 in search of adventure 11 • Farülios we-·e taken on the first tr5_p by 45.6 porcont of the mi grants an:3. half of tho rost brought th0ir families uithin a month. Fifty-oight porcent arrivod with .\JO or lcss; L:,l p0rccnt with �)5 or less. Thc m.i::;rants are predomino.ntly rnixcd, o.ccorrling to the 1940 census, .which g;c.vo thoir composition .:i.n 4.2 porcont whito, l?.2 p-rcent t!eero a.nd 23. 6 percent m±::rnd. Our intervj_owers :;_•ecordod skin color in the following proportions: whito, 56 percent; liJht bro,m, 15; brown, 16; dark brovm, 6; and black, 3, The L1coming group thns c1.iff0rs sh2.rply from the host group. It also differs fron the popul,-.tion which sta.ycd c,t home c..s the following percentnges of J!eero popul::d:.ion show: ?uerto Rico, 2.3. 5; Viec;_uos, .33,8; and Culebra, 37.1. This would soem to indica.te that tho white and mixed popti_lation is more prono to migr.:�te to St. Croix than the black. Eviclcncc is olGntiful th,:-.t the newcor.mr has fared woll in spite of who.t, to the Crucians, is an advorse onviroml".ont. 01.1.r schcdules show that 67 percent of thoso interviow8d ho..J an 2.nnual income gr);_t,,r than the.t uhich thcy had had in Puerto Rico; 20 porcont roportcd 11 ubou.t thc s0J11e 11; 2:.nd only 13 porc")nt w0re rcceiving loss. It is in the ficld of f ood merchandising thnt the r.ligrants havo made the great0.st strídes. Thc 11.dministro.tor of St. Croix told tho
16 writer th.:.i.t he calleo. u mcotir.g of e.11 food raercha!'lts in 19/i-4 to .üs cuss shortagos. Forty-thrce attcndod, of irhom J7 ,.,ere l-\,.. ,1rto ilicans. This is a testimony to tho interest of th0 nower �roup, howovei·, und not nn �.cctlratc 0st:wnate of their proportion e.:.non3 groccrs. 0fficial fig11.res show tho.t 65 of the 1;·2 retailers of all t?pcs 3.re Fi.!vrto IU· cans. 'l'her-e a::ro 100 licensed importers, of whom 33 are Puurto Rico.ns. It :;_s usua.lly osti.mated th2.t thc) do around 75 percent of o.11 reto.il gro�r:iry business, and that throe of tho ir1porters handle 90 pei'cent of clll incoming foodstuffs. 'l'wolve of th0 38 lic,:_uor sellcrs, including bf.rs, •srills c1.nd to.verns, él.l'O of the �·üc;rnnt group. P1F1rtr: .Uc2.?:.s ,ero rospon�íblc .for thc introductfon of tl·e fi.rst bus line on tho Ü·Jl:md, tho first r1airy using mo '!ern ncthods, more efficie�1t --üH: distrirution, .:!.nd th<.1.t doubtful bless:i.ng, the bootblack. Success of th0 Puorlo Rica.ns on tl1e land h.:ts not bcen as drrimatic n� in tho case of norchan-15.sing, cut l1ore r.lso they hnve proved that opportunities still oxlst. ThePl.h"rto ?.ic2.ns proportionat,:;ly have te.kan ,v:lvo.ntJ.o;e of tl:.e h0Ncstoa,lin1s pro.'.5rn.m to a slightl�� hiCThor iegree th8.I1 have the Dé\tivos. Tho FuTI!l Se;curity A :!ministra tion in the sumT,1er of 1946 was hnndling e. total of J6? co.ses, of wli:i.ch 100 w0r0Püorl:o Ricans. Thoir incomos have :::ison .'.nd thJ;�c has been G !loticeable increase in cffort .::tr"l s·:llf-resp8ct, ,:.s well as o.n i.;1provc!ilent in social rel2.tions. C<1nc is tl.c prir:.cipv.1 prod.uct reporto�-, follo•,od cy c2.ttlc, plan tnins, �•autía, col'n, b.'V.8.nc:s, libe.tatas 11 a:1d r10.lc.mgcl.So S,3condary crops wore listerl. in thís or1er of jJ-,;_JortE..nce: corn, 006.i1::;, ya--.rf:.ía, ñame, ba nanas, 11 bata.fa. 1;, pl.1nt.:d.ns and tot:1cco. Cr·op.s gro1-m for home consump tion ra.tcd as folJ.o\JS: �rautía, i;b;:,tRt.J.:¡, ño.lll0, bean�, banG.n2.s, corn; yuca anJ plnntuinr º Thcse lists indicr,te th,::-.t the rui1rants 1 .:,i0t hv.s proba'cly chcn(;od little if any sincc t 1 1ey left Puerto nico. Tho ways in wl<ch th3 r,cont arrivtü supports r.irnself until cures a st>J8.'.1y job 2rc sh-:iwr. hy tta intorviews te bo as follows: the rnoney I br0ught 11, ?.J.; living ·.áth reb.tiv0s, 10; on prccoeds wj_fe I s work, 3; making c•n:l selling charcoal, 3; bor1·owing money, ing -1íth friends, 2� pedcUing, 2; anr1 fishin�, le
ho so 1 �-fi th of 2, liv
Estirr.ates of the favorE'.blc fe.ctors of life on Stº Croix ar,:: g5.v0n in Tu.hl0 VI .J.ncl. of tho unfavora'blo on Te.ble VII.
17
.:,
TABLE VI St. Croix; Búe-rto Rican Estirnates of Favorable Factors
�lork offers botter possibilities Lnproved hee.lth Better living quarters Better food Iriproved medical attJntion More cordial porsonal )."elationships It is quietar Learning now trade Higher salaries
67 60 59 57 51 .34 19 11 6
18
TABLE VII St. Croix:
Puerto Rican Estimates of Unfavorable Factors
I miss my friends and relatives Low Y,ages High cost of living Homesick for Puerto Rico Lnck of favorite pastimes Schoolwork in English Strange lunguage Adequate housing hnrd to find Work is too hard Cruciens are hostile Schools are too distant
37 34 26 26 24 20 13 11 11 9 8
There is, of coursc, conflict bet1.·men the Crucians and the newcomers. Puerto Rice.ns and Crucian,s exuhange blows in the stru:::,gle for existen ce and there are injuries. Tho cultural vmunds are troated and the well-being of the injurod group pr0served, at leo.st temporarily, by gen eralizing their nntagonisms. Thus, a Puerto Rican who mo.y have had a disagreeable oxperionce wíth a Crucian vrill be emphntic about their shortcomings o.s a. grq_'J.E: "Cruciuns are stupid", "They aro hypocrites", etc. 'l'he Crucians will say: "Puerto Ricans are f:i.lthy", "they take money nway from the island", "they aro planning to drive us out of our homes". These shibboleths help mHintain self-respect in the two groups. It would be difficult to trcat thosc projudices without an undorstnnd ing of the function they perform in mainta:i.ning morale. The chief source of o.ntnp-onism is, of course, economic competition. The native smull storokeopor, nlthough bittor ugainst the new corepeti tion, thus far carries little weight with the Cruciam.. His ovm faults stand out too clearly. It is in the en.ne fields nnd the few sourcos of unskilled and semi-skillcd employment thnt the dangerous friction oc curs. It is ngninst this type of coT'.!potition that trie St. Croix labor union is organ1z1ng. The demand for day-rates instead of piece-rates is their key to the solution. On the other he.nd, the Puerto Ricnns are adapting thomselvcs by slowing cl.own uithin two or three yenrs aftor their arrivul. Univorsnl ly, the opinion is e�pressod that the newcomers "takc on Crucian habits within a few yenrs". Insofar as this becomes true, it will reduce fric tion, but it will c.lso lessen Puerto Iücc.n opportunities to mako a bet ter living than nt home and it will tend to reduce the drive of what at present is economically the most dynrunic group on the island. The island has beon stagooting economically for many yenrs. It lives lnrgely from federal money. If the Washington expenditures were olimi-
19 nated, thoro would be widesproad dfatross o.nd tho grim o.lternntivcs of emigration or slow ste.rvc.tion for around b:üf of thc populatfon. The Nationo.l Resources Planning Boar-d, in its Dcvelom§lnt Plan f.Qr. the -�_rgin Islnnds, suggests that with the fullost possiblo scientific exploite.tion of the few resources of the islnnd, onJ.y somo 6,000 per sons cou1d be supported. The prosent population is almost GX[i.ctly double that numbor. It vrouJ.d be to the interost of tho island o.s ,1 whofo to wc1come tho Puerto Rican as a superior producur and to lenrn from him how to work more offoctively. The age composition of tho J.o.bor forco L1ilitates ae;ainst any such policy however, u;:id differonces of race, language e.nc1 customs complico.te the problem. The fate of the Crucio.n as well o.s the nm·!comors is dopendent on decisions beyond thoir control. Howover, no matter what policies o.re adopted in Washinrton, grenter productivity on the island itself is in dispenso.blo to the m[�inten:_.nco o: acceptable living conditions. The direction of dcsirable . e-ndjustL1ents seems to be toward more homesteac1 truck-gRrdening nnd better utílizetion of new under-gre.zed ln.nd for cattle raising. Th8re will havo to bo o. drantic sh:lft in the outlook and habits of thc poople beforo any such reorganization of the oconomy co.n take plo.ce. What will be the trcnd of Puerto Rican migr2.tion assuming a conti nuance of canditions more or less as tlley riow arr.? Th:i s r.lso depends on outside factors. I.f thE:r::i �s prosperity in fuerto Rico, not so many people will come to thJ Virgin IslunGs. Puerto F.ico 1 s populution pro blem is so a.cute, hor:eve.r, that i7e may snfol:r as sume the.t the pressure of people on srr..all rosourccs is not going to be relieved far sorne time. Projection of tho e1·owth of the Puorto Rican populntion on St. Croix is oxtreme1y hazardrms in vierr of the many porsible variablec and the sreall numbors inrolved. Howevor, it muy be uneful to see what the pos sibilities aro. .A.ssu.ming that (1) natural increaso continuos <1t the 1940-41� rate and (2) that the net immigration from Purrto Rico continues o.t the rute found for the 18 months from January 19L,.5 to June 1946, there -rH1 be soJT'e•·:here near 6,500 Puerto Ricans on the island in :i955. i7e havo no do.to. on Crucio.n out-migration but we have tho judgm(:nt of the National nesources Plo.nning Board "that gradua1ly total populo. tion will return f'.t least to its 19.30 figures". This would me1:m the.t Puerto Ricans wo11ld reprosent 57 percent of the total populc.tion in 1955, if we assume tho.t 11,41.3 (the 19.30 total) is tho popul tion in thr.t yoDro Moro important than the tot.:.11 numbers is the aee and sox composi tionQ Thr➔ Crucians I re.to of 119.turo.l ir1crcaso is - 7 .1 por 1000, or less than that neoaed to roprociuco tho e:xisting numbors. The group is not only dying out, it is desorting the isle.nd nnd 101:\ving it in tho hmds of nomon and old men. The Puerto Rico.ns, m tho oth,ir hnnd, are in creasing nt the high r�te of 51.5 per 1000.
20 Even more important is the fact that employment opportunities, aside from relief, will exist for the support of only about 6,000 persons. Who is to fill the jobs? If that decision is made on the basis of a 11 jobs to the natives 11 slogan, the island's economy will suffer even further. If the jobs go to the most competent applicants, the vast majority. of the Crucians will be left out because, thus far, they have not shovm thoir ability to compete with the migrants where energy, initintive, ability or training is concerned.
21
Orgc.nized Migration Prior to Vlorld Wur II Rccords at the Departmer.t of Labor have yielded scatt0red data on six projects in which Puerto Rice.ns w0r0 recruited for work abroad. The case of Hawaii, on which no r0cords have been discoverod herG, makes at least seven in the four d0cndes befare the vmr. Labor Department records indicnto thr..t thoy wero all clmost 100 porcent failures. Hawaiinn e:--perience has been troatod separntely. Th0 next such venturo soems to·have beon organized during May, June, July and December of 1919 and Jnnunry of 1920. Agents for Hoss and Bishop recruited 671 persons to work in tho Central Prestan of Cuba o The Central Río C::..uto, of Cuba, took 16 porsons during October of 1919. The American Manufacturing Company, Brooklyn, New York, hired 130 Puerto Rican �onen during March, 1920. The Central Montella no, of the Do::-d nicen Rcy.:n1 blic, placed 10 mochnnics during July of the saP.10 y0nr. The noxt rocorded m:;igration took place during 1925 when two groups vmnt to CoJ.or.1bia to work on tho &.nta Marta coffee plantntion. There is no record of the number of pe�sons in the first group; the second consisted of 87 perso1s. The following year two groups were given contrc.cts ns cotton pickers in the Salt Rivor valley of Arizona. There were about 1200 persons in all. Four hundred and eighty adults and 96 children under 12 yoo.rs of ngo left Puerto Rico on September 9 for Gc.lveston, from vrhich thoy wcre shippod by ro.il to Phoenix, arriving on September 170 Tho socond group of 105 families, made up of 581 persons, arrived in Ar:Lzona one month later. The need for tho ir.lportation of Puerto Ricans o.rose because _, in tho words of the Arizona Cotton Growers Associcticn, which man.e the arrange monts: "The shortago of casual or unskilled agr::.cultu.ral and other laborors in A1·izona and other sout-h\''estern st2.tcs has existod over several months and is steadi ly growingo This is dueto a number of ce.usos, perhaps the outsto.nding anos being, (1) tho tightcning-up of imnigration rogulat5 0118, r!hich has serio11sly rostric tod our ability to irnport labor frorn Old !Vtexico as we weru o.ble to do fo:naerly, and (2) tho prospority and industrial octivity in largo centors of population.
22 pnrticulnrly in the east, which hus nttracted labor previously o.vt.ilnble for agriculture. 11 _1!:.} Disso.tisfaction started spreo.ding shortly after the first group arrived. The workers claimod that the tents, nnd adobe and lumber sho.cks in which they_vere housed were unlivable. It wus reported thnt they hnd been shorn motion pictures of comfortable houses with bathrooms and other modern facilities. The com,Plaints also included the charge that thcy could not live on the 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 cents per pound they were being paid for picking cotton and that they had been promised $2.00 a do.y. Also they were working 10 to 16 hours a day instead of the 8 they had expocted. Soon the Phoen:.!x labor unions and state welfare department were fecding o.nd housing many of those who had ndeserted11 1,heir work. TlJ.e growors I assocj_ation sto.tod that the housing fncilit:ies and wage rates were fully set forth in n contract dravm in Spnnish and that 11 Although no rnisrcpresentation may ha.ve been mude to them, the majority must have come with the idea that picking cotton was o.n easy and pleasant job 11 ._ ]J_/ Two groups, one of mechanics and thc other of seamstrossos, went to Venezuela to work in a clothing factory in 1927. Seventeen persons were involvod. � There are mnny lotters in the files of the De�crtment of Labor indicating dissatisfaction ov: tho part of the ernigrants. The largest nu.�ber, ns would be eArpocted, involves those �ho "cnt to Arizona. The chief complaint was tho.t the cornpnnies failed to o.bide by thcir contracts. The cost of living wo.s found to be higher in Arizona th:m in Puerto Rico nnd several complainod about thc weather. Mr. Jiménez f11ialarot i.n his report to the Commissione:r of Labor makes the following j_mportrmt obs0rvetions: 11
A juzgar por los informes que ,1parecen e]l el Departa mento del Trabo.jo, todas las expediciones aquí cito.das fueron un fracaso estrepitoso. De acuerdo con los ré cords �rchivados en el Departnmonto del Trnbajo todas estas expediciones fracnsaron por les misrnns ro.zones. Vamos n citi.l:' las más imp,0rto.ntos: , l. En las emigraciones de trabajadores para dedi carlos a faenas agricolas no se seleccionaban los tro. bc.jadores y ce.si la totalidad de los emigrantes oran personas de las zonas ruraJ.e;;, sin ocupo.ción ni oficio nlguno.
2. Si en estas condiciones de trab�jadoros para dedicarlos a faenas agrícolas se consideraba, por casualidad, la culidad del obrero y se incluío. en e1J.es n trabajadores agrícolas, no se investigaba, en cambio,
2.3
las condiciones en que iban a ir estos trabajadores. 3. Cuando se enteraban los trabajadores de que estaban gestionándose emigraciones de trabajadores escribían al entonces Negociado del Trabajo pidien do informes, pero el Jefe del Negociado contestaba invarieblemente diciendo que el Negociado no estaba interviniendo en la emigración y enviando la direc ción de la persona o firma que estaba impulsándola. En cambio, firmaba después los convenios relaciona dos con esta emigración sin investigar si lo compu fiía actuaba de buena fe y estaba en condiciones de cumplir lo que prometía a los trabajadores.
4. No lnbía organización ninguna en estas emi graciones y el Negociado del Trabajo actuaba con negligencia en releción a las mismas. 5. Las compnñías para las cuales iban a trabajar estos emigrantes no cumplían nunca lo estipulado en el convenio que firmaban con el Negociado del Traba jo y los emigrantes eran sometidos a la más ruda ex plotnción. E:dsten cartas desgarradoras de los tra baja.dores denunciando estos abusos. 11
24 _Wnrtimc Migro.tion to the Continent Tho drnstic drop in availablo shipping facilities during the war causad o. serious increnso in unemploynont.in Puerto Rico. The Gover nor's spocial committee reported thnt in July 1942 unemployed persons totaled 176,300 in spite of J4,300 on WPA nnd e. fo.irly lé'.:rge number on An-y and No.vy construction projects, Employment ho.d dropped 38. 7 percent in mnnufacturing and 40.8 porcent in construction during the provious yeo.r. Anong othcr rocomn:endo.tions was that the governrnent 11 study tho possibilities of the use of Puerto Ricnn workers in war industries in the United States. 11
.J:!../
Mr. Santiago Iglesias, Jr., acting commissioner of lnbor, discussed the possibilities of such work with dozens of officials in i'lashington in Novenber, 1942. The depart1!lents of Vfo.r, Navy, Labor, and Interior, the Wr.r Manpower Cornmission, the Social Security Board, the War Pro duation Board, nnd the WPA ns woll ns .AFL, CIO and ro.ilroad lnbor of ficials were consultad• ..!!}_J These converso.tions viere followod up by numerous lútters to government and labor union officinls, state employ ment servicos and personnel officos of privato businesses. The W"-r Dopo.rtment o.grecd in late December to transport from 800 to 1500 workors por month. The U. s. Employment Service thcn asked tho Insular Dcpo.rtrnont of F.ducc.tion to ascertnin the nurnbor of Puerto Rice.ns willing to go to the Statos for vmr wor� for thc durntion. Mr, Winston Reilly, Jr,, Insular Supervisor, Occupational Information o.nd Guidance Service, conducted a survey for the Dopartment. Interviews were given in En,:-;lish 11 for the purpose of dotermining if the c.pplico.nt co.n e.dc.pt himsolf to a nornal working condition fnr nway fron home (if he can understc.nd and converse in Enelish nnd if he is sufficiont ly naturo to mo.ke the necossary personal and social adjustr!lents to a new onvironment). 11 Each person acceptod wc.s required to have bet ween $75 and $100 bofare he was shipped and only pcrsons with vocc. tioncl trnining or six months or more of working expcrience, prefer abl;y- fo thc tro.des, wore considerad._� One thouso.nd nnd thirty men were sent in smc.11 groups under this progrnm. IntorviGws with porsons connected vdth the progrrun indicnte tho.t tho number of oorn plnints on the purt eithcr of the workers or or.1ployors ,w.s small. The careful seloction seer.s to have been justified by tho satisfaction expressed by both sidos. This progrnm wr.s ended d'ter o.bout six months far roasons not clear to tho writer. The War Manpowcr Cor.unission then adoptod the technique of having employerE 1 o.gents como to Puerto F�co nnd seloct their own mon. Contrncts, in English nnd Spnnish, vmre npprovcd by tho Insular Dc,x1rtr'lont of Le.bar. Mcn \'ierc solocted with rmch loss care, lnck of English was notan obstacle, and thero wo.s no roquiroment of c. "nest egg". UnskillGd le.bar made up the bulk of those shipped. The princi pal employers and the numbor of r,1on recruited wero: Bc.ltimore and Ohio Rnilroc.d, 1,038; Cci.mpb�ll Soup Co., 488; Hurff Cr..nning Co,, 332; and UtQh Copper Co., 200,-..!:::J
25 The lfar Ik:.npower Cornmission censed rccruiting cctivities in Puerto Rico in Junc, 1944. '1 he Houso Approprfotions Comui ttee on !Vlay 29, 1944, votod to dtmy tho Comr.1ission funds for its Puerto Rico.n progra.m. Congrossmon nre roported to have objected to bringing Puerto Ric,ms on the ground th�t thoy could not be sent bnck home nfter the need for thom had ended. Moxicans, Barbadims, Jumaicnns nnd other foreign workers could be roquircd to return to their oun country. Their con trncts alwe.ys contained spocific clauses to tho.t cffoct. 43 / Tho po.ttorn of recruitmont set during tho Vfo.r Man po or Co1,inissiot:i' s o.ctivitics wo.s continued aftcr its withdrmml. Individual employers n0eding large groups of workcrs sent rocruiting o.gents. Their activi ties wero subject to the suporvision of the Insular Dopa.rtnent of Labor, which drnfted a model contrnct in Spnnish and English. Its main pro visions woro: po.ymont of trnnsportntion o.nd ronsono.ble subsistence by tho omploycr, for which he dedum:d ton porcont of oo.ch po.y check; return transportation providod by the employer viithout reimbursemont, v1ith certnin excoptions ; GI.iergency medie el caro -whilo on route; provision Ggo.inst discrimination "because of raco, creed or nntiomüity"; nnd a doduction of 25 pcrcent of the ,-:r.ge for dopendants in Puerto Rico. Wo.gos, hours, type of ,job and cost of food nnd housing vrore set forth. The ce.uses for torr.�j nntion of thc contrc.ct woro listad. Wages far gon erel laborers ran fron 50 to 66-1/2 cents per hour. Tho mine workors wero pnid $6.15 far un oight hour do.y, time und e half for ovortine nnd doublc time for tho sevebth consocutive de.y of work. Complaints begnn to reach Puerto Rico soon o.ftor the workers wero on the job. Lotters to newspnpors, fricnds and tho Dopartnent of Labor ccrried reports of bcd food, inndequuto housing, lack of medico.l caro, no 8.L"'lusement facilities nnd discril.linr::.tion agninst thoso with darkor skins. SevernJ. inveatigations were made. Ledo. Go.briel Guorrn Mondr.::i.gón, in reporting on his study, lnid rnost of the co:nplo.ints to 11 tho o.djustment problora. 11 He found "one groat handicap ,ms lo.ck of 3nglish. 11 In o.nswor to the conplaints about bad food he roported tha-1, in mo.ny plo.cos he hE.d found the food "good but not prepered in the ,w.y to which Puerto Ricans vmre o.ccustomcd. 11 (Tho Hurff Compnl'ly, for inste.neo, had hired o. Puerto Ricnn cook nnd after thc.t no complPints ho.d beon registerod.) He found thc,.t "sorne of tho vrorkors have ir.,proved physicnlJ.y. 11 In soveral plncos hG ho.d found evidencc of rnce discri2ination in restaurants, thentres, und other public plo.cos.J:i./ The Canpbell Soup Co., V!hich wc.s reportea to hnve po.id el.ose o.ttontion ·�o the r.idter of food, reportod in Soptember tho.t 11 few \7orkers h11ve broken thoir contr2-cts. 11
_.!!J./
0n the othcr hand, tho rnilroo.d compo.ny reported 250 11 descrtors 11 out of 1,038 within <1 fow weeks of the start of work. El lf:1.lli).rcinl,. on l'i'.v.y 31st, 194L�, cc.rried n letter from 55 rnilroo.d co.r.ip v;orkers <1t Newton Falls, Ohio, sGying "living conditions e.ro bo.cl, uo co.nnot oat the food, o.nd we ho.ve no modicc.1 erre. 11 The Youngstovm Vindicv.tor.:i. on Juno 13th, 1944, gnvo dote.ils on rottcn moc.t servod to Puerto Rican l�borors in thc Struthers, Ohio Ce�p. Fourteon of tho fifty fivo workors ho.d "doserted. 11
/
26
Complaints about conditions on the ships to.king tho mcn to the States were frcquont, For instanco, the SS Sngitaire, built to acco modnte approximntely 100 pnssongers, was loc.ded with 490 nen, Thirty workers rofused to make the journey after they ho.d seen "dirty, damp, dnrk, and unappoaling sleeping quarters in t,he hold of the ship, 11 in their own words, Discrimination rnised n considerable amount of controvorsy in Puer to Ricnn newspapers, Mayor Alexander BD.tche, of Manville, New Jersey, lle.te in July, 1944 attacked thc Puerto Ricnn laborcrs as 11 undesirnblos who would develop opidemics and sexual crimes. 11 This statenent was repudic.tod by r.mny civic ond interrncial organizations in the United States, but of course, caused a storm of protest in Puerto Rico. The flood of complaints which aroso from the sccond stage of thc recruiting progrnm cerried on by the War Mnnpower Comr-.ission, ns com pared with the smnll number of complaints arising freo the first care fully selected group, has grec.t relevance for nny futuro c□igration progrnn. It will be recallcd thnt in the first stage workers were se lected on the bnsis of certnin skills noeded in thc Stc.tcs, were re quired to understand nnd spcak English and to hove a ncst-egg of around $100. It would scom that prD.ctically no sr.foguards of a sir.iile.r natura were thought possible during tho second sto.ge. Thereforo, the problP.ms of adjustr.ient werc nc.turo.lly greo.ter for tho socond group. A tabulo.tion has been me.de of the coreplr..ints registered by those recruited under tho first progrmn. The groe.test singlo source of dis sntisfaction wns the absonce of tho norker 1 s fo.mily, the socond wrs disagree2.blo wec.thcr, und the third vro.s 11 ! am not working c.t ny trade. 11 Complo.ints obout food wcro registered only o�c tenth as frequently as ·tho complnints cbout tho roscmce of thc family. A fe.irly lnrge numbor complained about life being too exponsive but other complnints wero relo.tively infroquent. Commonts on the difficulties supply importnnt cluos to tho needs e.nd wishes of the workers. The oYplanation for missing th0 fa.'!lilies was no ver nade in any except tho follmüng throc terrns: 11 If my wife wns hore she could fix my food 11 ; 11 If my wife was hore she could keep housc for me"; 11 If my wife o.nd children were hero they could work in defensa plants cnd earn noney too." If romc.ntic love entored into the mind of nny norker, it wns not exprossed on tho questionnnire from which these data wero gathered. Two othsr statemcnts which are vnlu nble but which v1ero not no.do by lo.rge numbers of porsons include 11the .Americe.ns consider Puerto Ricans c.s slaves 11 nnd "the English thoy spenk hcre is not the English that I learncd in Puerto Rico." Social workers intervicwed tho far.1ilies of tho workers in thcir Puerto Ricnn homes to o.sk whnt roports and co□plaints they got from the workers. The response to these interviews shovmd thct the largest single cause of cornplaint (vlith 59 porscns) was "living expenses are too high for the wages wc are paid. 11 Complaints nbout the weather were socond, with 50; nnd complo.ints about tho family being nissed were third, with 34, Fourtccn men cornplained of not working at the trade
27 for which they wore trained, 8 onch were dissatisfied bec2use of night work or bccauso th0y wero homesick; 7 found the work too hi::.rd; 5 so.id that thoy lived too fnr from their work; and 3 fotmd 11 customs o.re dif foront." Only 2 complc.inod nbout food. F�milios modo tho folloving conments about dissatisfactions ex prossod: 11My son tho� ht he was going to live an casy life therc 11; 11 My husbo.nd doesn't liko it beco.uso he ho.s to cook for hir.isclf; o.nd 11 Pcople do not undcrstand his Enelish. 11 Using those scuttered returns ns clues, the writer mude up two quosti.onno.ires which wo1�e sont by rnail to sorne 2400 workorn whosc names and o.o.drossos wore availnble at the Dcpartrient of Labor. Quostionm'.ire A (soc nppcndi..'{) wes dircctod to those uho hnd reno.ined in the United Statos and B wr:s directod to thoso who ho.d roturnod to Puerto Rico. They ucro sont with a covering letter signed by the Che...11.ccJ.lor of the Unive:rsity [!.sking thctn to hclp the Socinl Sdnnco fü.:ccc.rch Ccnter pre po.ro c. roport which would be useful to others considering er�igration nnd to tho govcrnr.1cnt in working out an omigrat:i.on progrnm. Both quostionnc.iros and tho lcttor wero in Spo.nish nnd a postc.ge--pnid, ud drossod roturn 0nvuJ.opc :ns j_ncluded. Thero were 376 nccept.o.blo responses to quostionnnire A end 4.35 to quost:i.onnc.iro B. Thorc y;ero 248 lmdolivcrc.blc lcttors returned for vnrious ron.sr.ns r.nd 11 c_uostionnc.ires fj_llod out hE'..d to be discc.rded. There wc.s n high proportion of rcturns, ]$ porcent of all those which reo.ched tho nddresses. Gcnerc.lly, r.10.il quostionnairos bring only from 5 percont to 20 porcont replics. The responses givo us mcny vnl1.mble cluos to the exporicncos of tho Puerto Rice.ns in the continent" and th0 fnctors v1hich r.mst be tnken into o.ccount in any discussion of the pror.1otion of Gmierntion. Thoy will be annlyzod in the following pcges.
28
..1'.he Expurience of the Wo.r Workers_ Tho qucstionnaires were designed to elicit informc.tion on both mo.terial facts and attitudes since the two e.ro inseparably linked in influencing actions. Thc replics nre sur:marized below o.nd those of tho workers who rcmnined on tho continent (honceforth roferred to as group A) �ro compo.red with group. B, those who returned to Puerto Rico._� If we assUI'.le thnt the responses wero typiccü of the 3000 wcrko:r·s whovere recruited by the Wcr Mnnporror Cor.n:iission, wo me.y conclude thnt slightly ovcr hc.lf (53 percent) of those who went to tho continent returned to tho islc.nd. Thero is ovidonce in tho o.nswors, however, thnt somo of thoso crn:10 bnck only temporc.rily. Forty f ive porccmt soid that they would roturn to the Stntes 11 if offercd o.nothor tcr::poro.ry job," while 81 pcrcont would roturn for c. porno.nent job. P:resGnt a� dross wns given by 1g �sin tho Stctes nltho thoy woro writing from thc islnnd, which Bight indico.to tho.t thoir stay on the isl�nd wns con sidercd temporo.ry. Persons in group A v!oro o.sked if they intond to rcri10.in in the Stntes "permc.nently. 11 Sixty-two pcrcent repJiod tho.t they did not. They wero next o.skod, "When do you propose to return to Puerto Rico, 11 in c.nswor to which 46 porcont gave 1119li-7-5011 ns tho probo.ble do.to. T1:onty-five porcont s�id, "1'nen I hnve onough money for both fare nnd a nestegg, 11 and 2..nothor twenty--fi ve percent didn' t ho.vo nny timo in nind. Tl'10 se.id, "When Puerto Rfoo is independent. 11 Attitudes toward lifo on the contincnt nnd in Puerto Rico did not vnry grontly between tho two groups (T�ble VIII). Those who renoined found life oither 111:1or0 so.tisfnctory" or 11 11:uch moro so.tisfr.ctory 11 in 87.2 percent of tho co.scs, whoror..s tho S"..P!G responsos for those who returned totc.lod 82.7 percont, o. difforonco of only 4,5 porcent. Tho two :r.iost unfnvoruble r<?l".ctions vvoro ovan closer, 6.6 percent far the P,.. group to 4.6 for tho B.
TABLE VIII Attitudes Toward Living Conditions in the States
Group A Much more satisfactory More satisfactory L0ss satisfactory Much loss sc.tisfnctory About tho same
61.4
25.8
4.2 2o4
805
Group B
60.7
22.1
3.4
1.1 12.6
Both groups wore as!rnd to indicate their 11 most pleo.sant experience" on tho continont. Sorne interprcted this c.s o.n individmü incident and othors as exp0ri.:,mce in the broo.der sense. The n:aj ar items listed by tho 167 racmbers of tho group which stnyod ':"vho responded were: Lenrning English Stondy work Le�rning new trade Bettcr living con<litions Tro.vcling 11 I like the r,ny Amcricans do things 11 Cu1tural o.nd recrea.tional oppo1·tu11ities Better environmont Differont climate
33
26 19 19 9 9 8 8 5
Six found their most pleasunt experienco in "cmores con americanns" nnd one "lorrnod to lave Puerto Rico more. 11 othors Viere scattered ovor c. vc.rioty of roo.ctions and 125 remembered nothing outstanding. Tho B group containod 252 porsons v1ho renortod on their r:iost plonsant o�:perionce a.nd 2Jg who had nothing to put down. Tho most fre quontly citod i ter,s v1ore: Co�pnnionship Loc,1"1:..n� nm, trnde B.é) J;-t,:;:t .)c'Jr:oll'ic che.neos Lenr·:i1ing Enelish Trl'.veling Recreational opportunitios No unomployucnt Differcnt climate
62 54 32 22 21 20
10 7
oth0rs includod 11 bet.tor meals," "I sav1 big le ague be.so ball games," Armistico De.y celebratian, und "my stomc.ch trouble was curedº"
30 Group A was askcd to roact to a dcfinite- schedule of "the rnost irnportant favorable factor of life·11 in the States. Answers are given in Table IX by choices and by totals in which first choiccs o.re given a v•eight of 5 points, second, four points, and so forth. Better food stands out prominently as tho rnost frequent first choice and the high est of tho woighted choices. This is an importantm�montary on the froquent assertion thet Puerto Ricans will not migrate because they will not accept different foods. TABLE IX
Rating of Most Important Favorable Factors in Life on Continent
Better food Bettor housing Greater possibilities of advencomont Bctterod physicnlly Bottcr rnedicel co.re Bctter rocreation Bottor environrnont Better personal relationship Hieher salarios Learning neY! trado
------·
(1)
(2 )
(3)
(4)
(5)
550 55
88 300
51 51
22 38
12
280 70 10 15
156 68 68 8 ¡6
95 5
136 16
210 99 57 33 18 18 81 24
26 126 56 32 14 24 52 14
5
o
o
8
7
16 50 25 5 12 37 16
Both groups wero asked to rute the reverse of this question, "What are (or were) the rnost tmfavorable o.spects of life" on the con tinent. Table X shows tho rcoctions. First choice, single and weightod, of both groups was "I miss my family. 11 This sheds light on the neces sity of any organizad emigration plan involving the transfer of entire families. Discornforts from tho climate rank second in one group and a strong third in the other. Complo.ints about íJOrk were lower runong the group that remained as were thoso about poor personal treatment. There rnay well ho.ve been a casual relationship between what were presumably higher incomes of tho A group and the fewor complo.ints ab.out food.
31 TABLE X Rating of Most Important Unfavorable Factors in Life on Continent
Low salaries . Miss my fnmily Climate e�trernes Not working at my tro.de Strenous life Le.ck of fr.vorite recreatione.1 facilities Work too hard Food does not o.greo with me Miss Puerto Rico Uncongenial people Le.ck of adequate housing
-------------�--
...A... ' 71 752 536 274 242 29 43 32 313 10 131
_.L 391
703 337 341 103
76
77 13/+ 219 26
134
--
The 11 rnost disagreeo.ble experionces" of both gronps cr.st light on the problems of the migrant. Gro1:p A ropol'ted a wider range thnn group B. Interestingly enough, tho9o v.bo stnyed reported more unpleasantness with "rnci�i:1 11 than tl ose who returnod. It wo.s first in the A eroup, with 22 percent of the unpleo.sant expcriences rocorded while it was tied for 6th place in the other gN:iup, with only 5 percent. Climat0 tied for first plnco with 11 bo.d c0Ti1pnnions" o.mong those who co..ioo bnck to the islcmd and socond 2.111ong those who renained. "Differont la.nguage" held third place in tho A group but wo.s unir.iportant in the other. Work too hard (or disagreeable) was second nmong tho Bs o.nd fourth e.rnong the As. "I niss rny fnmily" bulked third in the B eroup altho it we.s only incidental e.mong the As. Lack of recreo.tion, poor r.1eJ.ls, · poor housing, illness, 11 subwr.ys", unempJ.oymont, "vide. agitada", "la libertad femenina," o.nd bad traveling conditions wero runong others listed. Pernonnl relo.tions were reported o.s fricndly by thE: overwhelming rnajority of both groups. Only 12 percont of group A end 9 percent of eroup B found poople unfricndly, The individual most often singled out ns not tr 0;ting the Puerto Rican worker well by both grottps WD.s the foremnn, wj_th feJlov1 workors noxt. The reo.sons for unfri-endly trec.tment in the minds of the rncrnbers of both groups centered around tvo themes: racism and "they tried to shovo off most of the work on us. 11 Spccific roes ons for not returning to Puerto Rico vmre requested
from group A. The largest numoor, 220 out of 356 replying, or 61.8 percent, gave 11 better economic situation. 11 "Better general environment" wns socond with 23, nlthough the 15 who replied "I like life in the United States" probnbly should be added to this. "No money with which to return" with 16 replies, wus the third. "Fmnily in the States"wns fourth. others were ;9cattered nmong 11 lack of work in Puerto Rico," 1 1 1 me.rried in States, 1 11 health better here,11 study, travel, and joining the Armed Forces. The opposite side of the picture comes from the v.nswers of group B to thc question, "What ·,as your main renson for returning to Puerto Rico." Family reasons held first place, with 45 percent of all answers accounted for by "I wanted to see my frunily" or "Death (or illness) in my family.11 "Contra.et expired 11 wns the answer of 23 percent who secm to hnve thought that they coulcJ not stay unless they were under contra.et or who did not ha.ve the initietive to attempt to secure anothor job. Illness wr.s n poor third, vlith only 7 percent. Thirty-five porcent of group A ho.d their familias on the continent and 46 percent of the remainder expressed thoir intention of bringing them 11 soon. 11 others would have brought them but for various reasons, among thc most importcmt of which woro: no housing nvailc.ble, nnd "they wouldn 1 t like it herG. 11 .An o.musing sidelight on chara.cter is supplied..., by the 13 persons who snid ·that thoy didn't write friends and rolatives to come to the States bccnuse they didn't believe in giving advice! '\
Sixty five percent of group A were ma.rried, 26 single and 7 percont widowed or divorceda Grou� B contained 64 percont married, 26 percent single and 9 percent widowcd or divorc0d. The proportion of those • ·. djvorced is 14 to 18 times as great as the 1940 rnale populntion contnined. This might providc en importnnt clue in the study of the relation between mobility and disorgcnization. Skin colors of the two groups self-rccorded, show whnt seem to be significnnt difforencos (Té.'.ble xr1. The group which remained on the TABLE XI
Skin Color of Puerto Ricnn War Workers on Gontinent Color White Light Brown Brown Da.rk Brown Black
Porccnteges Group A Grou2 B
64.4
53.4
2.5 2.2
11.2 5.5 13.1
22.4
8.4
16.7
Differcnce
JA-_fil_
-11.0 - 5.7 /.. 2.8
/. 3.0
,L10.9
continent is soen to be apprecinbly lighter than the returnees. It
33 proba.bly mo.y rer:.sonnbly be nssurned, j_n viGw of Puerto Rico 1 s widospread ndoption of the colo r prejudices of the continentnls, that intcns:i.ty of color tended towurd being under-estimated thnn the reverse. These datt:t indico.te the extremoly pré:.ctical effect of skin col or in restricting oconomic opportUL"'lity in the Stt1.tes. The exporience of the co lored Puerto Ricnn is the same as thnt of othor minority groups. They were sought nfter during thc wartime labor shortage, but as thc situn tion chnnged thoy found more and more difficu.lty in retnining ar secur ine j obs. Table XII gives the trades of the recruits, classified by tho occu pe.tionnl groups used by tho United Stc.tes Cenl$US. · Unskilled nnd semi skilled occupotions predomine.te, r.s would be expected. There ere few difforences betweon those who romninod r.nd those who returnod. TABLE XII
Distribution of Recruits by Occupations Followed � Group A G roup B Occup, Description G ___,r.:;.ou,;;ap"'--.....,----------------- :Nui:-i12gr:P_qr,g�nt:Number:Percont I II
III
IV
V VI VII
-
Professionnl nnd mnnagerinl 2 Clericnl c.nd sales occupati.ons: Servico occuputions 12 Agriculturnl, fishcry, forero-y: Sk;llled oco upations 3 72 Semi-skil1Gd occupntions Unskillecl occupations � TOI'ALS • • •
•
•
•
.: 233
1 5
2
4 5 1 16
1 31 62
77 28
: 100
133
2 3 3 1 12 58
ª100
Thero m�o signffico.nt differonces between tho Wc.r Manpowc:r Commis sion recruits c.�d the 3,024 Puerto Rice.ns in Harlcm intervier;cd by Dr. Po.quite. Ruiz.J:.::_/ The Hnrlcm residents showcd the following percento.gcs by occupo.tional groups: Professioncl c.nd mnne.gorie.l, 4; clerical o.nd sales occupntions, 7; service occupations, 21; ngriculturnl, fishcry, forestry, l; skilJ.ed occupo.tions, 11; scmi-skilled occupations, 28; unskilled occupntions, 28. Thc prcsence of n largor p0rcentage of skilled workers ,·1ould be ex.. pected, The Corrinission vms sceking skill for wr..r inc:.ustr::.eso It would appoar, however, that the men 's oím e stirnnte o.f t.hoir t.r2de wes out of line v1ith whc.t they uctually nore able to do. Sixty-E.d.ght perccnt of Group A and 72 porc0nt of Group B did not work ciuring the war at the trade they go.vo ns their own, Table XIII shov1s the occupational c1ass in which they fell. The fcll from skilled to the two lower cc.tefories is 26 points fer tho As nnd 17 for the Bs. The B group shifted to clo.ss
34 VI to � much grcater extent than did the A. TABLE XIII Distribution of Recruits by 0ccupctionul Groups 0ccup.: Group I II
III IV V VI VII
Description Professionnl and manngorial Clorico.l nnd sales occupo.tions Service occupations .Agrfoulturul, fishory, forestry Skillcd occupntions Semi-skilled occupntions Unskilled occupntions
.
Group B Group A :Number:Percent:Number:Perpent
19
6
3
16 5·
88 98
27 30
131 170
11
ll.L
.
.2Ít_
114-.
3 1
29 37 .1Q._
. . . . . . 327 100 456 100 ----·----------------------------------Tal' ALS • •
Tho type of skill possesscd by thoso who uont to the continent, with groups A nnd B compnrod, is shmvn b0low for ull trudes with ton or more followers. Tr.QQ!L
Mochnníc Cnrpentor Po.ínter Mo.son Sailor Chnuffeur Fnrr.ier Cook Eloctrícian Offico clerk
_A_
__JL
24 22 20 18 17 12 11
21 38 27 25 1 58 55 17
11
3
31+
11
6
Lir:ht on job stability on the islo.nd is co.st by the mIDber of pors0ns who go.ve two or thr00 tro.dos und those who r0ferrod to themsolves ns "Chiripero", meuning 11 jcck-of-nll-trades 11 or ho.ndymnn. There woro 30 of the lQtter in group A, or about 10 porcent of the total gíving � trode. Forty-eight, or 15.5 pGrcent gnvo two occupat:ions; one gav6 three und ten gnve four. Group B contained 111 with two tro,des, 12 vrith 3, nnd 3 with 4. Thc combino.tion found nost ofton was f arr,1er with somo urben occupn tion such ns shoemakcr, painte:r, cnrponter, chauffeur, baker, or mason. Usually the jobs hc.d something in comnon, c.g., three m0n liotoat11cmselves o.s "pe.ínter, plumber nnd ffi8chnnic. 11 Threo wcro "nochanic and rural school tencher. 11 "Translntor and r;,ochanic" wns listed by 4 cnd "office worker o.nd co.rpentor" by 3,
35 Postwar experience, up to the fnll of 1946, indicnted thnt group A wns 81 porcont employed, although when recruited only 29 porcent had been. Tho group which roturned had not fared so well: 54 percont wcrc unernployed compared with 71 percent when recruited. Those who remainod hnd not only kept employed; they had bettercd thoir omployment. Sixty-one perccnt of them reportad that they werc working at a better job tho.n thcy had held before the wnr. 0nly 15 percent of the group which returned could report the sume experience. 0ccupntion nlrnost invariably correlates to a high degroe with educo.tion. Ruiz found this in her study.� D&ta far the two groups, compared with the group interviowed by Ruiz, 1s given in Table XIV. The A group is seen to be superior to the B. Since both were presunr, bly selected on tho bnsis of skill it would be e:x--pected thnt they out shine �he Ruiz group. TABLE XIV
Distribution of the Number of Yenrs of Schooling GR0UP A :No. of years: Jl_ttondcd Per School No. :ocmt
.
College graduate Threc years in collegc T·o yeers in college One year in colloge High school grndunte Three yenrs in high school Two yoQrs in high school 0ne year in high school Elcnent�ry school grad. Sevcn yenrs in elomontary Six yoars in elementary Five yenrs in elemcntnry Four yc�rs in elementnry Three yonrs in 0lemontary Two yc�rs in olomontnry 0no ycnr in okmentnry TarAL
Source:
.
.
16 15 14
CR9UP_.]
:RUI�. S�
: Per No. :cunt
No. :cent
.
Per
30
1
30 242
1
2L�l
8
12
13
1 7
2
o
2 17
11
3
1
1
o
10 9 8
9 10 101
2
20 9 54
6 3 15
183 302 156
6 10 5
7 6 5 4 3
35 36 70 57 34 11
9
51 42 51 45 28 19 16
14
182 484 489 211 242 172 60
6 16 17 7
2
1
11
385
3 26 9 18 15 9 3 3 100
355
J. 5
12
lL�
12 8 5 5
100 3024
8
8
5 2
100
Pnquitn Ruiz, Vocationnl Nocds of Puerto !ti can Migrents; Río Piodr�� Social Scionce Research Center, University of P uerto Rico, 1947. Tablo XI, pnge 15.
36 Twenty-two of group A reported sorne vocational training in addi tion to their other schooling. Four times as many of the other group had received such training. Plumbing, painting, driving a car, auto mobile mechanics and radio were the most frequently cited. It would seem that general education contributed more toward ability to adjust to the situation in the States than vocational training. Data on the municipio from which the recruits carne indicate a fair ly general appeal. All but 9 of the island 1 s 77 municipios were repre sented by at least one recruit and only 2 had as much as 8 percent of the total. None had more. The six most heavily urban municipios sup plied 37 percent of the A group and 32 percent of the B. This is not far out of line with the proportion those llfilnicipios represent of the tot&l population, 31.3 percent._� The returning group stayed in the cities to a marked degree. Fifty one percent of group B was located in the six largest urban zones, or 19 percent more than had lived in those localities when recruited, The Puerto Ricans worked in 20 of the 48 states during the war. The biggest concentration, 50 percent, was found in New York City and small nearby New York towns. New Jersey carne next with 16 percent; Ohio third, 8 percent; Utah and California tied for fourth place with 6 per cent each. By the time the questionnaire was filled out, the drift to New York City had begun. The metropolis claimed 73 percent. Philadel phia was the second favorite city, although the second state was New Jersey. Mobility in the States was high. Forty-five percent worked in the same locality from 1 to 3 months; five percent less than one month. Only 13 percent stQyed in the same place for more than a year. The main reason for moving from one town or city to another was economic. Twen ty-two percent of those reporting gave 11to better my economic situation" as the reason. About the same idea was stated by another 10 percent as 11 seeking a better environment. 11 Termination of contract and 11 bad treatment" were given by 9 percent ea.ch. Six percent moved to join their families. The climate drove about 4 percent from their first location. Other reasons were scattered with only a few giving the following reasons: "Didn't like the work", "Employer didn't keep contract" ., "Moved by the company", "Wanted to travel", "Strikes 11, "Lack of medical facilities", and "To join friends". Possibly the most iruportant clue for further population research ia contained in Table XV. Group A and B reported the size of their fathers' family as 10 or more in 33 and 34 percent of the cases respectively. It is probable that the Puerto Rican population generally contains only about 8 percent with farnilies that lnrge.
37 TABLE XV Family Size:
Migrants and Sc.n:ple of Puerto Rican Households (Percentage-)
No. of M I G F::.. A N T S Members: Group A Group B
%
%
Rural Sample
Urbnn Sample
Total Sample
%
d
/O
TarAL
357 100.0%
425 100.0%
1044 100.0%
41+3
100.0%
601 100.0%
JO, oroore: 8-9 6-7 4-5 2-3 1-0
33.0 10.0
34.0 21.0 18.0 13.0
7.6 13.7 23.5 29.0 22.5 3.7
3.4 9.5 20.6 33.0 27.4 6.1
10.6 J.6.8 25.8 26.0 18.8 2.0
1e.o
16.0 12.0 3.0
n.o 3.0
Source of Sample:
---------
Lydfa J. Roborts, Patterns of Puerto Rican i?c.mEy Living (unpublished study for Social Science Res.earch Center). Data gathered from 1044 families during ,Tune, July, .August, 19L,6.
The largest group of tho::rn who emigra.te therefore come from fnmilj_es which are far nbove the island average in size. The sample is too smnll to allow a valid generulization but the implication of these data would seem to be that the lnrger the family the greater the necessity of es• caping from an economy which cannot supply a job • ....29_/ War workers were more mnture, on the average, than the 1940 census showcd the Puerto Rican males in the lnbór force to be. (Table XVI) TABLE XVI Age Distribution of War Workers and Puerto Rican Males in Labor Force Age ___ 15 20 25 30 35 45 Source:
-
...
,_
19 24 29 34
4}¡,
- 54
B
P. R. lV:ales in 18,_bor Force
1 13 23 36 23 4
12 20 15 11 19 13
A
o
10 26 32 30 2
�¼5 of the United Stutes, 1940
38
Tro..nsporti•.tion to the continent ir.1proved soon 8.ftor v��J D-Y• This, plus continu0d cl.emand for 1.mskillod workers, J.0d a number of ag,mcies to recruit Puerto Ricans for domestic, farm and facto.t:';j' work. Hiami, Chica30, and Philadelphia hnve roceivod sev0ral grrn.1.ps of s•,l'Vfl.:nts. Pennsylvania, t!ow Jersey, Florida c.nd California truck and frt:d t fnrrns havo usod many fa.rm workors,and laborers havo found industrial omployment in Chicago, Atlanta and other manv.facturing centers. Thc nowspapors have carriod many accom1ts of the complaints of the mir_-rants. Tho Chica.ge gronp of houseworkers furnishod heo.dlínes .for som0 woel�s early in 191+7• .About .half of th0 362 1-1ho wont to Chicago were re ported satisfiod and sátisfactory in Fobrunry, about throe to four months after the bulk of thcm arrivad in the 1 ri-Tindy City 11 • Sorne ;_o or 30 re- 1 turncd to tho island within a few weeks. Somo landed in jail A.ftor bo com:l.ng prostitutes and others went to hospitnls �,ith various diseases, among them tuborcu.losis. Puerto Rican students at tho University of Chicugo took the lead in giving publicity to tho complaints of some of the girls and <'-11. off::..ci2.l invostigation wus rnade. Sonator 1/iccntc G0igol PolC!.nco, in hio rcport, slw.mv..rizsd the siti:.ation and pointed out the mistakes that hn.r1 boen made. He found sev0nt:"-fivc percent of ·'·,h e girls sc�tisfiod nnd th3 rost co:,1plo.ining of overwork, no day of i·est, and in adequate pay. The contr2.ct provid0rl :for a pr:.ymrmt of ,:?60 per month, but deductions Jrought the c,:,sh in the pay cnvelop0 düim to �;42.6?. His recommendaUo:1s included tho foJ.lowing points: bctter selection of rccruits, taking ago, h00.lth, trainin¡; or é::h'Perfonco into consideration; roauiroment of somo knowlodge of English, a.nr1 elim::i.nation of murricd womon, unloss thvir husbanél.s are also ;;oing to the so.I!le locution. Sixty malo Puerto Ricans Horking in the Iforth Chic2.go Hardware Foundry Co. wore fo�md to be housod in u.nhcnt�d railroad cars and suf fering so m9.ny doductions thc:.t in somo cnses the �;34. 50 a ¡,eok for which their cont 8.ct c..i.11.Jd shrank to ns low as 50 conts. 0nly thirtoen of th0 original sixty foundry worko1·s ug ·e still at their jobs four months uftor they had boen recruited. W Tho agencies work:tng in tho Philadelphía and J1 ow Jersey arca soem to have had more experioncc. The groups thcy rocrt'.ited have given riso to few compl2.ints. T
The Depo..rt1ncnt of Labor is no,r closely m.1.perv:1s1ne ·cl:.o rccrui t.ment of Puerto Ric2.ns for work on the continont and has call0d upan tho Division of Social �-Jelfara of t'1e )epartment of Poalth for 8.id in investigating thc bL.ck0ro1.:.nd of personR who apply far availablo jobs. A í'airly substantio..l numb0r of veterans havo n-:ade their way to the continont in search of work. Dr·. J. Sorra Chavarry, .egiomü Director of the Veteran I s Adminis tr�,_tion, r..;portcd in r·ovcmJ·)r, 1946 that 2456 veterans had 10ft t.e isl.2.nd far tho continent and were receiving their ";20 a woek unem:olovment comoansation thero. This rnovomunt to the con t:Lncmt had . cen· pa'.t,U.ally offs3t by a movc bc.ck to tho island from the rnainland of on.ly 494 vetcrans.
39
Dr. Serra Chavarry issued a warning that liPuorto Rican 0x-sol,iiers are nrr:1-vin[s in l'icw York with an crroncous conception of the econo:·.üc and socia.l conc�itions which prevail in the United Statos. 11 He s2.id fur1 thor, 11Those migrating vctorans whoso ocononic 2.n:l academic eouipment is many times quj_te deficient a.nd whose knowledgc of tho English lan6uo.go is limited, s..1101.iJ.d be warned of the Cj:itical sHue.tion in which thcy muy find themselves on the continent. 11 Thc big majority of tho votere.ns wore going to tT ew York, accor0ling to Vetare.ns Administration officio.:1.s. The only lmown stud.y of spontaneous out-migr2.tion at the source was m.ado by thc Divisdion of Statistics of the Bureau of tho Buar�ot in November 1946. Approximately 10 pcrcent or 965, of the outgoin� passengers on airlinos and on tho SS Mo.rino Tigor were intervicYt-1d with a schedule craftod by the Social Scienco l'-loscarch Center. The r•3sults a,;:� re;::iort')d in 10 tables which 2J·e summarize:i in the study as follows:221 Tho Insular D0partm0nt of Health ostimatod the popuL:i.tion of Puerto dico as ;;',079,430 as of July 1, 1946. Thc urban p9ptüation compris0d 36 porcent of this total. 1'ho study disclosed thJ.t ne rly 87 porcont of porsons who lcft th-� Isl.3.nd 1·csic�od in the urban zonc, indicnting that the nrban populat:Lon supplied omigrants in a pToportion two and a half tb.ces hi�h0r than its rolative share of tho total IsJ.cmd 1 s populatfon. I:foarly he,lf, 47 perccnt of the total persons who loft, livod in the Motropolit2.n a.;:'0a in spito of the fa.et that its populJ.tion comi)"f.'Ísod only .20. 5 pcrcent of thc total population of Puerto nico on J,.,;.ly 1, 1946. Emi�ro.nts from ;san Juan e.ccountc::1 for 35. 3 perccrrt of the total, yot this city poopled only 10.4 percent of t.hc total population of ttJ Islm1<.1. Almost 8.ll tho other largo municipalities, rn:-.mol3r, Poncc, Ma.;;·az-t,�ez, Río Piodrp.s, Caguas, Eaya."lón, Humacao, Guayam,.1., Ag1.u:.diJ.la, and F--,_ J ¿n•do, supp1ied emi-:;ro.nts to a higher porcenta�e than their r-:)Spoctivo pro�_,01�t�.on of the total population of the Isknj. On the othor ho.nc.., with very f0'\-1 oxceptions, the small towns 1 ::eJ.2.tive supnly of cmigr.-�nts constitutod a smallor porcontage thccn the proportíon tha.t th0ir r :.spcctivo po·-,ul2.tiori was of tho total population of the Isl.8.nél. In torrn3 of goo5ré�ph:7.cal 1"82":Lons, tho ro:rth Contre.l Coast, which inclucl.es the Hetropolita....-1 2.j�ea, wo.s the only 0�10 whos:: i-clc.t:'. V�) co:,tri-• bution of enügr¿:_nt::;, 54.4 pcrcont, wns highcr thc.n tho propo1,tion of its population to tho tot2. .L Island population, 32. 5 pcrc<:m In t,h.:i othor :-'.'eGions, the relative contribution of emi6:c,:.;xts w:.1.s J.e::::s than their r3spective p···o;Jortion of totD.l population. Tho Wc3ti::nn Intor:i.or rogion was the loast import.1nt supplh)r of emigrnnts, ?. 7 purcent of tho total, ílhGJ'.l its proportíon of total populatlon mor-;) than triplicatos that fi61n·e, 9.1 percont. The main purpose o.f the trip w2..s to get a job: half of the OT!ligra.nts were going to s,.:iek omp].oyment and an a.d.c.itional 10 po::.0ccnt had a job already offored to them. Othcr purposes wore: to join tho fwJ.il¡, ?0.4
40
p-:ircent; to study, 8.5 percentj on vacc:•.tions, 7.6 perconti and on business, 1.8 percent. Children under 15 years of age co�prised 6.9 percont of thc porsons who left. This age group constitutod 40.6 pcrcont of tho Island's total population in 1940. The :rnajority, 68.1 porcont, of the popuL,tion who left were yotu1g aclults, their ages rnnging from 15 to 34 years. This age group was only 35.L� percent of the total population of Puerto .11foo in 1940. Persons 35 years and ov3r made up the remaining ;,5 percent of the percon:.i who loft, which is about thc samc proportion tfuis group had of the tote.l populntion in 1940, 23.8 porcont. A little ov0r half, 53.9 perc�nt., of the em:i.grants were male. Malos comprised 50 .2 pcrcent of the Isl�nd's total popul�tion in 1940, Ther0 were no significant diffe:cencos c:i.s to the &.ge distribution among outgoing males and fem.:iles. Only 41.6 perccnt of the oute-oing popuL.1.tion was whitc. According to 1940 Census figu::..n;�I? ,Puerto Rico I s whi te popul.::i.tion uas 76. 5 percent of the total popula.tion.W Diffo:i.'..:-ncos us to :tc;o •·-1:I.stribution runong out�oing white and colorad pooplo w,)rc n-11ligiblo. An indic,1-tion of the poor financL.l con-lit:lon of the amigrants was th0 sma.11 c .0h thoy carried whon lcaving the IsLnd. Fearly two thirds of' thc:m took less than ��40 uit� thor:. AJ..rclost thr00 fot1.1"'t'.1s of those who left to sr3ek employment carriod l3sLJ than )40 and only 10 porccnt carriod �:aoo and ovcr. Eearly two thirds of c.11 enir-;ro.nts six yoars old ar..'J. over had attendod olemenk,ry school, nnd 71 percont of thom had attenckd at least the f:i.fth grade. About 22.3 percent attcndd. lü:::;h schoo.l r.:1.d 5.9 porcon-!:. had a c.)1loee educa.tion. Only 6. 2 porccnt of einigr;_�n t,, 6 Jreo.rs or O'é-.Jl' ·lid not. ho.ve any schoolir.g. This figuro is not oxa:·-�l;¡r •]•JL]Yll'2.bLJ wi t,;_1 bi:111 is an indic2.t'Jr '.:'lf ·•ho pe:rcentagc of iJ.liter,:cy of tho e'.1Í&;.l.�ants.2Í-I Bascd on tho 19,+U r.ons1_.s ri.aT,a e.nd 011 o. spociaJ ;;,tu.1y of Ismél.cl B.o.:'.•�ignoz Bou, f 11:=:1 _ A.n.:i._l_ a)o.t_.L_.:,m_�. _en Puo_r��- .R.is:_o_1'., i t iA osti.;·.at,Jd that a½out 3� p.Jrc mt of tho popuJ.o.tion of Fuorto Rico 6 yuars and ovor is illEcr..:.. te. Thu3 tho ei. igrant.s I ilJ.itoracy Wél.S notice;:.bJ.y bcl0w tho a.vc:i.·o.:;e for tho Islan,4.. Accord:i..ng to 1940 Consus figur0s, cr:::.fts-.10n a;,1d kir,:�rod workors constiti.1ted. 5.4 !?Orcent of all er.1ployed pcrsons in Puerto Rico, yet this group o: sldllcc1 lr.bor-ers compriscd 16. O porcont of porsons 1JÍ th gaír-ful occup2.t.1..ons wl10 lnft the Islan(. This &itl'.at::.on was similar in the group of doriestic sJrvice wor!rnrs. i-Jhile in 191,.0 they we:..0e i:mly 7.7 percent of ali er2ployod porsons, they co:--?r�.sed lG.9 porcent of porsons uith gainful occupl.'Lions who lo:ft ::.he Isl2,n :1. On tho o:-her h2.nd, unskilled labo: 0 0rs, .¡ho vomprised 39.9 porcont of al�. Gr::i.plo;y-orl porsons ii1 Puerto Rico in 19 !�O only constitutod 14. 3 percont of persons rith ga.i:1i'ul occup8.tions '\ÚO loft the IslJ.nc-:. Th0s0 facts in rlic.:-.to tho.t ski::.led labor0rs 10ft tlw Island in a higher proportion thn.n tho percentago th0y conprised ot cmployad p0rsons in t.ho Islc.7.ncl in l9L,0, while in the case of unskillcd L:l.bo:.�ors it was JY'-' ctly the opposite.
41 Non-labor0r groµps, like profcssional and semi-prof0ssional workors, farmJrs, managers, and clerical, sales 2.nd ldni..lrod \!ork)rs, comprisod 28.1 percent of persons with ea·inful occupations who left tho Island which was closo to tho percontaze, 25.2 pcrcent, they rru:i. r1e- up of total pcrso:ns employod in 1940 in Puorto Rico. Persons not gainfully cmpJ.oycd com,risod 34 percent of all persons who left thu Is1and, consisting ;�w.inly of ho·,,.scwives, 17.0 porcent, and stl�v.ents, l? • 9 percont. Less than 10 percei1t of thc persons who loft Puerto Rico had a job waiting for th:im upon arrival. Of this lir.1ited num·-cr of pcrsons, domostic service workers rankcd fir::it, m.aking up 24.5 p�rcc:mt of thG grot:p. Oper ativos llk'l.do up ;-2.4 p-3rcont, crafts;1cn, 20.2 percont, nnd unskiJ.lcd labor-• crs, 16.0 percont of the_ total. Almost all 91.3 percen,t of porccnt went to 0.9 percent c1nd
of th0 eLÚGrcints, 9G.3 porcont, went to the Unitcd Statcs, them h.:i.ving lfow York City as final destination. Only 6.5 oth:-;r Stat.Js, :ma.inly FlorBa, ?.3 porcont; California .,, Illinois, 0.8 percent.
Th� µumber of Puerto rtican students going to thc continont is shown as 82 for tho month. Thcy ar0 part of a str0am which has boen mounting in the past two clccades. The Institute of Intornational EduqD,tion raports thc numboT over tho past ;;:-3 yoars as incr0c.1.sing as follows:i5.J 1923-24 1926-'27 1930-31 19.34-35 1936-�7
-
181 261 246 1G5 318
1939-1;0 19/¡.2-./;.3 19/41;-45 1945-46
-
507 574 593 866
42
Puertq_ !ticans Residin_g on .i_he _Gontine.E.t few York Ci ty o.s oftcm 'ooen rofei·reJ i-,o as 11 P 1erto Rico' s socond larg rnt cit;v. 11 Thc fostering slums of ::Cast Hc_rlcm .,nd tho I3rooklyn Nrwy Ynrd area hav0 recently nl8.--:1o the toadlines. Incre.:1.sed mie;r�·tion plus post-war socfo.I 1isorg,::.nizo_tion have exaccrbc.ted ovorcrowding, 10.cl� of sanitction, ina. .,ecuate cduc¿;,tion. a.11d recreation, jL1venilo dl}linquoncy, prostitution and crine. The mid _le-class noighborhood of \Jashington Heights ::.s coldom montionod. The Puorto 11.ic?.ns there h:i.ve "mude good 11• Thoy havo p"rfectcd their �nglish, hnve stendy jobs or businesses and f .ir or gooc incomos. They havo rnade u �ore or loss satisfactory adjustmcmt to s. now culturo. Social workers report that genera.lly thoy anct others who have 11 esco.pcd 11 fro,n poverty aro not int0rost0d in the plicht of their fello'.TS, Little support for welfarc a.ctivitics nmong tho slum dwollcrs eones from them. 0
The situo.tion hc.s heen doscribod 2.s follows: 11llu:Li1y
Puerto Rico.ns in New York refuse to identify themselves with the Harlom group in any wny. Thc u1Jpor-class Latín-American, whoth0r he be fro:il Puerto ·1foo, Colombia, ar r;..ny of the Lntin Americc.n countries ,. r0f 0rs to the Ho.rler:1 s9ttlement as one of 1 worldn3 poople '.1122/ Josefino. de Romim, a Sl.'.coessful ry�r;to R:!.cé..m journalist r0ported as follows on thc sitv_ ..,_ tion last . ra;:,r • ..LJ/ At the "Goment ?ow York I s PuorJ00 Rj_cam: ::--.re prospering. Mo.ny havo moved to l:ett3r neigh!�orhoods. Somo have bouc;ht in tho Bronx o.nd in suburhm sections. Non who considered thcmselvos lucky to ha.ve any sort of job nou há.VG their own b·L'.Sinessos. Their children e.re ent,:!ring the professions, marrying into familios outside thGir own group, and are teginning to take an o.cti ve part in tho socfr.l, economic, ¿rnd welfare lir o of the city o Though t11e ol·i_or gen..1ration still clings to thcir own customs, their chil 1ren �u..::; growing up 2-s co11tinentc1.l Amoricans. 11
11
1
As one rr ew Ycrk err.ployor s2.i:1, Puerto ilic;:1.ns are good peoplo. · Thcy just i.1ce.1od 2. chémce. Bnt whqt �ill hap�:ien when the 1n2.npowor s __ortc.gc :'Ls ovar, I clan I t lmow. • R.eports in I,.ic.:r, 1947, fro'll the Jopo.rtme:nt of Public Welfare of Few York City incl.;_co.ted th.::..t unomploym0nt \T2.S rising rapidly c'.lllong the m1skillod. Tho c2..se:s ha:r..dlecl rose 54 perco:1t from _l\.pril 191+6 to April 1947.2fl/ Tho sub-mc.r1;;inr..l unskillod worl:er is tho first to be hit when u.'1emplo�11D.ent beg7_ns to riso. Tho :?u�rto :.ticc1.r.. ir. 1:1ore often thc.n not a m,"Jm1:ior of thD.t group e Dr º Paquita fo.:.i z studicd e.. sample of 3, 0�4 Puerto �ican mi-;r.:cnts in 191;6 0 Sho found r47 unskillod, 846 semi-skilled, and only 333 skilled workers,3.21 H0r o.nal:-sis of the odl.1.cationi:l needs of mig:�.:,nts to thc continont shotür! 1--,0 rer�uirod reo..c1i:1g for anyono -lcaling with this r,roblem.
43 Sorne of thc salfont facts from th0 nuiz study will be m..unnarizod hc!."0• Reasons for loaving the islancl woro ovorwhelmineJ.y ocono:,üc, as woulcl be oxpectod. Seventy two porcent gavo unemployment, seu::ional work, r,::iducod wagcs, mig::-ation of industry, relativos uno.ble 1continue sup··,ort, or inade :uatc e2.rnings as the causo of their movine;.-º1 Thc occupational stat11.s of the gr01..,.p is r0ported on pago 33 where it is campe.red with th� 1Jar Mo.npower Rocruits. An idea of the class of work performed is given by tho maximu.m weekly incomc ( T.r.wLr� �:VII).
�g
TABLE XVII
Distribution of Maxirnum Weckly Incomc
Hig_hc.s.:t:Leg]cJ.y_ Wa_go_s__ : Fumber _of Indivicluo.ls .. :. Pcr Cent.
70-79 60-69 50-59 40-49 30-39 20-29 10-19
Data not g:i.vcn TOTAL
20 20 117
323
792
. ----·
1466
J.95
____ 9l ... __ .. 3024
.
.72 .72 4.28 10.73 27.13 47.00 6.l.1-2
.. 3_. ___ J.00.00
Sourco: Paquito. Ruiz, :Vocci.ti9_n_2.J.. Peeds _oJ _ry_c_r.to. Jti�_filL Ria Piedras, 1947. Hi_grap���, University of P.
n.,
Tho average JllE,ximum earnings rise from ,:·:;-5.1� in tho unskilJ.ed oc cupations to only '.)/+l• 56 in the prof.:rnsiono.l 0.nd managerio.1 class. This group is composod of r:msicians, pharmacists, clernontary' school teo.chers and trained nurses. Nono of tho highor l•�VtJ� profes.sionals �ere found. One disturbine fu.et 1.mcovored by ¡11.�iz is thc shift from skillod occupntions on ih"' po.rt of the fe.thers to domost1c servicc occupations 8.mong tho sons.W This is not consommt ultn tho occupational proforonces expressod by tho group and thus indice.tes a widoning of the gap botwe•:m aspiration imd accor,1plish.i110nt which is cxtromoly unhealtlt: , � The high degroe of direct corrclation botwoon educQtion and oc cupc.'1.tional success which voco.tional studios show gencrally ls, of courso, found in Ho.rlcm. Both regular schooling and supplomcntary vocational training reflect themselves in e. riso in pay. IJ1owlodgo of the English languag0 was alao found to be a significv.nt factor in oconomic advanco ment.
44 Houlth con:'litions are deplorable. Ovorcrmding and · inariGcJ_uato diets help push the tub8rculosis doo.th ro.te up 33 porcent lüghcr tha..,,'}. the alrcady high ro.te in Pu.Jrto Rico. Pa.rasitic dise2,Bes, comI!'.on on tho isJ.2.nd, are carriod to Eew York whero th0y co;1tfoue to sap the strcmgth of tho miJro.nt a.nd hampor his ability to adapt to new circt.,.rnst�nccs. }To one knows how r,nny Pt.n:i.'to ilic2.ns there o.re in Now York City. Esti-:iates ra.ngc from J :íO, 000 to 350,000. The L1tt.-:,r figure is most o:í:'t.an used in newspap0r n.rticles. Tho only official fif_;l.1ros refer to Pt.10:i.�to :-1.ico.ns born in Puerto Rico. The 1940 cernms fou.11d 69,603 in lfow York City of uhom 61,L�63 wero white and 8,JJ+O non-white. CM_ldr8n born in the United Sta.tes wcre not counted a.n:l thor0 aro no data on which to make even a ro.1,3"h cstimate of their munber. Tho Census Burcau is b0ing :cecuested to inclu·lo this -1.ata. in its 1950 collection. So much has boen written en thc lfow Yor:: situJ.tion roc:::mtly that it is felt thnt these fow rr::m.:.�rlrn on it are sufficifmt. Tho Puerto J.ican-born popt.ü,:,.tior.. of Yow York City wns 554 in 1910, a.nd 7, 361,,. in 1920. (Tablo :;,:vrn). Tho 1930 dnta. wore not pubJ.ishod. Twenty yoars 2.gc it HC<.s f�rl that 70 pcrcont of the Puorto Rico.ns It j_s probable th2.t thc _orccnta.ge in the city rosidcd ::..n Hc.rlom. ;: still holds. Th0 ,second lnrE;•)St concontr.:i.tion of Puerto Ricans on thc contincnt is in San Francisco. The 1910, 1 20 and 'L�O figuns ,,1cre �13, 474, and 603, rospectively. 1'1 0 othor city coJ1es clos•.: to having the sume number. Oakland I s 194 in 1940 shóuld -,e o.ddod to -¡·,he metropolitan city I s total since i t is virt"1. .ally thc: se.lile a:reu. 1
Thc Hawaiio.n ·ocrnitmont unr.:l.oubtedly accounts for this colony, for the a2 in Los Angeles and for 594 rural i:.wollers in the sto.·ce of Cnl:l.f'ornia. San Fr.::ncisco for years was tbo milin point of c:-.lbarcatior.. for Hr.nmii. Somo migrants prob3.b1y decicled to sta.y thero and rüfuncd to se.il for tho i:Jlands.
45
L.BL:i:::: XVIII Puerto _;:-ticans (born in Puerto Rico) in United Stntcs Citios of 0ve:r 100,000 - 1910, 1920 o..nd 1940. _ 1210 -- . -- 1320 "--
55L�
7,364
69,603
?.13
474
603
64
319
41,,_o
c.
48
148
327
Chicago, Illinois
15
110
Baltimo::e, Ma ..:-yhncl
44
91
231
Los Ang:ües, California
10
J.01
?12
0aklani, California
10
101
194
Ifow 0rlcans, Louisim1n.
15
177
153
Detroi t, !-íichic;an
4
59
153
rJewnrk, Few Jersey
r )
2
Tampc1, Florida
o
94
123
Jersey City, }L,w Jersey
3
56
106
Bastan, hassachussetts
10
67
91
Buffnlo, rr . Y.
12
56
62
3
26
61
1
13
55
Sun l�ntonio, Texas
6
6
Hot1.ston, Texas
o
53
3
50
San F1�v.ncisco, Californ�..a Phila-�elphia, Ponn. Wnshin'.5ton, D.
Clevel3.nc1 , 0hio
Compilad from reports o.f tl:.e 13th, J./►th an ·:: 16th Cer snsos of tho Unitod Sta.tos.
46
.
Somo undoubtodly we,·,e dissntisfiod with con:1itions on tho c..me pla.ntations 2.nd mana.ged to rott1_rn to tho mainlancl. Thoro nro instances of Puerto Ricans saving enol1_gh money in Hawaii to purchQSO lo.nd in California and bcconüng iniep-=mdent farmers. Rccent slow growth in the C:-.lifornio. cities would seem to indicatc further the connoction with Hawaiian mí u;ration. Thc port cities of the East cmd Gt:lf coo.sts, usic1.e from New York, probably owe thcir Puerto i1ican popub.tion to tho ensc of transport. l\•owark, J,3rsoy C:i.ty a.nd Yonkcrs should bo inchv.:1od in the Few York a.rea. Washington has for years offer;;c'l. job opport1mitios for bi-lingual office he] p .'1.nd professional pcople. Tampa. 1 s cigar industry and Cuban colony seem to ho.vo offered. both jobs and comp2.nionship. Thus we find 13 citíos :-TÍth over 100 island-born Pu.orto Ricans o.nd sevon more with bGt-reen 50 and 91. Hiru;Ü would undoubtedly now be includod high on th,3 list if rkt2. woz·e ;::.vailo.blo on rocen-e mie;rc:tion therc. The extent of concont:ru.tion in by co:npa.ring those in }Tow York w:l.th Tabl0 1.'VIII. Tho country' s lD.rgost Rice.ns in all 20 citfos in 1910, 79
t!cw York Ci ty ruay be soen dramatically those in all othor cities lj_sted in city conto.inod 54 perccnt of the Pu'.Jrto percont in 1920 and 95 porcent in 1940.
The totG.l for the -¡_7nited .Sta tes in 19L1-0 lJ'G.S 69,967. In oth;3r words, 90.44 porcent of all Hü e found. in Few York Cityº The total urban popuL=ition was 67,366 or 96. 2r: percont of th,; toto.l. Rural non-farm rosidcmts numbernd ;:-,204º 0nJ.y 397, or lü percont, livod on farms. It woul-:l scem tho.t tho trek to tho Unitod Stc:1:,os is c.n cxtension of the n.1_ral-urban m:i.. gration wllich is che.r::,.ctr:3ristic of the Idand itsolf. Puerto Rice.ns are now found in ovm--y state of the ruüon. Thc 1910 ccnsus reported non0 in nine statos: Forth 2.nC'. South Dakofo., Kontucky, Alabo.na., Mississippi 1 Idaho, il1o,.,r Hoxico, Arizona 2..n 1:l Utah. By 1920 Utah, 1fovada, and Hyominr; wcre the only stdt,s without Pu.erto :?ice.nsº Tho 1930 ancl_ 19,4.0 censuses shoucd thom prosont in c.11 /4.f::. Thc ten statos \!ith thc lar:,;ost numbcr wore:
Nou York
California Il!ew Jersey Pennsylvania Naryland
6J,281
1,892 7DO
607
2 94
Dis-Lrict of Columbia Florida Illinois Texv.s Nich.igc.n
289
272
259 254 208
Color o.nd sex are ·:.efinito bars to mi0ra.tion, howovor. Th0 formor is mu.ch r;1ore docisive thun the lattcr and the hro to(;ether e.ro �u.ita powerful. Tho only sto.to in l 9L.,,0 which did not h:wo a Puerto ;_ucan femalc was Forth Do.kota. lfon-wh5.te malos wore abs,mt in 15 sta.tos; non-whito femnles in 22. Table XIX shows tho distribu.t:í.on by rogions 2.nrl. color for four con3us years. The foJ.lowíng trends should bo not "Jd. Tho J\Torthcast,:irn statcs are thc only ones in which the incroase has been substantial and .:i.lrnost all th�.t incre8.se wa.s rcgistered in Now York City. Tho proportion of those· living in that region to thoso in the country 2.s a whoJ.G incr::-;o.sed steadily
47
from 52 percent in 1910 to 93 percent in 1940. Tho Forthcentral states declined, percentagewiso, from six in 1910 to only 1.3 porcent thirty years lator. Tho South d:..�opi)ed from lú to 12; the Uost from 21� to 3. Thero wore no absoluta declines in tho totaJ.s. Exa1nin2.tion of th0 racial pictur·e introduces a different factor, howevcr. The total of non-white Puerto Rica.ns shows an incre�se �uring the 1910-20 a.nd 1920-30 pcriods and then falls in tte next decade. The sa.i-ne pattern is found in three of the four rogions. Thoro w2.s a slight declino in tho South between 1920 and 1930. Al1 CJ:cept the \Jost droppod between 1930 and '/►0 a:nd its incre:i.se wo.s sma.11. Thoso trends undoubtedly are connected with the widcspreacl discriminntion ago.inst colored poople which increased during the depression of the thirtics. Thc concentr2.tion of non-whites in the I-Tortheastcrn statos, where discrimin2.tion is lons virulent, is shown by the shift in proportions in oach rogion by census yoars. In 1910, this region contained 48 percent of all Puerto Tiic;rns of color. The next three censuses showod th,;; folJ.owing perconts: 1920, 78; 1930, 94; and 1940, 94. Tho Puerto 11ic::-,n fo.ruar on tho continent is also co:o.centrated in the Fortheast. Fift:r-f:i.vo p-i.lrc,311t oí' c.11 397 on the continont were found in that r:igion in 1940. 0ther r-,gions with number and p-'.:lrccmto.ge of tho wholc were: Forth Contrnl, 33 or f3 porcent; Gouth, 52 or 13 percent; \fost, 92 or 23 perccnt. Tho influenc:e of Lh0 cotton•-piclrnrs P.1.igr¿._1:,:i..on seems to be reflected in the fig1..1ros for Arizmm. 'l'hero worc ?21 Puerto Rice.ns re ported fo:o th2.t st.J.to in 1930. Thc3.�e wero only 147 ton :rears later, of whom 57 wGre farmers. Ifo othor st- te in th0 molmtain regfon had moro tho.n Colorado 1 s ?7. Tbo comparatively 12.rgo numr::or of 254 in Texas may be accotmtJi for by the Gulf ports at which boats from Puerto Rico toti_ch ancl. perhaps sorne of the backwc.sh from the i\.r-i__zonu gro:.1ps. This sk3tch of the mn.nner in uliich the Puerto Rico.ns have distributed thomselves on tho contincnt raises intoresting �uestions. Is j_t, nocossary that thoy co11centrnte in l'-!ow Yo:d{ City? Are thore not parts of the Unitod St.J.tos whorc at 100.st the physical clinnte would be mor0 propitious? Aro thero othor plD.cos uhore uns dlled and smni-skillcd worke1rs IlléJ.y find jobs? Could the 11 coloni0s 11 now in ex:i.stenc0 be appoo.lod to for 1-:elp in sottling ncwcomors o.ne finding them uork? Who.t opportmü t:Les for companionship 2.nd r0cr0ation would t:.oy a.fford?
TABr;:::; ��IX
Puerto Ricans (born in Pu.:::.rto Rico) in tho U.S.: 1910, 1920 nnd 1940 Total, whitc and nonwhitc, by ;1cogrnphic l'Ggions. ·· ---�- - ·
··
.
• 1 •
· - · -- ·-- -
·
- ·• •· ·
·- · ·
Total ..
.
-·- -
-
-·--
•
-
-·-- ·· � ..
·-
...
-· -
-- --- --
TOTAL
1910 19?0 1930 1940
1513 11718 52249 69967
'.Jhite
1910 19?0 1930 191�0
1340 9267 L:-1117 60765
1')10 19?0 1930 ]940 ------ --·--·- . .. .. -
173 21�51 1113? 9202 .... - ... - - - - .. .. - ..
Fonuhitc
-· ------- · ·•
.
.. ...
-
... -.
-
••
•
- - ----- ---
P.E. Sto.tes
..
•
•
•
- ..
. ...
-
..
-
.
...
..
--
---
-
•• -
-
-
..
-
-
-
-
-
-
..
-
Host -
1
-
---
----
..
..
·- ..
.
-
..
93 571 336 925
269 1375 156/4. 1789
36 1001 2076 �194
706
86 494 631.. 7,S6
238 966 1200 15J/�
310 94G 1956 2057
37277 56388
-
·--- ..
South
7f'9 �771 1/7773 65059 6f�t)
.. .
.
F. Gontrn.l Sta.tos
83 1912 10496 8671
. . . __.. ... .. .. . . - .
7 77 152 139 - - .. ·--- - ----
-
31 /.,.09 J64 255 .. - · ·-- �--- ·•
....
-
..
..
...... -· --·--
52 53 l?.0 137 -..-----� �
--- ---- ... - .. -----
.
-
-
-- . .. .. ..
--
.,.
..
--·--
---
Co;,1piJ.od from ropo1 ts of tho 13th, 11:-th, 15th and 16th Cunsusos of tho Unitcd 3tatos.
¡¡::. (X)
49 PROSP3CTS FOR F'L-_.'l'H,-:r. Ei-IIGRATI01'! Possibilities on tho Continont Continuad prospority on the continent will undoubt0r:lly cause a continua.nce and evon an in.croase in the prosent hic;h rato of :ü · gration from thc ísland. This m:í. ¡;ration will result in many malo.ctj..:i.stments tmless the Insular Department of Labor, working with th,J Unit-.:icl States Employment S:)rvicc, helps distribute job seckers to citios anl towns out8ide the �rew York metropolitan ar0a and to areas where thoro a.re real ch.:i.nces for work. Such planning will- be oven more urgontly necessr,ry whcn cmploymont opportunities d•)cline and deprcssion s Jts in. The best 8ducated guesses seem to be that thm'.'e will probably be u short 11 recession ll this ycar. Soveral yoa.rs of mode:ratc to high prospcri ty will follow before anothcr major dcprcssion. The advcnt of such a catastrophe will rl.epend on businEiss and political st:J.tesr.1,--..nshj.p. Ea.ch person is entitled to his own opinion as to the pros--:mc'J of the foresi1ht nccessary to avoid u dopression. The fact is tha.t the labor :narket on the cm1tinent is already spotty, with labor surplusos in sorno areas and occupations and shortages in othcrs. Tho fullest utilizution of the Jabor �¡¡_rket infornation service of the United Stat0s Employmont Sorvice is therofore ur::;cntly nee ,.�od. The San Juan office of tho UnitGd Stntes Employmont S,::irvice should not be oxpected to publidze job opportv_nities 011 tho continent. It :1.s subject to prcss ure from llashington to discourago movemLmt to tho continont, o.s was shown even during the war wl1on factories producin::; for the armed forces were short of men but Puerto :.1:i.c.:-.n recrnitriont W8.S ol.dll:i:cimatod. Th0 publica tions of th0 Unitcd Stat:�s Ibpartm_.nt of' Lal,)or aro roadily availablo however anda continuous corrcspondence could and should be carried on by the insular officials with st�t� �nd local employm0nt s0rvices and uith roputable privato a�encies.W Law Number 89 (1947), of which Senator GéigcJ. Polo.neo wa.s author, gives the Dopartmcnt of Labor snfficicnt powers to cope with tho abuses and misun,.lerstandings uhfoh havo arisen in the past in connection with the contro.cting of Puerto RicaJ , 1 worke1�s far continental jobs. A regional analysis of lc..bor market tronds in tho past inclic2.t0s tho ar:)as of tho Units3d States in which s.,ortages may generallJ; bo cxpoctcd. The South will offer fow possibilitios sinco that is an arca of high populution growth ,1hich is forced to cxport its.-uneducate ., unskilled surplus to othor p�rts of thc Statos. Thuro was a southorn not out r.1igration of about 1 1/3 millions between 1920 and 1930 2.nd of almost a million in the noxt decude. An examin.1tion of population growth an't economic opporttmities -:tndicat.es that the :t-.:ew Sngland, East Forth Cont:r-al a.ne'! Po.cific divisions of the Unitcd Statos are thc only arcas in which lc,bor shortage muy 11 normally 11 be oxpe ctod in the n.:,ar futuro. 64/ This meo.ns that gene rally atten.tion sh:iuld be concontratGd on the followlng states: 1aine, Now Hnmpshire, ·vermont, Con..11ccticut, r1assc.chusetts, Rhode Island, Ohio, 1Indiana, Illinois, Michigc.n, llisconsin, Hashii1:;, ton, Oregon and California.
50
This gonern.liz2. tion must be qualifiod by reforer,ce to tho rU.stri bution of possibilities by occupation. Su.ch possibilities;. age.in, depcnd on prosperi ty or dopression. Ar.., .analysis of tho progro.r.1 which would be necess�ry to maintain prospority is bcyond the scopo of this report. Con�ross has tnken a potentially crucial step towa.rd full employmont by thc passar,e of the Ernploymont Act in 1946. Thc Act ch1rgos 11 the Prosi dent, the Executivc Depa.rtments g.nd Congress to prometo maximum product ive use of tho Nation I s rGsources - natural nnd humo..n - so t hat useful omployment OP.portrnüties are affordod thoso ablo, willing, and see�dne to work. 11
W
Tho Burcau of Labor Statistics of tho United Sta.tos Dopartmont of Labor has publishocl. the most thorough study of tho factors involved in tho maintcnn.nce of full employmcnt a.ne: wh,..t the picturc might be in 1950 u.nder scvcntcon clear.ly statod 8.SSlunptions. The factors taken into cnnsideration incluc1e the size of thc labor I11....,rkct, tho sizc of thc national incomc ancl the ways in which it is spent, levols of productivity; and of investmcnt, working hours 1 w.:.l.(;ggr the volu..mo of foreign tra,.1e, and the level of gover:n.mont Gxpendi.tures.� The authors fecl tb;::�t omploymont opportunities fo:r wago cesrners by 1950 will rise sharpJ.y over 19L1.5 in the following fíclds: automobiles, lu;nber and timbor busic products, furnitv.re 2..nd :rolo. t.::id lu.mber products, stone, clay and glass products, teJ-..--tilG mills and othC?r fiber ;cianufactur ing, mining, trc1d0, fino.neo, servic0s, .:.'.nd const:::,,1ction. Thc last 1 ,L.s i:;reat expansion possibilitios, particula.rly as thc imlustry modcrnizcs. It should be stressed that this �-s not a f.Q.±:�.PJ'.S1 of whc.t will happen but a �lcscription of whc..t full cmploymont :y-_ou_:),g look lilrn if it hap�:ions. Tho sturly itsolf must be consu.lted far assumptions on which í t is based. Thc st:rly is moro con.servc:tivo tha.n an eo.rlier, pionoering study o.pplying tho tinational economic bud�;et 11 approach. It estimat,)Cl that the numbor of non-D.gr:1..cultural workcrs omployod in 1 0 woulrl ,e 50 million. Ag:cicultura.l empJ.oyment was set 2.t 7.5 million.-�
61
The principal consulting oconomist for th0 Social Socurity Boa.re. has contributed an o.naly��s ?f tbe possible cou:se of �mployment to 1950 wh�ch is worth attontion.20' :J:3 fecls tho.t the picture in 1950 mo.y compare ,Jl th that in 1944 as sl101rm in To.ble ;[¿
51
TABLE XX
Employees in Prívate Nonagricultural Establishmonts, 1944 and 1950 Estímated (thousands of personsO
----
Industry
1950 hypothetical
1944 • ·-•-
Total Mu.nufacturing Min::i.ng Construction Transportation and public utilities Tradc Financc, sorvice, miscellan0ous
�7o_ 16,010 830 670
_J.f:u900 14,000 900 3,000
3,770 7,030
3,500 8,000
l+,360
5,500
----_____
. -- -�-1 . ---· ····-
Incre::i.se /-) or decrease (-) from 1944 to l950
. _ ··---..i-
?,1_2)iL. ---
- ?,010 /. 70 f 2,330
1¡.
270 970 1,140
-- -- --·---
·-. Source: Wo s. Woytinscy, tiPostwar Economic Perspectives. "IV. Aftermath of the War, 11 Sochl Security___ Bulletin, ríarch 1946, p.13, ,,
The Woytinsky figures aro more cons,3rVJ.'"(,lVG than thc Burem r:,f' Labor Statistics calculations 1Jy n.r01.md four miJ.lion. He foresces that in 1950 there would be propo�rtionately about thc sarne number of civilian jobs as in 1944 since the numbci� of pcrsons added to the labor force in those six years will be appro�imately th0 same as the inr,rease in jobs, 1
His estirnates, a y·;ar and a half ago, are also bolow the actual figures far racont monthso Employment has been maintained at around fifty-six to fifty-oight million. Unemployment in May, 1947 was about two million, having iropped half a million from thc previous month because of a seasonal increas'1_�n agricultural labor. Farms in March employed 7.2 million workers.§:.z! The Conmtlssioner of Labor Statistics warned in May that cmployment was tcn1ing to tighten up; that 1,250,000 veterans now in schools wou��1soon be seeking work, and that construction was beginning to slow down. 1.Q,, A sifting of available data and foreca.sts by competent abservers would indicate three majar f'ields of concentration in which continental employment opportu..1· ities for Puerto Ricans might we11 be found: (1) seaso nal agriculturo.1 labor; (.2) household employment; and (3) unskilled and semi-skilled factory labor. Opportunitios will undoubtedly o.ppea.r far trained pcrsons but it should be remembered, first, that Puerto Rico itself needs many more trainod uorkers than it has in many fields and, second, that Puerto Ricans would be compoting against pcrs0ns who (a) come from a culture in which em:phasis has for yeélrs bcen placed upan technical skills and training cnd (bJ are traincd in institutions which have been function ing for years in thoir fi8lds of specialization. In any case, persons with skilJ.s nlways ha.ve a bctter chance for o:nployment than the uns2:::.lled.
52
(1) Agriculturt':Ü Labor
•
One of the sug�cstions ofton me."ic as to s01.1.rco of 8mployment ln the Unitod States o.t the pres,mt tirac is :.�griculturo. Undoubtedly the: e n.ro thousap.ds of opportunities in tlüs fi,üd. T ere wcre 170,000 foreign worlrnrs in the United Sta.tes on V-J Day, nost of who:i.1 ha,::1. boen recrui ted for fn.rm uork. It is octi..riatod that th.Jro wero 400,000 �1exicc.ns, Eritisb Hest Inctians, British Hondurania.ns, Canadians Qllcl i\1ewfoundlanders on unskilled and somi-skilled j9JJ in tho 8tél.tes during the wo.r. Most of these r:ii::.•r9 buen repatriatoc1.� Ther·e were probably 25,000 Mexice.n agricultur€.l laborers still L"'l the �n�tcd St'-2.tGs in Pov�mbGr·, 19�.6. PlaA�1wore boing ma·1.o then to :e patria-c,e them ovor a period of two yea.rs • ..!.S! Thero worc 119,000 Moxican workers illo�ally in tho Unitcd Statos in Jnnuury, 1947, accordin� to official est:i.mates. � J:;:-ivc w2.s lmmchod in thnt month to find and deport those workcrs.:U. The romova.J. of these í'oreign workers from thc lélbor m,:,.rket plus the fr.ct thr.t soldicrs and so1r.0 4,000,000 wa.r workcrs from rural areas ha.ve not y-et found thcir wv..y back into agriculturnl labor, undoubtedly offers opport1.mitics to thc PuGrto J.ico.ns uho are interestccl in, cmd equippod to, enc;agc in this t:_rpe o:f work. Co11Sic:.oration of rC:cruitmont for u..:;ricuJ.turn.l labor, und supor vision of i"t, shot:.lc'l. be contluctec1 becring in mj_na some of the oxp0rioncos of tho i-':.-ex;.c,...n.s ,�n-1 othcr ür1port ;d uorkers rl..uring th<3 w::i.r perio rl. Thcr) wo.s u mnj or .:tifferen e o botweon n�m.-ui tment of forcign workers during World 1v2.r II r..nd pr,wiov.s recruitmr.:nt oxp0rienco. This tir,10 bi-lnt0ral nogotiat:lons WGl"O cond1..1.ctod bi3tween th'J Unitr.::d Stc..t,as goverrur.ont und the Ho�dcc.n o.nd othcr governmonts involvod in order th::i.t pf91¿or 2.rr2.n1omi.:mts mir;ht bo me-le for tho protection of tho worl:orlLv Rogulc.tions wcr0 carefull�r fomulat0d to govorn recruitm,:mt, transport,·.tion, housing, wc.�es, food, 1.¡or1d.nG corditions, hours, savings fun::J.s, ar.d rop2.tr:i.J.tion. A t lor,st 2.s mtiG!1 CD.ro should be cxercisod by the Pi:i.crto 11ic,:.m o.nthoritics in dcaling with recnü ting agonts an�1 the a3rooments Teo.ched mi,1ht woll bo studicd w1.th this in mind. It would ,:'.lso to vali.1ablo to study thc fow rcports which h.J.vo boen is:.mcd on the ox:Joricnce of tho :í.'oroif;:1 110:d-.:c�·s, Tho Division of Labor and Social Ir:.formation of the Pan :u;1;;rica,, Union r.1n':le scvcral studies of cond:í.t.ions amon;;- tho ':e;dc:·.n wo.r Jorl�0rs. Tl:c mo�t froquent sourccs of complaints •.1oro food, housinc;, imv3.oc:uatG ,1od:Lci1.J. scrvices, 12.ck of cducntionnl and recroation�l facilities, rQcial 0iscrimination, and absonce of ¡:;riovance llllchinory. Handerson ropor·ts 2.lone; th.3 samo linos. It wc.s founc.1 tbit cz,__g_;cro.:t::i,.l stc:t0ments JG!"J ofi:.en ;na.de -�_uring thc rec:n.,iting ca.mpnign in 1-.cxico whích lcd workors to OY.pQQ� fa.r bcttcr con:1itfons o.nd hi'.:hor po.y than thoy nctuaJ.ly recoiv-:-d •
.W
Hondorson sums up ono phc'\se of thc rec:n.ütine; progrE!I.1 which nccds pnrticular E.ttention in thc follo1áng words, rrr:12.Jor_1.mcy of tho inforrna tion gi ven to worlrnrs during mass 1:oc:n.ü tment ·J.rivos t.1.n-: tenptc.tion to
53 veno.lity nmong loc2.l officio.ls ,a:�e old problems which have 0oen e,nphasi zed by 'i:,he .A.-nerican 0xporience. 11 It shonld l,e noted thc.t 1m-l.or the bi•10.teral agreements mentioned, t.':le workers i1ere not allowed to bring their famili•')S to the United Sta.tes. The invostiga.tors for the Prm Ar.10rican Uidon founcl tho.t one of the chief causes of dissntisfr.iction o.rr..ong both agricultural J..ni other importad worlcerG wc..s the abs0nce of the family. This and other aspocts of homosiclmcss accounte � for ,J. la:rgG p0rc:;ntu.ee of the naesertions º from miGro.to1'Y work"'r canps.
.'?.2/
:Many Puerto Ricans lmve gono to tho continent to 11ort in co.nning f:ictor:tcs o.t the heirht of thc soasan. Others, left ¡:rcran 'ed on the con ti·�ont by tho dis1:tppm:r.nnce of war job:,, havo joir� d . tho mi0r;:,.tory labor forceº Supervision of recrui tment for thc for1ner uor!{ :ls easier than for the latter. Tho Unitod St2.tes Departmo11t of Agriculture has gr-eatly increased its services to both tho mi;zr2.tory uor.rnrn and ·r,heir e,mployers. Fo.rm labor car:1ps cmd infor.r1v,_tion o:::'fices aro now loco.tecl in the principal a.reas of such employment -;.ne. E:.long tho rru:dn highways leacling to such areas. There aru 1.'cti.r nB:�n :.1:.i.�m.tory stroa., s: tho AtJ.e.ntic co2.st, tho Centre.l stc1.tes, the Mo1nt2 in st<1t0:::, e.n:i tho Pc.cific co,.st. Harvesting of crops starts early in tl:e s;,r�.ng in tho scuth. Worlrnrs move north as spring and sUL1.nrcr a.dvance, finj_shing their s-:,o.son in :1.ort.!orn sta.tos early in the fall ., Thon they r0hi.t'n to tho solth far· the winterº Thc Pacific coast offers longer emplo:rrne:1t '.)OC ,_t1.se of the lcngth of thG growing
seasono
A progr2.m for p:!.a.cing o. 1:.1mibor of Puerto Rié::ms in the migratory strenm on o.n oxporiMental bo.,·d.s c01üd lmdoubtodly be workod out wi th t,he R.ecr-,ütr:ent and Etcoment Div:lsion of the i�;:tension Fo..n1 kbor P1�0P,r2.m, Extension SeTvico, Unitod St2.tes De:partment of ./\.gr:i.cuJ.ture. The ossentfals of ;tp,<:, progrs.m of the Department are to be founc1 in thc public�'.tions list cd.111 It should be rocognized thnt ,:-1igrafory fam. labor is grueling work, that living ,1Ed worl:ing conditions are seldom sntisfactory, th:J.t piecc ratcs prevo.il, and that :rocroation and other comrnunity fc1.cilities c,rc r.lmost invariably in2.decuate. Various groups aro striving to overcome these handicc.ps, howeve1:, 2.nd there are persons to �m �.:,he life appoc:::.ls as offoring possibilitles .for trcvel 2.n,.1 r,cl.vcmture. (2) Ho1i_sohold Ernployment Housohold o:rn.plo�,�:1ent is one field uh:i.ch off ors almo:: rt. unlimitod pos sibilities on tl1e conUne!l.t. AJI,1ost hc.lf o. r.!illim women left this fielcl. :-luring the war. i1ian.y of thcm rocoived tre..inin::; e.nd expcrience in othor occupo.tions so that thoy will not i-eturn to clonostic wor!c. The �lomen I s Buroau of tbe Unitcd St2.tos Jopart1,1ont of Le.bar so.ys: 11 It' s a t:n.'.ism th�t tho aerr¡nnd for compctent householcl. w�rkors always e: rnoods thc supply,.;...¡ _ Th1:.1 W('..S trua bcf ore tho wnr c.nd e ven cluring tho oprcssion of the 193Os.a
54 An analysis by an expert of the United Sta.tes uepc..rtmont of Com..rnerce susto.ins tho opinion tho.t there are ,•.n·:1 will continuo to be numerous opportunities in this ficld. He estimates tho.t hou::mhold employment in 1948 will be up 160 percont ovor tht;.t of' 19L:J, assuming tho.t favorable employment canditions exist in :gc,meral.W It is point.ed out tho.t Europca.n immigrants supplicd 437, 000 from 1920 to 19?.9. Changes in imrnigr 1tion laws c2.used this source of supply for domestic workers to vanish almost completely by the la te l920s. The figure cited gi ves a rough pi.c tt-1.re of the opportu nities held out to Puerto Rico.n women by tho legal changes. 11 s0rv2.nts 11
It should be noted that ?9 pcrcent of all i..TJlllligrants to the United Statos from 1821 to 19::-4 consisted of domestic serv2.nts and unskilled laborers. Household cmploym.ent is not the most desirable occupo.:cion, of course. Conditions have boen consi·:lere.bly ,improved, however, particularly during the war, and there has bo0n a decidod ii1crease in activities by women 1 s organiza.tions, labor unions n.ncl civic and rel:tgious groups looking toward further improv0ment. Tho trend ho.s been toward an eight-hour da.y, at least one free day pcr week, and a.n incren.se in wages as well as toward better personal rolo..tionships between cmploycr and servc.nt. Wo.,1es of course vary from city to city ancl from one employer to another. Tho Bureau of Le.bar Sti'.t.istlcs reports as follows on the subject: Annlysis of 562 advertiser,ionts for women household workers in Weshington, D.c., and n02.rby Virginia o.nd Haryland, pub lishcd in the domcstic-serv.i.ce columns of a local newspupor ., during the period Soptemher J.6 to 0ctober 15 5 19/44, showed an unusually wide ranie in wagos. Monthly wngcs offored in 86 c.dvertisements ranged from :M.O to ��160 u month and avoraged (;92.2 5. In a group of 323 advert:i.sements offering weekly pay the rates wcre o.s low as ,::>12 in some cases anr1 �s high as �30 in oth0rs·, the avemge far thfa group being )20 or él. median of Í�20.35. Thls lattcr figure showed a striking ir.1provcment ns comparad to weckly enrnings of resident household c'-iployees cov0red in a somcwh'..l.t comparuble survcy :in 1940. That study showed earnings rn.nt;ing from ".;;3.50 to ':11C.75 a weok, the median Etv0rage for the white women being )9.35, and the �:regro womcm ()8.85 0 As a rosult of tho incre2.;;e in the cost of liv ing since 1940, the mcals offered in 191;.4 o.lso had a higher value. The 19/./4. avaro.ge wngc offered far pr�rt-tirae workors by the week was ·:)13.10, far 'iay household workors it we.s )4.00, e.nd far those on o.n hourJ.y basis, .50 cents.
55 UndouhLedly, sL1:i.ldr tJ,-.\ ·.:s would ·,e fov.nd in the lz,:.�g-:r metropolitan areas. Lower w -:.;et" in smalJ.er corn1mmit5.es H01}.ld '·e offset by the lower cost of living to a considerable e;rtcnt o The0:e e.re several h01.1sehold workers 1.LYJ.ions. Dori:estic Iorkers Hnion Local 1348 (CIO) í!ashin::;ton, D. has the followfog sta.ndar,.:.s for waces:
c.,
The minimUJn wa r�e for experienced workers is ::)25 for a L�8-hour week; time a.11.d a half is paid above th:i.s. The ninir;ium for inexperienced workers is )J.8 to �;120 par week for the same number of hours. After 3 months a �;;2 rcüse is to e :;iven. After 6 months the worker is c1as:::ified as experienced. Su.nday work is paid at double rates. Me::nbers work L�8 hours per week and are entitle::1 to a vacél.tion of one week after six mont.hs e�ployment. Each meT.1ber works under a wrii',ten agreem.ent. There a.re always more calls from housewives than the union can fill. Sblila.r 2�;�1;:,;_�•te:nents are ma:le in other cities, either by u:üons or by Y. W. e·: A.s or other civic and rellgious groups such as the Cincinnati Community Cor;rrnittee on H-·u sehoJ.d FJnployment and the Chicago end St. 101'.is Ho-:.sehold Employers Leagues. SenE.:.tor Gói,,:,-,1 Polanco found 75 percent of the Puerto Ilican household worke1�s wbo went to Chic2.go late in J.946 satisfiecl wi th their jobs and the homes in which thoy ni :-e 11orld.ng. TM.r, f2.ct, pJ.us the need for jo'.Js in Puerto Jico and tho demand for workers on the continent, r:mg:;ests the possibility of a well-organizod pro]:·2111 of trainin.g, recruitment, place ment a.nd follow-up which could c;:Lve op:;,:,ortmütics for work, for travel, and for education to many thousanél.s of Puerto Rica.n · ·01.mg women in the next few years. (3) F'acfo:ry Labor Opportunities in this field may be found by c].rise atterition to tho reports of the Uní ted St2.tes Employment Service to which ref9;· ence ha3 alrearJ.y boen mar,�e. It might 1 )e ac1ded that i-,omen may prove to ha.ve IllE'.ny opportunities in this field, too. 1Jitness the April Lahor Na.rkct report: . ge 11 In Scranton, Pennsylvania. a huce male labor sur·,lus exists, a lar portian of uhich is of veterans, 1kile a shortage of semiskil:ted fe:n.alo 1,JOrke ·s exists in the textile, ap_ arel, and tobacco in, ustries. 11 Fo:rvent as are our hopes for continued prosperity, the possibility of depres8ion must be kept in mind. Thei,e is an extremely close correla tion bet1.1een net out-migra,t,ion from Puerto 11ico ·é.md prosperity on the continent. Three decades of experience are sho1-m in Table XXI. They show the high degree of influcmce wh:i.ch .usiness conclitions on the continent have on the outflow anc'. inflow of Puerto Idean migrants. Pue1·to )1ico 1 s prosperity, of course, is inti..rrD.º:.ely lin��ed with that of the m ntinent. Depressions on the con-tinont EE'-J quickly reflected in depressions. in Fu':3rto Rico. The returning �t;�earn of ml[;r__ nts thus throws an additiow.l burden of relief on the Puerto Ricwi econorny ata time uhen it is lcast a�le to cope uith it. In acldition, the outflow
56
to which the economy hus become a�justed iB darnmed up on the island and increa.ses the numl:-,er of unemployed. The c;_uestion my, therefore, well be raised as to wh2.t Puerto Rico I s experience will be when the post-war depression hits the United States. It seems probable that the returning stream during the next depres sion will not be as large as it has been in the past, because of the e::id::stence of the Social Security Act, µ3.ssed in 1935. There is na. an elaborate system of unemployinent insüre.nce, old age assistance, aid to the blind and aid to dependent children, which will aid Puerto Ricans on the continent although it does not aid them on the island itself. Unemployment insurance benefits, of course, depend on the length of time a worker has been employed in an occupation covered by the law. UnemploY1nent oenefits vary from state to state in size and in number of weeks during which they are paid. Old age and survivors insurance benefits, as well as aid to the blind and childrens' aid, n.lso vary. Residence requirements, which rnight ,.,orle to the disadvantage of Puerto Ricans, have been li'·eralized in the past ten years. State residence requirements are summarized in Ta.hle XXII.
57
TADLE XXI
Relation of 0ut-Migre.tion from Puerto Rico to Economic Conditions in the u. s. (1910-194 0)
·------------·-··---· . Year
Net Migration
---·-··- -------1910 1911 1912 1913
19JJ�
1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921
19;.:2
1923
1924 1925
1926 1927
1928 1929
- 3,500
- 1,475 195 22
588 339 33
2,354
4,212 3,312 L�, 139 612 633
1,756
3, 720 2,137
5,621 8,729 6,JM. 4,637
1930 1931 1932
5,576 - 1,938
1935
1,017 3,448 4-,5J.8
1933 1934
1936
1937
1938 1939
1940
- 2,708 - 1,082 - 2,966
2,362 4,488 1,904
---- ·· .
·-··
- . ---- .
U. S. �Tational Income current m·icesJ
.e
30.4
30 . 5 32.9 34.8 33.9
37.0 44.8 53.7
58.3
68.2 69.5 51.7
59.5 69.5 69.1
73.7
76.6 75.9 78.7
83.3 68.9 54.5
40.0 42.3 49.4
55.7 64.9 71.5 61+.2 70.8 77.6
Source: U. s. Dept. of Justice, Imrni.1r-:'tion and lfaturalization Servico, San Juan, P. R.; U. S. Dept. of Commerce (neproduced from 11Basic Facts on Em.ployment and Production 11, Report to the Cor.uní ttee on Banking and Cw.0 rency Relating to Bill 3380, Sept. 1, 1945'.
58 TABLE XXII state Residence Requirem.ents for Public Assistance, 1945 :Number of States wi�h specified requirements State residence: - -------�--:---------:--------requirernGnts • dependent :Old-age assisto.nce:iid to the ?lind¡ Aid cto hildren
---------------5 years 3 years 2 years 1 year None
No �pp:tG>!9'ed
35
2
1 12 1
o
27 2 2
14 l· 5
o o o
46 4 1
·plan Source: Altmeyer, A.J., 11 people on -che Hove: Effect of Residence Re quirements. for Public Assistance", social Securi ty Bulletin, Janu�ry, 1946, p.4. 4
The Socio.l Security Board has asked Congress for federal assist ance in persuading the states to reduce furt�er the residence require ments which discrim.inate ar;ainst perso:1.s who moved from one state to another in response to --:rar labor demands. State and loco.1 governmcnts also maintain rosidence reguirements for direct relief and welfare services not covered by the Social Security Act, The Puerto Rican on the continerrt may be ho.ndicapped because of his mobility. It is probable, hoTJever, tho.t since the end of the riar most of the war workers have settled in s01;'..e commu..n.ity and by the time of the outbreak of the depression will be a.ble to fulfill res idence requirem-ents \·here they are.. not unreasonable. Every effort should be made by the govermncnt of Puerto Rico to malee availn.ble to the ligrnnts information on their rights and duties under the Social Security Act. private Ytelfare agencies in the centers where Puerto Rica11s have ga.thered might well be asked du.ring the de pression to ma.ke special efforts in behalf of Puerto Ricans in need of relief or welfare services, The continent is far more able tha.n is Puerto Rico to bear the burden of relief. Every effort should be mude t a.id the Puerto Rican migrant to sta.y in the Uni ted Sta tes during the depression rather th an return home.
59
The
11 Pull 11
of Latin Aracrica
Latin Aroorica, in at least one respect, seems today to be playing the role the pioneer areas of the United States played during the last century. In the imaginations of many persons it is 11 the land of op portunity 11• Migrants to both the continent and st. Croix raveal a strong feeling that Latin Ame rica offers a chance f or a ncw start. They were asked 11 \lould you go to a Latin .hmerican countr:7 if offered permanent employment - if offered land to f arm?" The vast majority o.f those who remained in the states showed a desire to take a job in Latin America: 269 out of 357 who answered, or 76 percent. Only 76 were not interested and 7 answered tha t their decision would depend on the circumstances. Of those who returnod to Puerto iiico, 375 out of 418 answering, ar 89 percent, would take a job in Latin America. Crucian migran to were inter• ested to the extent of 41 out of 77 responding, or 53 percent. The smaller proportion indicating a desire to move probably ÍG an indic�tion of greater success in their second homes. Farming opportunities seem decidedly less attractive t o all three groups. Of those who remained on the continent, 201 out of 357 thought that they would l.i.ke to go to a farm, or 59 percent. Those who re t11rned showed 276 out of 418, or 66 percent, attracted by the suggestion. The Crucian group held only 26 out of 74, or 35 percent, to whom the idea appealed. The choice of country showed a fairly wide range. Those workers who stayed in the states named 12 countries as first cho1-ces, omitting the smaller and less accessible cow1tries such as 3olivia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honc.uras, Nicaragua, Paraguay and Perú. Those who returned to the island namod only 9 of the 20 republics, Argentina, BrazLl, Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Repu�lic, Ecuador, MGY.ico, Pana 1á and Venezuela. The first choice of t he formcr group .fell most often on Argentina (61), second, Venezuela (38), third, Brazi.l (33), fourth, 1viexico (22). Eighty-two ansvvered, 11 any Latin American country. 11 Sixty four of those who returned to Puerto Rico answered 1tany 11• First choice was Brazil (49); second., híexico, (48); thj_rd, Cuba (44); fourth, Venezuela, (38). The overwhelming choice of the few Crucian inigrants who stated a preference was for Cuba (18). 1rhe Dominica,n Republic, Venezuela, and Mexico followed wi th only 5., 3 and 2 respectively. These data indice.te ( 1) that there rnust be a Puerto Ricans who would emierate to Ls.tin li.merica were suitabk,; (2) that many pref,3r Latin Arnerica (3) that more are looking for jobs than for farms no overwhe1Jnin6 preference i'or any ona country.
sizeable group of provided conditions to the United States; a:1d (4) that there is
I
60 _The Promisfl. ot..b_d_in Americn VJh2t hope does Latín Americe. hold out? And for whom? The situa tion will be o.nalyzed in tho follo\"ling section of Ch(1pter III. V'le will denl nit1 employment under the existing immigro.tfon lcws, with current immi.grution promotion, industrial devcloprnent, omigrntion for colonizc.tion, sources of informo.tion on farming possibilities nnd the general populv.tion p:tcture. Thero are 21s0 skotche� of the pos sibilitios in thrcc spccific ar0r:s v1idcly being discussed •
..
......
61 Immigration Lo.ws in ,Latin Americo. Restriction is the basic characteristic of most Latin Arnerica im migro.tion laws. 0ccú.pational selection favors two groups, potential investors und possible settlers. Industrial o.nd other skilled and semi skilled workers (with the exceptio-n of sorne technical sxperts) are al most universally discriminated against. A few countries temporarily are recruiting persons with specific skills. Almost all countries main tain quota systems under which foreigners are limited in four ways: (1) to a proportion, uauo.lly araund 15 or 20 percent, of nll employees in a given plant,; (2) aliens are forbidden entirely in certuin jobs, e.g., public service, liberal professions, and trnnsportation and communica tions; (3) nliens must be discharged first when reductions in force take place; c.nd (4) foréigners with specially-needed skills are e.llowed to take jobs o.s a temporm,y matter, usunlly with the provision that no.tion als must be trained to replece them as quickly as feasible. The percentngo of nationo.ls who m1..:st be employed according to law in the vnrious countries is as follows: �/ Bolivia
85 percent of the perso.nnel o.nd of the payroll of ea.ch employer; Brazil - 67 percent nationals or alienp who have lived over 10 years in Brazil nnd who have Brazilian wives or children; Chile - same as Bolivia; Colombia- 80 percent of tho salnried personnel and 90 pernent of the wo.ge oa.rners; Costa Rica - 90 percent of the workers and 85 percent of the pay roll; Dominican Republic - 70 percent of both workers and payroll in ali establishments of 10 or more; Ecuador - 80 percent; El Salvador - 80 percent; Guatemala - 75 percent; Haiti - 75 percent; Mexico - 80 percent in esteblishments of 5 or less; 90 p0rcent in those with 6 or over; Nicaragua - 75 percent; Panama - 75 percent of both workers and pnyroll; Paraguay - 95 percent of salaried ruid 90 percent of wage-earning jobs; Peru - 80 percent of both jobs nnd pnyro11; Uruguay - 80 percont of wage enrners; no restrictions on salaried em ployees; Venezuela - 75 percent of o.U workers, 90 percent of the duy laborers in extrrctive enterprise.
62 11 The Cuban Nntional labor laws prevent foreigners from being gain fully employod", according to a diplomatic source (in a letter to the writer).
Persons who are considering emigration to a Lntin American country with a job in a particular industry in mind should be aware of these quotas. There is no way of ascertnining the situution in any plant other than inquiring about it specifically. Immigration authorities usunlly demand proof of a job awaiting a worker before a visa is issued. This means that only skilled workers worth the expense of importation rnay expect to secure a job in industry. North American companies, in response to nationalistic feelings and laws, have greatly increased the number of local people on their pay rolls. George Wythe, an authority on Latin '.American industry, reported in 1940 tho.t 11 on the average not more than 1 percent of the porsonnel of large .American concerns in Latin America a.ro American citizens 11 .Jg_/ Prospective immigrants also havo other hurdles to surmount. In vestors are forbidden to engo.ge in specified types of business and are requircd to invest stated runounts. The Mexicnn law is a �ood e:xnmple of the general tendenéy. An investment of 100,000 pesos (about $20,000) is required if the investor wishes to reside in the Federal District. Residence in a state cnpital requires 50,000 pesos and in a provincial town 20,000. Investors from other American countries, however, may settle in any locality with an investment of only 20,000 pesos. The non-white emigrant will find another restriction. Almost uni versally either discriminetory troces or o.bsolute prohibitions face the Negro. In sorne cases the Jewish immigrnnt is also discrimino.tea against. The Doninican Republic charges an immigrant only 6 pesos if he is "pre dominantemente de origen caucásico o de las ruzas nutóctonus de América 11 , but 500 pesos far others, including Jews. Venezuela, Cuba and Mexico, cmong others, bar Negrees. The health certificáte is a lee,itimate device which often results in denial of a visa to a prospective immigrant. They are required by all Latin American countries except Cuba, Haiti, Hondurns, o.nd Uruguay. Puerto Rico.ns, especially from rural ureas, wou.ld be cc.rcfully examined for parasitic infections such ns schistosomiasis. Police certificates of good character are requirod by fourteen of the twenty Latin American republics. This sketch of the situation appHes primurily to those seeking uroan employment, or investment possibilities. Racial rcstrictions and health and police certificates apply to these and to settlers.
63 Latin AEleácan Industrial _ Develo_pp1ent A short sketch of rncent events in the inrlust1·ial field sup1Jlies the l-:-ack1round for 2.ny discussion of 11rban eniploy.1ent op�1ortlmities. Depen-::l.ence on either extraction of minero.ls a11d motals for e�cport agricultv:-e has chwacterized most Latín Amsrice.n economi'3s u.i1til recently. A few fort'.l!late conntries coul<:l. rely on both. Three major even t.s of the past thirty years have helpod ,ush diversification of agriculture and ai ed in the eJtablishmGnt of industries. The first World i-rar was followed by worlcl.-1.-1id0 depression, recover'Y from which was aided by World War IJ and preparé'.tion for it, Disruption of international trade speeded diversif:i.cr:�ion to lossen depondcnce on a single export crop and encourn.[�cd local uanufacturing to replé.1.ce iLports no lon,-,er avo.ilable or out· of ''.'ea.son in view of the· balance of payments. The InternE1.tionaJ. La.bou.r Office reports thZJ.t nup to 1939 the net industrial pror1uctfon of the Latin A11erican count:::-ies am•Junted to 2,000 million dollars. This total • • • represents only one--t1;1entieth of thu.t of the Unitod Sta·�es, Sinco that date the v�lue of production has probably doublerH;.§1/ The I�L-0. ro;iort po:m"Gs out th.1.t 11 ·i:,he tasic notfon of the social functio�1 of 0conomic plannii1g 11 han been acceptAcl. ½y the Latin Americun govornnents, Governmontal a.ctivities in cor.necti.on 1/�th economic ,.,. Ievelopment ar9 guic1 ed by tl10 :following objact:1 .ve�,:� 11Creation of bc1.sic inC.us .. rios; i:101.'A co'rr,.1J sto processing of home-produced raw m.-c.teda1s 7 economic ar.-::l. indl�s:brial di versifi cation; raising of technice.l sta.ndarGSj 1Jettar kr10wledGe of national resources, co-ordlnation of economi8 anrl industrial ::levelop.ne:!'lt; co-O:i.>din.::i.tion of leiislatfon in tho econ01nic and in ·1ustr-ial sphere; :;;eneral development m.aasui�es; p!'ice relation ships botween pr:L.í18.ry products anc1 industrial goods ( cost of living); social pal.ley; financing of ccono de activity; direction and supürvision of privc"' te investm0nt, especia.l1y fore:1.gn invest ment; porman0nt Goverrunont a1;oncies for the co-ordinatio:-1 of econon:k development; iwlustd.al. ta:dff policyo 11
It is instructive to comp.J.:ce the distribution of thc le.::ior force in
seven Latin Americ.:i.n conntries with that for Puerto Hico (T2.blo XXIII). It r.i.ay be a.ssumed on t,he basis of the data on the ta1·üe 'Lho.t there o.r-e few -1orkors in 1·uerto Rico 1-d.th oxperience 5.n sining wüch ;,d�ht equip them for a jol: in Hexico, Chile or Colo2bia, or oth")r co:.'.11tries wheTe extractiv<3 in:lustr:tes are ii!J?Ol"t2-.n.t. On th0 othe1" han'.i, there mir-:·ht be a. numbcr of oki:1.ltd 1-10rk:::!rs in th'::l transr10:ctt.tio:1 fieJ.d 5 which here is fairly welJ. ·.J.evoloped as. conpared with sorne L."..tin k,101'lcan countrieso
TABLL XXIII
Distr:;_bu-tion of Labor F01�ce by Principal Grour s in 7 Latín Amcri::!o.n Cov,:.triss and Puerto Rico, for Uecent Years
: ---Cl�ile� - ·1940 · - -· ··:· · - --c-;io;�bí"a:· - ·19ji--: · · · · 1-1e:d.�-;-· ·1940- -· ··: Ar�;:;�-i·t-ina;-�fL�2 L ...J.c.stlmateJ ______ : (cer,s1.lS). ________: ___ _ ..__ ..•. _(census) _. ___ : _____ (census) : Pcrcont : : Percont ; : Pe!'cm:.t : : ?ercent : of : : of � of : of : ___ T_ o tal __ : __ l'1umber _____ : Total _: _ :Pumber ___ :_Total _ _. t!urnber _ Pu.mbor ;_Tota.l _i_ --· Inclustry_ .r;_rou'1 _______: 100.0: 4-,4f,7, 5G5 100.0 6,131,903 100.0 100.0 1,76�\ 7;:-1 Total .�e.in11 l popuJ.,7.tíon.: 5,061,000 ._ 71�.o 35.0; 3,3?0,480 /�,396, 703 619,563 71.7 39.5 : l!.�l Ícl:l tt1:�o, etc º º º : 2,000,000 96,090 106,706 72,069 1.8 1.;S ( 2) : 5.4 Ext:cQcti vo in>11.1stJ.�i0s. : ( 2) 16.9 930,000 11. '/ 639, 6P.7 10�4 18./� : '297,9?9 527, 2/4.6 li:.111.1_f¡_1,,ct1 rintz º º º º º º º ª º : 16�,3os 153,725 14.r. 55;',!,57 71:.7,000 J.L�: ').2 .... co º º º º º : <).O C O!JI[ .): /¡. .2 58,570 1.3 2�-3, 000 2.4 li�9,469 '14,51( 5.6 T1·tu1sport.-,tion ••••••••: 1,101,000 8.0 357,595 29.J 51f.,263 ?.1.7: 286,836 4.7: OtJ,. : r •. '° ., º º �, º º º º º º º º º º : . . � ,. --.... _ .. . � .. .. -� --- - ----- -·-- . ---·--- - ---- -- -··-- - . -- � -·- . ------ . . - ·- -- -- ------· - - · · · · - · · -¿ · · · f) ,"o · · -� - · · ...i;;:r,.·{�- Ri_ _o,; · ·1940 ; P rJ: 1 L, c : Vcnoz1.�t:::la: 194-1 Uruzi-w.�: l?�l : e s c . : _____ . _ .. _j_��.1.!f.u.s)_.. ____:_ _ ___ _ _ ( _c_n_ _u,s}�·. .. _ . _ (e_stimt J�-- __ __ . _______ ·--�- .. -- . :Pcrcent : ;Pcrcent: ;Perc8nt ;Porccnt? : : : of � of of of e l-: '.t'otal ---· Ip�tLLSt_r:i.. g_r9¿-ill_ _ --· _ , : Total __ : .. l'umher Total : líu!_l! _ b9.. r _ ; Total __ ..:.. , _ : .. h1m r .. _ 1'\1!!1:l2P_:r:. � 100.0 100.0 100.0: ,475,339 Total '.:;a.i1iflll populo.tion.: 66J,36G 685,950: 10000: 5:i..;::,;:14 62.L¡. : 22'),901 A.<3rí.cl.1lt re, etc •••••• : J., 5L:.6 'J 1rí9 350,000, "30!¡., 177 51.0 · /il�� 9 : /¡.5.9 1.c P.:,:trJ.ct:' ve inclt¡stl·ics.: 1,1['1 2, 5CO : 1.4: º 2: 9,360 : M+,694 .4 : JL0,2Cl Hanuíactv�ingººººººººº: 15.4 1;,0,390 lB.2 : ;?J.5: 03,350: 120, r-;70 12.2 : Com1ncrcc: º., º • º e . º º ...... : I+• 2 : 10\,70/:. 0.1: 10 ./4. � 95,0005: 60,202 : 13.3 : 5�,570 /.. Tr�n3port tion•.•.••••: 51,079 ,( o .L ,�. o : �o, ¿JE;{) 27, 700'J: 4.0 : 35,4877 5.3: Ot11Jr º • º º • º � e " ,. º º º º ,;, e º : lL:.• 1 348,392 C6,s,26 127,!/)0 : 17.0: 20.1 133,272 18.6: ·· . . -- .. -- . - - --- - - -· -. ....... -------·1 EstiJilil.tcs ·óy Banco Central de la Renúblíca Arr:en"i:,ina 4 Bas3d on liruf;l,i..aya'n Inr�u::.trial Ccnsus of 1936 (in Rcvíst.a de Bconor.Ú;i A:rg.,J"1tina: .Twe 19L..5, p. 311) 5 Includes bank:i.ng 2 fot c..vo.iln.blo 6 Inclu ·:es co:::r,.¡,.u.i1:�cc.t t.ions 7 Includes sorvices 3 16th Consu:;; of t.he u.s. - Sourcc: �ionthly Labor l1oview, Feo. 46 1
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65 There is no indic2.ti.on of an urban labor short, .· 0 o��cept in the ranks of skilled lc.bor and professional men and uomen. Evory country showed the same phenomona during the va.r. Labor short2.1es d11.ring thc war boom c2.used wages to rise. This attr2.cted mir;rants fror,1 the ctgriculturn.1 and grazing e.reas, whore levels Df l:i.ving are low. These r1.1ral-urb�m mig1·ants now have been added to thc r0servoir o.f unskilled arrc1 semi-skilled unemployed workers. Thc rosemblémce to recent oxperfonc0. ·in Puerto Rico is 2.t once ap}-iarent. 0
The industrialization movemcmt offers opportunitieo only to properly equipped Puerto Hicans. There is a desperate need for persons with tech nological training and experíence and particularly for tcacr..ers of t0ch- nolo;1ies. The Director of the Intor-.Americ2.n Devclopmcnt Comnission gives t.1ese clues to tho extent of the domand for United Statos technical assistance. He says, 11A rcpresontative cross-soction of the types of recuests being received is had from a study of the reports :r.m. .:le by the nationo..l com:r.J.is sions to the Fi:::-st Conferencc of CoIJ1.aissions of Inter-A.merican iJevc:üopmcnt. In addition to assista.ncc sought in pJ.an�ine; general econo;-,,ic irnprovomont prograrns throu,:;h development of inc:ustrics, conmunico.tions, tranGporte.tion, agriculture, livestócl:, hydroelectric rosources, forastry resources, and other raw r.1aterials, requests also a::-c J718.c.e for tochnice.l assistance in dovclopin6 ii�rigati.on projects, rubbcr pla.::rts, sui:;ar r.iills, rope e.nd fiber pla.nts, edible animal anJ vo�;etable oils, s2.winills, rice mills, mGat packing, textiles, pnpor 2.nd co..rdboard, co,nont, glass e.U el Glassware, ch0micals, pharmaceutical products, shoes and lee.the1�, fur:üture f'actories, flour m.ilJ.s, cigar and ci¡;arotto f¡:;_ctorios, fou...rYl:cy � nct maehine shops, canned foods, corar.tlcs, and many o·�hor 0nt 3r;,rises. lig;5.J Latin American industries, with fow· excoptio::1S, a:;.�e :marlrnd by small, poorly-et�uippod plants with antiqunted machinery v.sing obsoleta mcthods. People a:-e unpreparod by their educa t�-on anc. cult:.1..ral horitarje to rnake 2-:ny worth-while contribution to rn8.chine prodt,ction. The I.L.O. states th2.t 11The philosoplücnl basis of the various branches of tee.chin,1 in Latín America often conflicts w:tth the real cconomic needs of the tb1os. 11 J:fforts are beinc; ma·:.e to 1:1eet the oitl'.ation by révamp:i.ng school programs, traininrs-within-inc1.u stry, apprcnticeship plans, t8chnicnl :i.nstitutes for :r.esoarch in ef'fective use of' doiaos-dc resources, and importc:tion of' sldll, machinery a.nd c2,pital. In short, Lctin American countries a:.-e tz:,in1 to do abc-ut whv.t Puerto Rico is trring to r1o in economic developLJ.ent. Tho:�e e.ra, of course, sorne :i.ndustries which are ba:trcd from the islancl by geor,r.J.phy, o.g., a steol rolling mill. Puerto Ilico.n.s who havo acquired trainirirs on the continent in such industries may havo a chanc·e in ono of the expanc1.inr; or newly establishc:d plants in Latin Americe,. An ictoa of the slcills to bo found araonc; the displaced p8rsons avail able for 11 oxport n to L2.tin America was c;-:;..ven by Florollo La Guardia in r.rovomber, 1946. He roported thut among t,he d:í-splaced porsons in the American zone of GcrIDny alone there ue::-e 1,026 physicians and surgeons, 677 dentists, 579 phari:1acists, 692 civil onginoers, 371 architocts, and 3,985 cmditors and bookkeopers.f..Y
66 Current Immigration Promotion Argenti,nn¿_.§. pro¡;ram of immigration promotion is the most ambitious in Latin Amm.'icu. Undoubtedly it is closoly linked with tho desirc of the Perón dicto.torship to plny n ho,wier I·ole in inter-Arnerican affairs o.nd to offset the growing industrial po\·10r of Brazil. A quota of 250,000 irnmigr.3.nts in five yonrs hns been sot ande. fund of $40,000,000 hns been npproved far o.iding newcomers. An irn..rrigrvtion commission has opened an office in Rome and the first group of' 4000 Itc.lio.ns was to snil in March, 1947. Forty thou sc.nd were on the waiting list on f,;o.rch 1 and ·5 ,00O a month were sche duled to sail. A pact ho.s been signed between Ito.ly nnd Argentina which assures the immigrunts the snme treatment as nationals. Argentino. pro mises to prevent their exploitntion, but they will not be pormitted to chrmge jobs for two yenrs nfter arrival. Tho agreement provides for supervision by an Ito.lio.n government delegate with diplomatic status._3' Another office of the commission wr,s to be opened in Spain. The Argen tine consul in London rumc,um:ed in February that 3,000 Polish exile soldiers had been grunted visas. Immierants mny nrrange e lonn of $300 for their boat fare froro a semi-governmental ngoncy in Buenos Aires and repay it in 40 monthly installments. 'l'h0y are being roceived by n Central Immigr2.tion Committee which underto.kes to place them in suitable jobs nnd find fo.rms they can purchase on long-term planG. The Dodero Navigation Co., Buenos Aires, is to be pa�fil $175 per immigrnnt, to be repnid on c. long-te:rm inste.11ment plan.� The Argentine Central Bank wil1 extend credit to 100,000 immigro.nt fnrmers each year • ...§2_/ The biggest settlement project is in Po.tagonia where extensive sheep ra.nches are available. Some thousands of Polish refugees o.re being ro cruited for that blee.k territory. ,l;lr.gzil hes croo.ted a National Immigro.tion Council, hended by dyna mic Joo.o Alberto Lins de Barros, which propases to recruit from Euro peen refugee camps. It has r.sked the United Nations to pay transportn tion costs of obout $400 per person. Brazil expects to settle the immi grnnts on coffee and cuttle lCTnds and to use some of them in the cotton textile industry which has been expanding rapidly in tho past fev1 years. Six hundred thousand Centrnl European 11 co.refully selected" farmers aro wanted. The govornment is offering fertile Iguaasu Vclley lands suitable for wheat and cereuls to farm colonists from the United States at che2.p prices.� The prosperous state of Sao Paulo last year announced tho.t it would offer "substnntie.l aid 11 to farro settlers •
.12:.../
The Chile.ru:1 Immigr::ttion Commission signed o.n o.greement vrith the Inter-Government Refugee Com.mittee in London whereby 2,000 European . refugee technicio.ns and their fo.rniJ.ies will move to Chile a.uring 1947.
67 They are being carefully Deloctcd on the bnsis of the skills needed in that country 1 s industr:i.alizo:tion plan. A cnbinet program for recruit ing settlers for southern regions is now before the national congress. A bond issue is to be nuthorized to raise $20 million to be repaid from tax:es pnid by the imnigrant settlers. Colombi� reportod to the refugee committee of the United Nations Economic ond Socinl Council that it wnnted 11 a steady flow of immigrants to cmgage in e.ctivities connected with the production of wealth, such ns industrial technicinns, mechnnics, fishermen, mariners, industrialists (inventors) nnd domostic workers. 11....23_/ The Itnlo-Americun Colonial Expa.nsion Co. is stgdying possibilitics of settling 50,000 ltalian fami lies in Colombia •
.::!2../
Costa Rica a.nd El Salva_cjQ¡: reported thnt they were unnble to take any inur:igrnnts. Cuba has exp:tessed its willingness to take Germnn, Je.pa.nese, Ita lio.n, Austrian, Bungarian, Roumaninn, Bulgarfan and Sinmese settlers, provided �bey profess democratic ideas and oppose nazi-fascist doc-. trines • __4_/ Cuba bnrs f-Tegroes, however, The Dominican R_gpubli� has indicnted its willingness to take up to 100,000 refugees. It has v.lreudy r.ided the foundntion of the S0sua colony fer 500 refugeo fo.miJ.ios. 'fhe necrnoss of the country, the com plementary natur0 of sorne aspect,s of th0 Dor::inicc.n and Puert.o Ric2n eco nomies and the availability of somo farming land point to the need fer further exploro.tion, of emigrn.tion possibilitios. Ecuador recently announced the oponing of 124,000 o.eres of 11 rich land 11 to Brit:i.sh c..nd American citizenso-22.../ M,qxic� iv1ill give o.11 possible fncilitics to imrnj gration of 15,000 farm family settlers. A large-scnla irrigation program is designed to bring new lnnd under cultivo.tion._96 / f�r_qguay wcs arranging to imuort 5,000 Ukro.niDn rafugees nnd settle them on fo.rms when the recent rebellion occurred.
W.1! also is considaring e. selective immigration �üc.n. It has al roady repoalod laws requ�.ring foroigp inveGtors to po.y $500 to tho nn tional trer.sury o.nd inunigrcnts to paya stif'f hec.d tax.__E/
Venezuela' s Instituto Técn:tco de Im.iiiigre.ción y Colonización has agcmts in Europó w:í.th plcns :for bringing 15 ,000 displaced persons this year D.nd 30,000 next. Temporary housos are büing erected at the four chief port citics. They must be npriculturnl workers, settlers or tech nical specialists. The Institute is studying zones suito.ble for coloni zntion and is nsking t�2.t new territories bo sottlcd jointly by ndio nnls a.nd immigrants .... The govornment sent n mission to the Unitcd States in the spring of 191�7 to purchase $10 million worth of 2.grici.;.ltu-
2.�../
68 ro.1 tools o.nd machinery nnd $2 rnillion of tropic-tight storage silos as pnrt of o. progrnm of putting 150,000 ncr0s into production • A Cnlifornia group with "considerable capital" has organj_zed the Pan Americnn Pionecr Corporation and pl�ns to colonize in Southern Vene zuela.. 100 /
.12.../
It should be notod thnt thesc projects follow the po.ttcrn indicnted above. Porsor,s· sought must oither (1) possess certain industrial skills, or (2) must be fa.rrners who nre going to colonize unsettlod nreas.
69 Dominican Possibilities Sixty three miles west fif P\lerto Rico líes the Dominican Republic, another object of mur,h discussion of emigra.tion possibilities. The country has a.na.reo. of 49,543 km2 (19,332 squLtre miles) or a.bout 5 ]/ 2 times that of this island. rts population on January 1, 1946 was estimated at 2,059,113 or approxima.tely the same as pUerto Rico. The population almost quadrupled between 1824, when it stood at only 54,000, and 1946. Population density was 41.5 per km 2 (106 per square mile) in 1946, having increased from 29.9 (76 per sguare mile) in 1935. Puerto Rico• s density in 1946 was 62 8 pe,... square mile. The Dominican density varied greatly from one province to another, The 1940 rate of natural increase vm.s high, 2 2.l per 1000 since a high birth rate (31.4) was countered by an incredibly low death rate of only 9.3. These figures, while officia.+� are undoubtedly unreliable since they are based on incomplete date.. There has been no census since 1935. pUerto Rico•s birth and death rates in 1940 were 38.7 and 18.4 respectively, with a conseguent rate of natural increase of 20.3 or 1,8 below thn.t of the Dom:Lnicans. This rate, plus the increase in population density noted a�ov�, indica.tes that the situation regard ing available resources sho uld be examined carefully, before any large scale :inunigra tion program is considered. Nevertheles s, the goverrunent has repeatedly expressed its interest in receiving up to 100,000 European refugees �nd now has recruiting agents in rtaly. rt aided in the creation in 1940 of the Sosua colony, on the north coast near Puerto Plata, which gave shelter to ulmost 500 ,Jewish refugees. several thousand Spanish refugees were also allowed to enter the country. A nU111ber of Puerto Ricans have already migrated to the republic. The 1935 census showed 3,22 1 of which 1,905 were males o.nd 1,316 females. Ethnically they were classified as follows: white, 2,2 22 ; mixed, 799; Negro, 200 lOl¡. Data on their entrance into the Republic since that time are unavailable. The writer has received various esti:m.ates of the number in 1946 which range from 9,00,0t to 12,000. The official estímate of the United States Consulate/Ciudad Trujillo is 4500• The 1939 industri0,l census showed theim v1ith investments representing about lo percent of all industrial capital. Industries, and investments, were: food products, 4Li,567 pesos; chemicals, 12,3QO; v1ood and wood products, 11 1 024; bui}ding materials, 1,435; hides and s)dns, 2 74; and textiles, 111. lO � Chocolate from cacao, distilling, ice plants, bakeries a.nd corn mills were, in d,esconding order, the principal foód stuff industr ies, prospects for further emigration .s hould be anal_yzed with the facts, about agriculture, land tenure, crudit, laws and customs, income and the political situation in mind. Fortunately, the Brookings Institution made an extensive report on the capacity of the Republic to absorb im migrants. 103/ Unless othervJise noted the. following material on agri culture and income is taken from the Brookings report at the pages noted in parentheses.
70
Agriculture accounts for about 60 per cent of the :1ational in come and the farm population is around 80 per cent of the total. (pp. 125,229) Uost industry, the largest of vllich is sugar millint; ., is dependent upon agricul ture. 0nl�r sli6htly over 20 percent oí' the total land urea is cult ivated. The percentage varies greutly from one province to another. 'I'here are vast areas of arid land, inacces sibÚ territory and mountain slopes (some of the peaks reach 10,000 feet). The 1940 agricultural census cov""red 4.8 million acres, of which a.bout 2.5 were pla.nted to crops s.nd culti':ated pustures, ap proximately 1.7 were in forest and around o.6 wsre listed as abandoned lands. (PP.• 125-6) Plantains and bananas represent the largest crop in tln-:1s of value, followed by su¡;ar ce.ne. Avocad-os, rice, cacao, a.nd coffee are next. Root crops - yuca, sweet potatoes, fiame, yautías - and corn ar1 next. These 12 crops 1,10.ke up more tha.n half the Y:J.lue of the coi:mtry s agricultural production. (pp. 127). Export trade is heavily depe�1dent en sug;ar and its products. Sixty-five percent of the va.lue of all exports i:o p1·e-·;:ar years was in these items: cacao, 13 p;:ircent and coffee from 7 to 10 percent. Tapioca (from yuca), tobacco, corn, bananas, tropical noods, and cattle also a.re exported. (Ch. XIII) Irrigation has recently been pushed in ordur to bring more land into the arable classification. Some 120,ú00 acres were under irriga t�on in 1945 and projects under construction ":;ere to bring; about 30, 000 more acres intc production. r,'ut lre plans cu.lJ.1:::c1. f0r :?rcvü!ing 1,✓ater for another 50,000 acres. production of ricJ, the chiC';lf ir:·igated crop, inFeo.sed from 7,500,000 p 0u.nds in 1927 to r.,bout 100,000,000 in 1945.104¡ Technics of farmi.ng are generally prilr.ithre, being cllar�,cterized by machete, hoe and oxen outside th sug:u pJ.o.11h,tions, yr��ich are relatively modern. Crop rotatiOl?- is Lt. le usad n.ncl fertilizer is almost unlmoW-fü Livestock depe;_1ds almost v,holli on p�,sturo.ge. (pp. 0
138-9).
Wages in agriculture .are low, c,s might be e::pect0d undcr the cir1 t1.urlstances. Unskilled fann :-1a.;.·_ds in 1940 rec0ivcd bc:stneen 2S and 35 cents pe.r d.ay. cane cutters, vior1:in,6 c..t piece-:c,,-��s, mo.de as much as 60 cents per d·· y. 'I' 1e 1340 cens�s do.ta are tiven by provinces in Table XXIV•
71 TABLE XXIV Aver::1.ge r;e..ges Fa.id to Farm Workers, by provinces, 1940a. (In cents per day) Province
---·----------------·----'tfithout Board
'lith Board
Santo Domingo
40
25
Azua Barahona Benefa ctor Duarte Espaillat La Vega Liberta.dor Monseigneur de Nouel Monte Cristi puerto Plata Samaná San Pedro de :MD.corís Santiago Seibo T!.'ujillo
37
27 24 20 22 23 21 20 27 24 23 26
All ProvL:1ces
37 27 27 28 27
30
32 31 28 30
37
27
31 38
22 31 23
32
23
33
a Comp$Jed :f'rom preliminary data, farm cer..eus ·or 1940. Source: Refugee Settlement - the Dominican Republi c, p. 224 Board, in 10 out of 15 per day, (PP• 145-6, 224).
provinces, was valued at from 5 to 9 cents
Farm family i::-icor e in 1940 was computed as around ��190 annually. Only tao wus in aash and the remainder was the i:mputed value of com modities produced ancl consumed on the farm. The non-farm family seems to have had an income range of from $300 to f500 per year. (PP• 229-30 ), The natio;:-,al in.come in 1940 was est:imated at ubout 70 million do llars. Puerto Ri90 1 s inoome in the sa.l'!le year was approximo.tely 255 million dollo.rs. 105¡ The average Dominioan fa.mily ( 5. 5 persons) had a.n inoome of abúut �230 per ann:um in 1940 compared with the ?uertoJ Rican family (5'.2 persons) average of $634.
72
Two aspects of land tenure must be fiirther inves·':igc.:ced: large absentee holdings and difficulty oí' obtaü:inc clear htles. The Brookings report says, in respect to the farmer: 11 1arge tracts of the most fertile 10.::.1.d are held by absentee ownership, resulting in relatively un productive forms of explota tion, such as leasing land for charcoal production or for pastures, because these uses require little owner supervision. The exis tence of large, ineffioiently utilized trn.cts has boen one of t:1e factors thut hn.ve forced the growing :D'arm po9ulatio·.1 to e:;cpand into the hills, where the cutting of forests to mfüs:e conucos or small gardens is causing a disastrous· loss of topsoil b;)" erosion. 11
The Vmd Registro.tion Act of 1920 stc.ted the situn.tion to titles thus:
ith regard
"It is a matter of public knowledge that land titles iú Santo Domingo are in g:e:J.eral so conf-qsed and uncert...ün RS to handicrtp the development of t}-ie co¡_,mtry, foste1� fro.ud and blac.'1nail on a wholesale sen.le, and result in un.�u·st deprivation of rightful owners of their land_. thus provolcing disorder and breaches of the peace, and tendin6 to loss of coi-:fiden.ce in ·fhe sta.te . 11 Advances tov.¡ard clearin¡; U:? titles llave been p ade ::,ince that time, but Dr. Raymond �. Cri::;t reportGd in 19�6 uThere still remain extensive arec:..s, hoHev_,r, where le¡;;al title is ,,ard to est::i.blish, especially in producti ve regions � 11 ]-061' 1
0pportunHies for economic expansion seem to exist in (1) indus tries which mig!1t be modernized and impi·ovcd, (2) n0v1 industries to replace imports ,"'i th local goods, ( 3) raisü1g nutritional levels of the peo ple so th•..1.t new crops would fi:1d a domestic nurket and ( 4) export of agricul tural products, L1.cludL1.g mea:: and hides and skins. The Brookings report suggests the following possible export crops: arrowroot, bananas, plantains, citrons, cacao, cof/ee, fiber e ops, rub�er, coco�uts nnd copra, essential oils, papain, s;icos, castor ·oea:ns, pineapples, limes and :::mimal products. (pp. lG0-J0), Industrial possibilities are examined in sorne clett.il L1 paces 370-404 of the Brookings :i:-eport and i�1 The :sco:.J.ornic Development of' the Dominican Republic. Ceme:1.t, glass, cara.m1cs,.�Y-fiTes-,-cF..2m1cals, paper, alr:ohol, glycerine, plywood, ai1d various food indnstries are suggested. There 8.lso seems to lle a need for foundries , mac!-�inery shops and forges. Coloniza-'.:;ion E;-JCperience Intorne,l colonizn.tion has b0e;1. und.er v:ay since �9 .3 3. Thirty four 0olonias with 26_,52�:í members cultivtltecl 401,091 ta1·oas (61,900 acres) in 1943. By t he en� of 19,�5 there werc 38 -::olo_ües ,vith 8511 families a;_1d 516,935 tc.reo..s. o�, '.!:'he o.im has bee�1 to st_ enghter the v:estern frontier U[;ainst the.population pressure of the Ho.itians. The
73 boundo.ry has be(;,n a source of friction fer years and was the s . ce:n:e of the infamous massucre of several thousand Haitian migratory workers in 1937. The mD.ssacre was directly COffiiected with emigration o.s an attempt to reduce the overpopulation of Haiti. For years Haitians had gone to Cuba and the Dominican Republic as cane workers. Batista expelled about 30,000 in 1936 and •37 because of the depres sion in Cubo.. No.ny of them at-.empted to cross the eastern border after their return to joblessness in Haiti. Leybarn l08Í estimates that 11 certainly as many as 5,000 were butchered or drow:ned a:nd it is likely that 20,000 would be·�- more ac ,urate figure if the whole truth were known. 11 A joj_nt inter-America,,"1. committee (United States, Mexico and Cubo.) o.warded Haiti dame.ges of $750,000• Border towns a:nd a north-south highway have been built 011 the east side of thc border since then and the unoccupied land has been the object of exte�1sive colonizing activity. Land, seed, tools, machinery, and credit ha.ve been made available to poor far:m.ers. Colonists and other farmers a.re benefiting from incr· ased services to agriculture, from new experiment stD.tions, fruit inspection, soil analyses, etc. ✓
Central E1Jropean refugees, represented by the Dominican Republic Settlement Associo.tio•1s, and the gover:'1l!lent sig.ned o. co:ntract on Jo.nuary 30, 1940. It is a model of both practicality and humane,con sideration for the 'NelfL, e of harassed o.nd persecuted persons. 1091 It provides for -che admission of up to 100,000 refugees, in groups of a.pproximately 500, and. outlines the rights [llld duties of both the government v.nd the Associ:.:.tion, the selection machinery, taxes, and ex·t: ent of governmentLü coopero.tion. The former Unitod Fruit Company property of Sosua, near Puerto Plata, we.s chosen. 1'h0 first large group o.rrived in i1ay, 1940. Within two years the '!Ol0nists numbered 472. A preliminary estimo.te of the expenses of the Associati: up to July 1, 1941 gave a total of $648,ooo (PP• 295-6) and sign ificant sums must ho.ve bcen spent since that date. 'rhus, about $1,373 wns spent on each man, women and child if the total of settlers in June 1942 is divided into th0 expenses up to the previous year. A more recent report confirms this cc.lcu.lation: 11 The , total investment for every homcstead amounts to $6,000 to $7,000. 11 The homesteaders are charged $3500 as a maximum, which thcy are to repay, with 2 percent interest, in r.1.onthly installihents of $lo.
22.'±'
The t'otal I)Opulation of Sosua on Harch l, 1947 was 359 of whom 145 are homesteaders, and 214 are v10rking in the suburba:n center of Batey. Each homesteader receives 30 hecto.res (74.A.) of land, 2 of which are arable, the rest pasture; a 2 room house; a eow-bo.rn, a shed and a pig.:.str; 10 cows plus one additional for a wife and 2 far ea.ch child; a horse, a mule nncl a loo.n for the purchase of a pig. The 1::1.nd is fen�ed and a safe wa.ter supply is provided. There are cooper�.tives for the processing of dairy products, meat and essential oils, o. cooperative grocery :>.nd a credit union. produc tion by the settlers in shops they ha.ve crí:lated includos mattresses
74 and pillows, shirts and work pants, turtleshell artcraft, co.rpentry, sausagcs 8.nd charcoó..l. The Joint Distri bution Commi ttee, a Jewish refugc:e o.gency of New York City agreed in 1946 to settle an additional 100 families in Sosua. So:r.1-e urrived in January and February, 1947 and the reminder are expected duri-.,.� the yea.r. They will bring the total up to about l percent of the number mentioned in the agreoment of 1940, Spanish refugees wera also settled in 7 colonies which containad 245 fawilies by the end of 1941, according to of.ficial fic;urcs. rt has baen reportad that 3,650 Spanin.rds carne in aJ.l, und;;:r t:1e auspic0s of threo different relief organizations. Only 10 perce-s1t of them ramain in tha Rapublic according t a recent rapcrt.]:_11; Tha se.me source raports that 11 Tha Spanish Republicans turned ovar t425,000 to his (Trujillo 1 s) govermnent and they found np,evidence that he had spent as rnuch as t25,000 in thair behalf, 111 121 r:rronigrC1.nt-Rocaiving capQcity The Bro0ki·'lgs rnstitation, after examining a.11 ralevant factors, ca.me to the following co,1.clusion: 11 By proceeding graduo.lJ.y it rnig!1t ult::.1710.taly be possible to sattlo from 3,000 to 5,000 i:rnmigrants in thEi' i ep-..i.bUc n.nd it might evontually be :t:JOS3ible to ta.ka en.re of in a.cldj_tional number in industrial undertakings. 11 Qne uf the survey staff, Mr, f,.thcrton Leo, ex:pressod the opinion tha.t 10,000 settlers could be o.ccomuoda.ted. rt v:as rocognized tho.t increased irrigation o.nd lo.ncl. reclamation mi6ht muke opportunities for a somewhat largar nurnbor. Everything in the report, however·, indicn.tes that the original invitation to sand 100,000 settlers was so far w:.de of o.ny reo.listic estímate of capacity o.s to be ludicrous. Trujillo has issued o.n eln.bor�ta o.tto.ck on the Broo�in�s report rt ino.kes the point that the in EngUsh, French and Spanish.116i Brookings estímate is too low because they wo.nted too fo.vorable condi tions for the colonists. rt sa.ys: 11 The aforesaid report refers simply to the Europ0an ilt1nigrants tho.t �ould be cste.blished iz1 Domini co.u territory as small ·welJ.-to-do rural lo.ndownars on fo.ns of not less t}1an 35 acres for ea.ch hcad of far!ily, grouped in conrrnunities indcpendent of the zones occupied by Dominic:ms, and with a bn.lEm,;ied proportion of lo.nds o.deque.te for subsistence fa¡_·m.L1g, so.leable fruits, vegeto.bles, woodlo.nds, o.nd natural pasture land. '.Chat is to so.y, that the immigrc..tion to Yihich the Brookings rnsti tute surve,- refers is of the kind thEt would be planned for colonizing uni:nho.bited pln.cEs, or to supplant the undcsirabl e nati ves in ,mcivilized oountries, in order to relieve the congestion of humo.n ½eings in o.rca.s superso.turated on aocount of the vegetc..tive grm-.th of the indigenous popufo.:bon. The .Dominin,an offer, on the other hand, wo.s inspired by the Christian desire to divido our oread and our l:.omc Y,ith tho expatrintod 11
75 who, cast out by their European neighbors, in vain implored shelter in American countries more pro�perous than ours. The irnmigration which we offored to receive was, then, through circumstances, an innnigration of redemption and not a trnnsplanting of huma.n-beings who could choose freely between the good and the better, 11114/ political Consideration Economic facts must be supplemented with at least a hasty survey of the political situation. The country has been ruled by one man since 1930, Freedoms oí' specch, press and assembly are non-existcnt, The only political parties are controlled by the dictator. He and his fa.mily �ta.ve their fin.gers in much of thc econom,:i.c a.ctivity of the country. � reported on November 19, 1945 tha.t: 11Many of the dictator• s enterprises are divided mnong his. brothers. Swarthy Rector ( 11 El Negro") is Secr0tnry of Sta.te for War and N�,vy, ,'lith real estate on the side, petan specializes in fruits and protection, operates a radio station. Pipí r�gulates prostitution. 11 Trujillo is widely understood to be one of the greatest land ow:ners and his income is c,stimated at $6,000,000 annually. His 11 pusi nes s11 activities and how he becomes engaged in them are rela.ted in sorne detail in a ch1.ptc,r ca.lled "Tropical Gold" in Eick,s book. 11 5/ He has complotely absorbed into his machíne all ?Ossible sources �civic education, including the church. Illiterucy is high, (the official figures are 50 percent) class and. caste J.ines are t.ightly <irawn and democrutic growth is thoroughly chol<;ed off. Opponcnts and even independent-mindcd citiz0ns, are either killed or exiled. Refugees from Trujillo in Mexico, cuba, thG United states and ¡\i.erto Rico keep upa constant propaga�da against the dictatorship.��-
Under the circU1nsta:'.1ces, it ·would be ab1ost m.irn.culous if a pen.ce ful transition from clictatorship -Lo democracy were to take plac.e ti.pon the death or ovorthrow of Trujillo. It is possible, but scarcely probable, that he might follow the pattern of Batista and try to smooth the wa? himself. Thus, any reo.listic a.ppro.isal of the future must take into account at least internal distunbanoes, if not civil war,
This raises the question of wh�tt is likely to happen to any sizeable foreign minority during a revolutio:imry upheuval or civil wi r. sco.pe goo.ts are ¡¡¡vnerally sought during such a period :;i.nd undoubtedly the few continental Amcrictms Who now live in tho Dominican Republic, and their cousins, the Puerto Ricans, would supply a convenient group. There is a reL l hatred a.g;ainst the conti-i.entals now 1Jccause they own such a lurge share of the industries of the country. (To.ble XX.V) The Puerto Rica.ns have a tradition to overccme since thGy -rrere often used by the United States mü..rines in the occupution of tho Dominican Republic as soouts and spies. They ar,::: often spoken of derisi'Vely c,s 1 1 1\lneri que.flos. 11
76 TABLE XX.V Dominican Republic: Industrial Investment, by Uationality, 1939. (pesos)
Northa.merica.n Dominicans ca.nndians Spe.nish Italia.ns Aro.bs English pU0rtorica.ns Dutch venczuolans French Gorm�'.ns
61,129,635 8,584,891 62:.:,102 593,421 192,076 102,301 90 ,799 70,028 59,101 15,680 4,434 1,755
Dominican lav!S con"i:o.in a cuota systcm which provides that in all establishmcnts of ten or more ,wrl<e· s sev"011.ty per e11t of both the personnel ancl th0 payroll must go to Dominico.u citizens. This would have to be taken into account in u.ny organized emig;ration plan. Any puerto Rica.n government recruiting emigro.nts for thc Domi nican Rcpub.Lic would undoúbtedly be emba.rro.ssed o.nd ,justifüi.bl y so, by bcing forced to discrimina.te ugainst thu size:..i.ble :Negro minority of citizc:ns of tha isla.nd. Negrees o.1·c barred from the Republic, cxcept thosc who o.re allovwd to enter temporarily as s0asorn.tl day laborers on sugar pLmtutim1s.
77 Venezueln - A Casa Stug;z Venezuela is often mcntioned as a possible receiver of the island's populc.tion overflow, The prospccts sound good. There r.re vo.st un devPloped areas. Average population density is only 9.8 por square mile, as compnred with Puerto Rico's 628. Evon the F'edernl Distr::.ct (Cr.ro.cas) has a density of 380 as contr8.sted with San Juc.n I s 21:.,164. The country is rich in mineral wealth, imports much of its food, a:r.i.l. sustc.ins n high price levol. Food and other prices are kopt high by ta:riffo in the hope thut domostic producers will thus find incentive to incroase their supplies. Vigorous efforts e.re being mnde to incrcaso aericultu ral production by cducntion, expanded credit ::acilities c.nd lm d dis tribution. Incrensed industrializr.tion holds prorise of <)Xpanding urb11.n markets. The revolutionrry government seems to be sweepjng o.wc.y the rumains of ruro.1 feudalism and the tyranny of the Gómez d:ictatorship. PoliticnJ. stabiJ.ity would secm to be e fcir prospoct after the eloctions of July, 191,,7. Scveral hundrod Pnort.o R:icnns are alreé1.c';y resid.ents of Venezuolc:.. Direct air J.j_n_"lrn ·,¡� 11 incro,:se inter--cornr'.u::'lic�tion with rn nttende.nt rise in news f:rom that coum,ry in Puorto Ricrn rnmspo.pers. Undoubtedly many persons will fGcl the surge of the pi,rneor spirit cnd wish to trans plnnt themselves rmd tl:nir fr.miliGs. Sorne ha.sic consid0rntions n.bout opportunitios in Ven'.:lZU.ÚD. wm.Jld se0m in crder. Tr�e aren of thc country is slightly ov0r 100 times tha.t of Puerto Rico, 352,170 squo.re miles 1:hile the pcpul:::.tion is 3,491,159 (193�) or less th2.n twice thnt of this i.:,land. Popull'.tion is r,oncentro.ted in the northcrn hie;hlo.nds, lenving v,:\st terri tories to the south cnd to the north,¡1est spnrsely ir..hno:tted. The FeC:ero.l District ui.d its tuo clocest mdghbors contnin only eight--tonths of :i_ pei·ccr.t of the nntion I s e.reo. but h2.vo 15 percent of the totc:l pop1.:lntio�1. Population concentrntion in nny area nnd sparcit�r in ot.hers r:1Ust, of cou�se, havo nn e��plunc.tio:i. Obviously people hGVG found sorne placGs ev.sier .i r.iorc plensent or more profitnble thnn othern. Ee:ütl-i, S[:nit,é:'ry , educ�tiancl, recreationaJ. nnd other facilities for civilized living rr:ust h::::.ve becn joined with opportunities for mtúinc; a living i�1 the more donseJ.y settled apots. A clue to the. scnrcity of people in one j mport•mt section of the interior pl::iins fo found i::1 the song of the plcinsmen, quoted b::,· Gcrm6.n .Arciniegas: "Whoevor goes to the Orinoco E; thcr dies or con es back loco. 11 OH ho.s beon Venozur.lc.' s gre:--.test som·c0 of wenlth for mcmy years. Naturo.11 , larger sottlorncnts havo grmm uround oíl installations. Cen ters of commerce nen.r the oil fiold;:; hnve also pros:pered. These urbo.n concont:i.·ntions :nve drrd rnJd other pr'.rts of the country 2.nc "the signs of nbo.ndonment c�n be rH.d in the ruins of villr:ges o.11 but oblit.erl".ted
78
in n to.ngle of tropical plnnts. 11 117; Around 40 percent of the food to supply the u11 bnn arens must be importad. 11,V Wylie hc.s estimnted the percentnges imported for certnin products as follows: barloy, 87; whent, 81; lard, 75; rice, 74; butter, 47; potcitoes, 41; and both -0live oil vnd preserved and ccnned fruits nnd vegetables, 100. 1� Why does not domes tic production supply the markct? The .o.nswers are related to the ronsons for the underpopulation of large sections. Mountnins, rivors nnd swo.mps divido the country and rnake trnnsportntion and comrnunication difficult. There are only 539 miles of rnilroad o.nd highways are yet to be developed in most sections. All-ueather ronds total only 3 1 900 miles. Rivors provide nccess to sorne nre�s but much cattle and forost lo.nd cnn be reached only by air. Thus the tro.n13port of agriculturc.l products is expensive. Much of the so:Ll is poor. The mountnin c.rec.s ha.ve suffered from ero�ion nnd the plnins havo beon le�ched by henvy tropicc.l rnins vnd floods. The chernicc.l composition of much of tho pluins nreo. is such as to require lime fertilizors. Her.lth o.nd Snnitc.tion Tropical climo:tos requfre more public henlth n.nd snnitntion effort thnn is necessary in the ternperate zones. Human beings and animv.ls both D.re ntto.ckcd by parnsites nnd in::wcts munbered by the thouso.nds. Life expectnncy in Venezuela is only about hnlf of thnt for the United Sta.tes; v.round 30 ye.:crs instoo.d of 62 yenrs and 5 months (1940 data). Lo.ck of modico.l cr'.re is indicv.tod by the f 2..ct thct in 1942 58. 3 percent of nll recorded deo.ths occurrcd with no modicnl diagnosis hnvine been me.de. 120 / Tuberculosis is the chief cnu.se of deo.th. 11 In Venezuela, 75,993 tests given in sixteen diffcrent locelitics - fourtoen of thom with more thnn 10,000 poople ench - gnve tho following results: O to four yeo.rs of o.ge, 20 porcent infected with tuberculosis; five to fourteen yeo.rs, 51 percont; over fourteen yonrs, 83.2 porcont. 11 l21/
,
Pnro.siti.c infoction is c.lmost universc.l. Scv-eral different studies of rural populc.tions have found 95 to 100 percent of c.11 fo.rm dnellers suffering from hoolmorm o.nd othe::.· pnro.sites. Malario. is nlso nlmost universo.l in much of tho territory. Dr. Gcorgo W. Hill, in a study of immigrntion poss::j.bilities, sums up the situc.tion thus: "Under existing henlth conditions, additfonc.l successful settlement in rural. Venozuela is impossiblo. Furthor more, it v:ould be do.ngorous to bring in l?.dditioncl peoplo until there are more mcdiccl f�cilities. More poople addod to tho o.lroc.dy sick, disco.se-wenkened popu lntion would sprec..d cornmuniceblc, contc.gious disec.sos,
79 which could not bo chec!rnd wí th the presont irn.:.dequate modico.l rcsourcos. 11 122 / Hill sto.tes that the country hc-s only 1,049 doctors nnd noeds 4,000; only 1,500 nurses nnd needs 8,000. The cities, as in other Lo.tin American nations, co'1tnin more than their "shnre 11 of professirmnl peo ple in this c.nd otrei· fields. Educntion Rural educo.tion, without which it wotüd be im:)ossiblo to r�.ise levels of living, is misoro.bly under-staffed, undor-fimmced c..nd poorly equipped vdth either building, texts or school room parGphornnli.a. Proeress has beon mo.de sinco, but in 19,�l childron of school nge no·c o.ttending school roprcsented 66 porccmt of tho school populcition. Sorne rnunicipalities report up to 95 percent non-nttendo.nce. __123 / Fnrming technlcs nre nntiquated, c.s might be oxpectod frorn the lnck of educntion. "Fire ::i.gr:i.cuJ.ture" is still prQctfoed widely. "Mechnni zntion is slow becc.uso of the high cost of imported me.chinery o.nd the inndnptability of rnac} j_no msthods to th0 mountldnous conditions in sorne rcgions nnd too much moisturo during tho growing oca.son in others." 124 / Rural Economy The conditfons just listed refloct thomsolvos in the average income of vnrious cconomi.cnlly o.ctive group8o The trades nnd scrvices group, including governmcnt employeos, nvornced 3 to 4,000 holívaros annually in 1940, or from $1000 to $1330. Those engcged in mcnufocturing, in cluding the oil workors, mo.ke r.round 2,000 bolí vr.r·es, but the ngricul turo.l 'íOrkers receive nn D.VGrage of only o.bout 600o� Avernge d2.ily w2.gos in agriculture and J.ivestock wero reportr:id by st2.tes for 1937 n.s shov,n in Table XXVI.
80 TABLE XXVI Salaries and '\'lages Paid in Aericulture nnd Livestock, by Federcü Units, 1937 Federal Unit VenJ:)_ZueJ.:o. Average Dto. Federal Anzoátegui Apure Arngua Bo.rino.s Bolívar Cnrnbobo Cojedes Fo.lc6n Guárico Lara Mérida Mirnndr. Mane.gas Nuevn Esparta Portuguesa Sucre Té.chirn Trujillo Yarncuy Zulio. Terr. Delta .Ama.curo Source:
Agi·iculture Av. Dc.ily Vfo.ge Bs.
2.38 3.47 1.95 2.53 2.88 3.19 2.19 2.73 2.98 2.09 2.69 2.00 2.14 2.17 2.19 2.35 2.11 2.06 2.98 2.33 1.93 4o53 1.57
Livestock
Av. Duily Wage
Bs.
2.90 5.22 2o3l 3.03 3.74 4.60 1.78 3.14 3.00 1.88 3.30 1.99 2.39 3.34 2.46 1.e1 3.52 2.03 2o80 2o58 2.26 3.86 1.27
Tv.bles 75 o.nd 78, ¿1puo.rio Este.dístico de Vone�uele., Caracns_,_ 12..4Q.. Quoted from: Hill, .Ql1.:. cit. p. 17.
Hill found coffee nnd flugar cnne workers, pr:.id at picce ratcs, getting frorn 3 to 4.50 bolívares daily. Lnnd Tenure Rural feudalisrn has left its mc.rk in Venezuela nnd no satisfl'.ctory solutfon to the ngricultural problem wEl be found until the agrcrio.n problern is sctisfnctorily solved. Laree-scl'.le holdings nbound in the spc.rsely settled sections ,. ns might be expected. The Northern Highlands, however, show an unhenlthful concentration. Fnrm lnnd in the 7 federal units in tho.t area are held in 43,143 furms. Forty percont of the far mers own onl;y 2.6 percent of the farm land; 1/2 of 1 percent own 50 percent._� This puttern results in intolernble economjc 1 social nnd
politico.l conditions. It is being attacked under the agrarinn lnw of Sept. 10, 1945. Article 1 provides: 11
La presente Lsy tiene como propósito la trc.nsforma ción de la estructura agraria del país modinnte la adecuada incor·poración del cempesino r.l proceso de ln producción nacional, el fomento al proceso de la producció11 agropecuo.ria, la distribución equitativa de le tierra, la mejor organización y extensión del crédito ngricolo. y el mejoramiento de lns condicio nes de vidr-. de ln pobll:'.ción cnmpesina. 11 127/ Immigrntion and Colonization
The shortage of fnrm labor h['.S resulted for yel'.rs in ngitation for the promotion of immigro.tion. The first colonization attempt was made somewhnt overo. century ego when 374 &.vnrians vmre settled in an iso lnted spot in the stnte of Aragua. It did not serve as a 11 pump primer." Venezuela hns never nppenled to voluntary immigrants. Several more re cent nttempts to gota migro.tory streo.m moving into the country have been made and o.t lecst 14 colonies have been creeted. Danes, Germans and Portuguese have been imported. Venezuelo.ns havo been moved from one pc.rt of the country to another. '!orkers discho.rged by the oil compcmies during tho depression were settled in two colonies. At least 1500 fnmilies have boen invol.ved. First-hv.nd reports from several competent observers indico.te tho.t there is not n single successful vonture to be shovn1 for the lnrge sums of money nnd the gr-.:�t offort which hns been expended. The failures of the colonias cnused the governmont in 1938 to request the technical nid of the Intcrnntione.1 Labor 0ffice in cronting en administrative organizntion to handle such activities. The result of sever['.l months work by I.L.0. oxperts ras the creution of tl1e Instituto Técnico de Inmigrr.ción y Colonizc.ción, n dependency of the Depo.rtment of Ji,gricul ture. 128/ The mcchr'.nism outlined wc.s one of the most suitnble to be imagined - on paper. At lenst until the Revolution, however, its acti vities were consistently crovmod with failurc. Political mnchino.tions ho.ve led to the choice of unsuitabJ.e J.ocations nnd interfered wi th the seloction of proporly equipped technicc.l nssistnncc. The Instituto wc..s rcorgo.nizod by thc nev government, howerer, and its program is being closol;¡r linked wi th tht:t of the agrarian institute eren ed by the lnn mcntionod nbovo. Th0 causes of fniluro of the colonias are many. Venezuolan, c.s v1ell es other venturos, he.ve boen wrecked on tho rocks of profit-tc.king. Mnny persons hope to ronp the bonefits of thc labor of imported farmers through rising J.c.nd vnlues or by furnishing crodit, machinery, seed and supplies at oxorbitr.nt ro.tes. Tho selection of the colonists has o.lso been en impork:nt fo.ctor. De.nos, with a reputd-ion o.s successful far mers, wero brought to one colony. Thc selection hc.d boen mnde by combing Copenhc.gon I s slums, horrever, Somcone got so much per hoad for recruit ing and of cot�rse did not bother to question agricultural training or experienco. Lack of trc.nsport�:tion for products, poor soils, mo.lnric.
82 und other diReo.ses: lo.ck of technical preparo.tion c.nd scpervision, lo.ck of credit, inr.la.dministro.tion, o.nd plots tor:i smo.11 to support fo.milies by the typo of fo.rming possiblo ho.ve contributed to the fo.iluros of the colonies. Theso are o.1'1 remed:i.e.blo, of course. Proper technice.l propl'.ration c.nd foresight still ho.s to be applied. Plo.ns now being mo.de to recoiiro largo number� of European immigro.nts are presum2.bly benefiting from post fc.ilures. Technico.l aid from agriculturo.1 engineors and United Sto.tes-truined technicio.ns is being used. Tho country 1 s own fo.rm schools o.re being pushod to turn out trc.ined personnel for o.n expanden. progrnm. Tho e�cperience should be wntched carefully for indicc.tions of improve ment in the Institute 's abilit'y to cope with this problom. The Need for Agriculturnl Technicio.ns 'rhe Institute of Inter-Arnerico.n Affo.j_rs, crented during the war by the Unitod Sto.tos Coordinntor of Inter-1\merican Affairs� hr.s hada food supply mission jn Venezuela far the pc.st severnl yeecrso Lo.st yeo.r it reportad on one of tho most so:�ious h2.ndicc.ps to tho devolopment of egrj_ culture in Vonezuclc, thc lnck of suffid.e�1t agriculturnl tochnicio.nD o.nd f nrmers with modern f nrniing ex-perj ene eº Amonf othor thin1:rs, it snid: 11 A
n indicetion of the hoed f.'or more tcchnjcians is the estimnte th¡,.t t.here aro 225 ,ooo ruro:l fo.rnHios in need of tre.ining and educc:tion in l'.griculture. If only one agronomist o.nd onc homo-demonstrution agent is o.llotted to provide procticnl trujnir:g for eu:ch 500 fo.milies, there io n nc.tionnl roquirer,.ent of L.50 Lgronomists o.nd 450 home-demonstrntion o.gents. 0r, ;tnking it o.nother vmy, if c. goal is set to provide nn ngronomist o.nd D. homc-demonstrotfon ngent for 500 of tho 633 11 municipios 11 (smallest govern."Ilental unit) in the country, oliminc.t ing the urban 11 municipios 1 1, then we he.ve a nationnl re requirement of 500 agronomists und 500 home-demonstre. tion ngents.
11
1'his is the modest estimD.te of the techniciuns needod by the Ministry of Agriculture to approc.ch the tremon dou(:l trdning nnd educntion job to be done. In addi tion, it is estimated thnt tho Agricultural Bo.nk could uso at lccst 100 ngronomists to give technicnl super vision to the 382 rural cooperatives (1944) nnd the 3,000 individuc.l loo.ns to o.gricultural nnd livestock operntors (1944)º
"Up to the prosent time, Vonezuoln's No.tional Aericul turnl University has grnduo.ted 120 11 Ingenieros Agró nomos, 11 or technicnl agriculturists. The pro.ctical agriculturo.1 school ut r.::o.racny hc..s gro.duo.ted 59 11 peri t.os egrfoolr.s, 11 or prc.ctical c.griculturrnts, since
83
its inception in 1942. Assuming tho.t Venezuela conti nuos to produce only 30 cgronomists per ye�r, it will require -20 yenrs to meet the rcquiremonts of 600 agro nomists, �s estimnted o.bove. The sélI!le general situa tion exists for training homc-domonstrntion agents. Tho obvious need is either to expand existing facili ties in Venezuoln for trnining ngricultural technicians, orto send more Vcnozuelnns to other countries to study o.gricuJ.ture, or both. In nddi tion, it would secm emine::i tly desiro.ble that cncourcgerrcnt be givcn to foreign o.griculturo.l technicians to work in Venezuela."�
:'Jutch �uiuna as a Colony The 1)utch tradec1. 11iB.nhattan Island for a sm..'1.ll Enc;li:Jh settlement on the Suriname rivor 2ro ;yoars r.•.go. Tod�.y l1a.rr1attan ba3 some,.¡hat over 2,000,000 inhalütants nnd Dutch Guiana (Surinam) h<l.s 178,000. Na.nhattan has become the norv0 c·:mtr�r of' the f].ncmcial str1.1.c-i:,1.,1re or' the world I s richost country; Su:cine.m is a financin.l el.rain on the moth·1r country. ow it is proposed that the Dutch em1::::.r0 g:i.ve up th:i.s one of its two territories in the 1.'est3rn Hemisph··)re ( the othor . einp; Cura.ce.o), anc1 that it be colo11ized by 11 surpJ.us" P1:erto Rica.ns. Tho poJ.itical aspects alone proba.bly will resuJ.t in the deo.th of tho prcpooaL The Dutch muy not wish to sell. Tho people of the color.y h�¡v(.. .":�.-.9•L·U:· been granted :.·eprcs,mtation in the Dutch pe.rlia"llent. 'I'hoy m[ y woll object to cominG tUYlor the American flag, si::::ice thoy a.re at le'lst 92 p0rcent colo:red. Anti-ii-:r:ierialist forces in I.a-�in Am0rica '..mdonbtedly woulél. soe a. monace to t 1e in�1eprmdencc of their cour.tries in such a move. 1
}
Assuming tha.t tho 2rne. is avai1able D.t G. roasonablo price, what does it offe:.:-? Somo •:3.ato. i:..1-:r be prosentetl in answor, e.lthough a detailod survf:ly of spGd.fic J.ocu:ities �·JOtlld ha-.,re ·e.o 1.)13 ,:iade befare a final 'lecis:i_on on :..;ottlr:i�;.ent pos�ibilities could be made. It should bo noteJ t;:w.t t:.ho rn.:ltt.3r is too sor:Lous fo:c sim:üe arith metic, A newsp,?.per hoacUine so.yt:, i�efnrr:i.ng to ·;,ho proposo..I to buy Surinam, 11lh:c1entaría el tar.a:i'ío do lo. IiJlil N:inc:; v :leos, resolviendo probleina act�,_o.l de su.p0rpo"L,lnción. 11�� 'I'h0 st'-'-te.;1ent i:3 fantastically false. The surfr.ce milea�e of' ::i.n�· co'.mtry is abnolutuJy nonningless unless i t is 1:�nalyzod 2.t least in tr:mns ot' 1.rcble ar:c1 non�-arablc land. Mountai.ns, are-as of peor soil, swamps, 1·ivors, all r,it�st be substracted from t.he totalo 1
A rou,'.;h inde,, of the 2.rn.bl8 l"i11c1 in 3urlna;a, in the 2.bsr:ince of a soil survey, �-s the am:mnt now uné1.8r cultiv,:ition. CnJ.Jr 150 of the 50,000 square miles is now f..:.]:med, or .003 percent. Filrming is 11 pra.c ticable under p-··esent con-ii tions II only a.long tho coast whore, on much of the la.nd, ctikes :nus-1:. be maintainod_ t9 ,hold bo.ck tho sea an( cxpensivo irainage must be practicedo.1]]/ Thore is a save.nno. zone betwoen coa.sta.l pla:.n o.nd tho mountainoun interior. Accorcling to t;.1e American GoogY-aphical Socicty, 11mo: rc oi' the zone is ,,rorthlos::; for 2.gricultural pv.rposos. Strips of alluvial soil alon¡; the ver u, ho1,.rove1·, off or loc.:i.l :.ü'':las Sl_ i t�bl)' for s111J.ll farms but not for lP..rge-sc,J.lo commercir.J. plantat:i_ons. u¿.22,
r:i..
The fact th::�t :'lo uor 3 l.:.,nc1. is 1.wed is not conclusive, of course, but ít is strong pr.Jssrnn:pi:.:í.v:J evidence thé'.t the ot1-ior lv.nd, �,ithout hea�¡ expenc'.itm"e on health am: so:1nitc.1.tiorr, cl.ra:i.na -:0, i·-rigation, transport .tion and COlJ1Jutmict.tfon im,: other mo(icrn (and costly) devices is not economically r:rable. Tho m..9.in pillars of the [\grfoultt,_rn.l oconom:í' a:".'e su.-scr, rice, coffoe nd pla.nto.imi. Rice is th0 onl;y- ono of tha fom' w!;ich offors any prospect for prc?itatlo e::port in ·�he futu:.:o. lt wotüd undoubtedly
85 run up against él r�uota system if expanoion within the United States tariff walls th:c-eatened the domestic rice growers. The cost of production would have to be studied in detail, of course, before a final judgemont is e:xpressed. Bauxite and gold have been important items in the e:xport trade, but until the war sent alrnninum production soa.ring and thus pushed bau.xite prices up the colony 1 s trade balance was liunfavorable 11• This is another piece of evidence, althou�h inconclusive, that the territo ry does not have the resources to maintain itself. The third piece is supplied by tho government financcs, on which Platt and his colleagues report thus: The Territory has been a liability in so far as costs of gov, ··ernment are concerned. Since 193L� annual subsidies of 24?2 to 2988 thousand guilders have been required to make good the difference between revenues and expenditures (in thousands of gui lders, revenues in 1939 were 4553; e::-..-pendituros, 7145; subsidy, 2592). In l9L�O the deficiency was expectcd to be even grc:::i.tcir. It was estimated that expenditures would amount to 7517 thousand guilders as ag��;J�t revenues of 1+189, requiring a state subvention of 3.328. 11 d:221' 11
There is still furth9r evidence. A preliminary study of s�ttle ment possibilities has been me.de in British Guiana, just west of Suri nam. Geoeraphic conditions are closely similar. The British have 90,000 squa.re miles in place of the Dutch 50,000 and they have 198 square mils,-s under cultivo.tion compared with Surinam's 150. The study ., made fer the Presid0nt's Advisory Cornmittee on Political Refugees, concludes that Hthe settlement capacity would be.rather sma11 11 27ter investigating both agriculturr-ü e.nd industrial possibilitiei:,. l3 The report rnakos a rocoITu�endation which might be considered for Dutch Guaana or any other undevelopod area about which there is inadequate information: Facing the situation realistically, it must be definitely stated that immediate large scale settlem':3nt of refugees in Brit.:: 3}i_ Guiana is neitheI' possible nor advisable under present condi tions. On the other ho.nd, the cotmtry is obviously not a 11 unsuitable for human ho.bitation, and possosses 11 pest hole substantial potential possibilities. A practical way to secura the lacking necessary information and to determine to what extent tho latent potentialities may be developed in reality, would be to plant, at proper ly chosen strategic points, groups of c-arefully selected young men ·and women in what may be called 1 scouting camps' settlements. Each of these groups should include a numbcr of properly trained people who under competent technica.l guidanca would be capable of securing the required in formation and co.rrying out the necessary e:xperiments. Each group should, of course, also include a numbar of physicians and medical assistants. With the ho]p of the · scouts_ 1 who themselves would be prospective settlors much more valuable inforrnation couJ.d be secured in a shorter time than by a small comrnission of experts. 11112/ 11
86 An estiraate is ma rle of �:;3, 000, 000 as the co,st of this combined settlement and exploration project involvj_ng 5000 persons far a two year period. Settlem-:mt itself, in 1939 prices, wa3 cstimatcd as casting around �;1500 to )2000 per family, not counting the cost of the indispensable sanitation und health p�ojects, roads, schools, hospitals and other community facilities. More information about settle::nent prospects in Surinam is in,,.ispensable before it is pushed as the ansi.Jer to Puerto Rico' s overpopulation.
Prospects for tl10 Fi.1.tm·e In spitc o.f t:10 ',1:lcbspr0;:d talle of the need for iIJ1Iní0-r,:nts, what most latin .A;aoric'J.n co1mtri0s need :1.s not !t:Ol'e peo:..Jlo t-u� more technlcs a1'.'.0. nachil1ory, ;nor3 edi..�ca.tion, raore so.11i tation., mOl'O tr..ms1Jo:;.�tation f.:.cilitiGs, mo�-e an·� cheaper f. rm cre'.it, r:.ore equitablo é'.ist.ribut::.on of 1m1d, and wi·iJ s�J:i.'0EH.1 c:12.nce in a ttituJcs tow2.r3. uork with the soil. Romo, A.s e. m:rt.t0r of fact, o.re alrG2.dy ovcr-popul.J.ted in t.e1..·,ns of the pr:::sent 1:se of the.�r resources. Hoxico, far ex2.mple, finds :í.t ,üfficult to �·esüit the prcssnre of people mov-iJ-16 north into the Uuítec. 3t.a·i:,os far Jobs o.t a time when it is in the nri.ds-� of a vast ecouor:ic eJqnnr.ion :_Jro r,ram -1nc''. is tc..lking of tho noed far iLrrrd.3-rc.tio:1. The populo.tion o.f South Americe. he.s more than do1·blod since 1700. Its rrowt�1 d? this century has been :uiore rapid tha.n t;w.t of e.ny other continont.1 ::>-v Recor, t a ·1van0es in henl th an� sei.nit2. tion, pl1 1 s +ho youth o'!' the popul-J.tion, indicat0 c on-�im�ed r2.�Jir1 p·out�º Hill 137/ poin,.. s oi.:.t tha·� a fee.sible hco.lth p:.'o.r;:;_•am in Vorwzu.ela 1 \>lill be sc:..ving from avoic.lable der.th not lcss than 25,000 nntiYe-born cit:lzcns annun.lly. In a.:::;_ditionv i t uill iiv0 to the new goneration a :JO'lY, a m:Lnd a.nd a spirít tho. t Vencn·.ela 1 c..i�ts. It w�.11 givo to the �:cpüblic a heE1.lthful, vi.¡;orous wori::i.ng lJO�'u.lat:i.on that it é�oGs not he.ve.;, The bcl:i..cf is r�.rowi.nt:,' t:1ro:�ehout l-8.tj n A1ll.Jrico. -cbat the solu,tion to the popul�-Lion problc:.n i., to be found nt .orne. Tlüs "'<:Ülef is still not dortlnr.nt. It ;Jtill ::.:01::fli-::ts 1-1:i.th t;10 �r:.sh o ...� tho hnc_c� dq.,lo and the f�_cpd9_ír9. for th8 �-,;-,c:ctc.tion o.f ch1x:,.p é.'.nr:l '.:',ocik f..i.�ld workors and the hope of the land specl.1:--.tor :far 2-. r,turn to tho ;; f; OOd old days 11 of rc.pidl;1r risin::; li.:..nd pr:!.ces. It co;1fllct;:i ui th thJ horita¡;e left by slavcry a.1Yl rnr�l foud;;.lism. Therc are still a fow, but ext:rGmcly few, U")C/3 uhe:. e pioneering is foasible. In B:;:-rzil� o.ccon:1:i.ng to J2?.1cs, li'fhe ii:.os-t iuportant area of tbis sort :5.s in ·:.he fm:o.,,cs of ·,,0storn fü.na:JR ··,ne: 82.nta C:- talinc., and r.orthwost .rn R:tc Grande ,::io 3ulo Possicly certe..i:a p.:1.rts� perb;•.ps o. le.rge part, of !t7ut.1orn ·frl.tto Grosso siwulc� '.:lo incl1 1.ded as potential . pioneer lc.nd. 11 =-;u The Erazili2.n ;::;ov ·rnrion+,. ís commi.ttod to the opaning of Vc'.St under-populJ.t0d Lreo.s. Thsso activities shov.l:i bG watc'10d ca!'efully. '.Chere :-.s rnuc 11 d:i.:.:c1,csion of c2evolopin._:; w:.to�� poHor a:ric1 irriec.tion :)ossibtlitie:1 in the 7alJ.ey of the Río Scw Francisco, for ext..m:¡üe. An unpublish,3d stu.:-1.y condnctcd urdor th".) 2.uspiccs of the Fational Plérnn::.ng Ass 'n. in J..9,';3-4./:. f01mrl. gront potcntüüities. 13.9L'. Two Puerto Rice.ns w}10 bcc2.::1c :i_nt'3re·::ted in coloniz:i.tion in th0 v&lley have :-iroposcd ti e f ollowin::; 'bu l�;et f or the settlomont of 750,000 omi:;ra lt,s ov0:r- 2. 10 yuar pe:::-:..od:
88 Tr-:i.nsport:.:.tion of iT:i·.:i;-;!',:mts Housin::; facilities for 150,000 fa:·illlics Public titil:Ltios, schools, hospik,1s In 'us·:.ri2.l devolopmont Powor dovelopmont and ,'.istribution Irrig::-.tion, lGn·::1. inprovem.:mt a.nd a�ricultural GQ'\.Üpment Tr011sport:.t:i.on D.r.:: co1n:mmüc:i.tion syst :ims Hiscc1laneo1.w 10%
37,50C,OOO 180,000,000 36,000,000 250,000,000 100,000,000 50,000,000 ___122, _QQ')_,_Q_0Q 773, ooo·, ooo _. .7.8.i9_o_o.J.ooo
C56,coo,ooo
3uch a progru1:1 would depend on funds froi;1 the continent, obviously, anrl would h�•.ve had a bott0r chance to sorious consid0:cation befare the prcs�nt congrcssional economy wave. The:,: a are ar·:;as in Venezuela whe;:·e, t:\fter tho expen=litu:r.·c of laree siuns far hiGh1,r¿�r an·l rn.ilroo.d const:.-uct:i or., irrico.t.:i.on, drain2..ze and so.nitat5.on works, c.nd coru:munitir facilitfos it 1,,ro1.�lc .. o possiblc to · settle f2.rmors. lf they have thr� prop01· e:-porience, tr.:·.ininc, .10alth, persistence, cred:tt, Ii1?.rketing and other needed economic organizat:i.onal aic1s, they should be able to succocd. It is obvious, froru tl1e short ro::_:,ort .10. 0 �Jrcsonted, that no now Dorado 11 lion in any of tho ;:-o Lo.tin �'u1Lrican :;:-epublics. Tho co:o. ccssionaL:-es of 2. homosteadin?; e.roe in Ec1�aj_or issl.ü this warning in their udvortising: 11:i7:l
HThose who contempla•. e 2..pplyine; for a part of this land should be aware of t.�1e fact tl10:t the lancl is unclearod, un developed, and of a. tropical rn.,tµ:.>o with all tho attributes th2.t such descriptive torms iI:ipl;?• iíuch of the timber upan the 1.:1.nd is valuable, much of it :i.s worthless. Tho ree;ion is one of the rich0st, potentiully, upon earth today, yet the prospective oettler should takc into co:1si'.:l.er2.ti0n the fact thnt a. substanti2.l a.1;1onnt o.f uork 2.:1. soITlo T!l0!1ey must be spc:mt upon the land 'Jefore 1t can 110 pro.-.luctive of food and pa.ying crops. Onl�r tho pionecr m.i..nctod t;ype of inr1i vidual should ap1Jly far t!')i.S br..c.t, come to J.ivo Ll-:ion it and work it.
• • • • nunder no circurnstfmc0s is it the wish of ei.ther the l�cuaiorean Governrnent or tho Int0rmediaries, to so oncourago the sot.tler o.s to misleacl him 3.nd bring about lator regrets and remorse over thc move. A Ifl..a�i.e-to-orc1cr P2.radisc is not to 'oe fo"Lmd, 11 must l1.Q -�qat.e:) 12Y.: tl}Q .é_Q.\.t_lpJ.:, a.nd by dint of hard -rnrk c.nd a ree.sorn::ble e::r.p-::nd.iture to mo.ko of his land a prosporous, product:,.ve farF-. Those uho are incapablc of hard work, ·.1ho he.ve insufficient finances to ; 1 sce them through rr J.n.d those wio ,1.rc not willing to :fors2.ke the con veniences and comforts of a mo:t,?; pro[_;re�isiv0 ( to r1i,te) and
89 r:!evelopecl. :r..a tion, should not, un1-:r any ci}:C1JL1sto.nces, con sider this :move. 11 The scttlcrs who shrn_,]_d go to the 11 pioneer fri1 ge" of onc of tho countrios i-,anting fc1r,:: ,rs nhoul:l. • e ca..rofully choson nnd o. rrogr._:u11 of construcU.vc r,id sl1olürl bo orgc.nizcd. Thc 0ssemtials of both selection and a.id are outJ.:i.nod in Chapt.;r I'J. Employm0nt 01norh1.11ities in industry o.ro lir.1ite:.l to o. small number of skilled workors 2.nd profossional pooplc. On tho uholo, they are needed on the isla.nd. Those with s-J.fficient background probably can find jobs by ut:Ll:i..zing the som'ces alrca.dy sugr;crc;tod. It my becomo ::1ppc�r•3nt to tho -..�mployment Service exports th,i.t mcn wi th particular skills 2.. re figuring prominontly aman[; th e II surplus ¡¡ group. In thJ.t case, onc �:10.n· m:i.. Q:ht be assignod to re,;:;.ding thc, technical j ournals mcntioned, corrGG})Oncling ui th l.:i.bor o.ttaches in Latin American capital.s 2.nJ scanning the help w.:.mte1 o.,.vortisemonts in the dnilics of tho chiof :i.ndustrial citios. The plncinG o:f scvc:;.�al dozcn porsons with spoc:'Lalizod skills m.i�ht cv0ntualJ.y rGsul t in the eni3:r2.tion of severo.,1 hu.ndred relativos ancl fr:Lcncts. It would scel'ú however, tho.t G.ssista.-ico to any but fairly lo.rge groups of emi1rn.nts would ·oe too cost ly u procodure bocausc thc rcsults wouJ..-1 be 11only a drop in tho buctotn .
CHAP'l'ER IV
90
ORGAHIZED EHIGF.ATION The i'IIyth of Uhplanned Inmügration Tre suffer from a romantic n'.:ltion of the European peasant or urbo.n worker, diss�tisfied with his economic, political or social conditions, pulling up stt1.kes and wending his way to the New World. We seldom stop to wonder how an. illi ter ate person lea.rned of the new opportunities, how he arr�nged his passports and visas, his trans porto.tion, his livelihood until he got a job, the location o.nd pur chase of land, o.nd the thousand and one other dctails of a shift from a fa.rn.iliur to a strango and often hostile emriromn0nt. School books gj.ve the impression that this a.11 happened by ch:,.nce. There were many such ct\sos, but they were marginal to the mo.in stree.a of immi gration and the f'e.ct that they happoned at all is clue to dJfinite organiza.tional a.ctivities on the part of groups with 11 0.xes to grind." A migrei.tory strcrun o.l mys presents three phases, whj_ch inter-act upon ea.ch other: ( 1) a. 11 push11 supplied by social changes which reduce economic opportu:n.ities or vihich otherwise jeopardize thc sh tus of individuals or g::·oups; (2) a "pull" supplied by the e:dstence (real or ima.ginary) of op.t?ortunities elsewhere; a'-1d (3) conunu,nic�\tion of the existe�1ce of the opportunities in the "pull" area to perso:::s '.'iithin the 11 push11 o.reo., Thc thircl phase is often overlooked. The cornmunica. tion fun�tion has been performed by a wide variety of a.gencic,s. It is only in recent yoo.rs in the United stntes tho.t intornal m.i.grants y1ere not at the merey of unscrupulous promoters - ·whose intorest wo.s con fined to the "heo.d fee11 they received for. every person they brought to a:n a.rea of short labor supply - or the local employer )'Jho could use a surplus of lo.bar to reduce wag;es. The United Sto.tes Employment service now supplies o.ccur,1.te information on job opportunities and tb.us saves millions of ma.�1-da.ys formerly wa.sted following mira.ges, someU.mes doJ.iberately creo.ted. The classic migratio,1s Y1cre set in motion by ¡:,;roups with varicd interests. The Spanish seo.rch ·for gold was '.l.n elnborately organized commerdo.l venturc), us,.mll;i with pohtical support. It gavc drive to the empire-building desires of the Spo..rd.sh monarchs, who sent a retinue oí' planners nith the main expoditior:.s, These experts la.id out towns and arrangod the deto.ils of their functioning, Military, ::10.va.l, eccmomic, poli ti cal cnd ecclasit:.st:í.cal :m.atters ·were all elo.borately planned. Anglo-so..xon colo:: üz�,tion wt:.,s not so highly organized but the majot settlemen-: s were th0 resul t of group ph1.:nning o.ncl financing. Imperial rivc..lries 11cre sipü.fic.:\¡1t fnctors in the promoti1;m of emir;re.tion. Religious 6roups were responsilble for developing some new a.roas, royal adventurers for others. Still othors rere peopled by ?risoners relea.sed on condHion that they migre.te o r by comricts sontencod to "transpor ,e:x:ampl , m1til l'.140 received more convicts tation" • _Austral ü,, than free irnmigra�1ts • .:...._l'
i�O
91 European goverrunents, inclu.ding Greo.t Britain ., Germany, switzer land, and S1'1eden in th0 ecc:-:1omic crises of the 19th century II subsidized the emigrt1tion of unemployed, paupers, · nd vagrants." From 1819-27 the British govermnent made five appropriations far the support of emigra tion and by the Poor Law JiJ11endment Act of 1834 local bodies were per mitted to provide fino.ncia.l assisto.nce for emigr;;,tion, a power which 14 wn.s used extensively, especially during the patato farnine of 1946-47. 1 Popuil.ation growth llnd prospects of even greater numbers bego.n to send land prices upwe.rd. New territory was opened by speculators and railroad builders (somet:i.mes the s ame personsi). They sent recruiting agents to Europe vd th pri'lli:ed litera ture to distriby 1 as they spoke of the great possibilities in the Western Hemisphere.__'/
4�
Argentina I s experience ho.s been smnrned up by Mr.,rk Jefferson: "As soon as trie advantage of colonization in the rapid valorization of i::he land vms perceived by the Creoles, the goverrunent bogan to spend money in fostering irnrnigration. A long history ctm be written of this official quest of immi grants in Europe. . �ents were employed abron.d to collect theI}l, agents appointed o.t Buenos AirQs o.nd Rosario to receive them, ca.re for them, and move thern into the interior. At O® ti!lle agents in Europe were paid u bonus of $5 for every iunnigro.nt secured, provided he paid his ovm passag_e and actually a. rived in the country. In the extravagant years just befare 1890 the government gnve free passn.ges from Europe ,"Jithout scrutiny of the applicants. Hillions of dollars were spent in that way; but tha mass of the immigrG.nts ho.ve come at their own expense certainly the best elements have. "In Buenos Aires they are well treated and well ca.red for; occupation is found for them if desiréd, free mainten::mce for fj_ve days given them, and free po.ssages into the interior if employ;:i.ent is found for them there. For a long t:ine this was the work of a philunthropic society of citizens of Buenos Aires, aided by grants from the city, the province, nnd the na.tion -an admirable exhibition of the universal Crvole kindness of he�rt tlmt does not willingly see o. rJtraj1ger suffer at its door. 11 143¡ It is importo.nt to note Jefferson• s remurk that 11 the best elements" have paid their ovr.n �ªY• Hanson mo.kes a similar stc.tement in discuss ing the Irish paupers whose fare was paid: 11 He lac:c d the ini tiative 7 pn.,_ ''ího ne"'comer � " ' - ·d 1-_,1· s own w,,y. 11 144¡ �and en ergy Of .,_he
�-
rnternal migration in the United States has been of greo.t signifi ca11ce since colonial days and most of H consisted of persons "who paid their own v ay1 '. rt has not been unguided, however, as is shown in Migration and Economic Opportunity, un impressive study of the expenenc0 oí' 1nigrJJ.nts. This study, -in discussing the cutover forest region and the Grec,t Plains aret\ of the U1üted Sto.tes says:
92 11 Here as elsewhere, indeed, what we he.ve described as tunguided' migration appears on analysis not to be tspontaneoust in any unique sense, but to be pulled und guQded by a.11 manner of influences ext0rn�l to the individual. There is of course no instinct which onables the prospective migrant to rpointr uneri:ingly to lri.nd or a job five hundred miles away. He may learn of the real or fm1cied opportunity through real estate promotion or ehamber of connnerce boosting, through advertising or through i1.e,vspo.per co1ru. 1.ent; he may be brought to it by an employment n.gency or by org!:mized industrial recruiting, a process of which ecoi1.omists knov! too li t'i.:le; or perhaps more often he mny move as the result of letters or visits or �ha.nce oontacts with friends or relatives, a process of whi�h economists know st:i.11 less. In such an unorganized market, and with such a varioty of bia.sed.and casual in-_ fluen�es, it would be absurd to expect u perfect adjust .. ment of the supply r..nd dema11.d for mo.npower. Y{here the mistakes become a mass phe,1omenon, ag in the Florida Boom or the ca.ses just cit0d, they come to our attention; but we co.nnr,t d oubt �ho..t many individual blunders, anda vo.st amount of v1aste 1•1otion, ma.7 . be found even where the movemont is on the ·,.hole in an uconomico.lly favorable direction." 1 45¡/
The e:.-�perience cited shou.ld so.tisfy those who ask, "Why must we spend governm.ent money on organi?..ing cmigration when people ca.me to to the United States by the rnillions without o..ny tplanning'?" pla.n.. n ing, thon, tool:: pla.ce, even though it might ho.ve been only for the benefit of profit-s0eking individuals. There is another differemce between the stre'..l..m of fo.rmer innnigrants to the United States, o.nd to a lesser degrce to Argentino. and Bro.zil during the 19th �entury. Tho.t difference lies in whl t we might call the II convcnience dishmce11 between 1847 o.nd 1947. The European of n. century c.. go left no electric lights, telephones� hea.lth and sanito..tion services, tro.ins, co.rs, po.ved ro8.ds, well-orgo.nized ma.rkets, ro.dio, nevrnpo.pers, schools, and rn.ovies, to :--o to a.n �1.r;..o. without the.m. Thn.t is whut is now expected of 11 pioneers 11 • It requires rnuch gr¿_,ater sac:cifice todo.y to ¡;o to an undeveloped torritory w:-iere these fer,trii:-es of rnodern civiliza.tion are entirely or almost entirely lacking. This fartor must be taken into a c0ount in assaying the pr(!Jspects of spontn.neous emigra .. tion and th�- components of orgo.nized efforts.
93 Japigration for Colonization Most Lo.tin American countries want settlers for vaco.nt land. Inter-American conferences h�vo often,recorded this desiré. The Eir,hth Conference of !unerican States, held in Lima, ndopted the following resolution: "Receptividad Immigratoria 11 11
CONSIDERANDO:
Que los movimientos migratorios hecio los pueblos de América y los que pueden producirse entre ellos mis mos, deben estudiarse por cado Estado en cuanto ntu..ñe a sus específicas condiciones y necesidades y u las ex�gen cic.s de sus legislaciones in.ternas sobre materias socia les, políticas o económicas, nl objeto de uni:t-·, en un punto.de convergencia de mútua utilidad, los inter3ses de los futuros inmigrnntes con los propios del pais en el que fueren a radicarse; y Que cada nación de asto Continente poseo cc.racte rístioos peculiares y necesidcdes específicas, de ncuor do con su posición goográficn, extensión, densidad de población, desnrrollo industrio.l y otros fnctorcs, Lo. Octavo Conferencio. Internn.cionnl Americe.na RESUELVE: l •. Que manteniendo las naciones del Continente Americano el derecho privativo de cada Esto.do para legislar y reglamentar cuanto a cada uno concierna en materia migratoria, procurnrán dar cabida n los inmi grantes intcrame�icnnos o europeos, coordinando lns nece sidndes internas de los países con lns condiciones y actividades cnlificadas o específicas de los inmigrantes. 2. Al efecto de hacer vio.ble 1n disposición que nntecede, le. Unión Panv.mericc.na llcvc.ré. un registro de lo. receptividnd inmigratoria, cnlifico.dc., de ende. país en cuanto a ln profesión, nctividnd y condicione& de los inmigrantes que puede recibir. Las informaciones pnrn este registro deben ser proporcionadas por cada uno de los Estados miembros de le Unión y comunicarse a to dos los demás, revisr.J1dose de o.ño en a..ño. (Aprobada el 23 do diciembre de 1938)1_'_ 146/ So far es could be learned, the rosolution did not result in notion. The Thira Inter-Americc..� Conferonce on AGriculture in 1945 ndopted
94 10 resolutions dcc.ling with vnrious aspocts of imnier�tion, pc.rticulo.r ly with colonization. Includod wo.s o. request th_-,_t thc Po.n !m1orican Union "esta.blish o. Section cho.rgod especfolly wit.h the: comp:ilntion, in terproto.tion nnd distribution of existing dnta concerning ngriculturnl migrations nnd colonize.tions in Amorica; tho stnff of the suid 0fficc to servo, in effcct, ns nn advisory body of specio.lists in Agronomy, Engincering, Economy and Sanitation, nhich nill be placed o.t thc dispo snl of the .American countries to advise nnd holp them in the planning cnd developmont of thoir respectivo projccts. 11 147/ Tho Third Conforonce of tho American Stc.tes Mernbers of tho Intor no.tional Lc.bour Orgnnizntion, meeting in biexico City, in .April, 1946, o.doptod a ronolution a.ttnching 11 groc.t importt'.nce to tne systomo.tic orgnnizntion of migration with o. v'iew to t'.ssisting the agricultural nnd industrial dovelopment of tho American countries. 11 __ 14V Tho Inter-Amcricc.n rosolutions do not soem to havo lnunchod pro• grams. The empho.sis is on pcrsons with a record of succesGful fnrming. The insistence on rurc.l workers is me.de necessory by sevornl f�ctors. The feudtú s;i,rstom of latifundin, until recontly chnro.ctcristic of most of thc rural aren, usod fou pcoplo in its oxtcmsive fnrming practices. Thus, land not e.lrendy populnted by indigonous groups was not filled up by s0ttl0rs in tho menner fo.miJj_c.r to thoso who know the economic history of the United Statos. The neucomers oven dopopulated well-set tled creGs, in many c�ses. Immigrntion from Europe <lid not fill the empty country-side. Geogrr-.phic rer.sons for this probr.bly predomino.te. Tho possible set tlers lnrgely went to the United Sto.t s whero tho clime.te wo.s moro like that of their homes. It should bo noted thnt nround half of the 11,000,000 immigrants to Argentina and Brc.zil ir: the century of "the grec:t migrntion" loft thosc countrios oither for the Un:.ttod Statos or to roturn home. Tho rural populntion hes hoqn dosorting tho soil in largo nl.lI!!bers in the relatjvoly rQcent pr.st of freedom from feudal rostrictions 011 movomcnt. The grovrth of citi�s in Lutin Amcrica is much more rcJ.pid thnn tho gronth of the rural popul�tion. In four countrios wi th �.vc.il nble dutn (Chile, Cuba, f1�0::dco nnd Pana.mo.), "tho urben populetion is growing on ::n o.vercgo �bout ,twico as fcst c.s tho rurnl populatiJ:J11. 11 142! "Between 1920 �nd 1940, the popuJ.ntion of Bruzil incrca.sod 36 porcont c.nd t.he populntfon of 22 citics ••• incrcnseci 61 percent. For thc Sill:!Er pcriod tho corronpond:i.ng porcents for Chile wore 34 and 69; for Coloro• bia betwacn 1918 c.nd 19.38 t.hoy woro 49 nnd 126. 11 15o/ Dnvis and Co.sis prove thnt this incroaso resultad from migrction und not froLl n higher rute of natural incrncsc. Tho exodus from the lD.nd to the city undoubtodly increasod j_n most Lo.tin American countries durinr-; the ,mr. Jobs in industry nnél t. he life of the city , with more opuortunities for recreation, educc.tion, so.ni-
95 tation and other f:--.cilitfos for er.-.sier living, appeal to the underpnid fnrm worker there r·.s they do elsewhere. One differenc0 is thut few smnll farmers in L�tin America hnve renched tho eco�omic prospority or security c.chievud by millio,1s of their fcllows on farms in tho Uni ted States. Also, there o.re far grenter contrQsts between the luxu rios of the cities nnd the abject poverty of most rural dwellors. Thore is, too, tho tredition of farm work being degrnding as contrast ed with tho yeomun horitnge of many North American rural dwellors. The Co.re.cc.s o.griculturul conferonce put the co.s� in the folJ.owing words: 11 The isolation, disorganization, misery cnd ignornnce in which n great pnrt of the American o.griculturc.l workers live is tho principnl en.use of tho stagnation of agriculture. 11 151/ All this menns thnt the prospcctive settler in a Latin A.merican country fo.ces a situation in wh:.i_ch thoso countries cannot keep their own people on the soil. Instead of depending on policies of improving rural conditions they ere nsking foroignors to come in c.nd do whnt they will not or cannot do fer themselves. Tho chnnces of success should be assc.yed ago.inst tho b�:ckeround of conditions o.s they exist and not with rmn2.r.tic not:i..ons of 11 pionoering 11 e.nd 11 independence11 and 11 being my ovm boss II in mind. The most r0levant of these conditions nre sumr.mrized by Soulo, Efron o.nd Ness D.S folJ_ows: Two thirds, if not mo:·e, of tho LC-tin-Anerican population ·are :physicnlly undernourishc-d, to the point of actuf'-1 stnrvation in sorne regions. 'l'here are mr-my who continue to be 1 il� foo, ill housed, ill clothod. 1
11
1
1
Three foul't'hs of the populntion in severo.l of the Lntin Amorican countries are iJ.literde; in the oti.1nrs, from 20 to 60 poreont.
"One hr.lf of the Lr.tin American populntion aro suffering from infectious or deficioncy disenses. 11 _
Two thirds of the Lo.tin-Amcricr.n populntion lr.ck the bonefits of soci2l security.
"About one thiro. of the Latin-.American working population (pnrticularly the groat ma,;or�_ty of the millions of Indinn lnborors) continue to remc.J n outside the oconomic, socir-.1 2nd culturcl pnlo of the Lntin-American community. Tho con3111Iling po7ior of the Latin-American IndL,n ia in mnny aroc.s Plmost nilo Except in M0:::ico, he is politicnl ly u socond-clcss citizen. 1
'1'wo thirds of the Latin-Amoricun population suffer semi f cudi:ü working canditions. overwhelming mnjority of the Lo.tin-.P..JT,oric:m agricultural populction is 1nndloss. Two thirds, if not r.:or-, of the
11 An
96 ngriculturnl, forest. and livestock rcsources of Lntin Am;:;rico. are owncd or controllod by et hcnd ful of no.tive lnndlords nnd foreign corporo.tions. "Living conditions for the bulk of the k\tin Americnn populD.tion o.re pnrticulo.rly unstable, being dependent on thc fluctuations of the forcign market. Concentrc.t:ton on one extrc.ctive industry or on monoculturnl production of 11 des sert II crops ( e offee, sugar, cocea, br,ncnc.s, c.nd the like) for forcign consumption, with depen donce on imports rnther tha.n home production both agriculturally nnd industria.lly, h::cs brought mnny erer'.s to the vcr;:e of economic ruin. 11
11
Except for Colombia, Argentina, Bro.zil nnd Uru guay, the pcrcentnge oí' 1 o.ctive' or gninfully omployed pooplo is consider::i.bly lowcr in Lntin Americe. t.han it is in thc Unitod Sto.tes cnd on the Europonn eontinont, (o.b0ut 31 porcent, as ngninst 39.8 porcent in tho United Stntos oven in t:il!lcs of uncnployment; about 45 nercent in Europa; nnd L,3 purcont jn Austrnlio.). This higher proportion of unused popul�tfon in Latin Americn constitutes n hec.vier burden on the economicnlly active,
But tho productivity of tho I o.e tive I L.:itin Anerican workor is r.mch loner tho.n thc.t of the Americr.n or tho European �- on c,ccount of hnndi cc.ps elreudy suggcstod, such o.s undernourishmont, lo.ck of educntion, o.nd underequipment. 11
Whnt type of Puerto Ricen would be nble to succeed undcr these condi tions? He wouJ.d requiro tro.ining, experienco, inHio.tive, resovrceful ness, self-1�0lia.nco, hnbits of long, hnrd work, c.nd porsevernnco. Javn nese oxperionce :vur�s a.goinst forr:10:r plcnto.tion v1orkers. 11 In 90 percent of all Cé' ses thcy nro the c2.use of discontent in thc colonies, 11 reports Karl Poltsor._� A fnmily thr:t vould be ablo und willing to endure hnrdships for some ye.!:.rs in tho interests of future sccurity o.nd porho.ps prosperity is ulso indicc.ted. Young, unmc.rriod nen who vmuld find their m2tos in the receiving country nould be thc exceptions. Our study of tho e::pt�rienco of ¡;o.r r.:nnpower Commission recrujts indicntos thct o.bsonce of fnrnHy is onc of tho c:rec.tost sourccs of dis..'. so.tisfo.ction. The fc.mily, of course, must be c. well-knit, coopere.tive group the membors of vhich ro.ve exporionced fr.rm lifo cnd displ?..y c. genuine liking for it. Children should nlro�,dy be et 1eo.st of the "chore" uge c_rid not so young thnt thoy nro nnot_her drcin on resourccs.
Lnnd must bo o.vcilnble .in the receiving country G.t u price <!.nd on torras the immigrnnt can nfford to p2.y. This hr.1s boen ono of the chief
97 difficulties in tho past. Feudal landlords eithcr do not wish to pnrt with their land or they or third pP.rties wish to speculato on the 11 un earned increment" suppliod by the labor of the irnmigrnnt applied to the 12.nd. Thero are still few spots in Latín Americn where this pro blem has been solved satisfactorily. Tho lnnd must be ndoquately locnted nnd a lnrge number of physicnl, honlth, economic and locntional fo.ctors must be consideTed. These nnd othor cruciGl details are being deult with at length in n later section. Training for Farmor �nigrants Assuming that all the above mentioned fnctors have been urrangod sc.tisfé'.ctorily, who.t kind of trnining should be provided? One sugges tion co.n be mudo with fuir o..ssurD.nce thnt it will be useful not only to prospective emigrants but to those who stny ns well. Propnratfon for scientific truck fo.rming would soem to preparo a mnn for a useful �nd remunerativo life either in Puerto Rico or many Ln.tin .ArnericQn countries. Any other suggestions would have to be mnde on the basis of cxnct knowlcdge of the soil c.nd other conditions of the specific regían ta be fe:rmed o.bread ns well &s the nw.rket and crodi t llrrGngomcnts. Attention hes boen co.lled to the rnpid growth of Latin American cities. Puerto Rico has shown tho se.me phenomenon. Gencrnlly this meo.ns food short.2.ges nnd high pricns in the urbnn urea.. Lnnd tenure reo.rrangements ore eventuellr for-ced upon ownors in the "economic wntcr shed11 ( 11 lu cuenca oconómica 11 J of the city c.nd food production for urbo.n consuJnption is undertclrnn. Such production fa highly developed in west ern Europe and the United Sta.tes. There is a vnst fund of experionce to drnw upon. Applying this exp0rienc0 to tropical imd sub-tropicc.l nrec.s might be one of the contributions Puerto Rico could meke to the improvement of living conditions in lc.rge soctions of Lc.tin .Americe. Ce.mp O'Roilly has beGn mentionod GS n possiblo voterr.ns training center. It is suggestüd that considero.tion be given to tho crention of o. h.rgo 11pilot" truck fcrm in cor1nüction v1ith the C.'.l!IIP• Evcry offort .should be mnde to choose men who hnve rurnl ba.ckgrounds �nd experience and trnin them in the newest tochnics of intcnsive vcgetuble production. Grc.duates of this coursc v10uld undoubtedly be in dernr.nd both in Puerto Rico nnd j_n tho industrinlizing countrics of Latín .Ancrica for sevoral yoc.rs to come.
98 Princi.12.les_of Successful Colonization Fcw of thc many orga.nized settlement efforts in La.tih Am..,rica have succeeded. The causes for faiJ.ure have, oen citad in the section on Venezuela. Tho oldest and most successful colonization o�go.nizo.tion oporuting in this hemisphcre is the Jc�dsh Colonizo.tion Associc.tion, which has worlrnd in Araontina since 1891. On its 50tq anniversary it sUimnarized its basic principles us follows: a) To choose land of good quality in zones which afford sufficfont rnoans of co:nm.tmicr-.tion so that the products can be economically transpo,:-tod to centres of constwption. b) To select the candido.tcs in thc country of origin through the r,1cdhun of a competent representative of the Colonization Organizo.tfon. (Young fa.milios, physically fit, with a J,-,..nowledge of rural work, c.¡1,1 uith sons un:-:1cT 18 ycars of CT.Ge should be chosen by preference.) c) Whon dealin�� \á th work•:irs who do not possess any appre cio.blc agriculttrro.l lmowlod1e, tuition centreD are org•. nized in the rocruiting (istricts in orc:.er to test the ability of thc workers. d) Br�.ng ot:.t in o.-:::vc.nce to t!le countI"J one memb'-)r of the prospective colonizing :í:amíly so that he ;ffiy familiarize him self beforeh2.nd uith thc i\rc-;entino surrovndine;s, in orr:.:.er thnt i1hen tho rer.minine; nw.mb0rs of thc f2;,úly arrivo he co.n avoid their passing through ·c.hat period of difficultios an•! confusion which is the rilost trying phaso of all feats of colonization-" e) Prepare thc plots of land to be colonized uith sufficient anticipation in or,lor that tho colonist.s may com.;nence HOrk inlinediz;cely upon th0ir arrival. In cenoral, plots uith scrub or brushwood should be cleared, even though only partially, fcnced, v.nd he.ve o.ll the nccessary bu.ildings c1.n'1 mea.ns of aocoss. 1-!ith rog2.1° d to the purchasc of thc itoms fi.guring on the inventory, this cnn be uithheld until th3 o.:;.�rival of the Í:ll!.ni3-rant who should be present when it is drawn up :J.nd so 8.void ulterior claims. f) To assist tbe colonist to ptrrchnse the L:md which he works, on long tcnns 2.nd. at a reducod rc,te of intcrest. g) If' thc m--:1í3ra.nt does r�ot possoss work:1.ng CG.pital, to place at his rEs�Josnl long t-erm credit D.t a roducod intorcst. h) Place at the disposc.l of o '.ch group of 100 families, an adninistrative, tochnical arnl o.gricultural advisor; a school, a cooperv.tive socioty; a Sfl.nat�:;;-;rnn; ::.:. church o.nd e:. cultural, reci�eati ve anr:1 sports clut.1.5-1r This institution, :i.n its first 50 ycn.rs, settled 3,946 fnmilics, consistíng of 27,L.48 pcrsons, on 413,059 hectarcs (1,020,260 A.). It lms b'-'cm Ol�tstan-:l.ingly succossftü in seeing people romain in thc lo.nd e.nd becomG cq-1fortably situatcd without r,tting involved in land spoculation .,
99 íihich ht.s :1rockod so r...ny colonizntion vontur0s. Caroful selection an:.1 trn.ining a:ce the fi:_•3t stops. Thon tho settler roceives arou.nd 75 hectares (186 A.) of good laffl. v2.lued et arou.nd )25 por hectarG. Buildings and eqt.ipmont valuad 2.t around ::,1500 to ·::,1875 (1941 prices) are 2.lso suppliod. The insta.llatiom: c.1·e worth mentioning in detail: '·,uildings, (1) house (2 rooms o.nd a kitchei1), (2) boundary fences with 1 or 2 d.ividing fencos, (3) woll (sometimos shared by two fo.r,tllios), (L:-) poultry nm, shed, yard, etc., onclosod by a uire, and ( 5) netting fence; ·:,roecling and drat,3ht stock, ( 1) 1 bull (shar..,,d by two coJ.onis·ss), ( 2) 10 to 20 cows or heifers, (3) 8 to 10 horses, a.nd (4) 25 to 50 fowJ.; agr:l.cultural imple!nonts, (1) wagon� (2) plough, (3) harrows, (4) harness{ (5) various im9l�mcnts, and (6; f\�rnituxe anct fittings; sundries, (l; soods, rnain·ceno.nco fi:r.th0 first fow months, c.nd (2) trmr0ling expmi.ses to the Colony, etc. b?ltl Re payment is pL.. cod on a renb.l basis for tho first fivc yea.rs. Rent is calculo. ted a.t 4 percent on the ve.lue of th8 land 2..nd 5 p::rcent on the value of the buildings. land taxos o.re paid through thc Association. Title is secnrod as follows: i;At tho timo of s�.gning th3 re:it.3.l contr2.ct, the colonist is handod a pro:mise of salo, in whfoh it is stipi!.la.ted thc.t :5..f, after a mo.:ximum of 8 yoars - not bofore, bocr.usc tho aim of tho Associa tion is to e3t.�1.b.t:l.sh t}1::; colo ist on a sotmd footing v.nd not to favor speculat:.on - he h::ts compliGd wi-�h the t..:n"!Ils of tho r '.mtal contract, and has f rrthormore pa.ic.1 ·i.,he vo..lue of the inventory bnildings, and 50 pcrcent of th'J v2.luo of the land, ho íll be handcd o. dcfinitc titlc doed to the property, with a mortc;a��o in Q;uarantoe of the balance ouinG o.nd which he i.d.11 rcpay iJ2in a y I'la.Ximu.!11 of 9 ycg_rly inst::i.lJJnents at 4 porce,1t intc:rest. Y The uork of the Associ::i.tion, which has also opern.t id on a small scale in Brazil, is 2.ssayed as follot•JS ':Jy tr..e Int,Jrru.tional Labour 0fficc: liThc Associo.tion is endowed with capital g:i..vo!l to it by phil2.n-: thropists, and its activity is governod by a')solutely non-cor;mcrcial motives. Its \/hole orJo.nizo. tion e.nd the condi tions th...i.t it offers to sottlers (which r.re o.s generous o.s the necessity of maintr.ining workin3 capital ancl covering ovorhcG.d ,Jxpensos pormi t) aim first and fo,·emost 2.t onsuring st1.ccossful settloment. It should be mentioned in passin6, }iouev:::r, th -.t el.espite its social ch:'.rnctcr and the phi lanthropic spirit in which its 1)olicy is fr,med, the Association does not mako the mistake of plac':i,.;.1 -;;· its .-3veryd;7.y ¡�elo. tions with tho sottlors q.li n philanth1·op:Lc '.:>asís. �foon mut1.12.l rights .::.nd olüi'.;':l tions he.ve once lJeen defiaod, strictly cor:m10:;-,ci2.l methods c::.re used. It is to this policy thc.t the Associat:i.on attributcs its succcss, for it has m.0ant the Drcs3rvation in tl:.c settlcrs' rninds of a sense of rcsponsibi]j � which misunderstooc1 philant}i11opy mí0ht well he.ve u.ndermincd. rrl5y
100 Rights of the Immigrant Previous e:xperience with immigra.tion promotion indice.tes that the newcomer often has found himseJ.f a victim of misunc1erstanding, at best, and many times of deliberate fraud. He may find himself at a disaclvantage beca11.se of unequal legal treatm0nt. Recently a grou:o of individuals with experience in the field formula.ted a list of 11fundamental rights 11 for immigrants. They are based on the premise 11 that insofar as possible the rights enjoyed by citizens of a country should be extended to new im.migrants. 11 Among tbese rights, they list the following:
(1)
the right to 8.;"'ply for citizenship as soon after arrival as possible; (2) the right to work; (3) the right to protection of the courts; (4) the right of educational opport11nity; ( 5) the right to participa.te in existing govern ment provisions for welfare, social secu:t'ity and industrial compensation; (6) the right of freedom of movement within the country of refuge; ( 7) the right to continuad re�ti7nce subject to compliance with the laws of the cotmtry n J•.i?J 11
101 Laiss_e_z-fai_r� in the or¡;aniz;:ition of emigra.tion will give results neither in numbers moved nor in satisfa.ctory livinc; conditions far those who set up new homes elsewhere. This is particularly true in the case of migmtion fer settlemeEt. It is st�w;ested that an Emigration 0ffice be created. Such e.n office, fer a start, could be ene r:ia.n attached to the Governor 1 s staff. He should be empowered to call upen' any government agcmcy which could help in the elaboi-o.tion and execution of an emieration proiram. He should work closely with the Department of Labor program of helping in the recr-.ütment of migratory and domestic workers far the continent and the United States Employment Service in arder to take adva.ntaee of its reports on jobs available in Latin .America. Initiative and sound judgemr:mt plus full-ti.me concentration on ex¡,lorine emigration possibilities shouJ.d enable him, within a year, (1) to report on any definite possibilities for colonization with a specific program, lncludin;; ctL�ect costs, fer taking adva.ntage of them, and (2) to have been constantly useful to the vocational educ.:üion and employment personnel. '.!.'he functions which v1ou1d have to be carried on by a full-scale office are indicated below. It should be noted that these suggestions probably woulcl have to be expanded in op-:;ration. Ftmctj_ons InformatJon on job e.Dd settlement possibilities in Latin America could be gathored and disser.tln,?.·;:,r,,d at small cost. · Possibilities on the continent have already been explored and the work of an emi:lra.tion of ficer sug:1estecl. Services could be rendered to (a) skilled and semi skilled workers and (b) prospective settlers. A.
Latin AmerJcan inclus·:�ry is developing rapidly and the demand fer skilled labor is far ahead of the supply. Some of the kinds of openings have been mentioned. It is possible thc.t Puerto Rico may fincl itself with a surplus of trained persons in some of the fields notedo Efforts should be rnade to place these people abroacl in the hope the.t they may serve as 11 pwnp-priming 11 and init:ia to- a tr-ickle of ernigration which might expand into a stream under favorable conditionso · The 0ffice should maintain a file of persons w:Lth technical competence. The existence of the file shou1d be ma-:.le known to the Inter-.Arnorican Development Cornmittee, (J. Rafael 0reamuno, Chairm�n, 2400 - 16th St., No w., Washington, D. C.) and sj_miJar organizations as well as privLlte companies.
102 The Of;ice also should accumulate data on all possible openings in the Latin American area.. Basic material in the field is listed herewith: Ralph Hancock, Q1m9rttmities in La.tin America, N. Y., Duell, Sloan and Pearce. 1946. 278 PP• The main emphasis is on business opportunities, Useful material divided into chapters on Postwar Prospects, Social Welfare,- Transportation and Commtmication, Industrial Power, Agriculture, Y.1aJ1ufactt:ring, Hinin::; and Petroleum Forest Prodncts, Fisheries, Trade and Travel, and subdivided into countries. Lloyd J. Hughlett, Industrfalization of Latín America. :P. Y., McGraw-Hill, 1946. 508 PP•
Divided on the basis of j_njustries, uhich are then treated fi.rst on a continent-wide basis and then by the countri9s in which the most importa.11t developments are takint.; place. The industries covercd are: the ce:nent inc!.ustry, the chenicé:tl indt'.stry, cm:mo..m.ic.:i.t.ions, the fishing ind.u.stry, the food industry, tl1e leather indllstry, the metHlwo:rking industries, the minfog industries an.d their industr:Lalizat.ion, paint and v.:-.rnish industry, · · petroleum industry, pharmaceutic8.l indnstry, power industry, publish:i.ng, pulp, pn.per and lu.rnber industry, suga.r industry, toxtile industry.
Soule, Efron and Ness, La�in &uerica in .�he F�tu.re World, N. Y., Farrar and Rinehart, 1945. 372 ppa Important far an understancling of the ]Je.sic social, political and economic issues involved in the changing pattern of Latín American econo::iies. George lJythe, Indus�ry in I.atinJmerica.. 11 • University Press. 1945. 371 PP•
Columbia
Contains a cotmtry-11:y--country description a11d. analysis aft0r a valuahle 77 pac�e introduction which deals with background and problems. The specialized publications Usted below should be examined regularly for nows of current devolopments: América Industrial �Jnerican �xport and Ir.i.port Eulletin Chemical and Netallurgical Zngin9ering Engincering r-rews Record El Farmacéutico
10.3 Foreign Commerce Weekly F.l Indicador M3rcantil Ingeniería Internacional -� Construcción Ingeniería Internacional - Industria Petróleo Int3ra.:mericano Prodt�ctos :Puevos Textiles PanamericanGis Foticias, a weekly digest of hemisphere reports from newspa.pers ancl magazines should also be avaiJ.abJ.e. It is ::--ublished by the Council for Inter-America.n Cooperat:hon, Inc., 57 Willia.1¡1 St., :tfow York City at ��10.00 pur year. Teachers for :tforth American-sponsored schools j_n Latin America are placed by the Inter-A.i�8rican Schools Service, Roy Tasco Davis., Ji-:-ector, 71+4 Jackson Place, J:-!'. w., 1-Tashington, D. whlch regularly publishes lists of openings.
c.,
The monthly reports of tlw United States Employment Service often carry notices of positions available with concerns Tho Pan Amer:Lcan Union, the Interpe.tional in Latin America. 18.bour Office and the Intor-American Dornoe;ra:,hic Committee, Mexico City, aro other sources of useful inforrnation.
u. s.
A..ri. experioncod person keoping in tonch w:tth developments should be nhle to lssue a valuablo ;,1onthly riümeographed bul letin w:tth st1.,i;:2;estions far ,job-soo1�ers. inthin a few months the s3rvico should be able to preve j_ts valu.e t.o firms seeking workers and be in receipt of a steariy str0a1:1 of inqu.iries .. Those who a::.-e placad should be followed up ,¡i thin a few nonths in tho expectation thnt they mi.ght. })o ablé: to sugge,st othor opportunities for Puerto Ricans. B. Higration fo1;' settlement may offer far greater possibilities for 1 iexport 11 of men and 1,1omon. It is in this field that the most careful work :r.mst be done in examining possibilities and in planning and carryine; out coloniza.t:lon projects. This work may be dividcd into threo parts: l. Provision of informntion on fc.rnüng possibilities for those 11ho can fi:r..ance thoir own transport2.tion and land lJurchase; 2. Arranging of credit for those who, while cxperienced and r ::sponsible, ar-) not able to carr-J thr01.1-c;h a shift of home ruid far.m. without credit; and J. Organizing group colonization. The first ftinction conl-:1 be i1andled by co:i:-r,espondence with the official i.I1unigration ancl colonizo.tion instHutions of the Latin
104 A.tncrican countri,s. Possibilities should be canvassed from the follouing sources and others which undoubtedly would appear as the work dovelops: Argentina:
Dirección General de Iruni�ración, Dársena Norte, Buenos Aires.
Bolivia:
Comit8 de Ipmigración del Ministerio de Relaciones :;;xteriores, La Paz.
Brazil:
Senhor Joao Alberto Lins elle Barros, Conselho } acional de �migracáo, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Río de Janeiro.
Chile:
Ministerio el.e Relaciones Sxteriores, Santiago.
Colombia:
Minis·�erio r1e ilelaciones Exteriores, Bogotá.
1
Costa Rica: Sr. Carlos Johnanning, Jefe, Departamento de Migración, Secret�ría de Seguridad Pública, San José.
,,
Ecuador:
Sr. Manuel Paredes Lasso, Director General de Imnigración y Extranjería, Quito.
México:
Departamento de Migración, Bucareli 99, México, D. F.
Per-�:
}tinisterio de Relaciones Exteriores, Lima.
Venezuela:
Dr. Sánchoz Pernia, Director, b.stituto Técnico de Inmigración y Colonización, Caracas.
The second possibility should be examined on the basis of the information obtained from the first opera.tion. Pos sibilitfos not now apparent may woll be found as the work gets under way. It is highly probable however, thJ.t the only substantial contribution to thc promotion of emigration will come through the third funct::.on. It wil1 bo examined in more detail. Colonization Functions Preliminal'"IJ information on co1.mtry clesirine colonists, m.unber, probable amount of land, political and economi.c conditions and prospects, and assistancc offered. A short preliminary study somewhat along the lines of the Dominican and Vanezuelan soctions of this report would be the minimum be.sis for further action.
105 Negoti..-,_tfon with the cmmtry w2,.nting colonists on conditions of admission of ·settlers, including citizonship arran:�ainents, custom duties, consular fees, land and other laws applying to aliGns only, types of settlers desired, relations between the Emigration Office a.nd the Immigration Institute, facilities offered Puerto Rico far studying the specific areas to �,e colonized and points needed for a general estímate of possibilities of successful settlement. (This stago of course would have to be conducted through the good offices of the Unitcd States wpartmont of Stato.) Suggestions on preliminary surveys, colonization ,_:ilanning and selection of colonists e.ro included as a:Jpendices. Training It must be obvious by 11O1,.r that people cannot simply be transplanted from one country to another, placed on a f8.rm, and loft to their own devices without overwhelming chances of failure. Past experience has proved that a shift from ano soil type to another, for example, without re-training, is a major cause of fa:ilures. The training plan must be worked out after the new envirorunent and the type of f2.rrn:í.nE:, ar0 know-D. Not the lcast of the necessa.ry items is an introduction to the history and cult-L<::·e of the ::eceiving countr"J• '.i.'ransportation Thc problom of shifting a man and his family is one which Cf\P. cause much hardship ancl disillusionment. It may, if badly handled, doliver a family to its new home already in a pessimistic frame of mind. Ti...1iing is particula.rly important. The head of the farnily m.ieht go ahead of his irife &'1d children, 13ut often provision would have to be rnade for their maintonance until thoy join him. 1
Reception ar.:d Settloment Sevoral imrni�rant-recoiving corn1tries have adeouate facilities and experlenced personn01. The Intornationa.1 La.bour Offi.co cites the Brazilian state of Sao Paulo as an exrunple: The arrangemonts )J1ade f or recei ving the immigrants are e.dmirable. The hostel of Isla das Fleos at RÍO de Janeiro may pArhaps be superior to that at Sao Paulo by the beauty of íts surroundings, but the dining rooms, dormitories, sanitary arrangoments, mcdical services, 8.nd sick roorns in both are equally perfoct. i
1
11When the immigrant ho.s been examined by i·.h0 Federal authorities at .Santos and subsoqucmtly br::.efly inspect·ed by th0 State Irnmigration authoritics, he is sen-e uu u11e ho::; �,::i at Sao Paulo u..ntil he can be placed on a planta.tion, unless his des tination was decided beforehand, when he is sent on at once at the expense of the State. In view of tho m��ent demand for
106 lab0t1r, the stay in the hostal tisually lasts only a few days. If his bealth is not satisfa.ctory, he receives medical and hospital treatment f'm• ,-:i.s lon¡:, ·-1s raay be nocessary.�
Venezuola is reported building rvceiving hote.Ls at its íour main
ports.
Maintenance while eetU.ng settlcd and support in the form of credit or grants tL11til the first crop ::.s rnm·keted as a necessity. Supervi::Jion and Insurance Technical assiste.nce is anothe¡• reC:_uirement, as is sorne form of insurance against crop failures far tlu first year or two. This problem is intimatcly linkod with the provisíon of credit. A recont rsport on 2ettlement e;:perience in th0 Unitod States tells the :story in the followin:;- surru:aary: Hit was fotmd tn.:.it tho ovailability and the uise use of credit were important factors in tho stability of settlers. A largo pa.rt of the family cliscord, poor health, social isolation, and evcn the tmsatisfa.ctory work habit ,ould be traced to the / lack or m:!lsuse of crodit facilities. 11 15,)
°
Prornotion of Furthcr En.igration Assuming succossful sottlomant of a substantial initial group, and the existonce of mo:;:e pos sibili tios, tho fuic;rQ.tion Offico should unriertake propaganda for furthor movement to th� new sourQes of livelihood. There is Httle d01fbt that lar6e numbers of persons could be found who would be ¡¡jJ_ling to eitligrat.0 if there were real pos sibilities of improvcment in lev0ls of livinc. Little expenditure would be needed. Letters to locnl newspaper:s from st,ccessfuJ. settlers, 11 canned 11 intorviewl'.l rcoorclod for -;:,ranserí.ption ov0r Fu0rto IUcan radio stations, a raovie, a display of photogro.:!_Jhs, anr1 spoakin.r; tours by colonists brought back for t}1e purposo wo1..ud rosult in a f'lood of' applications.
CF..APTER V EMIGRATI0N IN
107
THE S0LUTI0N 0F THE P0PULATI0N PROBLEM
Monetary Costs of Emigration The a.nalogy is sametimes drawn between the export of wheat by Cana.da, of meat by Argentina or ni trates by Chile and the proposed "business" of exporting men from Puerto Rico. This rt�asoning neglects one key aspect of the export business -- wheat, meat, and nitrates are purchased by the receiving country. Usually the price covers the cost of production. Irnmigrant-seeking countries may be willing to expend funds on transportation facilities and other internal improve ments in arder to attract settlers, but none has thus far suggested paying the country of origin for its "products11 • Therefore, we should seek to estímate about what our 11 exports" are going to cost us. Estima.tes indicate that raising a. male child to the age of 18 in Puerto Rico costs his family o.round $2500 in rural areas and about $3000 in cities. If we add the per ca.pita cost of insular and muni cipal government, using 1925 to 1943 as the 18 years during which the boy was raised, we get approximately $500 more. Thus we arrive at a "cost of productdm" of $3000 to $35()0 by the time a youth gets to the point where he begins to repay the investment made in him by his family and his government.16� rt must be noted that we are not here dealing with the personal intrinsic value of a man as a husband, father, son or friend but solely with the value which may reasonably be a.ssigned him as a factor in the economic life of the island. Data are lacking with which to make an estimate of possible future earnings, which would be a more efficient method of computing value. We must therefore fall back on "cost of production" as a rough measure of the value of a man. 0bviously, if future earnings were capitalized, the figure in most cases would be considerably higher than the present estímate. puerto Rico•s 11 exports11 then, when they consist of males of ap proximately 18 years of age, cost the economy around $2500 to $3000. The "cost of production:1 of femo.les is probably slightly higher but has not been calculated sepo.rately. costs arising from the exporting process, in the case of planned colonization, must be added. Tha.t this process is complicated and expensive should be apparent from the sections dealing with the work of the Emigration 0ffice. preliminary ando.rea surveys, selection, training, transportation, maintenance, land costs, credit, machinery and insurance are among the items which must be covered. It is assumed that the receiving country would provide the roads or railroads, health, sanitary, education and other developmental facilities. These could not legitimately be added to the capital cost of a colony without burdening it with an impossible load. A fairly exact budget could only be arrived at on the basis of a specific project. There is a considerable amount of experience on which to draw, however. An idea of costs involved may be secured from the amounts spent on other settlement projects. Under partieularly favorable conditions families ha.ve been settled in agricultural
108 colonies for as little as slightly ovcr �1000 (in 1938 prices). more heavily capi t-. lized settlements costs have run as high tts $20,000.161/
In
Farms in the most successful colonies in Latín America, those of the Jewish Colonization Association in Argentina, in 1941 cost $3,750, half for land and half for buildings, equipment rmd stock. Trans portation and other costs certainly would bring the total to at least
$5,ooo.
In the Sosua colony in the Dominican Republic, a moderately suc cessful project, it has been seen that the cost per person was $1373 for the first year. It is not Jawwn how much has since been spent nor how much has been or will be recovered. The figure givcs us a.nother rough measure of probD.ble expense, howc�er. Family costs would run somewhere in the neighborhood of $6000• The Federal goverrnnent settled a.round 200 famiJ.ies in the Mata nuska Valley, Alaska, in 1935. Homes, barns, wells, livestock, farm machinery and equipmcnt, hous.:hold eguipment and supplies amounted to $3,250 for each family. Transportation and subsistence for the first nine months brought the total up to $5,435.162/ The Brookings Institution givca sorne significant figures. "To resettle and reestablish substantial numbors of impoverished people will require large sums of money. The prevmr cost of settling 500,000 persons abroad was placed somewhere near 2 billion dollars, or almost $4,000 per settler. Estimo.ted per capita costs of settling limited numbers of refugees in the Argentino and in Rhodesia exceed this figure. Palestine costs range from $2,500 to $6,000 pcr settler. 11 One could make a reason ble gu ess, on the basis of these expe riences and estimates and taking price rises nnd differences in trans portation costs into accou.nt, that colonization of puerto Ricans in Lt-1.tin America would cost around $5000 to $6000 per fn.mily. W� are now in a position to estímate the cost of emigration on two different bases, taking both direct and indirect monetary costs into account. First, l t us assume tha.t the present populatj_on, if not burd'ncd by future expected increases, could raise its levels of liv ing by iucreasj.ng productivity. The problem is therefore to export the annual increment. cusanova.163/ estima.tes that the average annua.l increa.se during 1910-50 will be--z.r2', 551 as coir.pared with 32,534 during the previous decu.de. If this figure is converted into families which a.vera.ge five members, vre shall huve to "export" an annual incroment equ ivalent of 8510 fa.milies in order simply to keeP the same popula tion. Simply in order to stand s.till, then, we must spend from $42,500,000 to S51,000,000 annun.lly (o.t ��5000 to f:�6000 per family) in cxporting our "surplus" families. !'íe must add to this sum an annuo.l loss of about $25,500,000 to �29,780,000 to cover the export of human productive
109
reGources for which the insular community has alrcady paid. Thus we arrive ata total cost to the isln.nd of from $68,000,000 to $80,000,000• Second, let us assume that the present population is so far beyond the reasonable limits of the economy that improvement will come abou t only if the population is reducod ::,,nd the alli:.ual increment is exported. Unfortunr.tely, scientific devices"I"or men.suring the true extent of any such overpopulation have not been worked out. We can rely on 11 educated guesses" made by one of the isla.ndt s outstanding students of populo.tion problems, Rafael J. Cordero, and b r Senator Luis Muñoz Marín. Cordero has estinated that about 100,000 families should emigra.te if levels of livingn.re to be ra.ised. The Muiíoz estimate was ma.de in terms of 500,000 inhabitants, which amounts to about the so.me number of families.164/ Assuming that these estima.tes are close to the fn.cts, we must fa.ce an outright expenditure of from $500,000,000 to $600,000,000 plus a loss on previous investment of $300 ., 000,000 to $350,000,000, or o. total initial cost of between $800,.000,000 and �950,000,000• In addition, there would be the o.nnual cost of from $68,000,000 to $80,000,000. The practico.lity of such expendit ures may be measured by comparing them with the toto.l insular income, which is probably around $500,000,000 per year.165/ and with the net governmental ñisñursements shown for 1924-25 toi943-44 in Ta.ble XXVII. The tote.l insular and municipal ex penditures for 20 years are o!'lly ;¡:937 ,058,492 or an average of $46,852,924 annuo.lly. It is true thn.t sorne direct return would even tually accrue to the Puerto Ricn.n econo1ny through remittances from the emigrants to their relatives who rema.ined bohind. There is no real basis on which to estimo.te such a return. It TJas found that few st. Croix migro.nts sent money home. Among thu vm.r i;•orkers on the continent there were many who were using the opportunity to escape from burdensome fin(1.ncial commitments. Really ln.rge scale emigration obviously would be so costly that it would either mortgage the future of those who remained on the island or cn.11 for huge outside aid.
110
T�LE XXVII !1 et I!;xp enditures Insular and Hunicipal Governments 1924-25 to 1943-44 Fiscal Year
Total Insular
'I'oto.1 Municipal_
'i'otal Insular and Municiual
1924-25 1925-26 1926-27 19?.7-28 1928-29 1929-30 1930-31 1931-32 1932-33 1933-34 1934-35 1935-36 1936-37 J.,937-38 1933-39 1939-11-0 19/4.0-41 1941-42 1942-43 1943-44
23,550,501 ?.3,421,755 211-, �72, 83/., 26,3�1,893 25,726,367 26,441,775 31,721,173 26,979,749 ;:.'L,.,335,233 32,634, 54,6 26,512,371 31,161,567 35,414,478 39,078, 051¡. L.),,,496,702 45,252,793 48,272,481 58,332, C':28 71,709,265 89,993,451
9,529,160 9,316,737 (,,656, 745 9,054,396 · 7,441,736 6,814,f1/+9 8,365,126 7,390,144 5, 941+,173 7,J:-i7,825 7,165,265 7,/4.14, 820 8,619 ,L/45 C,726,�14 11,107,790 12,,4.70,535 10,705,L:.18 10,317,636 10, 8L,.8, 048 12,4.ro, OJ4
33,079,661 32,738,492 33,529,579. 35,446,289 33,168,103 33,256,624 40,086,299 34,369,G93 30,279,l.1-06 40,022,37)33,677,636 38,576,387 /.�,033,923 47, 80!.¡.,C68 56,604,492 57,725,328 58,977,899 68,650,464 82,557,313 102,473,465
Total
756,301,f.'.:16
180,756,676
937,058,492
Source:
-------·
Divj_sion of St ..tistics, Bureau of the Budgot
111
The Role of Emigration_ The above data should be kept in mind while we examine the question of how much relief Puerto Rico might expect from emigration. There is a great deal of historical expericnce from which to drnw. Emigro.tion has appealed widely nnd lo�g to officials of over-populated countries. The opinion of demographers who have analyzed all the important efforts is summed up as follows: "In short, relinnce on emigration ns n means of reliov ing population pressure has hitherto proved almost a complete fnilure, whether officially administered or left to the initiative of the individual migrants. It has practically never reduced the home population suf ficiently to provide for a significnnt improvement in the level of living." 166 / The solo significnnt exception seems to be Eire (Southcrnireland) and its experience must be examined carefully. Its population dropped from 6,548,000 in 1840 to 2,992,034 a contury later. The groat patato famine drove large numbers from the islnnd. It also killod around a million people. Emigrntion alano, it must be stressed, did not do the job. It and the large number which perished gave the Irish a breathing spoll during which they began to reduce their birth rate. 167 / The technic used was delayed mnrringes. "The percentages of unmarried among the males of each age group are usually double those 9f other countries, 11 nccording to a rocent anthropological study. 168 / There are throe important factors to be noted in the Irish experiepce: (1) There vm.s a large-sce.le outpouring of emigrants within a short time, (2) there were about a million deaths and (3) those who remained under took to plan their lives in such a wny as not to fill up the space left by the migrnnts and the deceased. Too much stress cnnnot be put on the fact that it wo.s a combine.tion of the throe factors which produced a lowering of population pressure. The case of Ireland illustrutes a principle ncceptcd by all modern demographers: it is extremely unlikely that emigration alano will re sult in a permnnent reduction in the population of a given area. The basic recson is the animal tendency to over-reproduce unless human reason enters into thc reproductive process. It is that factor in the popula tion problem to which we turn in the next section. We smv in Chapter II what out-migration has been since 1908. The little which is known about the ago nnd sex composition of thc migrants is summarized in the last section of that chapter. A projectionaf· ·popu lntion bo.sed: (1) on the ne.tu.ral rate of j_ncrease, employing the sur vival rates and reproduction rates of 1939-41, and (2) an nssumption of annunl omigration at the average rute of the decado l937-1946, yields the following results in population for the years given, with and with-
112 out loss by emigrntion: Yeo.r
(1) Without Emigrntion
(2) With Emigration
1950 1960 1980
2,340,58 9 2,88 0,,4.52 4,237,957
2,265,432 2,677,936 3,637,485
Difference 75,157 202,516 600,472
Percentage 3 7 14 169/
In other words, the total loss 33 years from now will cxcced only slightly the number which must bc removed from tho island � if levels of living are to be improved apprecinbly in the near future. · John Stuart Mill once se.id: 11 When the objcct is to raise tho porrnnnent condition of a people, srnnll means do not morely produce small offocts, thoy pro duce no effocts nt all. 11 A Spanis.h saying can also be applied: 11 Parn grandes malos, grc.ndos remedios." If emigrntion is to bo helpful, it must be pushod intonsively, with enthusiasm, initiativo, imnginntion but nlso with belnnced judgement. The lines o.long which it might be possiblo to push it he.ve alrendy beon indicatcd. Now we turn to other possiblo rm'ledies.
113
Other Aepects of n Ponulo.tion Pro_g_ram
l73/
A program for denling with tho pressure of populntion on resources must have at le�:st four intcr-related e.spects including emigration: Ra.ising the lovels of living E.ducntion Plnnned Po.rcnthood Rnising the Levols of Living It is frequently stnted that the population problem will only be solved when the levels of living are raised to the point where the fomily size drops. This is indlsputnbly en rdmiro.ble goal of socio.l policy, but it is easy to demonstrate that it j_s not feasible to wait for that hnppy circumstnnce to solve tho probloms o.rising from overpopulo.tion. Fortunntely wo have recently acquired mc.terial on the basis of which we may exnmine this nrgument. Data gathered in June, July, ünd August of 1946 by field workers under the direction of Dr. Lydio. J. Roberts show that D. drop in fnmily size of rural housoholds does not toJte place until en income of botween $1500 and $1999 is reached. Urbo.n households show a perceptible dr,op in number of children only after they hnve renched the $2000 o.nd $2499 income group. Consider, novi, thnt tho average f2.mily incomg;for 1946 wore as follows: wage oarners $596; rural fnmilies, $633; all fnmilies, $829;·urban families, $1,092. Wo also know thnt femily incomos (for wo.ge earners) increased betw0en 1941 and 1946 nt the ro.te of $40.83 per yeo.r (at 1946 prices). If v1e choose $1700 ns the point nt which a drop in family size will tale e place nnd if we furthor nssume that the insular income will continuo to incrense at the rate of th0 previous five yonrs, it would take 27 yenrs for the average w�ge oarner fo.mily to be rniscd to the income cless in which a significc.nt drop in the fnmily size would be recorded. It would be nothing short of e miro.ele if the 1941-46 income increases wero to be contiñued. In fnct, all economic projections indico.te that n drop, rather than a rise, in por-cnpita income is to be expect.od within tho noxt decv.de or so unless there is a fundamentnl ch.:mge in thc insular economy. Educntion Undoubtedly rc.isibg levels of living will hclp but it is fo.llacious to o.ssume thnt nothing can be done until lov0ls of living are rnised. It is true that on thc wholo people with highcr incomes hnvc fewer child ren. It is &lso true thct peoplo v¡ith higher incomcs are bett0r 0duco. tcd. Why must it be assumed that oducntod poor poople would not seo the wisdom of limi ting f nmily s:i.ze? _ There is overy i rrlication thnt poor poople in Puerto Rico would welcome informo.tion on the prevention of un-
114
wcnted children justes engerly as rich people do. To deny the poor people the right to ho.ve children only when thoy wi:,nt thom is as un democratic as to dcny them the right to any other type of educe.tion or participation in the good things of life me.de possibl0 by modern wealth production. Moreover, a desire to mnintnin living atnndnrds is not the only rcnson for conscious birth control. Throughout history there have been cultures in which pcople limited birth far various reesons besides-the .cconomic, Lysistrata, it will be rcm0mbered, cnlled upon the women of Greece to refuse to boar children until the men stop butchering them in constnnt vmrfnre. Numerous conquered tribes in .Africa o.nd the Ame ric�s hnve deliberntuly rcduced thcir births �s pQrt of their resistnnce to conquest. Anthropologists, in a rcccnt compnrative survey of human roproct�ctive practices, found contraceptive devices being used in 16 out of 25 conternporary primitivo tribos studied. 171/ We o.re nlso fortunc.te in mving recent do.ta �howing the relc..tion ship between schooling e.nd the number of children born (Table XXVII). The study dirocted by Dr. Roberts found thc�t births were reduced by one-hnlf or more when the mothor hnd a high school educntion or more. The extension of cduco.tion to the whole population is one of the ba.sic o.iras of tho insular government. These f2.cts give the promotion of edu c�tion an cven greGter urgency. It js not enough to knoí:í those genernl relations, howevor. We must know what phc.se (or phnsos) of schooling hns had the desired cffect and ·whother thc.t pho.so co.nnot be o:-:tended to persons outside .the formal school orgc.nization. It is prob.'.'.blo that c.dult educntion, cnrriod out with unions, ferm workers, fnctory meetings, civic nnd church groups, would n�ke Q significnnt contribution. Experionce on the contincnt indicntes tha.t tho educr.tion of thc wifo is of grontcr influence then that of the husbruid. 172J T[l.blo XX.VIII gives us a clue to the influence of non-acndemic oducc tion. Urbnn mothers produce fev1or children o.t tho so.r.ie schooling level than do rural mothers. Whc.tever factor it is in schooling which helps lovror the birth ratc is present in urban arens either to a grer.ter ex tent in tho schools or is found outside tho schools. It seeQS rc�son e.ble to c.ssume tho.t gree.ter opportunities for .:i_nfomc.l oducntion, plus the avt.ilnbility of mcdice.l scrvices denied moot of tho rurcl populn tion, account far the improvement. This reinforces the widely-recognized ncod far an intensificc.tion of both o.dult o.nd formnl oduca.tion. Tho finnncio.l obsto.eles to nn adqquate expansion ere grent. Only hc.lf the childron of school nge arG nt presont c.ccornrnoduted in schools nnd most of tho othcr ho.lf reach only tho fourth gro.do in school. 173/ The fourth Six-Yonr Finnncial Progrnm, 1947-48 to 1952-53, provides for a capitel i�provement outl�y for edu cr.tion of only (ipl8, 856, 750 and nn annuo.l approprintion of 13 to 15 million
... 115 TABLE XXVIII
Number of Childron Born Alivc to Mothars, by Educntion of Mothor (Data collected during Surr..mor 1946)
GRADE CCMPLETED TCJI'_&J!:!JRAL _!JID URB�
NO SCHOOLING 1 or 2 3, 4 or 5 6, 7 or 8 High School or Above RURAL MOTHERS NO SCHOOLING 1 or 2 3, 4 or 5 6, 7 or 8 High School or Above URBAN MGrHERS
NO SCHOOLING l or 2 3, 4 or 5 6, 7 or 8 High School or Above
----
MOTH ER S
. Number
Percent
C HILDREN Average Number por mother
968
100.0
�
fu:l
356 111 319 135 47
36.8 11.5 33.0 13.9
2,156 550 1,468 453 115
6.1 5.0 4.6 3.4 2.4
�
lQ.Q•.�
3,092 �
�
239 77 195 44 10
42,3 13.6 34.5 7.8 1.8
1,514 39 6 975 175 32
6.3 5.1 5.0 4.0 3.2
li.91
100.0
1,650
Ía.!l
117 34 124 91 37
29.0 8,4 30.7 22.6 9.2
154 L,93 278 83
642
5.5 4.5 4.0 3.1
4.8
SOURCE: Lydic J.Roborts, PP.i,J=--Q;rns of Living of PuertoRican Fo.m. . :t.Ji�,1947
2.2
116 doll2.rs or 23.6 porcont of the total govornmont expenditures in the period. 'l'ho Plc.nning Board reports tho.t "the presont Progrnm would prevido for nbou;t hnlf of tho Island' s r.iinimun needs. 11 _2:,Z0' This field offers a perfoct �xrunple of a v1c1ous circle. The popu lc.tion grows e.t such a rnpid rate tha.t educo.tional fncilities cannot be providod in sufficiont qunntity ond quality to copo with tho annunl incrcnent of children of school ago. Lo.ck of schooling in turn is re flected in the high birth rato. Puerto Rico hGs n much higher propor tion of i ts populntion of school o.ge thr..n c.ny stnto on the continent. Civic organizntions such c.s sorvice clubs, unions, farmors' organi zations, churchos, the .Adult Educ;:,.tional Associetion and priv8.to schools must supplement the publfo systom. Only l'.n islnnd-wide pnrticipntion by alJ. civic-minded citizons can brcc.k the vicious circle. Pltnned Po.renthood. No mattor whr.t elsc is done, tho kc,y to populntion control lies in e.pplying group o.nd porsoné.ll intull:igenco to the: redut.::tion of births in the same way it is o.pplfod to th0 rcduction of donths. This menns plc.nning the size of tho fnrniJ.y. It moa.ns thinkine of co1csoquor:ces. It meo.ns widesprccd knowledgo of tho toc}·mfos o.:í:' birth control cnd a wil lingnoss to undergo minor inconvonfoncos for tho sc.ke of tho family and for e bottor futuro for Puo:rto Rico. Thc nrgumonts for o. plcnnod p�!ronthood pr·ogrnm are formidcble entir0ly apart from tho nocesso.ry roductfo�1 .::.n populntion r,:cowth. The criminally high infant nnd mcterno.l death re.to must be reduced. Tho infnnt mortn lity ro.to in Puerto Rico in 1943 wr.s 95.3 p r 1000 live births o.s corn pared 'lüth 40.4 in thv.t same yoc.r in thc Un:itGcl Strtcs. The United Statcs itself ho.s nn indefensibly hi,'.{h r, .te, much of which is eccounted for by the lnrgc, deeply ignorr.nt soctors of thc populGtion of tho southorn sto.tos. Me.te:rn[.Ü deo.th rLtes in 1942 wero ).,lo 7 per 10,000 births :l.n Puerto Rico c.s campe.red wi th 5.11• in tho Unitod Sto.tos. Recent invest igations conductod by Dr. Lydin J. Roberts havo showod that nmong large frunilios ns mú.ny o.s 43 percont of th0 childrcn born ·ha.ve diod. Similo.r nlerming figures couJ.d be givon for still-births and nbortionso An c.na lysis of 7,000,000 births in tho United Stf'.tos h2.s proved thnt "the in terval botweon births is o. be.sic fc.ctor in thc incidonce of stillbirth. 11 All of thosc figures o.dd up to e distressingly high wnstage of humen life. Surely we cc.nnot rost until wc he.ve adequnteJ.y tnckled this cs pcct of involunte:ry pc\renthood. Tho psychological nspect of the ¡roduc tion of unwc.ntcd chHdrcn, both legitimo.to o.nd illcgitimntG, is n fo.cot of tho problem which cnn be men.1..foncd only in passing. Ho�lthior mothors, hoclthicr be.bies, happior f2.IlliliGs nnd a strongor Puerto Rico e.re worthy idonls to be inculcatod into o.11 citizens, but pnrticulo.rly into thc public hoo.l th doctors e.nd nurses o.nd the school tenchers upan whom the burdon of the work must fnll.
117
Educntion in tho use of contrnceptivcs would be en cxtremely dif ficult job if there were no demnnd for this informction. Howover, this is not thc cese. There is an nbund�nt ovidence thnt thore is a wide sproti.d, pors:i.stont ·demnnd for knowledge of how to nvoid unwnnted child ren. A study of the �ipio of Lajcs conducted by Dr. Morris Siegel and Marguerite N. King showed nn almost unnnimous desire for contrncep tive knowlodge among the womon intorviewed. It showed only a few per sons using modern contrncoptive methods but many using crude herbs, drugs end oven rncgic to avoid conception. 17_5/ Similar studies me.de by Drs. Belavel and Beebe in 1941� and by the speaker omong the Puerto Rico.ns in St. Croix in 1946 c.nd the cxporionce of birth control clinics and hospitals furnish a mass of evidence for the existence of such a demand. The widesprend incrense in sterilizction in the past few yef..rs is enother weighty bit of evidence. This operntion, formerly confined to rich womon, -is now :.i.n demnnd nt both public nnd prívate hospitals in �pit� of the opposition of certain groups nnd of the dras tio nctUJ;o of the step. Tho effectiveness of the practico of contreception hes bcen testad sciontifically in Puerto Rico. Beebc and B0lavnl studied thc experience of 1962 fnmilies using the facilities of 15 clinics. Rural dwellers nccounted fer 68 porcent of tho clients studied. A reduction of 44 percent between the act'!:1-� ,Pregnnncies nnd those thnt would hnve been cxpected wcs achieved • .111; Obviously the extension of clinico.l service to tho entire ndult fome.lo populntion of the island is imporative. Ac cording to Dr. Christopner Tiotze, 11 .Since the innugurntion of the service in 1939 nlmost 50,000 womc-n have pnssod through the contraceptivo clinics o,f tho Henlth Dcpartment, nbout 10 porcent of the adult femnlo populn tion. 11 Beebe nnd Bolaval report that an csti.I!lato of the covere.ge of the clinics in the lar-ger barriQs showod that several ho.d renched between 10 nnd 20 percent of the fnmi1i0s in which there: wore women of reproduc tivo age. It probably woulcl be sde to ....ssumc thnt o. ton-fold oxpansion in tho servico of tho clinics is noeded. The 1947-48 budgot for tho ontiro Bureau of Maternal nnd Child Honlth is only $69,985 or 1/2 of 1 pcrcont of the wholo Henlth Depnrt m8nt budgot. Bc:rtlütt nnd Howcll ostimnted tho.t ene fourth of tho Bureau's oxponditures werc fer contr.:.i.ceptivo servicos. This would uean that oround 1/8 of 1 porcent of the health budget is being spont on this crucial scrvico. These figures should bo borne in mind in evaluating the messo.ge of formal' Govornor Tugwell to the 16th Legislc..ture when ho spoko of 11 the fnilure of Pu.orto Rico's birth control law to nffect tho birth rete in the slightest degree. 11 It is unfortunnte tho.t such n stnteraent wns mude, since there is no factual justifico.tion for it. 0n the contrnry it is quito prob�ble thnt the Puerto Ricnn. birth rato would hnve :rison with the return of prospe rity, es it did on the continent without the protection nfforded by the law. It is highly probable thnt tho wnr yocrs would hnve soen a substnn-
118 tial increase here as it did on the continent. The experience of the clinics, analyzed by Beebe and Belaval, preves that substantial reduc tions in births were achieved among thos� reached .QY the clinics. This factor must be considered in assessing the success or failure of what is, after all, a new law. It was passed only 10 years ago. The public clinics under it were not organized until 1940. The function ing of the clinics has been hampered by the opposition of certain indi viduals, both on the contj_nent and the island; by lack of trained per sonnel, especially women nurses; by the lack of modern sanitary faci lities in the vast majority of all homes; by the lack of education of the people; by the mistaken feeHng of security which a large number of children gives; and by other cultural factors. These are not eoing to be overcome in a few years, particularly with the expenditure of a mere pittance. Again in this field, public efforts must be supplemented by prívate endeavors. The Asociación Pro Salud Maternal e Infantil de Puerto Rico. founded in Decernber 1936, is an encouraging exarnple of civic enter�·. prise. 178/ The public forurn on population, sponsored in July 1946 by the Asociación de Salud Pública increased public interest in the problem of over-population. J:B/ iV!ore recently (0ctober 1946) another civic organization was founded to promote the study and public discussion of population problems, the Asociación de Estudios Poblacionales, headed by Dr. José N. Glndara. Public and prívate efforts are needed in an island-wide educational campai::-·n to increase awareness of the danger of continued drift toward economic disaster and the possibilities and technics of individual ac tion.
CH.A..PTZll. VI Stn1fi.:ARY Al'!D P..Ii::COr-ft-iE:t-mATIOFS
The pressure of populo.tion on resources in Puerto Rico is a monace to the welfare of the people. It dfrectly affects each person on the island. It reduces th,� che.nce'S far a ftül life. It sentences the vast majority to a lifetime of went.
'
Emigration alone holds lHtle hope as a solution. The results would be as permane�t as if one were to atter:1.pt to bail out a wash tub while allowing water to pour in from a faucet. The problem is the more funda mental one of reducing the flow from the faucet! The situation is so desperate, however, that emi:;rntion must be includecl in well-rounded progra.m for attacking overpopulation. It must be pushed intens5.vely, with ·011thusiasm, initiative and imagination"but also with balanced judeemont. Emi�;rv.tion must be or,�2.nized. The days of 0pioneering 11 by vast munbers who movc automatically to open territory and farm. virgin soils are gone. Lar[;cly they were myths anyway, but theI·e are few areas left in the world where the opport:un:i.ties e:xist which drew millions to the Great Plains of the United States. fo.tin America, wh:l.ch is often spoke:!1 of as a potontial area of pioncer settlememt, is shown to hold forth few hopes for Puerto Il.icans. Venezuela el.ces offer land far colonization purposes. Properly eg_uipped persons, well organized, financec1 and su.pervised rllieht malee a success of pioneer f�rming in that country. There are some other spots whera a f ew thousand persons :rru.e;ht find homes and chances for a livelihood. They aro scarce, but openings could be found wHh comparative ease for persons with t.raining a.nd exporience in truck farmin6, far instance. The e:xpandine; industrial sectors of the fa.tin American economJ,r also offer opportmü tics to Puerto rlicans with trainine and 0xperience in modern indust�·üü pructices. On th0 whole, 1:Jigre,tfon to continental United States scems to offer the best inunedi,.,te opportmüties. There is a pressing need for house hold workers and, seasonaJ.l.y, f or unskilled anrJ. semi-sldlled farro and farm factory workers. Certain types of skill,s ure also needed in indus try. Possibilities, then, will be foun�. in retail rather than wholesale lots. This does not moan that emigr.:d:,ion should be treci.t.Jd 2.s an impossi bility. It means th2.t, recognizing the difficuJ.ties and the costs, it must ncverthelcss be promoted and 1,1lw:tever opportuni ties exist mu.st be ferreted out. T!üs requircs the fuJ.l timo of a.t loast one person, able to call upon the services of insular and federal govorrm1enta1 agencies, ano, to keep in t01..1ch with public and private B'0Urcos of information on the continent and in Latin Amcrica. �fo must be aware first of the urgency of the popu.lation nrcssure, second the past cxperiences of Puerto Tl.ican r.Ji5-rants, t !:'.;:·e! thc, :aanpowor rosourccs of Puerto Rico 1!l'lch �a¿· l,o offorod abroad, fourth ·ºhe obsto.clos to be ov,)rcomc in offcctivo utili-
zation of these rosources outside the island, and fifth the sources of data on the possibilities of their utilization. This report is intended to give some background for the second and some informe.tion on the fourth and fifth items. This study may give usefttl leads to both positive and negative aspects of a populat:ton program. Sorne of the items which �ould be borne in mind are: 1,
The idea that 11-the Puerto Rican will not emigrate 11 is unsound, He, like most other human beings throughout history, will go in seo.rch of a better living far himself and his family, and often of adventurc.
2,
The number leaving the :i.sland is intimately connected wi th prosperity on the continent.
3.
The daneer of a back-fJ.ow from the continent it the time of the next dcpression docs not seem as 1r0at as previous oxperience suggests beca.use of the social sccurity laws. Puerto Hicans on the continent should be mar:1e aware of ali relevc:i.nt ;:irovisions of these and state and local welfare laws.
4. There has bcen a steep increase in the number of 01.:.tmigrants
since tro.nsportation facilities have 0xpandcd, foJ.lowing the cnd of the war. The five ycar period, 1941-46, accounted for 47 percent of all out-migr,:ttion in the 38 ye;,.rs from 1908 to 1946. 'l'he 1946-L�7 fisca:l year promises at l0ast a 50 per cent increase over thé previous year,
5, Havaiian experience, the earliest of the modern emigration
projects, indicates tha.t only carefully solected Puerto Ricans can compete against groups of a lower level of living who have a well--lmit socj,aJ. organization and deeply rooted habits of hard work.
6,
Thc St. Croix experiencc indicates that in a nearby area containing a disorganized people with an antipathy to work, the Puerto Rican uho has initiative and willingness rnay fare bet.ter tha.n at home. Those who are not ablc to compete rett:.rn to Puerto Rico. Thus the successful migrant is the product of a process of Tiatural selection,
7, Every group om.igration of which we can find record indicates: a. that careful selcction must be exercised; b, that persons with education, training and experience adapt to their new environmcnt much moro ably than the uneducated and unskilled;
121
8.
c.
that the recruiting a_r;-snts t,'.)nd to pla.y do1m the a.11.gle of hard work to be performod and, intentionally.or not, hold out promises of better uagos and working and living condi tions than can be deli�ered; and
d.
that physical well-being is a crucial condition of succcss in a new, strange and often hostile environment.
The experience of the war workers indicatos, in addition: a.
that lack of English hns been a severo handicap to ad justment, both pernonal and voco.tional, on the continent;
b.
th2.t absence of families is ono of the principal c"auses of dissatisfa.ction;
c�
that Puerto Ricans with darker skin::i are less lilrnly to mako satisfe..ctory adjusti::ients on tho continent than those who are fair, and
d.
that, far from being a cai1se of dissatisfaction, better food is listed as the rnain reusan far liking life in thc Unitcd States.
9. The proportion of \lar workors coming from families of 10 or more was muc:1 hishor thun the proportion of such families in the total po:r,mlation. 10. Out-migrants come from San Juan almost three-and-one-half tirr,es as oft-,n, proport:i.onately, as thc city' s share of the total po1_)uJ.:üion would indicate they should. Other urban arcas contribute fo.r mor·o than their share, indicating that far many of the island 1 s :i.nt·::rm1.l migrants an insular city is simply a step on the road abroad. 11. Out-migrants go to thc United States aL11ost exclusively and to New York Cj_ty in the ovoruhelming majority. 12. The relief, fe..mily welfare, housing and educational problems of �rew York City aro increascd to such a:r.1 ex-cent by the f'lood of unprepared migrants th2.t serious frJ.ction arises. 13. There are Puerto Rican 11 colonics 11 in other cities which might be appealed to far help in gotting jobs for peopJe coming from the island and in orgo.nizing an educo.tional and recrcational progrrun.
14.
The services of thc United States Employment Service, the Unitod Stat.es Departmcnt of Agrfoulturc, and state, local and prívate employment officcs should be utilized to place competent Puerto Ricans in jobs on the contincnt. Each recent monthly labor markct report indicates thnt thore are opportunitics for skilled und semi-skilled workers.
122 15.
Many seasonal agricultural workers caüld go to the continent at the clase of the cerne cutting soasan on thc island and spend most of the slack season llfollowing thc crops 11, roturning in timo for the next cnne season. Some of them will be able to escape from the status of migratory workers, find steady jobs, S'�ttle down and sond for their farnilies,
16.
Household employm.cnt o:fi'ers q:>portunities for sorne thousands of women. A s1."!.ggestion is made in Appendix E for an experimcnt to see how f�r community action can reduce the undesirable fen.tures of the work.
17.
La.tin America, whilo offeríng no El Dorado, should not be neglectod. It wants persona with specífied industrial skills a.nd colonists for lmsettled e.reas.
18.
The organization of colonization is an extremely difficult task. It T:1Ust be a group ondeavor. The essontial aspects are outlined in Ch. D! and appendfoes A, B and
c.
19.
The rosponsibility for orga:.rnzing anrl supervising e.migration nüght woJ.l be lodged in an Emigration Office, the head of which could call upon va:dous govcrnment agencies for assistance as the need arises. Such an oí.fice nced not be large, but its head should embody both enthusiasm and judgement, Its functions are st1.gr_:;cstcd in some cletail in Ch. IV•
20.
Venozuola would appcar to to a likely plo.ce to carry out a 11 project since t.hcre is a governmenta.l ue;ency there 11 pilot dedicated to colonization and since the cconomic and political situations �re c:lüte favorabJ.e. A truck farming urea not too far from Cu.racas might well be tho site.
The contribution to be Dade b�� migration may easily be o·nr-estimated and its cost, on a largo-sea.le bél.sis, under-cst:l1aated. It must be stresscd again that it can ma.ko a con-cributfon onlv if it is part of a broad pro gram of population adjustment. �1 othing but a concerted anr::l. sustained attack on ovor-popul,1tion from sovoral directions will solve the problem. aaising lcvels of living, educ,J.tion, ple.nned parenthood and omigration are all inter-related and must all be advv.nced vigorously.
FOOT�JOT:SS
123
Projection by José L. Janer based on his life tables being cal culated for the Population Research project sponsored jointl y by the Social Science Research Center and the Office of Population Rese2.rch, Princeton University.. Ramón Colón Torres, Soils of Puerto Rico, quoted by Sol L. Descartes, Basic Statistics oi' Puerto Rico, p. 24; R. C. Roberts, Soil Survey of Puerto Rico, vfasru.ngton, 194�, 503 pp. Daniel Creamer, The Net Income of the Puerto PJ.can Economy 1940-1<)¡. 4. Río Piedras: Social Science Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, 1947. p. 30. A Development plan for P uerto Rico. Santurce, Planning, Urbanizing and z oning Board, 1944. pp. 8, 10. Creamer, op.c��., p. 23. Puerto Rican Develo_i)inent Company, Annual Report, 1945 • .3an Juan, 1946. p. 6.
11
_Jlessage of R. G. TugwelJ.. •• to the 16th Legislature, Feb. 12, 1946. p. 25; U. S. Congress. House. Comnri.ttee on Insular Aff·i.;_rs. lnvestigation of political, economic, and social conditions in Puerto Rico. Report of the Com111ittee on Insular Affairs, House of Represent atives, Seventy ninth Congress, First session, pursuant to H. Res. 159 (Seventy-eighth Congress) and H. Res. 99 (Seventy-ninth Congress) ••• \vashin�ton, Govt. Printing Office, 1945, 50 pp. The full reco1m-aendation follows: In view of the f act that there appears to be no irilmediate complete solution to the current chronic prooleJ.'.lS of Puerto Rico arising because of the lack of natural resources and the congestion of population there, the subcommittee feels that a wise and prudent program of emigration migh t. be helpful. The subcommittee suggests study of that possibility. Several Centl'·al and South Ai,erican countries could easily supp ort larger populati ons than they now have and could benef'it thereby through the development of their natural resources. It has been estima.ted that these countries could absorb one-half of Puerto Rico' s 2,000,000 people with the result that there would be a sharp increase in the.island 1 s living standards, unemployment would end, and United States tax:payers would be relieved of the heavy annual relief burden. It ha::, been esti1nated that an entire fam.ily of f'ive or six: individuals could be transported to any of these nearby countries and securely established on small homesteads &t a cost of about $1,000 per family. Thus, it beco1 es evident that the total cost would be no greater than the expense of Hl.sintaining those fanilies on relief for a period of 5 years, as is indicated now in the post war period.
124 The resources of the island could well sustain the remaining population without present hardships existing. It is recognized that Puerto Rican people and their governrnent have been cool toward emigration in the past and might be s o again. The island 1 s past experiences have not been favorable although it is the feeling of the subcommittee that wise and adequate planning· could overcome obstacles that are now objectionable to Puerto Ricans. It is felt that with the active support of the Secretary of the Interior, who testified before the committee as to the possi bilities of emigrat.i.on, and that of pu blic-spiri,ted leaders in Puerto Rico, such a plan could be worked out successfully. It is realized that serious problems and obstacles wj_ll arise in this connection. Regardless of that, the possible gain is so great in benefit to Puerto Ricans and to the LJn.i.ted States that it sh ould be studied thorougi1ly. The Supreme Court of Puerto Rico cited emigration as one of the pos si ble solution to the problems arising fro.m overpopulation on May 19, 1947. Chief Justice Travj_eso, speaking for the court, said: 11 Siendo
coülO es Puerto H.ico un país pequeño y superpoblado, dedi cado principalmente a la agricultura y sin tierras laborables suficientes para producir los alimentos necesarios para una po blación de más de 5')0 habitantes por milla cuadra.da, es obvio que el serio problema que presentñ la superpoblación insular solamente puede ser resuelto de dos maneras: mediante la emigración de 'nuestro exceso de población a otros países donde pueda encontrar trabajo y condiciones de vida favorables o median.te el estable cimiento de nuevas y variadas industrias en la Isla. Cr�emos que es razonable presumir que el legislador insular, familiarizado con las condiciones locales que hemos descrito y deseoso de encon trar remedio eficaz para las mismas, al disponer que 'estarán exentos del pago de los arbitrios 1 • • • toda maquinaria, aparato o equipo que sea esencial para el establecimiento y funcionamien to de plantas industriales, tuvo la intención y el propósito de facilitar y estimular el establecimiento en la Isla del mayor nÚ,11ero posible de industrias en las cuales pueda encontrar empleo bien remunerado una gran parte de nuestro excedente poblacional. 11 Caparra Dairy, Inc., Peticionaria v. Tribunal de Contribu ciones de Puerto Rico, demandadoJ Rafael Juscaglia, Tesorero de Puerto rtico, Interventor, Certiorari, Hum. 123." 11
This statement is taken from a confidential report to Governor Tug well fro a man who has held many important puolic posts. 11 Info:t;.1e al Sr. Rector de la Universidad de l)uerto Rico sobre la labor a realizarse por e l Centro de Intercarnoio Universitc:1.rio. 11 September, 1945, 24 pp. ( typed).
125 Sixteenth Census of the United States, 1940. #4, Migration Setween Municipalities, p. 3.
Popula.tion Bulletin
1
Statistical Abstrae© of thc United States, 1946. p. 31. It is reaHzed that the percentage would be . uch higher if movement between countries in the United States were considered. Frederic P. Bartlett and Brandon Howell, Puerto Rico .y su Problema de Población. Santurce, Junta de Planificación, Urbaniz�ción y Zonificacion, 1946. pp. 68-69. "Encuesta sobre las personas que salieron de Puerto Rico en no viembre, 1946 • 11 San Juan, Office of t he Governo r, 1947. 27 pp. Stowaways (;eolizones) are not included in· these figures, but they probably representa sizeable number over the years. Authorities at New Orleans stated in Septer.iber, 1946 that sorne 150 Puerto Ricans had entered the country by th at port alone in the previous year and a half as stowaways or by deserting ships on which they had signed as crev1 members. They quoted arrested stowaways as saying that at least 25 were entering ilJew York and Philadelphia ports per month. El Mundo, 13 de sept., 1946. Federal J udge Jorge L. CÓrcj.ova DÍaz announced in July, 194ó, that the number of stow aways had mounted so rapidly that his cou rt was being forced to change its mild policy in dealing with ther. Court records showed forty arrests in the· first six ,nonths of 1946 colllpared with fifty far the entire year of 1945. El 1,1undo, 21 de julio, 1946.
1j/
Census of the Republic of Cuba, 1919.
16/
The Center made an analysis of the application for OPA ration books in St. Thomas. Books had been requested far 732 Puerto Rica.ns, 13,426 vras the total requested, so that the Puerto Rican migrants on the island represent 5 pcr cent of the population. The age and sex distribution is given herewith as of value to future research. Children under 2 years are under-enwnerated. The group contains a disproportionate nurnoer of women for migratory group.
Havana.
968 pp.
126 TABLE Puerto Ricans in St. ThorrBs. 1945 (3y sex and age groups) AGE
11ALES
FE•.iA.LES
0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70 and
60 40 25
59 58 35 25 65 50 21 16 16 17
41
25 30 39 13 17
17 11 5 5 1
over TOTAIS
1 7/
14
7 3 5
--2
-2
3¿2
1+00
TOTAIS
119 98 60 66 90 80 60 29 33 34 25 12 8
6 12 732
J • Arnaldo bteyners, "Portorriqueños también ganan el pan en extranjero", El 1W:undo, 7 de dic., 1946. El ivfundo,
26
de nov. ,
19/.i.6.
Andrew W. Lind, An Island Community, Chicago, Uni versity of Chicago Press, 1938.
1940 census 3,889 fe.•1ales. males and 3,036 the 1946 figure The
gave the total as 8,296, with 4,407 males and Ten years earlier there were 6,671, with 3,635 fe!lélles. The territorial i3oard of Health gives as 9,298.
Lind, o:e,.cit,, ch. XI
�' p. 251. Romanzo Ada...M, Interracial .wia.rriage in I-Ia.waii, New York, Mc1Yiillan, p. 41.
1937,
16th Census. Agiculture in the Ter.�itorie s and Possessions. Washington, 1940. Lind, op.cit., p.
251.
127 26/ ,.
Ibid, p. 111. Ibid, p. 113.
�
No later data have been received in response to requests to several agencies in I-Iawaii.
29/
Adams, �.ci�., pp. 2 87-90,
'jpj
Memorandwn of · the Board of Public Welfare to the Legislature, April 18, 1939 (typed),
w 32/
w
34/
w
Data from the ooard of Health, T. H. Lind, op.cit,, p. 291, �J
p. 261.
Adams, QE_,cit,, p. 290, The study itself, .!he Puerto Rican Migrant in St. Croix, was published in M�y by the Social Scien ce Research Center, 42 pp. (mimeo,) The Associated Arizona Producer, Aug. 15, J.946. Ibid, Oct. 1, 1926. From a report of October 19th, 1942, to the Commisoioae r of Labor, from René Jiménez �alaret. A Report on Unemplo;y!'len t in Puerto Rico in �he_ Late 2_�1n::�:i: of 1942, San Juan, 194S, 50 pp. Santiago Iglesias, Jr,, 11 Report SubmittE'd +.o the Eor_, .>.exford G. Tugwell . •• , 11 Dece111ber 14, 1942. Typ< s c: i?t. Department of Education, Circular lettcr, J anuary 13, 191+3, Governor I s Report, l<J44,
p. 71.
Robert C. Jones, lciexican far vlorkers in the United States, Washingt.on, Pan American Union, 1945, 46 pp. El Mw1do, 2 de agosto, 1944, El Imparcial, 1.0 de sept., 191+4, A word of warning on the bias which may be contained in the answers to the questionnaires is in order. Illiterates are, of course, all but completely eMcl uded from the returns. It may be
128 that sorne secured the cooperation of a literate friend and filled in the í' orms, but the number is probably small. The bias on education, therefore, is likely somewhat to favor those with more schooling. This bias is carried still further by the fact that 11 the better educated are, generally speaking, more likely to return questionnaires than the less educated. 11 See Geor&e A. Lundberg, Social Resuarch. New York, Longmans, Green & Co., 19L�2. pp. 206-8. Un the problems and results of testing attitudes by questionnaires see John F. Cuber & John 3. GoriJerich. 11 A Note on Consistency in Questionnaire R.esponses. 11 American Sociological Review,_ 11:13-15. Feb. 1945; and Lundberg, op.cit., ch. VIII. 47/
Paquita Ruiz, Vocational Needs of the Puerto Rican W.grant·, RÍo Piedras, Social Science Research Center, Univer sity of Puerto H.ico. 1947, p. 7.
!±§/
op. cit., p. 16.
_lf}j
It is possible that these data are invalidated by a misunderstand ing on the part of those who responded. Sorne must have given their place of birth instead of' the place of last residence on the island. The data as recorded are not in line with our knowl�dge o.f migration experienct!. A study ú18.de in 1-Jovember 19/+6 by the Division of Statistics of the Insular .8urea.u of the Judget showed that urban emigrants represent,ed two and a half times the propor tion the urban population is to the whole.
21./
l'wo qualifica.tions should be kept in mind ín comp:3.ring tho sizes of thc families from which the War Manpower Commission recruits carne with the Roberts sample: l. The sa.mple represe nts a later generaU.on, in which it is pro bable that there is sorne reflection of a tendency toward sm.aller fam.ilies, as people are influenced more by education and rises in standards of living. 2. Data are not strictly comparable. The Roborts study re ports on households; that is, families livlng under one roof, whereas the question put to the war workers Wél.s 11How many children did your father haveJ" It is possible that the answers include a number of children by two or rnore dif lerent rnothers. Chicago Daily tJews, March 6, 191+7; Now Repuolic, Apri l 28, 1947; Zl Mundo, 13 de sept. de 1946; 22 de sept. de 19h6; 24 de sept. de 1946; 27 de sept. de 1946; 17 de oct. de 1946; 27 de nov. de 1946; 4 de dic. de 1946; 14 do dic. de 19/�; 16 de dic. de 1946; 19 dé dic. de 1946; 23 de enero de 1947; 29 de rna.rzo de 1947; 31 de marzo de 1947. El Imparcial, 12 de dic. de 19h6 .
21
Encuesta sobre las personas que salieron de ?t.Erto Ricon en no viembre, 1946. 11
11
129 This figure is not too reliable. Cla:3sification as to color is not objective si nce it is subject to the enumerator 1 s judgment. Not ali persons who have attended school know how to read and write. 0 n the other Mnd sorne persons who have never attended school know how to·read and write. Institute of Intemational Education� Twenty Sevent h Annual Report of Director. New York 1946. p. 90. Ruiz, op.cit., p. 24 11 New
York 1 s Latin Quarter," the Inter-American, Jan. 1946, pp. 11-13, 36-37. El ifando, 27 de abril de 1947. Ruiz, op,cit. Ibid, pp. 4-5. Ibid, p. 31. L. R. Chenault, The Puerto Ric an r·ügrant in New Íork · CitY., New York, Columbia Univ. Press, 1928. pp. 58-60. Sorne of t he educational problems a.re dealt wi th in Frank D. ·1ihaleu, 11 The Bronx. Averts a Raci al Crisis." The Journal of Education, Sept. 1946. pp. 200-201. General probleíns were reported in an admirable series of articles by Willis Homan in El Mundo, March 26, 27, 28, 29, 31 and April 1, 2, 5, and 17, 1947. The two principal publicn.tions of the United States Employmont Service are The Labor Market, a monthly di gest of the enployment situation on the continent, and 11 Labor Market Information, Area Series 11 which covers all of the Jarger labor 1narlrnt areas in the United States monthly and the smaller in alternate months. De tailed infor;.ia.tion b y cities is given in the la test issue for 75 cities. Arnangements could be nade to ha.ve these publications reach the Insular labor officials by airmail and airmail letters could be get off immediately to state and local employment offices in the labor rna.rket areas which show shortages which Puerto Rican labor could help fill. The local files, of cou rse, would supply the information as to the training and skills of persons seeking work. An example of the inforrnation given in the "Labor Market Information, Area S1.;ries 11 are the f'ollowing two paragraphs from the Birmingharn, Alaba.ina area listing: Total expMsion demand .for t he next four mo,1ths is ap proximately 1:400 (100 worren). Industries with the m ajor
130 requirements are construction, 800; fabricated metal products, 200, coal mining, 100; and stone, cl ay and glass products, 100. Current job open ings listed at the Eraployment Service on ivíarch 25 totalled over 1,000. The mining indu.stry lists open ings for 250 workers, retail trade 150; service establishments, 100; and iron and steel 100. Unskilled entry �ages range from 40 to 60 cent s p er hour in trade and service, 75 cents in constructio n, a1¡.d from 79 to 159 cents in mining and iron and steel. Skilled wages generally range from ,lil to .;p1.44 per hour in industries other than construction, where the range is from $1.38 for glasiers to $1.94 for bricklayers. Clerical wages generally range from $90 to .jpl50 per month. Professional, technical a.nd ma.nagerial salaries are from $2,000 and up per annum. The Mobile, Alabama, listing contains the following information: About 300 additional workers, mostly women, are to be needed for an addition to d. paper bag plant and a new garment factory. Trade and service employment will probably remain approx.imately stable. No definite indication can be made for the shipyards. However, it seerns probable t}nt th ey will maintain a high level of employment for possibly two or three months, at wh ich time large layoffs will very likely occur. cm�rent job open ings listed wi th the Employment Service in the area are for over 60b workers. 0f the t otal, over 200 are for skilled worke rs, mostly in the shipyards, who are being offered an average wage of �1.38 an hour. Clerical and sales openings nwnber almost 200; seruice openings, over 100, and there are a few professional and managerial open ings. Wages for clerical workers range from i1s per week to '.rl60 per month, sales clerks and waitresses, from pl7 to J25 per week, and domestic workers, from ,�10 to J15 per week. 1
Sufficient housing is available in the area. desirable family housing rem..tlns scarce.
However,
The information we have from the War ivianpower recruits rho returned to Puerto Rico but who would like to go back to t he continent indi cates that there are people with experience during the mr who could fill sorne of the jobs listed as available in those two arcas. 64/
A. J. Jaffe and Seymour L. Wolfbein, 11 Internal Migration and Full Employment in the United States. 11 J:>ü•rnal of the A.lffirican Statis tical Association, Sept. 1945. PP• 351-363.
65/
For provisions of the Act and a discussion of its background see Ann ScitovsJJ-y, 11 The Employment Act of 1946. 11 Social Security Bulle tin, i,Iarch, 1946, pp. 25-29, 56.
131 66/ Jcrome Corn.field, W. Duane Evans, and Marvin Hoffenberg, 11 Full Employraent Patterns, 1950. 11 Reprint from the L1onthly Labor Review. Feb. and March. 1947, 41 pp. §1/
éQ/
National Dudgets f or Full Emplo.zmcnt, ifashington, Natio�al Plan ning Association, 1945. 96 pp. W. S. Woytinsky, 11 Postwar Economic Perspectives. IV. Aftermath of the War, 11 Social Security Bulletin, March, 1946, pp. 11-25. The Labor 1.farket, April, 1947; IHS despatch from 'Hashi..TJ.gt� June 1 0, 1947.
'lQ/
']]j
Julia Henderson, 11 Foreign Labour in the United States During the War. 11 International Laoour R.eview, Decembdr, 1945,PP• 609 - 631. Financial Week in Tuexico, Nov�nber 3-9, 1946. New :(ork Times, February 7, 19h7.
'121
"M:i.gration, 11 Director 1 s Report, Internationr,.l Labour Conference, 27th Session, Paris, 1945, PP• 101-103; Julia Henderson, op.cit. Henderson, .2.E.!.cit.; R obert C. Jones, op.cit. (The Pan American Union issued the same report in Spanish as 11 Los 3raceros Mexicanos en los Estados Unidos," 1946, 50 pp;: R. C. Randall, 11 Latin American Migratory Labor and its Contribution to the Developmont and Main tenance of the Sugar Beet Industry in the Unitcd States wi th Particular Reference to 194d" , ".Jashington, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Ex:tension Service, 1946. 12 PP• op.cit., pp. 630-1. �uide to Farm Jobs Along Western Highwa,z�, Exte.-1sion Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Apri l, 1947, 20 PP• ; A Guide to Farm Jobs ·From Gulf to Great Lakes, Extcnsion Service, United States Departmcmt of Agr:i.cultl.Ir'e, 1Jay 1947, 32 PP• C. W. E. Pitt.rnan, Atlantic Coast dligratory u[ov0ment of Ag.i·icultural Work.ers War Years, R.ecruitment and Placemcmt Di vision, Extension Farm Labor Progr.:1m, United States Department of Agriculture, June, 1946, 42 PP• c. W. E. Pittrr.ar;, AtJ.antic Coast Migration of Agricultural Workers, Division of Rccruitment and Placa;-;ient, Extansion Service, United Sta tes Department of Agriculture, April, 1946, 2 PP• 0utline of Plan to Assist the ,Iovement of Atlantic Coast i,Iigratory Farm Workers, Extension Service, Unit,;;d States Departnent of Agriculture, Marcfi--;°1946, 4 PP· Sumrnary of Meeting of Farm Labor Supervisors of Arizona, California, Idaho, Nevada, 0r�gon, Utah i Washingt<?!!, Ex:tension Service, Unite9- States Department of AgTicuJ.tur0, ·J· a.nuary, 1947, 8 PP• 0utline of'. Plan to Facilitate the Hovement of i,ligrants
132 Essential to Farm Production in Western States, Ex.tension .Service, Unitcd States Departm.ent of Agriculture, January, 19Ll/, W1paged; SUi.unary of Meeting of Farm Labor Supe1·visors or Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, ivli.chigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, M.issouri, 0hio, Tennessee, Wisconsin, Ext�nsion Scrv ice, United States De?art1t1ent of Agricultu re, February, 191+7, 8 pp. 0utline of Plan to Facili tate the i1,fovement of Migr-atory Work�-� Essential to Farm Production in North and South C0ntral State::;. Extension Service, Un:Lted States Department of Agriculture, Feoruary, 1947, unpagcd.
1V
11 Migrant La.bor Report Seeks Aid for Forgotten Peo ple, 11 Labor Inf orrna tion Bulletin�ited States Departrnent of Labcr, .\pril, 1947, PP• 10-12.
'1J.I
11 Househ0ld .l!;mployment! A lligest of Current Information, 11 Washington, U. S. Dept. of Labür, 1946, 75 PP•
Edward F, D;mison, 1 1 Service Industries - Trends and Prospects", Survcy of Current lusiness_, JaYJ.uary, 1945, PP• 11-20. Adapted from Emp_lo:t:ri:e11� of United st ..rtes Citizens in LJ.tin America, Pan American Union, 1Ls:1ington, l)L�5. 18 pp. and 11Employment Situation in Latín .1-\.m0rica 11 , ;'l.ionthly Laoor Hovicw, fob. 19/+6.
ª2./ §/
Georg0 Wythe, 11 0utlook for Latiu Americ:1. Industryil, Inter-Am.:lrican quarterl;:c, Ai:-ril, 1940, p. 46.
·-º�-'- .Third Confe.ccnce of
I. 1-· p. 17,
.e ... ican Statt.s.
tAontreal, 1946,
Ibid. p.. 33.
85/ J Rafael 0reamuno, 11 Industria.lization in Latin America 11 ; An 0utline 0f Its Development, Interanericc:=:.n Developmcnt Commisoion, Washing ton, D. C., p. 7, .�
Richard r. Bchrondt, 11 Latin Am�rica-Host to Homeless 1,li.llions? 1 1 ·vforldover Press, Jan. 31, 1947.
§1/ §§./ §J./
New York Times, Feb. 20 n.nd 22, 191..7. World Report.
Dec·, 24, 1946.
La Prensa, New York, Arril 2 0, 1946.
<JS2./ New York TilnP-s, May 18, 1946 :]]j
New York Times, April 17, 19M
22) UN Weekly Bulletin, Sep t. 23, 1946, p. 4
133
w
La Prensa, F0b. 17, 1947
2!±1
Lc.1. Prensa, June 15, lW+6
95/
Journal of Commerce, April 14, 1947.
96/
New York Tiiiies, April 9, 1947
CZ1I
Worldover Press, Oct. 9, 1946
93}
Worldover Press, April 24, 19Li.6
m
Journá.l of Commerce, April 14, 1947
100/
La Prensa, April 27, 1946
101/
Album EstadÍstico Gráfico, 1944.
102/
Anuario SstadÍstico, 1940.
103/
Refugee Settlement in the Dominican Republic, vfashi:1gton, 1942, 410 pp.
pp. 8 5-89
Constanco H. Farrrrvmrth, 11 :aivers of tho Dominican Republic, 11 Agriculture in tl10 .1-1mericas; ifover,tber 1946, p. 192. The official figur..;s and plans, in sorne detail, are contained in The Economic Development of the Dominican Ropunlic, ·. ashington, IntGr-American Dovelopment Cornmission, 19/.�4. 52 pp. 1054
Creamer, op.cit.
106/
Raymond E. Crist, memorandum submitted to Govcrnor R. G. Tugvvell, i.,Iarch 15, 1946, oased on a i'i eld trip.
107/
11 Economic Conditions in the Dominican Republic, 1945. 11 Roference Service. September 1946.
Internatiorn:i.l
The Haitian People, New Haven, Yale Univer ...üty Press, 19[�1, pp. 270-71. 109 _¡
The text is given in t he Brookings report, pp. 405-10.
110/
Dominican Republic Settlement Ass I n., Inc., 11 Brief Information about Sosua Settlement. 11 March, 1947, 15 pp. ( typed) Albert C. Hicks, Jlood in the Streets: The Life and Rule of Tru jillo. N. Y., Creative Age Prcss, 1946, pp. 172�3.
112/
Ibid, p. 175.
113/
CapaGity of the Dominican Repu�lic to A'.)sorb Raf'u ..ees, Trujillo City. Editora dontalvo. 1945. 120 pp.
134 114/
Ioid, p. 15,
115/
op. ·cit., pp. 65-74
116/
Hicks, op. cit.; Worldover Press, riíay. 22 and Jw10 12, 1946; El Mundo, • ov. 11, 1946; C.T.A.L. News, 2/25/46
117/
Preston James, Latin America,
;,¡, Y, 1942.
p. 49.
Osear ·,foore, 11.Jolicy 1ieasur0s and Food ?roduction in Venezuela, 11 Foreign Agriculture, June-July, 1946. p. 96. Kathlyn H. Wylie, "Venezue la' s Agricult ural Problem" - Foreign Agriculture, Jtli1e, 1942. p. 245. 120/
Anuario de .&oidemiología y Estc..dÍsti ca Vital, Año 1942. pp. 158-9.
Caracas,
Boletín, Oficina Sanita.ria Panamericana, Septe:.,ber 1941, p. 960, as reported by Geor ge Soule, ?.P..!. ci�., p. 1+2.
G. W. Hill, "Sorne Social and Economic .9ases f or ImmigN1.tion and Land Sett lerrent in Venezuela. 11 Caracas, 1945. p. 60. 123/
Hill, ioid.
124/
Moore, op. cit. p. 97.
125/
Loreto N. Domínguez, Estadísticas.
12�/
Hill, op. cit., p. 43.
127/
G iceta úf"l cial de los Zstados Unidos de Venezuela, 20 de septiem bre, 1945.
128/
Enrique 3iewers, "The Organization of Immigration & Laml Settle ment in Venezuela," International l.abour Review, June, 1939, pp. 76L+-72 and J uly, 1939, pp. 32-55.
129/
Foreign Com.1e rceWeeldy, �o-:. 9, 1946.
130/
El úmdo, 12 de enero, 1947.
131/
Plat.t , et al, European Possessions in the Caribbean Area, rJ. Y., American Ge-'Jgrap ical .Society. 1941 p. 79, and Prsston James, Latin America. N. Y., Lothrop, Les & Shepard. 1942. pp. 51�4-5, 560-1, 815-21.
132/
ill/
pp. 63, 77.
11
National Income Estimates of Latin Americ a. 11
p. 20.
135 Joseph A. Rosen, Problem��of Large Scale Settlement of Refugees_ from Middle Europe in British Guiana. N. Y, 1939, 21 pp.
�' p. 14, Helbert L. Dunn, Hope Tisdale Eldri�ge, and Nora E. Powell, Demographic Status of South A1rerica, 11 The Annals, January 1945, pp. 22-33.
11
Prestan James, .2E. ci. t., p. .569.
mi �
Jorge Zarur, The Sao Francisco River l[alley. Irma. Forencai, 1 0, p. 434,
v.
11
mss,
J..Ügrations, 11 �ncycloped:La of the Social Sciences.
-Ibid
Promotional literature and other techniques are described in M. L, Hanson, The Atlantic l·.fi.gration, Carnbridge, 1940. 391 pp., and The Immigrant in .11.rne.cican i-L-i.stcry, Cambridge, 1942. 230 pp. Caroline F. .¡are, 11 Er.a.igra tlon. 11 Enc.,rcl_oyedia of the Social Scienc:es, V, /+86-92; and in Howarcl MW1ford J ones, 11 Tlw Colonial Impulse, 11 Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, V. 90, No. 2, J,tay 10, 1946. pp, 131�1.
11+3/
Mark J efferson, Pe-:>olinUh<.:,.. �rgentine Pampa._ .h.merican Geographical Society. 1�30, p. 180.
New York, The
The Atlantic rügration, p. 281. Carter Goodrich, 11iligra.tion and Economic Opportunities, 11 Phila delphia, 1936, pp, 517-18, Resolucio:1es, Acuerdos, __fl.��endaciones ,Y Declaraciones de Con ferencias InLn·nacio�1alc:3 Americanas sobre Problemas Socialc➔ s. Union P.<\.namerica.na, Ofic;Lrnl de lriformacion Obrera y Social ... -:;Jashington, D. C. 1945. p. 23, Quoted from p. 14.
147/
Final Act of the Third Iuter-J\.r.1er lGan Conference on Agriculture. Helci at Caracas , Venezuela, July 24 to August 7, 1945, Pan me rican Union, Washington. 1945. 113 pp • .:�ucted from p. 1 01. International Labour Office, Rosolutions Adopted 'oy the Third Conference of the American ::;tates .l'J.embers of the ln t,ernational Labour Organization. pp. Jl-32. Kingsley Davis and Ana Gasis, 11 Urbanization in Latin Amcrica, rr Milbank Memor�al Fund Quarterly J April 1946. p. 11,
136
Dunn, -�· cit. p. 25
Pioneer SettleMent in the Asiatic Tropics., pp. 200-10. J ewish Colonization Association. Its Work in the Argentine Repub lic, 1891-1941. Buenos Aires, n.d., 94 pp. pp. 11-12. Ibid, p. 22. Ibid, pp. 23-24. International Labour 0ffice, Technical and Finru1cial International Cooper:..tion with reg,ard to Migration for Settlement. Geneva 1938. 180 pp. p. 16• llThe Problem of the Displaced Persons, 11 Report of the Survey Com mittee on Displaced Perscns of The American Council of Voluntary Agencies for F':.lreign Service, New York. June, 19L}6. 60 pp. p. 53. International Labour Heview, February, 1937, p. 241. Walter C. IácKain and H. 0tto Dahlke, 11Turn-over of f2.rmowners and operators, Va.le and 0wyhee irrii3-:1tion projects. 11 27 pp. Bur. Agp. Econ., U. S. Dept. of 1 griculture, Jerkeley, California, June, 1946. These estimP.tes were arri ved a.t by following the methcxis used by Louis J. Dublin and J\.l fred J. Lotka, in Th��oney Value o_f a Man, New Xork, Ronald Press, 1930. 264 pp. as sup:_;l.ei,11.onted by 11ilfeasur i.ng Fa.i11ily Responsi bility, 11 Statistic2.l. Jullet.in, May, 1946, pp. 6-8 and 11 The "·,Ioney Value of a ,an, 11 Statistic�·.l Julletin, Aug., 19/+6. pp. 3-5. The cost include::, fo,;� clo ,tÜ:tc5, shelt8r, light and fuel, household equipmer'1t, mr.,dica]_ carc, r.e rsonal care, enter tain,111:nt, t:..·ai1spor tation, educ . .ltion and vocational training, gifts and contributions. Intere3t, 11spoilage 11 ancl cost of oGing born are not included in the f,w1ily cost r�or are a,,r1y Federal e:,q:,e;1di t1.ires, such as free .food for school lw1ch units, etc., included in the governrnent bud¿;et. It is apparent that their figures re present n most conservative e•3timate. The importftnt point is not the e.x.act amount but the fnct th:l t there is such a 11 cos t of product,ion. 11 161/
Sir Jor,11 Simpon, The Refu.p;ce fr,:iblem. Lo;1do1�, 0x:ford University Press, 1939. I'.P• 5Y--5: The 3rcob:ings :i:nstitution, Refu�0e Settle mer.t in ·:_,J3 �O!,Jinica,1 R0puJ:Uc, ·,;as;ür:,:;ton, 19l¡.2. 1+10 pp.; Wilbert i•...oor·2i, 11 :-::·..:cnojtlc Llmits .:.ii' Intvrnational Resettlement. 11 American Sociolo,:;.\. c:tJ_ Revicw, ;._pril, 19/+5• pp. 274-81.
137
Jí:>�/
Data through the courtesy of Joseph T. Flakne, Chief, Alaska branch, Division of Territories and Island Possessions, Department of Intr�rior. Casanova, 11 El aumento de la población de Puerto Rico," Universidad de Puerto Rico, 1946. Luis Muñoz 1.Iarín, 11 Carib.Jean Dilemma, Puerto Rico. 11 Arnerican. Ju::ie, 1946. pp. 12-15. Creainer, 52.E• cit.,
The Inter
p. 96.
Fairchild, Henry Pra tt. People, the Qua nti ty and Quality of Population. New Iork: Henry Holdt & Co�, 1939, p. 235. Luck of the Irish, 11 19llb, pp. 45-61.
167/
Guy Irving 3urch, Washington, Nov.,
168/
C. A. Arensberg and :3. G. Kimba.11, The Family and Commw1ity in Ireland. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1940. p. 104 (quoted by Burch, E.E• ill•)
16'!/
I am indebted to José L. Janer of the Social Science Research Center Popula,t:l.on Proj ect and Harvey Pcrloff of the Economic Budgeting Proje et for ti1ese data.
170/
No atternpt is ;nc;.de in t,lis report to doal vtl. th the resources and resource-utilization aspect o f the populati on problem. It is being attached vigorously by the Puerto Rico Development Company, and other governmental agenc ies, and is the subj ect of a forth coming report from the Social Science Research Center by Dr. Hnrvey S. Perloff. Nor are questions of political status, income re-distribution and other similar issues raised although they undoubtedly must be considered in any complete demographic dis cussion. It is assumed that although improvements undoubtedly can and will be made in the economic aDd political field, popula tion pressure wiJ.l interfere wl th a better life for the average Puerto Hic-an until population growth is brou ght under control.
171/
Clellnn S. Ford, A CompC1:t:�i.�ive Stud of Hwnan Reproduction. t Ha ven. Ye.le Univc.:rsi tJ Press. 194 • 96 pp.
11 The
PoÍ:>ulation Bulletin,
New
11 Fertility and Educational L�v-el of Parents, 11 Statistical i3ulletin, Nov. 1945, PP• 6-7.
173/
11.W
The exact fig.¡re of children OL1tside schools was given by Dr. Ismael Rodríguez Bou as 46.69 per cent in July 1%6. El Problema Pobla c.ional de Puerto Rico. San Juan 0ffic8 of Information. 1946. p. 16. Puerto Rico Planning, Uroanizing and Zoning Board, Fourth Six Year Financial Program, Santurce: lviarch, 19h7. 79 pp.
138
..
175/
To oe p u:Jlished lato in 19�-7 by the Social S cience Research Center as Lajas Pueb lo. A report by Miss King on the dei!l'.lild for contra ceptives will appear shortly in Human Fertility, "C ultural Factors Affecting oirth Control in Puerto tlico. 11
17.!d
Gilbert W. Beebe and José S. 3elaval, 11Fertility and Contraception in Puerto Rico. 11 Puerto Rican Jou rnal of Pu blic Heal th and Tropical Medicine, Sept. 1942. pp. 3-62.
177/
Ibi�. p. 42
178/
See t he article by Dr. Chri stopher Tietse, 11 Hwnan Fertility and C ontraception in Pue rto Rico, 11 in the American Jou rnal of Socialogy, July, 1947 .
179/
El Problema Poblacional de Puerto Rico. Inforrnation. 1946. 32 pp.
San Juan:
Office of
139 THb SEL'3::CTI0t-1 OF COLOl'LSTS Tte long -::-ocord of plmmed settlemont is he:a.vily r.18.rked with faíl ures arising from poor selection of p2.rticipants. .Failures cannot be entirely olimino.\ed, of course, but much can be done (1) to éliminato those most likoly to fail and (2) to narrow down the choice from those remainj_ng to thosc most likely to succeed. Th,e second is obviously the more difficult task. Fortuna.tely, there is somo e:;qJerience on which to draw for help. The F'étrm Securi ty Administrn.tion and Burcau of Agricultur2.l Zconomics made a study of selection experience in 1937. It indicated the follow ing qualification recuirements:
(1)
Technical knowledce, gained chiefly through e:xperioncc, of th0 typc of agricultu,·e to be pructiced in the i1ew farm settlcment. Lacking tr.is, the settler needs addition al training, intolli1encc, desh�e to 102.rn, and, perhaps, mo:c'e capital ·.-!hcn it is nccessary to Htide ovor" somc lean lo['.rning yc�>.rs.
( 2)
A n1dirncntc�i'Y education and e.s much additional educo.tion as is in hamony 1ú th 2. favorabl0 attitude toward furm lifc.
( 3)
Cooperat�.ve ani harmonious family life -- a cooperative wife and ch.í..1.dren, who want to Hvo on 8nd help wi th a farrn, and who ha.ve 0)..'}")e.d.onccd agricfaltu-ra.1 life. A size and age-·sex just.od to the sizo groi1th or c1ecroasc must bo consi·Jered
composi tion of the frunily that is ad and typo of f2.rm. The probable future in thc oize of the family and its necds as woll,
( 5)
Thm general good health an�l st2.JJ1.ina of the f21nUy m0,mb-3rs that o.re necessary for farm J.ife;' thc ab.,encc cf he:.-e-:litary di:Je2.se or horcd:i.tary snsceptibility to a disqualifying disea.se.
( 6)
Ch,.r2.ct.,Jr, stability, and a sen se of rcspons i½ili ty.
(7)
Intelli·:ence, alortness, resourcofulrioss, arrl ju,le;emont.
(G)
A favorable o.tt.ltude to�mrd far·m lifo ancI thc particl'J.o.r opportu.ni ty to sett.le -- n wish to farm an :1 a wil='.ingness to sacrifice cor.1fort ;:-.nrl otl,8r valt,es when nocossa:cy.
(9)
Commu;1ity cooperativo o.biUty, whero comr.Jon enterprise is of benef·�t.
(10)
Reli'jiosity or loyalty to an icJ.oalistic group, if it tencls to sanctify tho a.1)ove a.gricultural v:lrtues, 2..nd if the men borsh:i..p in the religious or et.her group tends to bi.id the ind:�vidual. to the grot�p ':Jith which bese interests are identified, rather than to separata '.":.'.m from H.
-
140 (11)
•
Capital, or oth'Jr mcans, for such e:;rp-::nr:l.iturcs as are req1ü:.·ei to develop the ff.rm to the poi.nt of profitable cultiv,1tion; also, capital for a sufficient 11 deposit 11 investment to guarantee seriousness of purpose a,nd the sacrificcs neccssury to surmount difficultics. J/
Thc emigration orgcmizatio!} must be eqtüpped to asc0rtain the facts about prospectivo settlers. The following steps are su�gestcd: I.
There P,ust be a pool of porsons fron which to choose. )�x perionce has in dicated thut tho ra·:':io anr1 newspaper announce ments will bring a lc:1.rg-3 m1mber of in(!uiries. It should be st;,essod th,4t applicat.ions would be accepted only by roail. Othcrwise the office would be flooded by personal apnlicants. The use of a post office bo� uould elirninate that. haz�.rd.
II.
An accurute, comp:cehensive description of tho project, should be sent cach inquirer, with a d0ta:;.1ec�. list of the qualifi cations :Jeill8.nded.
III.
li.pplicants shoulct fill out a form containinz a fairly cor.iplete life histcry, indic,:-.ting fA.rl!ling e:-:perience, chvnges in loca tion and j obs 2.nd rGa.sons for them, capital a.vailable, an:::1 th3 ust�al 1-3.ta on aJe, height, weight, hcalth, 6.ducation, far himself, u1fe an:T children, etc.
IV.
A short ess;,.,y on i;�-lhy 1-iy F8.111:ily ano. I Like .ural Life 11 might give a clue as to the undorlying attitudC:s of the ap_�•licant. It should be possible to elinlinatc some 11 tourists!1 'by judging the sincority and intolligence shown.
V.
VI.
VII.
Those not elimínated in the:;e preliminary steps sho11ld then be su ject to local inv8st:lg,•.tion by tr,:ünod intorviewers. General questions such as 11Is José GÓ:nez i1 good i'arr10r? ll should be avoided in favor of a c.::ü�efcll�r cor.structed i:i:rt,erview schedule. Suggestions for such a schodulo are availablc9 The applicant himself shoulc1 be i:,t:)rviowed ¡ith anothor type of schoculo, ,Jesizned to probe fn:cther into his aptitudes, tra.ining, eJ..1)�rience, an·:1 stt�bility, o.s t1ell as the reactions an:.1 attitud.os of hls wife .J.nd ol-:1:::r chilr.fren. T'.1e final test for thoso not eli::::iinc.tecl -1uring the fírst six stcps, might be carriod on J.t insulo.r exy,Jrin1ent statíons. This wou.lr:1 involve thc h<-mcUing oi' filrm tools ,1.nd ,;1achinery ( oven thot:.gh somo of thom might not be used in the ·•1cw settlemont). Thc pnrpose is primo..:dly to test aclaptabilS..ty und not pre-exüiting' skills. An Gxp0ríonc d farm sup·Jrvisor can c1Gcide from the :::10.nnor in which r, man con tucts himself with ania,.ls, fowls j tools, pL.nts, fertilizer an'l earth,
141 wh other or not he is really a farmer i. e. , 11hether he has Such tests should be what gardcners call 11a green thu.mb. 11 con rlucted in groups which should live together for several r\ays cluring which tir;ie the members would be observed both ' é!.u.ring work and recreation time .. Work-shirkers, play-boys, thc "bossy" type, the bad sports, the unstable, the unco operative can be spotted under these condition�.
Y
The experience of the Farm. Security Administration in selecting Puerto Rican applicants for loa.ns should be ,frawn on, since its clients have a fine :i..�ecord of successful farming. Obviously this proce'3.ure is intrica te ani costly :in time and effort. Like the outlines for survoys and plans, it is only sugGestive of what must be clone. This step can be netzlect,d, however, only at the risk of jeopardizing the success of any proposed settlement with the atten'lant disruption of the livcs of th0se who have trusted the emigration official.�.
APP&r JIX A - Footnotes
1/
_ _:¿__o..f.Ji'.l�flOc1s ancJ. _Gr�t ,_r.j.._a_ J[�_e.Q_ i.n. _S§l�_cj;_�ng John B. Holt, /m ..l}.nal_ysi Familiss for .Q.o.l.9..n...i.?_a�J.011_..f.r..oiq9._ts, Hashin.'..;t.on, 1937. 54 pp. Hol t explains each point in somo 1etail. Pelz,:;r reports a set of rules worked out by Dutch coloniza.tion organizcrs on the basis of thoir Java experience wlüch they call "the ten commandments of colonization. 11 It is interesting to sec the points at which they coincide with the expericmcos st1..11IBlarize :l by Holt from entirely dif ferent cultures. 'l'hc 11 comma·ndrnents 11 e.re: I. Select real tanis (farmcrs); non-farmers are a l:;,v.rd0n for a colony o.nd cnd.2.ngor its success. II. Seloct physically strong peoplo; only they can stand tho hardships of pioneering. III. Selcct young peoplc; by taking them or1e reduces future population increasc in Java. IV. Select fa.milies¡ families are ·>he foundation of peace and order in the colonias. V. Don I t seloct families ,Ji th many young children; the working momb:::rs of thc ,Z.1.mily cannot carry that burden at thc start. VI. Don't select former plantation laborers; in 90 pcrcent of 2.11 cases thcy are tho cause of discontent in the colonies.
142
VII.
VIII.
.,
Don 1 t allow so-called 11 colonization marriagos 11 ; they are a source of tmrost in colonies. (Fre �uently bachelors marry h.-:,stily beforo erni1rating, in orler to be 2.cceptable. Their wivcs are known as voyage wives (bini djalan) or tow wivos (bini gandin:_i:an) • Don 1 t accept expectant mothers; the pionocr settler needs the fulJ. holp of the wife during the first year.
IX.
Don I t accept bachelors; soon,c,r or later they will become involved with somobody else 1 p wifc.
X.
Allow d,'3sas or l-::ampongs ( village cornr.lt:ni ties) to migrato as c. whole; in such a case tho first nine comma.ndments may bo ignored.
2/
Holt, g_p_.__cit.; E. J. Totroau, Saj.�_c.ting A:;_� 1.zona Sottlcrs. Tucson, 191.. 5. 2[! PP•; cr1d Henrik F. Infiold and Ernest D5 chtGr, "Who is Fit for Cooperative Faming? rr. A.r.12.lio2: ln½Jl.1.:..0J.?..O_l_g_g;y, Jan.-1-18.rch, 1%.3. PP• 10,17a
J./
Suggestions for bOth 11payer 11 and in Infiold a.n-::1 Dichter, QI2..•.cit •
11
farm ability 11 tests are contained
APPErDIX B
143
A proliJ.ilinary survoy is an indi.sp0nsable prelu le to successful colonization. A reconnaisance survey should be mad.e to detcrrnine the foasibilHy of a moro thorough stud.y. Many proposed areas would be eliminatod on the basis of the ffrst o::--:ami..Ylation. The a:ceas tentatively solected could then be inspectect minutely. The successful experionco of the Dutch in the ast Indies indicates that preliminary 7 surv3ys talco around two years.1The following outline is only suggost:l.ve. If it seems mct.1.culous to insist on this information beforc reaching él. r:l.ecision, it should be recalled that it is human lives tha.t ar8 at stake a,nd not pawns to be disposed of at will. Aroa Analysis I.
Employ:-:1ent Pattern.Y' EmploYJt!ent and unemploy·D.ent .show thc health or illness of the existing oconomy of an ar.)a and are therefore taken as a point of departure. The total employmont, its distrí utíon and its characteristics, i.e., steady, s�asonal, sporadic, etc., are needed. In inv0stigo.ting the employrnent structurc of a given area, it will be holpful to orient the work around·a series of quostions like the following: A. 1-foa t is the relation of tho total gainfully employed to thc total population of the urea?
'
B. Wha.t are the occupations in which peoplc are employod, and what porcontage of tho total gainful emplo;:rt1ent is representad by oach of tho major occupations? The occupo.tfons rnight be classod as 11 primar-¡ u ( to include farming, forostry, mining, fishing, ma.nufc.ct1xring and recreation) und 11 servico n ( to inclu:le wholesale o.nd retail, tra.nsporta.tional, oducational, financial, political, profossi-0nal and personal). Only thc major service occupations:meed be singled out; the others may qo grouped together.
c.
Who.t is the average income per worker in each majar occupation?
D. What are tho relativo amounts of (1) unemployment, (2) 1.mder employment ( those mal:ing ineffcctive uso of tho normal working yoar) ll (3) r(üiof and emorgoncy workers, and (4) un¡_Jroduc-tive individua.ls ( those recoiving abnormally low incomesJ? These facts le.s.d to an estimation of the total labor force of tho area.
E. What seasonal stability or instability in employment is chai-acteristic of the area, both in the aggregatc ancl. for each 1T1J.jor occupatiÓn;
,J
144
(1) Do seasonal lulls occur each yea.r .:i.nd whélt pcrcent of thc regular employment becomes idle? (2) In the farming cormnu.YJ.itics, is tho f armer, under prescnt practices, able to use his time fairly ef fectively throughout the year, or is he definitely underemployed? (3) Is there any existent or possible interchange bctween different types of employment?
(4)
\Jhat majar employments are supplemented by rninor employments (farm income, far example, by forestry work or vice versa)?
F. What cyclical stability or instability is characteristic of the area?
(1)
What, for example, are the cooperative employment fig1.1.res for 1929, 1931, 1937 and 19L¡.l?
(2) Using 1929 as a base, what have been the porcentage wise fluctuations? (3) \-lhich occupations, if any, show significent departures from the trend of the area as a wholo?
(4) II.
Does the area have too much of its employn1ent in industries which are abnormally sensitivo to cyclical swings of employrnent?
J\To.tural resources, with relevant maps. It is not sugeested that a complete inventory must be made of every aspect of this field. It is nccessary to know what settlers would be ablo to depend on and what natural obstacles they would encounter. The following points should be covercd: A.
Characteristics of tho land l. 2. 3. 4.
ReJ.j_ef Soil Hydrology J\:atural vegatation 5. MinGral resourcos
B.
.,,,
Climate l. 2. 3. 4.
Rainfall, amount and distribution Tcmporatui·e, ran,z;e and distribution Winds Hazards, í.e., hail, sleet, huTricanes, drought
145 III. Utilization of t1 atural aesources. At least as important as resoli_rccs is the use bcing roa.de of them. Again, this need not bo exhaustive, but it should shed light on the employment pattorn and lay the basis :for an estimate of what can be dono to improve resource-use. A. Agriculture l. Crops a. b. c. d. e. f.
Varioties Volume of production Value production Distribution within area Crop seo.son$ Fields
2. Livestock a. b. c. d. c.
Kinc1s of animals Fumbcr of each kind Breeds of oach kind Fo.tt�ral pastures Artificial pat1tur0s
3 • .Agricultural practices a. E:ztensivc cultivc.tion
b. Intensivo cultivation c. Lo.nd tenure (with propcrty division map)
(1) Small farmers (2) Sharecroppers (3) Renters (4) Haciendas (5) Governmont ownership (6) Unsurveyed an. unclairned d. Use of human, animal or machine powor for cultivation. e. Erosion control f. Rotation g. Irrig.J_tion h. Differencos betuoen th.::se e.nd practi-ces followed in comparable arcas in Puerto 11ico.
146 B. Forestry
c.
l. Varioti�s of trees 2. Commercial exploitation J. Rate of cutting 4. Forestry practices Fishing
D. Industry l. Extractive a. Minerals and metals presently exploited b. Unexploited but known deposits 2. Manufacturing a. Extent b. Articles produced c. Local products used IV.
Utilities and Servicesº A. Transporto.tion and Communication l. Hailroads 2. Roads J. Air transport L�. Tolephone, telograph, radio 5. Mail servico B. Power facilities
c.
l. Dev(:Üoped 2. Undeveloped Commercial facilities l. :tv!A.rkets a. b. c. d.
Distance Adequacy Prices with referenco to other domestic markets Paymont practicos
2. Storage and warehouse o.ccor.m1odations
J.
Rotnil trade outlets a. Location b. Size
147 i:,
c. Ade�uacy for present population
4. Wholesale sourccs D. Farm crcdit facilities l. Rate 2. Conditions V.
The People and their Welfare A. Population l. IJumbcr 2. Dcnsity J. Distribution 4. Birthrata and its trend 5. Deathrate and its trend 6. Rate of natural increase 7. Sex ratio B. Age distribution 9. Rocent in-mi�ration or out-migration .
T. B. Lcvels of .u1VJ.ng
l. Inco.nes
ª•
Individual b. Fa.inily
2. Food ha.bits 3. Food costs 4. Housing
ª•
Housc type b. Building material
u.sed
(1) walls (2) roof
c. Flooring d. Bquipment
(1) bods
( 2) IHtchen utens tls (3) sowing machines
c.
5. Distribution of family expenditurcs Health and Ssnitation
148 l. Causes of death 2. Hator supply 3. Uastc disposal 4. M0dical and dental facilities a. Doctors, 1entists, nurses b. Hospitals and equipment D. Education l. Primary schools a. b. c. d.
Distance Transporta.tion Pupil load Tcacher preparation
2. High schools 3. Technical training
4.
Expcriment stations
5. �xtension work 6. Literacy, by age groups ?. Informal education a. newspapers b. radio programs c. commun:Lty discussions 8. Recreation E. Rcligion l. Practices 2. Facilities
APPENDIX B --1._�otnotos
1/
y
Earl J. Pelzer, Pioneer Set:\:,lo_�t _i_n,_ t_he_ _/i._s_i9-_ti_c__Tr_o.P._ics. r.1 • Y., 1945. P• 235. Acl.apfod from "Arca Analysis - A Method of Public Works Planning ª , Ifational Il..;sources Planning Board, Technical Pa.per Nu.rnber 6. Washington, Fili-3• PP• 7,9.
APJ:El'DIX C
149
COLOt·IZATIOllT PLAl!
A boginn:lng on a colonization plan can be m.a·J.e whon the survoy has been completcd. Dccisions riust be :made and worked out in detail on such mattors as thc following: I.
Layout of settlemont. A. Division into plots ., each settler farming only bis own plot B. Plots plus common lancls for cattlo, wood gathoring, etc..
c.
ColLictively-worked l:=md, e.g., 3:,ctensive whcat lands
D, Cor.rrnunity facilities, includi:ng a mchincry center E, Cornmercial facilities, including a consumcrs 1 cooperative F. Industrial fo.cilitics II,
Typo of Fo.rming A, Sizo of plot necossary for family living B. Co!llr.l0rcial crops possiblo C. Homc-consrnncd crops posoitl8
D, Anir.lals an1 fowl E, Hechanization III, Econor.üc fo1.indation A. Dom·;stic n;.arkets B, Foroign markots c. (fountry' s internD.tional tracle position and practices D, Price Listory an-:1. prospecta for main crops E, Cost of lancl F. Cost of crodit G. Cost of transport::i.tion H, Cost and. availability of farmers 1 sup,lios, fcrtilizer., machinGI"'J, etc, I, Cost of living
150
J. Cost of production K. Prospects for profit IV.
Crodit, Insurance and Supervision It is suggest)d here th.:;..t thc Moxican plan of tying sup,3r vision with credit be utilized. The sourco of credit should provicl.c tochnically competent porsons to work uith the settlcrs in mappine out a farming plan for the season. Such an agoncy sh01.iJ.d b8.se its plans on a crop reporting and: foreeasting service, without which it would be working in the da.rk. Crop insurance, while always necessary, is crucial during the first year or two of a colony' s existence. Farming is always a gamble. A crop fa.ilure during the first season from causes entirely beyond the responsibility of thc settlers might ruin the entirc projoct. Some priva.te settlement schomes ar,; so organizec1 that a man accu..rnulatcs no equity in his plot 1.mtil it is completoly free of dcbt. This type of injustfoe should be guarded against.
V.
Contr.:i.ctual P.eb.tions The i1ic�r2.tion e;,.'Perts of thc International Labour Office advise as follows: i;rt is of groat h1portanco tho:t t.he mutual undertakings of thc ·'.l8.rt:tcs should :from thc outset be embodied in a wri ttcn contract. !.t times whon a settler is discouraged, he will derive r.1uch moral support from a pieco of paper reminding him that if only he perseveres ono day his dream will como true and ho will bo a freo man. l';othing could be more detrimentn.l to the methodica.l orianizC1.tion of his work or the judicious use of tho a·'lvances he may 1,e 1rantod than that he should be J.eft in ignoro.neo o.s to tho a.mounts he will have to pay a.nd, tho time he is 2.llo;-10d in which to meet his liabilities. 111/ The Venezuelan Instituto Técnico do In.mis-ración y Colonización provi'kJS in each a.greement of Sé.lo of plots to settlcrs tha.t it ma.y: a.ny settler who has not yet acquired o. provisional title doed if he (a) lacks disd�Jlino or misbehaves, (b) neglects his lot or cloarly J.ac1-:s abilíty to fr.rm it or to preservo the building�, ir.1prov0m0nts, or ee:tüpments bolong ing to the Instituto, (e) refuses to follow the rorking and pro-1uction plan reconnnended or tho technical _i_nstructions { e;ivcn, l)y the Institute, (dJ ropoatodly fails to porform his cluties as a member of the co-opcrative socioties (in this
11 oxpel
15l case the settlers 1 committee, to uhich J:-eference will be madc lator, must first be heard), or (e) fails �9 dischargc his financial liability towards the Institute • .Y Intcrnnl orgo.nize.tion ano. rélations betwen the settler;3 and the sponsoring institution should be marked out distinctly in the contr�ct. The settlers must be able to :ma.ke their voices heard when noce::isnry but without disrupting -::¡ i;,he discipline which is essential to any group offort.)I This outline is not meant to be exhaustive. An e�-peri�nced farm manaeement engineer shouJld, of. course, be the person ta make this section of the study.'/J
11
Intcrnational Lc.bour Revie}l• Enrique Siewers, "The Organiz.ation of Immigration and Land Settlcment in Venezuela: II, 11 1939. P• 42. Ibi-ª, P• 44. Siewers has somc suggcsti911s on this point which would bear careful stud-J• Ibid., PP• 47-8. Further sugrsestions t{ill be found in Roberto Alama Ibarra·, 1 1Tóp_ic _ 98___po'0-:_e_I.fl11ligr1ª,_0l-..9J'.l. .Y. Q.qJ_oni. .�ac. i_ón. Caracas, 1945. 38 PP•
,__--,-
APPE}TJIX D
152
Tho Pan American Union rcports on an Ar�ontinian developmcnt in planning colonization which merits caref'ul attention. Tho following description is taken from Hous.�ng__a_n_q_):l§._n¡:ij.p,.g (l'.Ttunber 4, lfarch, 1947, PP• 1-4) a publication of the Division of Labor and Social Information. Lifetime Leasing of Land Pormits Rational Colonization Scheme Few attempts have been made either in South or i:Torth America to establish security on tho land for rur�l familios through the principle of planned development nnd public ovmership. This has been a�e to a general concept of landas a sourcc of speculation and profit rather than as a public resource to be shared and usod in the most effective rnanner to advance tho general welfare. It is this latter princi-ole which is cmbodied in the Argentine Colonizution Law under Articlo 63. This article, originally passed in 19L�O, permits the lifetime leasing of public lands 1.mder tl e jurisdiction of th-3 National Agrarian Council (Consejo Agrario Eacional). The law was furthcr extended in 1946 by a decree per:mitting its applicQtion to whatcver lands rnay be acquired by the Council as wcll as thosc bolonging to the public domain. A certain amount of public subsidy is also p':mnitted in setting the rental foe for use of tho lands. Julio Villalobos, architoct, and .Director of Planning for the lfational Agrarian Co1.mcil, has published a description of the first project plannod for developmcnt, 1.mder this law, His report entitled PLAN DE COLOi:'IZ,ACIOi1 ZP BALCARCE outlincs the plan for a decentralized conm1unity covering an a¡•ea of about 60 square miles and housing a popuL,,_tion of 6,700 persons. It is an cxamplc of regionn.l planning which incorporates eco�o�ic, social and geographic factors in a progressive and comprehensivo manner reminiscent - though on a small scalc - of ple.müng done by the Tcnnessoo Valloy Authority. Vill.::tlobos travolled extensivoly in the United States several years ago and has studied the' agricultural land subdivision practices of the United States. He points out the errors generally !llftde in 0stablislüng arbitre_�, property lines bearing littlo or no rel.e.tion to the social and :E\mctional needs of tho settlers. Arbitra!'IJ layouts have resulted in inconvenient road systems, inefficient land uses and f2.rm land subject to erosion. Thc vndulating terrain of Balcarcc partic1.üo.rly rer:uires plari.rling in relation to contours. Under the plan the land is maintained permanently under thc control and lll8.nagcmcnt of public authorities with the ri:;ht to occupancy granted and guaranteod by the government, upon payment by the settler of an annual fee. However, after a period of six years of compliance \lith thc various req_uiroments, the settler is given un option to purchase. Re sale for profit is not permitted. In the c&S3 of continued rent the guarantee of occupancy rnay be passed on from a doceased hc�d of the family to the surviving membors, thus assuring thc protection of any improvements made by th� settlers.
153 This metl:.od of lan-1 tenure, tho a.uthor points out, pcrmi ts the sottler to put bis majar :Lnvcstnont :Lnto improvin0 thc property building his dwoll:i.ng and estaslishing his crops - rathcr than using his capi tu.l for land pu.rehuse moroly for tho salrn of &ssuring his co ntinuad occupancy. Un:lor the plan thc land ic considered as a public l1.tility 1Jhich rnakos possj_ble a moro rational form of land sub division, a bettor adjustrnent of land uso to topography and the functional recuiremcnts of tho cornmunity, and perrnits a closer, more officicnt grouping of dwellincs., schools o.nd comrrnmj_ty fo,cilitios. Th0 author of tho r'3port h2,s , levelopcd. a sito plan providing for one main tovm centor an,:l throe vilJ.a.gos ., The population would be 70 porcont rural and 30 pcrc0nt ur1..)an. A detailc1 breakdown is as follows: Rural zona ••••.•••.......••.•••.•• 2,000 porsons 11 Somi-rural••••••••••••. , • • • • • • • • • • 2,200 11 Urbo.n ( Town o.nd villagos) ••••••.••. ?, 200 Total
6,700
11
Land use far tho colony is programmod as follows: Rt1ral º º º
c.
º º • " º º º º � º º º º :) º º º ,.• º º º º º
SGrni-ru..r<.11 •••• o
o o • • � • • • • o o 6 • o o e • •
Subu..1,ban ••••• º º • º º •• º º º • º ••• ª º
e;
º.
Forcst.od lanclº º • • •• º ... º. º º • º º º • º º Rot.1 ds (' •• º ,, º º º º º
(1
•
,,
º
e •
º º •••
r;
11,000 hectarosx 11 2,000 11 250 11 2,500
º •• º •• __
.-r4QQ
11
11
The r.1ain u.rban ccmt0r locatc r1. towar'l tho cantor of th,3 dovolopment will housc fodoral administrativo offfoos, tho citizens 1 comnússion for hancl.lincr loco.l self-government, a school, othi.)r cultural facilities and shops. Thc romain·ler of tho p1�op0rty is diviclod int.o threo portions cach with its o,:m villri.gc c.;:nter none of which is f1.:.rthcr than six kilo mctcrs from another. ;�ach will havo i ts own school, shopping and com. munity scrviccs. All rur2.l propcrties are thcn loco.bd no furthor than two or thr00 kilomot'.:)I'S from onJ of tho villa�cs. In or .:!.cr thr.1.t r1wellings may not bo isolated from one anothcr .:md to economizo on ro<'�d layout and maintenancc, thc farms h.J.vc boen J.aid out in a triangular form 11ith four or !nO:>."e dwollin[rr1 zroupeci. ut tho jt�nction of thc p:ropcrty lines. Dr,,inago �nd -accossibility havo b(�on eivon consic1or2.tion in locü.ting tho dwcll:lng units.
154 Hoojed arcas and stémc p.nd gravol nmrrios hr,.ve bcon reserved for commnnity use and tho 1J,c.n�-cs of the stream ru.nninz through the property havo bGen set aside as a recr::iation o.roa. The ro.id system seeks to tako rdvantage of the contours of thc lo.n:1 and consists of a mininrum number of through roads leading to the main lüshway with numerous rr�l-de-sac roa�s s8rvine tho groups of farm c:wellings.
l l 1
The rolline site for the projoct has beon used in the pa.st for grazing, wheat an� patato crops, generally rotating those thrce uses from ono yc2.r to tb.e next. Tho lnnd has been worked by scmi-migra.nt farmers \Tho r cnt thc land for an assurod period of no more than one year. He is thus una.ble to make perrnanont improvoments or establish a real home and clos0r intorest in tho land; he is also depcndont on a single crop for his incorao E:.nd m.ust secura additional food from shops locat0d in nearby towns. 1
Given tho opportunity of leasing the land for a lifetime the fc.rmer may thcn direct his attcntion toward a long-rango program of crop production not only to provicle himselÍi and his family w ith an ample, balo.nced diet but also to sell commercially. Once stc:1;'.;:i..lized· on the lo.nd thc farm,)r may thon produce green vo:,;.Jtables, fruits, milk, chickens, eggs, and honey. Thc market for such diversified crops would be in Mar 1el Plé::..tu, the popular soaside resort to1,,m loca.ted only 80 kilomoters from the site of the colony and acccssiblo by paved highway. In this way, tho at�thor inrlicates, the f'utt1.ro of the farm family would not depond on., thG success or failure of a sinelo crop or the fluctuations of prices in/far-off markot. The author describes this pThase of his plan as an attompt to return to thc small, scmi••subsistonce type of f2..rming which clirninishod in parts of the Unitod States and Argentina d.uring thc 1870 1 s and 1880 1 s whon the growth of largo citics began and farming was oreanized for largo-scale production. , Tho dwellings to be built by the lfotional A.erarian Council in thB Baleo.reo colony will be minirrmrn in size allowing í'or eventual additions by the sottlor in. accordance w:i.th his 01,m tastos, nocds o.nd economic status. A basic pr1nciple in all d:>f0the planning 5-s to lea.ve as much of tho devolopment o.s possiblo to the initiative of thc settlors thom selvos and thus avoid stato paternalism. The total appropriat:Lon for the project comos to Li-,200,000 po·sos*. Ren.ts will be esta ,lishod a.ccording to the potontia.l incornc of th,:; land depending upen what it roa.y produce whe-ther rural, semi-rural or urban. A total unnual incone of 1,050,000 pesos is cstimated. Tho· total cost of all j_mprovoments•is entimatGd at 6,500,000 pesos. About half of this amount is to be spcnt for housing. Tho First Congress for J.ogional Planníng, hcld at S:111tiago del Estero in Soptomber 1946 on the initiative of Argentino planners, recommonded that the principle of lifetime lea.so of' land ombodied j_n tho Villalobos plan far Balcarco_bo appliod gencrally in colonizv.tion programs in as much as it 11 facilitatüs plo.nning ancl stabilization of the population and provides a financial basis far tho cxecution a.nd maintonance of public :k Tho Argontinc peso is currontly quoted at approxirnatoly ·::>. 25
u.s.
155 works and sorvices.1t Hith tho succossful a!)plicJ.tion of this technicue of land settlement in Argentina, e, pattcrn mny be ostublishod by which ncw arcas in many parts of Latin ,imcrica may be dovelopod through tho combination of state e.nd h1dividual initiative bascd on the attrn.ctive offor of sccurity, convcnicncc and confort in rural living.
1/
156
EXPERil@n IN PLACEtIE}TT OF HOUSEHOLD HOlUffil1.S It is recom.mended that an experimont bG carried out to determine (1) tho oxt:mt to which tho:·�e would be a response on th0 part of Puerto Rican yolmg women to thc opportunities mentioned in chaptor III; (2) the extent of thc possibl-) dem.."Uld in thu States u,ndcr the conditions set forth; (3) the need for a specialized training program; (/4) the need for financial aid and (5) thc possibilitios of recovcring any loa.ns which might prove necossary. It is suggjsted that 200 young women be recruited for this cxperiment Spocial attention should bo givon to their heulth, training and cxperi ence, and they must havo at least a rudimontary knowledge of English. It might be possiblu to rccruit 200 household workers with sufficiont exporiencc to satisfy a roasonably exacting continental housewifc without resorting to spocial training. Tho resul•t,s of thc experimont would cast some light on thc need for a special training program for household workors. arrangemcnt should bo ma·1e with women I s organizations in four difforent cities in the Unitod States, whore a cooperative connmmity program along the lines sug::;osted by the v!omens Burcau of thc Unit0d States Departmcnt of Labor hns bccn organized. Such programs are found in Cleveland; Philadclphio.; Chicago; Evansville; Indiana, Boston; Spring fielc,l; ho.ss�;. íürtford; Stanford; Buffo.lo; Duluth; St. Louis; Detroit; Tulsa; Atl...ntu und Mo1�ile. Succossful programs of improvement of household omployment have becn workcd out by tho Y.u.c.A.s in Buffalo and Syracuse, Now York; Donvor, Colorado; and Oo.kland, California, and by tho Cincinnati, Ohio, Com.mtmity Committoe on Hn.uschold Employmont, as weJ.l as by the Chico.ge o.nd St. Louis Househol'.i Etnployers Leagues. Those groups should bo approached far their coopero.tion. An
The Puerto Rican Dopartmont of Labor coulct agree to furnish house hold workers selected on thc basis of criteria furnished by the above mentioned orga.niz2.tions. In rctmn t,h,3se orgc..nizations should agree eithcr to place or co.refulJ.y to suporvise placemont of Puerto Rican women, to modiate in any difficulties which a.rise botwecn the employer and the cmployoo ond to assuro a high degree of responsibility for organizing :r:ecrca tional and educ.J.tional activities. If fifty girls wo:ro sent to each of four cities it would provido a sizeable group whfoh'could get together once e. woek for recreational a.nd educe.tional pu.rposes, so that homesickncss might be reduced and wholcsomo activitios be offor:.id to cut do\m the possibility that the girls uonlrl fincl. rccroation only through co;nmercialized channels, with their attendant dangers. It is probable thn.t somo trai.ncd éll1.d cxpericncod workers who would havo good chances of succoss in the Sto.tos would not bo able to go becausv of lack of resources. It is m1gg3sted that a revolving loan fund of 1r20,000 be croated for this ·oxpcriment and thr:i.t sums up to ;:;ioo be advanced to propor a.pplicants who othorwisc could not mako the trip.
157 The loan should bear a low rate of intcrest and be repayable overa period of 12 to 15 months. The extent to wlüch thc rcpayment of the loan should bo po.liced in futuro ca.ses could be decided on the baais of experience with the experimental group. It is folt th�t tho rop0rcussions of the success of this experi mont would be highly useful, both on tho continent and in Pu.orto Rico. The idoa of corrmmnity-wido cooperative organization is spreading under thc ímpetus of the presont shortago of compctont houschold workers.1/ It is being ppomoted by such govornment agencies as the Womens Burcau and ouch prívate agencies ás the Y.ii.C.A., thc Womons Trade Union Lea.guc o.nd tho Amorics.n Association of University Women. Wcws of the success of the expcrirnont will tmdoubtedly load to re�ucsts from othúr community groups, to tho Insular D::ipartmont of Labor for si.r.iilararrangements, as woll as encouruge the organization of more such groups to take a:ivantage of tho vast potential resourccs in this field which Puerto Rico offers. 0n tho Puerto Rican sido it will increase the job opporttmities of Puerto Rican young wo:men, as well as thoir chances of travol, recreation and education. Thcy nood not look forward toa lifotime of domestic servico. Thc capable ones who clisplay initiative will find opportunities in the fiold of hotel o.nd other institutfonal housekoeping. Even if thoy roturn to the island aftor tuo or three years Ilk'7.ny of thom will bring back oxpcrionce which will holp them her0. And ther0 is always tho possibility of rna.rriage on tho cont inent. If it appoars, on the basis of this cxporir:iont, that a training progrrun is noodod, the Federal Govern mont makos availablo funds unclor tho Smith-Hu¡;hes o.nd George-Dean acts which can be used by the vaca tional oduct�tion soction of the Insular Departnmnt of Educ,7.tion for oxpnncling its courses in hous ehold work. Tho;�o is a wealth of expericnco to draw upon The HPA organized 'a projoct for training household workcrs in 1940 • .:/ The Insular Board for Vocational 3duc2.tion and the Home Economics Dopartmont of tho Uni vorsHy of Puerto Rico have persons iJith mctensive o:xporience in this field who should be called upon.
�PPENDIX � - Footnotes
1/
y
-
Carolin e F. Ware, ed., Labor and�Democracy in the Home,Hudson Shore Labor School, West Park, J\'. Y. and Va.ssnr Surn.mer Instituto, Vassur Colloge, Poughkcopsio, }i.Y., July, 194;-,. rrlii::ioo. 41 P• Findin.E,.s of Housohold Emn].oyees Gro1m, Bryn Mo.wr Summer School for Women 1-lorlrnrs irl Industry, 1-/Jst Po.rk , J\1.Y. , 1937. mimeo., 8 P• P. R. Labor l170ws VoJ.. III :tfo;:3. 3-4, Me.y-Aug. 1940, PP• 6,3-65.
APPEFJIX F
158
cu::sTIOi\TARIO A �.J1.TIVi:RSI JAD iJE ru.-;:;RTO :;neo C"8FT1l.O m Il'1 V::'.i;STIGACior··.:;s SOCIALES RIO PrEDRAS, P. n. Para los trabaja.-Jores puertorric:uei'í.os cue se han c,uedado en los Estados rnidos.
I (Sírvase poner una marca después de la línea que esté más de acuerdo con lo c,ue usted cree.) Creo que comparada con la vir1a en Puerto Rico, la vicla en los Este.dos Unidos es: Mucho más s.::.tisfactoria Hás satisfactoria Menos satisfactoria Hucho menos satisfactoria Casi igual II Los aspectos favorables más i1n'.:iort211tes (las cosas 0ue más me gustan) en el Continente son: (sírvase poner el mboro 1 a.nt0s del más :hnportante, el número 2 en el cuele sigue en importancia y así sucesivamente hasta el núnero5 si 11ega hasta ahí. Escriba cualescuiern. otros en las líneas en bl�nco.) �'1ejor alimentación Mejores viviendas El empleo ofrece más posil,ilidades de progreso He mej oro::io físicari1ente ,iejor asistencia médica rfejores facilidades c1e diversión y :·ecreación La sem:ac:i.ón de 8star en un siti.o extra.fío Las relaciones personales son cordiales Los salarios son más c:ltos Estoy aprenliendo un oficio nuevo III Los aspectos �1esfavorablos más importantes (las cosas rue no me gustan) de la vir1a en los Efd,ados Unidos son: ( sírvase poner el níunero 1 antes del más importante, el nú.1ero 2 en eJ. r:ue le sigue en importancia y así sucesiva.11ente hasta el núrnero 5 si llega hasta ahí. :'.l:scriba cuaJes ruiera otros en las líne¿s en blanco.) Salarios muy bajos Echo de menos a mis familiares y amigos
159 El clima llega a los extremos - frío o caluroso }o estoy trabajan·lo en mi oficio Vida agitada Falta de diversiones favoritas El trabajo es muy fuerte Las comi1as no me sientan '.Jien Me hace falta Puerto Rico La gente no me trata bien No puede conseguirse una vivienda adecuada III (a) Por lo �eneral, ¿ha sido la gente amigable, o no? Si la gente no le trata bi )n, especific:_ ue qué clase 'ie marcando una o !Tlc{s de las C1Ue siguen:
,:mte,
El capataz Los compafíeros :l.e trabajo El casero Los mozos en los restaurantes Los dependientes en las tiendas La gente en los tranvíe.s, guaguas, etc. Otras personas III (b) ¿A qué razones atribuye usted el :na.l trato?
IV Diga brevem".lnte cú.al es J.a ro.zón principal c-ue u,;;ted tuvo para no regresc:i.r a Puerto :::.ico •. __ .. __ ... _ .. ____ ... ·•- . _______ . _ ... __ . _. ______ V ¿Estuvo usted en los Z::;ta,.1os Uni�l.os antes .1e L..:. anterior Guerra Mundial? ____ .. __ Si estuvo, ¿cúnndo? __ ..... _. ____ . _. . . . .. __ _ ¿TI:stán en los ��stados Unidos sus fruniliares más cercanos? Si no est,fo, ¿se pro::ione u¡:_;ted t-.-aerles pronto? _______ _ ¿Le escribe m,te :l a sus fruniliares y amigos rlicién.rloles rue vengan al pueblo .: ·--:·."·:d.arl donrle u.sted está ahorn? _______ Si no lo hace, cúal es la razón?__.__ ···-
160
VI
¿Cúal 0s su oficio ( ocupación en la c:ue tiene más r}estreza, pre-paración y ex-periencia)? ---···----···---- ..... ________ . _ .. _____ .. ____ --· ¿Trabajó Ud. en su oficio en los �staclos Uni::los r:1urante la GU-erra? Si no fué así, ¿en cué oficio u oficios trabajó Ud.? ________ VII ¿Está Ud. trabajando en el mismo empleo o en uno parecido al cue tenía antes de la guerra? -·-· .... _______ ¿Está Ud. trabajando en un empleo mejor? en lmo menos :.1esoable?
f8stá Ud. 1esernpleado? VIII Anote los pueblos en cue Ud. ha. trabajado durante esto viaje a los ::Zsta.dos Unidos, comenzan,Jo con el prime:ro y relacionando los demás en orden sucesivo. Zsp-=,cifiri ue los meses cue se quedó en cada uno. PtJEDLO
PUJ:BLO
¿Cúal fué la razón prj_ncip..-'11 o_ue Ud. tuvo para mudarse de lUl pueblo a otros?
IX ¿Intenta Ud. quedo.rse en Esta-:"los Unidos permanentemente? Si no tiene esta intención, ¿cuándo se propone rec;resar a. Puei�to Rico'?__
X ¿!3staría U"'-• displ1.ssto a ir a uno do los países de 1a Améric;:;. Latina si le ofrecieran un trabajo penilanente? ¿Iría Ud. si le of:.�ecieran tierras para cultivarlas?
lra.. Selección 2da. Selección
161
XI ¿Cómo se entS:rÓ ud. r1e la ofert..1 �u0 hizo la Comisión ,1c Empleo de Guerra pa.ra trabajar cm los :2;stado:o Unidos? _:1-cos.? l os perJ.o . 'd. ..,:Por __ ¿Por la rac1io? ¿Por amigos o conoci·los?
XII ¿Por cué aceptó U::_. 1a oferta el.e la Comisión '1.e Empleos de Guerra? f�staba rJcsempleado entonces? _____ -------·-· ... ________ ¿'I'cnÍá fé::i..r:1iliarcs en los '�sta:�os Un i::102? _____ .. _______ ...... ___ ¿Jns0aba r,1ejorar sn posición económica? __________ ·--- _. ____ ¿Sentía afé.n '.lo a.vontl�ras? ------------·Otras r&.zor.,cs -------·--···· _______________________ -··,- _______ XIII ¿Cuál ha siJ.o en p¿1.rtic1.üc•.r su rn.{s e;ratA. ex· eriencia en los r:::staJos Unidos?
JIV ¿Cuá.J. ha sido en particu.lar su cx-oeriencia rJás rlesagradable 8n los I:;stados U!1idos? ---· ... •-·--. __ ...
zv Escriba. cle.ramente; Direeción act.\:t1.J.
Calle
Ciudad
Pueblo o i'forücipio en Puerto l1ico de don ·:o 1Y. :::1roc0 lc 1
Esta-lo civil; ¿Casado? ___ ¿Soltero? _ __ ¿Cuántos hijos tiene Ud.? ¿-.::ú;'..ntos hijos tuvo .su padre?
¿Viudo?
__ ¿Divorciado? _,__
162
Instrucción (Sírvase he.cor una marca al lado del grado más alto a oue llegó usted en la escuela). :Gscuela olementa.l 1 Escuela Su:Jerior 1 1 Sscuol� do Oficios 1 Unj_vorsidad o Colegio Otros -. - .. - .. - -- - �- ··-- ..
--
--·-
,.
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
4 5 6 7 8 4 4 I+
·- .. ... . ... - - - - . .. -·- ---
¿Qué edad tiene Ud.? Sírvase él!lotar su color;
Blanco Trigueño
Trigueifo claro líoreno
Ifagro
163
cu·];sT rorAi1I o B GI•IV.�,1SIJAD J� PIT.�RTO 3.ICO CEF T:'.;.0 JE n-v:::;sTIGACioi·zs SOCIAL.�S RIO PIEJRAS, ?.
n.
Para los trabaja'.:'i.ores pu8rtorriqueíi.os e;ue han rcsresado a Puerto Rico. I
(Sírvase poner una marca d:lspués de la linea que esté más le acuerdo con lo cue U r1. siente.) Creo que comparada con la vida en Puerto Rico, la vida en los Bsta,10s Unidos es: Mucho más satisféctoria Hás satisfactoria líenos satisfactoria Uucho menos satisfactoria Casi igual II
Los e.:3:pectos desfavorables más importantes (lns cosas cue más me •J.isgv.sfa.ron) de mi vida en los Estados Unidos fueron las siguientes: ( sírvase poner el nú1nero 1 antes r1el más import211te, el m�_rnero 2 en el cue le sigue en i 1portancia y así sucesiva.mente hasta e1 núnero 5, si llegare hasta. él. :;-�scriba cualesr.uiera otros en las lineas en blanco.) 1
Salarios ::my bajos para responder al coste de la vi,fa �ché de menos a mi familia El· clima ora ertrema.r.1o.mente frío o caluroso lfo est2.ba trab.:i.ja.ndo en mi oficio Vida agitada Falta de -Uversiones favoritas :El traqajo era demasiado fuerte Las conidas no me sentaban bien He hacía falta Puerto i1ico La gente no me trataba bien J,r o puede conseguirse mm vivienda e.dccuada
III
Por lo general, ¿fué la gente amigable, o no?
164 Si la gente no le trataba bien, especifique qu� clase de gente, marcando una o más rle las que siguen: El capataz Los compañeros de trabajo E.1 casero Los mozos de los restaurantes Los dependientes en las tiendas La gente en los tranvías, guaguas, etc. _____ _ Otras personas
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¿A nué razones atribuye Ud. el mal trato?
IV Diga brevemente ctfal es le. razón principal cue tuvo para regresar a Puerto Rico . . . .. . ..____ ........... - .. -· - . .....
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--- -·--
.._
____________ ----
V
¿Regresaría Ud. a los Estados Unidos otra vez para trabajar en un empleo temporero? ______ ¿En un empleo permanente?
VI ¿Iría Ud. a uno de los países de la América Latina si le of�ecieran un trabajo permanente? ¿Iría Ud. si lo ofrecieran tierras pa1>a cultivarlas? ¿Qué país de J.a Ar1érica Latina preferiría Ud.? lra. Selección 2da. Selección
VII ¿CÚal es su oficio (ocupación en cue Ud. tiene más c1estreza, prpparación y e:Kperiencia.)? ____ ---.-·--· _________
¿Trabajó Ud. en ese oficio en los Estados Unir.os durante la guerra? Si no fué así, ¿en
C"'UÓ
oficio trabajó Ud.?
165 VIII
¿Cómo se ·enteró Url. de la oferta c:ue hizo la Comisión de Empleos de Guerra para trabajar en los Est1}.dos Unidos? ¿Por los periócticos? ¿Por la radio? ¿Por a.ni;'.50.s o conocidos? IX
¿Por qué aceptó Ud. la oferta ie la Comisj_ón de Empleos de Guerra? ¿Estaba desempleado entonces? ¿Esperaba mejorar su posición económica? ¿Esperaba conseguir un trabajo permanente en los Estados Unidos? ¿Sentía afán de aventuras? Otras razones ---·--·---·,.,. ,,.._, ,_.._ .. --- ....... - . __
____
____
......
_.
X
¿Volvió Ud. a su empleo anterior en Puerto i�ico o a uno sustancial•• mente igual? ¿Está Ud. en un trabajo mejor? ¿�stá en un trabajo menos deseable? ¿Está Ud. desempleado?
XI ¿Cú.al fué en p�rticular su experiencia más grata en los Estados Unidos durar,te su estadía allí? __ . ----·--- ___ ·-·------________ _ }(II
, ¿Cúál fué en particular su experiencia más desagradable durante su estadía en los :Zstados Unidos? -·------·--________ XIII
�scriba clara.mente;
Pombre de p:l.la
Apellido paterno
Apellido .:IB.terno
166
Dirección actual:
Callo:
Ciudad:
Pueblo o municipio en Puerto ?..ico de 'ioncl.e Ud. procede ___ Estado civil:
Casado?
--- Viudo?
Soltero?
Divorciado?
¿Cuántos hijos tiene Ud.? ¿Cuántos hijos tuvo su pa�ra? Instrucción ( $írva'se hG.cer tma marca al Ud. completó en la escuela). 1 2 ;J;scucla elemental Escuela Superior 1 ,: Instrncción técnica 1 Colsg:lo o Un:Í. versido.d 1 ,:.. Otra instn1.eción -•� ........ .... ')
Sírvase anotar su color: Blunco
3 4 5 6 7 8 3 4
-�-- -- ______ -·,.•-')
¿Qué edad tiene Ud.?
lEdo -J.cl grado I]]¡;l.S alto que
3 /,_,
_._
Trirrueño claro --e:, Trigueño _ Mo:ceno _ "f\Tegro
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