Theme A
Theme B Democracy at work in the UK
Theme C How the law works
Contents
Living together in the UK 1.1 What is a community? 8 1.2 Where are your roots? 10 1.3 Religious understanding 12 1.4 What’s happening to the UK population? 14 1.5 Migration: the pros and cons 16 1.6 What is identity? 18 1.7 Mutual respect and communities 20 1.8 Meeting barriers 22 1.9 Discrimination and the law 24 1.10 Developing mutual understanding 26 1.11 What are human rights? 28 1.12 Human rights in the UK 30 1.13 Political rights 32 1.14 Legal rights 34 1.15 Fair play at work 36 1.16 Protecting the customer 38 1.17 Rights with responsibilities 40 1.18 Human rights: checks and balances 42 1.19 Who represents us? 44 1.20 How does the council work? 46 1.21 What does the council do? 48 1.22 Bringing it all together 50
2.1 Getting elected 56 2.2 Does everyone’s vote count? 58 2.3 Who shall I vote for? 60 2.4 Into power 62 2.5 Forming a government 64 2.6 How are laws made? 66 2.7 Apart or together? 68 2.8 How are we governed? 70 2.9 Balancing the budget 72 2.10 Bringing it all together 74
3.1 What’s the point of law? 80 3.2 What is law? 82 3.3 Criminal and civil law: what’s the difference? 84 3.4 Who puts the law into practice? 86 3.5 Criminal courts 88 3.6 Solving civil disputes 90 3.7 What sort of sentence? 92 3.8 Young people and the justice system 94 3.9 What’s happening to crime? 96 3.10 How can we reduce crime? 98 3.11 The law: a citizen’s responsibilities and rights 100 3.12 Bringing it all together 102 How to use this book 5
Theme D Power and influence
Theme E Taking Citizenship action
Glossary 189 Index 194
4.1 Playing your part in democracy 108 4.2 Playing a political role 110 4.3 Putting on the pressure 112 4.4 Making a difference 114 4.5 Getting out the vote 116 4.6 Digital democracy 118 4.7 Does your vote count? 120 4.8 Supporting society 122 4.9 Trade unions and the protection of people at work 124 4.10 What is the media? 126 4.11 Why should the press be free? 128 4.12 The media: informing or influencing? 130 4.13 Legal, decent, honest and truthful? 132 4.14 The media: investigation and scrutiny 134 4.15 People, pressure groups and the media 136 4.16 What is Europe? 138 4.17 After Brexit 140 4.18 The Commonwealth 142 4.19 The United Nations 144 4.20 The UN at work 146 4.21 NATO: what it is and what it does 148 4.22 The World Trade Organization 150 4.23 International justice 152 4.24 Who can help? 154 4.25 Conflict: what can the UK do? 156 4.26 Bringing it all together 158
5.1 Choosing your action 164 5.2 Carrying out research 166 5.3 Whose point of view? 168 5.4 Planning your action 170 5.5 Developing your skills: teamwork 172 5.6 Developing your skills: questionnaires 174 5.7 Developing your skills: advocacy 176 5.8 Developing your skills: the message 178 5.9 Developing your skills: protesting 180 5.10 Participation in action 182 5.11 The impact of your action 184 5.12 Bringing it all together 186
Getting you thinking
1 Make a list of the way the government will have to support these children as they grow up and grow old.
Is the population growing?
2 People are living longer, so what problem does this cause for the government?
Is the population ageing?
If more babies are being born than the number of people who die, the average age of the population will fall. If it is the other way round, the average age will rise and the population will be ageing. As medical care improves, people are living longer. If the population is ageing, the bars at the top of the pyramid graph will grow longer. One third of people born today can expect to live to 100.
An ageing population generally means that there are more people with disabilities. The government has to work out how to pay for more pensions, healthcare and looking after older people.
Source: Office for National Statistics
The UK population has grown steadily throughout history. Many babies used to die at a young age in the early 20th century. Today the survival rate is much higher. People used to die much earlier than most people do today. This is because most people now have a better diet and better healthcare.
The size of the population has also been affected by world events. The pyramid graph shows the number of males and females in each age group in 2021. A lot of babies were born in the years after the Second World War. These people are now all heading for age 80. You can see that the bars showing 70–79 year olds are longer than you might expect. At the beginning of the 21st century, the number of babies fell, and then rose again. In recent years there has been another fall – as you can see from the shorter lines for the Under 9s.
United Kingdom – 2021
Theme A: Living together in the UK 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 2021 48.7 48.5 49.9 52.0 56.1 59.6 England and Wales population (millions)
1.4 What’s happening
to the UK population?
Males (millions)Females (millions) Age group 0–9 000.5 0.51 11.5 1.52 22.5 2.53 33.5 3.54 44.5 4.5 10–19 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–69 60–69 70–79 80–99 90+
England and Wales population in millions Source: Office for National Statistics
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What’s causing the change?
Since 1971 the population of the UK has grown by over 10 million people. Most of this growth has happened since 2001.
There are two main factors that cause a change in the size of the population.
1 Life expectancy
If people live longer and more babies survive, the population will grow.
2 Migration
The number of immigrants coming into the country and the number of emigrants who go to live in other countries will affect the size of the UK population. As you found out on page 10, there has always been migration into the UK. As the numbers rise and fall, the total number of people in the country will be affected.
Check your understanding
1 What is happening to the size of the UK population?
2 Why is it changing?
3 What effect will the change in age structure have on the country?
4 Since the Second World War, which areas have people come from?
5 What different groups of people want to come to live in the UK?
Key terms
Where have the migrants come from?
After the Second World War, the UK was short of people to work in the health service and other jobs. People were encouraged to come from the West Indies and other Commonwealth countries to take up these roles.
As a member of the European Union (EU), the UK agreed that people could move freely from one EU country to another. Since the UK left the EU, immigrants come from the rest of the world rather than the EU.
Why do people want to come to the UK?
People have many reasons for wanting to come to live in the UK. They generally fall into one of the following categories.
• Economic migrants come because they are looking for a better life. They want to find work and support themselves and their families.
• Refugees come because they have been forced to leave their country in order to escape war, persecution or natural disaster.
• Asylum seekers come because they want to put in a request to be allowed to stay here because they are refugees. Their claim will be assessed and will be accepted if they are considered to be genuine refugees.
Action
Use a search engine to find ‘ONS UK population pyramid interactive’. Look carefully at the data and compare where you live with a different sort of place. Look at expected future changes too.
Another point of view
‘We should welcome everyone who is escaping war, persecution or disaster.’
asylum seeker: someone who says he or she is a refugee, but whose claim has not yet been definitively evaluated Commonwealth: a voluntary group of independent countries, some of which were former British colonies economic migrant: a person who travels from one country or area to another in order to improve their standard of living European Union: a group of 27 countries which work together in fields such as the environment, social issues, the economy and trade refugee: a person who has been forced to leave their country in order to escape war, persecution, or natural disaster
1.4
What’s happening to the UK population?
You will explore the changes that are taking place in the structure of the UK. population.
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2.2 Does everyone’s vote count?
Getting you thinking
At the general election in 2019, there was a big difference in the percentage of votes cast for each party and the percentage of seats won. The votes and the 650 seats in the UK Parliament were allocated as shown in the table.
1 Does this seem fair?
2 Approximately how many seats should each party have if the votes were allocated fairly?
3 Can you think of a way that would be fairer and ensure that everyone’s vote counts?
Which voting system?
First-past-the-post
As you learned on page 57, first-past-the-post (FPTP) is used in UK general elections. It has both advantages and disadvantages.
The advantages of FPTP are:
• Extremist parties are unlikely to be elected as they won’t be able to win enough votes in any one constituency.
• The result becomes clear very quickly, so the winning party can take over government as soon as the election is over.
The disadvantages of FPTP are:
• The number of votes cast for a party does not reflect the number of seats won. A party can win an election with a minority of the votes.
• Smaller parties tend to win few seats because they don’t have enough support in each constituency.
• People may vote tactically to keep a party out rather than for the party they believe in.
Proportional representation
Proportional representation (PR) means that the number of seats a party wins is roughly proportional to the number of votes it receives in an election.
There are many different sorts of PR, but they all work in this way. In the simplest example, you have a large constituency and a list of candidates. You might vote for the candidate or the list, but each vote counts.
The advantages of PR are:
• No votes are wasted.
• The number of seats the parties win reflects the percentage of votes cast for each party.
The disadvantages of PR are:
• It is difficult to stand as an independent candidate.
• The party can draw up the list of candidates so only people who agree with the powerful people in a party will be elected. This is not good for democracy.
• The elected MP has no local link in a big constituency.
• Small parties can have unfair power over the larger parties by threatening to withdraw from a coalition.
Theme B: Democracy at work in the UK
PartyVotes won (%) Seats won (%) Seats won Conservative43.656.2 365 Labour 32.231.1203 SNP 3.97.448 Lib Dems 11.5211 Green 2.711 58
What difference would proportional representation make?
In the 2019 election, the Conservative Party had a big majority under the first-past-the-post electoral system. Under proportional representation, there would not have been an overall majority.
There are several difference types of proportional representation. This example uses the D’Hondt method, which is used in much of the European Union. It is a type of closed-list system in which the parties put forward a list of candidates who are selected in order. It helps smaller parties gain representation because the constituencies are larger and votes for these parties are rewarded with seats. The Liberal Democrats and the Green Party would both have gained in this system.
The ballot paper shows the parties’ names and lists their candidates. Any independent candidates are listed at the end. The voter puts a cross next to the party or independent candidate they wish to vote for.
Check your understanding
1 What does FPTP stand for?
2 What does PR stand for?
3 What are the advantages and disadvantages of FPTP?
4 What are the advantages and disadvantages of PR?
5 Which parties would have gained and which would have lost if PR had been used in the 2019 election?
6 Why would there not have been an overall majority for one party?
Another point of view
‘Proportional representation must be used for all UK elections.’
Key terms closed-list system: a form of PR in which a party puts forward a list of candidates in the order they will be elected proportional representation: electoral systems which attempt to match the number of seats with the number of votes
You will learn about the advantages and disadvantages of different voting systems.
Party Seats under FPTP at the 2019 General Election Seats under proportional representation Conservative 365 228 Labour 203 216 Lib Dems 11 70 Green 1 12 SNP 48 28 Plaid Cymru 4 4
2.2 Does everyone’s vote count?
Conservative Labour Green Party Lib Dems SNP Plaid Cymru
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Seats under first-past-the-postSeats under D’Hondt method of proportional representation
Getting you thinking
Here are two views on Scotland’s independence. Yes!
‘A “Yes” vote means we can choose to have power over our country’s future – and make Scotland a better place to live for all of us. Even our opponents agree that Scotland has what it takes to be a successful independent country. An independent Scotland would be among the 20 wealthiest nations in the world. But we need independence to make that wealth work better for the people who live here by creating more and better jobs.’
Devolution
No!
‘A “No” vote will mean a better future for my kids. They will have more job opportunities and better funding for schools and hospitals. Most people I have talked to think that devolution has been a success. The decisions made in Scotland are guaranteed because of our links with England. There is the power to raise money for our NHS, to help people back to work, and look after welfare. We can have progress in Scotland without the risks of separation.’
1 Set out the two arguments for and against Scottish independence.
2 What is the difference between devolution and independence?
3 Do you think Scotland should become independent?
The Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly were both set up following referenda in 1998. There had been lengthy campaigns for devolution in both countries. People wanted devolution because it shifted some power and authority from London to their own capital cities. The Welsh Assembly became the Welsh Parliament in 2020. The extent to which power is shared with Westminster varies according to the strength of the vote in the referendum in each country.
In the referendum on devolution, Scotland voted strongly for its Parliament. In 2014, another referendum was held. This time it asked whether Scotland should have independence. This was narrowly lost. As a result, the Scottish Parliament was given further powers.
The powers of the Scottish Parliament:
• agriculture, forestry and fisheries
• consumer advocacy and advice
• economic development
• education and training
• elections to the Scottish Parliament and local government
• environment
• freedom of information
• health and social services
• housing
• justice, policing and fire service
• local government
• sport and the arts
• tourism.
Some aspects of:
• taxation and benefits
• energy
• equality legislation
• transport.
Theme B: Democracy at work in the UK 2.7 Apart or together?
The Scottish Parliament chamber
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The Welsh voted by a narrow margin of 0.6 per cent for devolution. The Welsh Parliament can spend the UK government’s allocation of money to Wales, but it cannot set taxes and has limited law-making powers. Its powers now cover:
• agriculture, fisheries, forestry and rural development
• culture
• economic development
• education and training
• environment
• health and health services
• highways and transport
• local government
• tourism
• Welsh language.
Northern Ireland’s Assembly was set up in 1998 but has often been suspended because of disagreement among Irish politicians. The current Assembly has powers to control education, health, local government, policing and justice.
Check your understanding
1 What is the purpose of a referendum? When is one held?
2 What is devolution?
4 What’s the difference in the amount of power held by the Scottish Parliament and the Welsh Parliament?
5 Why do some Scottish people want independence?
6 Why do some people want to have regional governments?
Key terms
There are calls for regional assemblies in the rest of the UK too. Many people in regions such as Cornwall feel that their part of the country is distinctive and has different needs from the rest of the UK. People in the North East, however, rejected the idea when a referendum was held. The cost of running a regional assembly was one factor in their decision.
As calls for devolution have grown stronger in Cornwall, new powers have been granted to the county. It now has control over adult skills and regional investment. Health and social services have been brought together and it organises bus services.
Action
The Scottish referendum on independence resulted in the decision to stay in the UK. There was, however, still pressure for change. Check up on what is happening and how the powers of the Scottish Parliament are changing.
Another point of view
‘Devolution means that better decisions are made for a region because they are made locally.’
Assembly: a body of people elected to decide on some areas of spending in a region devolution: the transfer of power from central to regional government
You will explore the changing views on devolution and independence in the UK.
2.7 Apart
or together?
The Welsh Parliament chamber
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Getting you thinking
Objectives
46 member states Democracy
Human rights
The rule of law
27
member states
To promote peace and the well-being of EU citizens.
To offer EU citizens freedom, security and justice, without internal borders.
To work towards the sustainable development of Europe, promoting equality and social justice.
To establish an economic union, with the euro as its currency.
1 All the information above refers to the European Union or the Council of Europe. Work out which are which.
The Council of Europe
The Council of Europe was founded after the Second World War. It aims to protect democracy, human rights and the rule of law. Most European countries are members. The UK is currently a member.
It created The European Convention on Human Rights.
What does it do?
You learned about this on pages 30 and 31. The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) in Strasbourg deals with cases brought by individuals, groups or states who believe their rights have been infringed.
No member state has the death penalty.
The Council of Europe monitors democracy, human rights and the rule of law in member countries and recommends changes when necessary. Here are some examples of its activities.
Advocates freedom of expression and of the media, freedom of assembly, equality and the protection of minorities.
Campaigns on issues such as child protection, online hate speech, and the rights of the Roma, Europe’s largest minority.
Helps member states fight corruption and terrorism and undertake necessary judicial reforms.
Promotes human rights through international conventions, such as the Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence and the Convention on Cybercrime.
Theme D: Power and infl uence 4.16 What is Europe?
CoE
138
You will explore what it means to be a member of the European Union.
The European Union
When the European Union (EU) was formed in 1957, it was an economic community. Over the years, it has taken on a wider role and has now become a more political, social union. The EU has a Parliament. Its members are elected by each country and it makes laws that all EU countries must follow. There are currently 27 members and several more countries
The single market
which have applied to join. The UK left at the end of January 2020.
Some member countries use the euro as their currency. It makes trade and travel more straightforward but also means that countries must keep their economies in line to keep the euro stable.
The single market means that people, money and trade have free movement within the EU. This means that there need to be laws and regulations to make sure that competition between countries is fair.
EU citizens can live and work anywhere in the EU.
There are no taxes when products are sold from one country to another. Taxes on trade are called tariffs.
Single market
There are laws about governments supporting industry.
Check your understanding
1 What are the aims of the Council of Europe?
2 How does it promote and protect these aims?
3 What is the European Union? How has it changed over the years?
4 What is a single market? How does it work?
5 What is the European currency called?
Key terms
The EU has rules and regulations about standards of production so countries trade fairly with each other.
There are laws which protect people at work.
The EU makes policies that apply to member countries relating to things like fishing, agriculture and trade. The EU also negotiates agreements on these issues with countries outside the EU.
Another point of view
‘There’s no need for two organisations in Europe. One would do.’
Action
1 Find out which European countries are not members of the Council of Europe.
2 Some people in the UK think the country should withdraw from the Council of Europe, the European Convention on Human Rights and the European Court of Human Rights. Find out whether there has been any change in the UK’s status with these organisations.
member state: a country that is a member of the EU single market: a group of countries trading with each other without restrictions or tariffs
4.16 What is Europe?
139
Getting you thinking
Fishing
Fact: Boats from EU countries will be allowed to fish in UK waters until 2026. There will be a gradual fall in the amount they are allowed to catch. After 2026 there will be negotiations each year to decide how the catch is shared out.
Trade-off : Most of the catch is sold to Europe, so the EU might decide to tax imports from the UK or ban British boats from EU waters if it thinks its fishing industry is being badly treated.
Migration
Fact: The same rules apply to migrants from the EU as from the rest of the world. They will need a visa.
Trade-off : The number of migrants has changed little. Highly trained people with skills from non-EU countries have replaced low-skilled, poorly paid people.
Trade
Fact: The trade deal between the UK and means that there are no tariffs or quotas on goods that are made in the UK. A lot more paperwork is needed for everything that goes from the UK to the EU.
Trade-off : The quantity of exports to the EU has changed little but exports by small firms has fallen considerably.
Travel
Fact: A passport will no longer be enough to travel to EU countries. You will have to pay for an ETIAS. It will last for three years. On entry into an EU country, you will have to provide fingerprints and have your photograph taken.
Trade-off : The ETIAS will make EU borders more secure as travellers can be tracked. It should reduce crime and terrorism.
1 Who are the winners and losers in each category?
After Brexit
When the UK left the EU there were many changes to the relationship between the two. EU law had been incorporated into UK law. Quality standards for everything manufactured across Europe were the same. The laws about the way people were treated at work were the same. People and products could move freely from one country to another. Relationships
with the rest of the world were the same. The UK is now in the process of adapting to the different situation and politicians are starting to change laws to meet the different demands of the electorate.
The following sections sum up some of the changes being made.
Theme D: Power and infl uence 4.17 After Brexit
140
You will investigate how people and organisations in the UK are affected by European Union regulations.
Fishing
• From 2021 to 2026, EU boats will need a licence to continue to fish in UK waters.
• In the same period, UK fishing boats will get an increasing share of the fish caught in UK waters. After that, there will be annual negotiations to decide how the catch is shared out between the UK and EU.
Migration
• After 2026, the UK will have the right to completely ban EU boats. Much of the fish caught in UK waters is sold to EU countries so the UK needs to maintain a good relationship. Fishing boat owners would like the British to eat more fish as this would give the industry more power as they wouldn’t be so dependent on sales to the EU.
Points-based immigration system
• People from member countries of the EU can live and work freely in the other countries. There is no need for visas or work permits. Since the UK left the EU, this no longer applies to UK citizens.
• EU citizens wanting to move to the UK need a visa and face the same points-based system as people from anywhere else in the world. These rules do not apply to people who live in the Republic of Ireland.
• A visa applicant needs 70 points to be successful. The table shows the main factors necessary to achieve the points.
• UK citizens wanting to live or work in an EU country need a work permit in most countries, but not Ireland. In most cases, they will need a job offer from their chosen country to get a visa to move there.
Trade
• The free movement of goods, persons, services and capital between the UK and the EU ended when the UK left the EU. The UK left the EU Customs Union and the single market. Northern Ireland is, however, still part of the single market.
• On leaving the EU, a trade deal was agreed. There are no tariffs or quotas on products that originate in the UK. There can, however, be long delays at the border because all exports need a detailed customs declaration, which has to be checked.
• After the UK left the EU, the government has concentrated on agreeing new trade agreements in order to cut or end tariffs with a number of countries beyond the EU.
Check your understanding
What changes took place in the following areas when the UK left the EU?
• fishing
• migration
• trade
• travel
You must have:
A job offer
Job at middle skill level or above
English language skills
You may have:
Salary £23 040
Salary £25 600
Salary £20 480
20 points
20 points
10 points
10 points 20 points
20 points
For an eligible post in health or education:
Job in shortage occupation
New entrant to the labour market
Travel
20 points
20 points
• Non-EU citizens will need to pay for an ETIAS to enter the EU. Have a look at ‘Getting you thinking’.
• Travellers wishing to take a pet abroad will have to get it microchipped and vaccinated against rabies at least 21 days before travel.
• If you come from the UK and plan to stay in most countries of the EU for more than 90 days in any 180-day period you will need a visa. This does not include travel to Ireland.
• When you travel to the EU, you cannot take products containing meat or dairy with you. Picnics for the journey must be planned carefully.
Action
Select one of the four topics covered here and check whether there have been any recent changes.
Another point of view
‘The UK is better off outside/inside the EU.’
4.17 After Brexit
141
