INTRODUCTION

The Austro-Hungarian government responded with shock and fury to the 1.1 assassinations. It was immediately decided that they should invade Serbia, as punishment for the attack and in order to neutralise the Serbian threat once and for all. On 23 July, Austria-Hungary presented Serbia with an ultimatum demanding that Serbia meet a series of demands or face war. The Serbs refused, and on 28 July, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. So far, this was a war between one great power and one small nation. However, the Russian government, Serbia’s traditional ally and protector, felt that they must come to Serbia’s aid. On the evening of 30 July, Russia mobilised its army for war against Austria-Hungary. This put the German government in a very diffi cult position. Under the Triple Alliance, Germany was bound to go to war with Russia in order to defend its ally, AustriaHungary. However, the Germans understood that war with Russia would also mean war with France and probably Britain. The Germans had long wished to avoid a situation where they would be forced to divide their armies to fi ght in both the west and the east at the same time. The Schlieffen Plan (see margin box) meant that when war came, Germany’s fi rst priority was to attack France as quickly and forcefully as possible. On 1 August, Germany declared war against Russia. Two days later, it also declared war against France – and then immediately invaded. In order to attack France at the most convenient point, Germany chose to march the bulk of its armies through neutral Belgium. They entered Belgium on 4 August and faced immediate resistance from the Belgian army, as the tiny country refused to let German troops cross its territory. The violation of Belgian neutrality also prompted Britain to intervene, and so on 4 August, Britain declared war on Germany. With the intervention of Britain, all fi ve of the great powers were engaged, and Europe was at war. Britain, France and Russia became known as the Allies, while Germany and Austria-Hungary were called the Central Powers. Italy did not honour the Triple Alliance – instead, in 1915, it joined the war on the side of the Allies. The Schlieffen Plan To avoid fi ghting ‘a war on two fronts’ (with France to the west and Russia to the east), German war planning was based on the Schlieffen Plan. By this strategy, Germany would begin any war with a massive strike against France, allowing it to defeat France within six weeks. Only then would it shift most of its armies eastward to confront Russia. ATLANTIC OCEAN

Military Alliances in 1914

Triple Alliance Triple Entente Russian allies NORTH SEA M e d i t e r r anean Se a

Germany Black Sea

Russia Italy

United Kingdom AustriaFrance Hungary Serbia

Europe in 1914

Check your understanding

1. How did Europe divide into two opposing alliances before 1914? 2. Why was Serbia such a problem for the Austro-Hungarian empire? 3. How did Austria-Hungary respond to the assassination of Franz Ferdinand on 28 June 1914? 4. What was the German war strategy laid out in the Schlieffen Plan? 5. Why did Britain enter the war on 4 August 1914?

Unit 6: Modern China The Chinese Nationalists

In 1911, the Chinese Empire collapsed, and over 2000 years of rule by the emperors came to an end. There was no agreement on who should replace them.

A Chinese Nationalist movement had existed for many years, hoping to create a Chinese Republic that would be democratic and progressive. Its leader was Sun Yat-Sen, a doctor and Christian convert who had lived for years in Japan attempting to direct a revolution from abroad. However, on 10 October 1911, when revolt broke out among army offi cers in the city of Wuhan, Sun was not involved – he was fundraising in the United States. Sun had to hurry home, while this unexpected rebellion spread rapidly through the country. The rich gentry sided with the army against the imperial government, and it was clear that the ruling Qing dynasty had lost control. In December, Sun Yat-Sen and the Nationalists declared a provisional Chinese Republic, with its capital at Nanjing and Sun as president. The last emperor, a boy named Puyi, abdicated a few months later. However, Sun’s government was weak, with few sources of revenue and little support from the mass of the people or the military. Sun was soon forced to give up the presidency to a popular army general named Yuan Shikai, who then blocked any moves towards parliamentary democracy. A few years later, Yuan himself lost control, as other generals based in different provinces competed for power. By 1916, China had fragmented into a collection of territories ruled by warlords. For the next 10 years China was offi cially a republic, but in reality there was no central authority. Most of the warlords had little interest in improving the country or encouraging development, so most Chinese people continued to live as peasants. Living standards were very low: China had very little industry or railway track in 1920, and in some provinces up to 40 per cent of the population lived in poverty. During these years, the Nationalists formed a new base in the city of Guangzhou (Canton) in the far south, one of China’s most progressive and modernised cities, with strong links to the West. Here they organised themselves into a new political party, the Guomindang (GMD). The Nationalists also began working closely with another new political group, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The Communists shared the GMD leadership, and the two parties formed a common front for the reunifi cation and modernisation of China.

Chiang’s Northern Expedition

It would take a new leader for the Nationalists to acquire real power in China. In 1925, Sun Yat Sen died, and leadership of the GMD passed to Chiang Kai-Shek, the head of the small Nationalist army. Chiang was

Sun Yat Sen, Provisional President of the Republic of China from 1 January to 10 March 1912