Chapter 1: The outbreak of war

a hot-headed man who had previously belonged to an underground criminal organisation, with which he maintained close ties. He was also intelligent, ambitious, and an effective leader. In July 1926, Chiang launched a massive military expedition to the north, declaring that he intended to complete the national revolution. The Northern Expedition lasted for two years, and eventually succeeded in reuniting all of China. Chiang’s forces were smaller than most of the armies of the warlords, but they were disciplined and extremely well trained, and they increasingly gained the support of ordinary Chinese people who saw the GMD as a force for peace and reform. Chiang was also very good at securing alliances with key business leaders in Shanghai, who gave him fi nancial support. By 1928, Chiang had defeated or made deals with all the warlords and established a new Chinese Republic with himself as president. This time, Nationalist control was real, backed by military strength and recognised across most of the country. However, Chiang’s power was still not secure, because in the process of reunifi cation, he had made an enemy of the Nationalists’ old political partner. Chiang mistrusted Communism and feared that the CCP would hold too much power if they were part of his new republican government. In 1927, while the Northern Expedition was still underway, Chiang launched a series of brutal purges against his Communist allies. In multiple cities, thousands of Communists and labour union members were massacred, with many being beheaded in the streets by Nationalist troops. From this point on, Communists and Nationalists were bitter enemies. The Communist leaders retreated into the countryside and bided their time. Chiang’s regime also faced a second powerful enemy, not within China but across the sea: the expanding power of Japan.

Chiang Kai-Shek (1887–1975), President of the Republic of China

Pronouncing Chinese names

In the Pinyin transliteration system (the standard way of writing the Chinese language using the Western alphabet), these rules apply: • ‘Q’ is pronounced like the ‘ch’ in charm or chocolate. • ‘X’ is pronounced like the ‘sh’ in shirt or shallow. • ‘Zh’ is pronounced like the ‘j’ in jam or jet. • ‘Ou’ is pronounced like the ‘o’ in go or hippo. It is important to know that in Chinese names, the surname is given fi rst. For example, in the name Sun Yat-Sen, ‘Sun’ is the family name and ‘Yat-Sen’ is the personal name.

Check your understanding

1. How did the Qing emperors of China lose control of the country? 2. Why did the government founded by Sun Yat-Sen in 1911 fall apart so quickly? 3. How was China reunited under Nationalist rule in the late 1920s? 4. Why did Chiang Kai-Shek turn against the Chinese Communists in 1927? 5. Why was Chiang Kai-Shek so much more successful than Sun Yat-Sen as a Nationalist leader?

Unit 10: Postwar Britain The welfare state

The scale of injury, death and destruction during the Second World War led to an increasing realisation that only the government had the amount of power needed to rebuild the country.

In 1942, the economist William Beveridge published a report advocating for social reform in Britain. Within a year it had sold over half a million copies – an unprecedented number for a government report. Although the Second World War had helped to erode some class boundaries, Britain remained a very hierarchical society. Beveridge identifi ed ‘fi ve giants’ that were causing large disparities between the rich and the poor, and he offered solutions for how the state could help to solve these issues (see box below). In return for a weekly contribution, an individual would have the right to receive fi nancial benefi ts when in need throughout their lifetime. These contributions were a joint commitment by individuals and the state to provide cover against the risks of sickness, injury, unemployment and poverty. This new form of ‘social security’ would provide protection ‘from cradle to grave’. It would apply to the whole nation, would be universal instead of selective, and children would also be covered.

William Beveridge, the infl uential postwar economist, in 1947

The ‘fi ve giants’

Beveridge identifi ed “fi ve giants on the road to postwar reconstruction” that needed to be addressed to ensure Britain enjoyed a stable and prosperous future, along with solutions for how to remove them: • WANT – National Insurance for anyone unemployed or unable to work; a family allowance system for those with children • DISEASE – a National Health Service for free access to GPs and treatment in hospitals • IGNORANCE – raising the school leaving age to 15; expanding on the number of universities and scholarships • SQUALOR – a vast house building programme to clear Victorian slums and replace homes destroyed by bombing • IDLENESS – guaranteed employment for those able and willing to work.

Labour Party victory

The Labour Party was founded in 1900 to promote socialist ideas and try to give a voice to the working classes. Labour leader Clement Attlee served as the Deputy Prime Minister during Churchill’s wartime coalition government. As the Second World War neared its end, a general election was called for 5 July 1945. The Labour Party manifesto, ‘Let Us Face the Future’, set out a bold vision to transform British society, incorporating the ideas presented in the Beveridge Report. They promised that if they won the election, they would create a government that would take responsibility to care for all its citizens, regardless of their background or wealth.