XXXIII Symposium ICOMOS Mexicano, Coatepec, Octubre 2013
Abstract: Pre-Hispanic Cebuanos had paid tribute to their gods in the forests, by the riverbanks and in simbahans, or impermanent little shrines bedecked with sacrificial offerings, flowers and buntings. It was in this pagan community that the Christian faith took root with the arrival of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi in 1565 and from where more permanent stone houses of worship would later extend all over the islands. In its early years, this early Christian landscape was administered by Spain through Mexico. Through the centuries, the indigenous expressions of religiosity among Visayans have survived side by side with Christian practices. Globalization and Post Vatican movements have resulted to the divestment from these religious buildings of their traditional elements such as the communion rail, tabernacle, pulpit, choir loft, etc. The people lament the loss of these tangible expressions of faith and are now becoming more protective over these old places of worship.
Visayan Stone Churches: Holders of the Intangible Melva Rodriguez-Java, FUAP University of San Carlos, Cebu City, Philippines
XXXIII Symposium ICOMOS Mexicano, Coatepec, Octubre 2013
INTRODUCTION The Visayan Islands are centrally located in the Philippine archipelago. The islands are inhabited by a people whose origins, like those of the majority of the Filipino people, probably descended from Austranesian clusters that sailed in balanghais from China‟s Yunnan Plateau. Some settled in the islands while other groups believed to have sailed on to the Indonesian and other Pacific Islands. The settlers formed groups of social and political units called barangays which were led by local chieftains. They shared a cultural orientation that had similarities with those of neighboring countries and enjoyed extended trading contacts with China, Borneo, India, Thailand and Arabia. These trading links influenced local industries such as mining, boat building and weaving. Centuries of pre-colonial link s influenced as well other cultural practices related to house construction, language and music, social structure, justice systems and religious beliefs. Pre-Hispanic Visayans worshipped the sun and the moon and believed in many gods or diwatas who dwelt among the trees and in rivers, making crude wooden images of them. They paid tribute to their gods in simbahans, offering sacrifices in impermanent little shrines comprised of bamboo platforms adorned with flowers and decorations. Sacrificial ceremonies called anitos were performed for a variety of reasons: to worship, to plead for good harvest, for healing, propitiation for some offense, for good weather, for protection from evil etc. Maintaining a harmonious relationship with the gods or diwatas was of great concern of the villagers. It was important to avoid earning the ire of the gods lest malevolence would befall upon the individual or the family and community. Certain rituals and beliefs accompanied most of the events in life: child birth, child rearing, betrothal, courting good fortune and the after- life. The study done by the author in the 1980s about beliefs and practices in house construction among residents in the hinterlands of Cebu, in Barangay Lusaran illustrated how the villagers understood the world around them. For a fuller appreciation of the religious dynamics at the time the Christian faith reached Philippines shores, it is good to re-create an account of the people‟s cultural practices obtaining during that period in Philippine history. It will help us understand why despite almost 400 years of Christianization, many of these traditional cultural practices have survived until today and are found intertwined with the cult of Christianity. PRE-HISPANIC RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AMONG VISAYANS The Visayan people have generally achieved an efficient relationship with their environment. An important part of this is maintaining good relations with the engkantos (spirits) and the diliingonnato(not like us). Children and some grown – ups talk freely about the engkanto’s ship that regularly plies the river, blowing its horns before disappearing beyond the bend. Children run around with a buyag (amulet) tied with a plastic string around their waist. We are told that the buyag is a protection from ailments and physical harm that can befall anyone after having been openly praised for possessing some physical attribute like good looks, or a long, nose, or pretty eyes. In Lusaran, the buyag most commonly worn is a bullet shell containing an oracion (prayer) and/or roots of certain plants believed to keep away ongo (witch) who can cast barang or evil spells on anyone. By any large, maintaining rapport with the spirits does not pose any encumbrance to the daily routine of the folk. To this writer however, it cut short drastically the working hours in the field. While wishing to take advantage of the still adequate 5:30 summer light to jot down our thoughts and do some sketching of indigenous carpentry, the grandchild of our host, a young lady, nonchalantly goes about the task of closing doors and windows of the house. The wakwak (evil bird) might enter, we are told. That signals the end of our working day. We settle down, squatting on the floor around the kerosene lamp, and oblige our host by listening to his tales about encounters with the unknown. Visayan families are large and closely knit. A grown – up suhito (unmarried child) continues to live with the parents. Married children, while expected in the culture to live separately in their own dwellings, live close to the parental residence. Many housing clusters can be traced as belonging to members of a single clan. Thus, membership in a cluster is defined by kinship patterns. Over a number of years and generations, Lusaran has supported its people through farming and buy and sell. Livestock raising has also become a common activity. Chickens, hogs and goats are a common sight tended under houses on stilts. Fields are planted to corn; rice; bananas and coconuts. There are patches of mongo beans, tobacco, gabi(taro) and string beans. Although there is room for improvement in the farming techniques employed, the barangay has been able to sustain itself economically. Its people share common expectations and rely upon themselves for social order. It can be said that there is social cohesion. This cohesion and rapport among themselves and with the environment greatly facilitates one other important aspect of living: the provision of shelter. In majority of cases, the materials used for the houses are gathered at the site, and the construction process employed is the pahapit system or community self – help. (This augured well for the construction later on of large church buildings, at first made of light materials, and later on of coral stones). Getting the shelter constructed
XXXIII Symposium ICOMOS Mexicano, Coatepec, Octubre 2013 The most common roofing material used is thatched cogon grass. Home owners observe certain rules of thumb and rituals to insure permanence of the bamboo structure. Bamboo (Bambusa Vulgaris) must be harvested when its leaves have turned yellow. The months of December to March are propitious for harvesting bamboo. It is particularly timely to harvest during the Dail (full moon) or tigsubang sa buwan(moonrise) or himalatyon (waning moon). Bamboo is often rubbed with aseite (grease) to make it more resistant to bukbok (weevil) infestation. Wooden planks are used for walling in some houses. Among the more common species used are the madrecacao (Gliricida Sapium), tugas (Vitax Parviflora), tag-wigon (Cratoxylum Celebicum), and nangka (Artocarpusheterophylia). The freshly cut timber is cut into lumber with a hand-saw. However, the scarcity of fine wood has driven many residents to resort to the use of bamboo. Among the lower income families, wallings of buli palm (Cotyphia Elata) are not uncommon. A few residents use bagakay (Anoa) for walling. Spaces in Visayan dwellings are mostly bare. The living room or guinlawasan contains no living room set in the western sense. A long bench running along a wall and attached permanently to it is about the only seating fixture aside from a corner table usually positioned at one corner of the room. This table is also permanently attached to the wall, and in many cases, doubles as an altar. About the only stuff found in the house are religious images, statues and other objects of worship hung on walls or on the makeshift altar table. Beliefs and rituals Deeply – rooted practices in the nature of the quasi – religious still survive up to this day. These are beliefs and rituals which stem from the people‟s world view and are part and parcel of daily life. Dealing with the relationships between people and supernatural forces, they arise from the people‟s understanding about the nature of the things around them and the purpose of life. These rituals and beliefs are said to be extensions of the idea of impersonal power, also considered as a religious practice when applied to people and objects or events; and animism or the belief in the existence of beings, human and non – human, visible or invisible that act with feeling and purpose. In building shelters as in other daily preoccupations, these beliefs and rituals relieve anxiety and provide psychological comfort and security against the forces of nature and against evil inflictions of human beings and of the spirits. Beliefs and rituals are practiced during site selection, determination of the propitious time to build, post hole rituals number and direction of steps, entrance to dwelling, alignment of openings, number and direction of framings, pitch of roof and housewarming. Majority of the beliefs and rituals observed on the different stages of house construction belong to the category of “impersonal power”. The objects (tagbak, young coconut, river stones, broken pots, etc.) are selected and used on the basis of an elementary symbolism. Thus through the operation of protective magic and that of like producing like, the “tagbak”, the young coconut, the river stones all symbolize coolness of mind and are therefore used in the hope that these characteristics will produce a similar state of mind among the household members. The use of the broken pots which never decay reflects the wish for permanence of dwelling. Emphasis on the materials used rather than on the procedural aspects of the ritual observance is another characteristic of the housing practices. This seems to support popularity of practices dealing with impersonal power over animism in as far as housing is concerned. Here, almost all the observed beliefs might be said to be based on the concept of punishment or loss of power following neglect or failure to observe the prescribed practices. There seems to be an absence of belief in any house spirit or god. Of the practices that may be categorized under “animistic” rituals, belief in that great monster that lives in the northern skies (bakonawa) and in the diwatas, incantadas and diliingonnato predominate. Great care should be taken not to offend these spirits since if displeased, they can harm and cast evil on the people. In such an event, they will have to be pacified by sacrifices. And since it is hard to pinpoint the places owned by these spirits, the safest recourse is to offer rituals and sacrifices as “rent” before deciding on a dwelling site lest we displease the spirit who lives there. In no case however should one build in sites which are the known hounds of the spirits. Some of these places are pathway crossings, river crossings, big trees, ridges and junctions. The reasons cited for the observances of the beliefs and rituals related to house construction hinged on a few traditionally – held values among the people. These are: 1) maintaining good relations among household members, and between household members and the spirit world 2) for good fortune (in health, in worldly possessions, in conjugal happiness) and 3) in observance of tradition and custom (“it is the expected thing to do”) To the people in the Visayas, harmony in interpersonal relations, economic security and permanence of dwellings are of great concern. Seen in this light, the care with which objects which purportedly work to make these aspirations realized are better understood. Through self-help and exchange of services of a quasi – contractual nature money which would otherwise be spent for labor is saved. This mutual help enhances feelings of community ties. Another possible functional aspect of beliefs and rituals in construction is its being used as a means of controlling the indiscriminate and inopportune harvest of bamboo, nipa and other sources of building materials. Here we can see the important ecological implications which adherence to these rituals can offer.
XXXIII Symposium ICOMOS Mexicano, Coatepec, Octubre 2013 CHRISTIANITY EMBEDS WITHIN VISAYAN CULTURE It was in the Visayan Island of Cebu where, in 1521, with the landing of the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, the first Christians led by Sultan Humabon and Queen Juana were anointed with the indelible seal of baptism by Fray Pedro Valderrama earning for the place the label “cradle of Christianity in the Far East�. Forty four years later, Cebu city was founded in 1565 under the name Villa San Miguel, together with the first Agustinian monastery, the oldest church in the Philippines, now the Basilica del Sto. Nino de Cebu. From this embryonic Christian community the Christian faith took root, first in fragile structures of bamboo and grass, and later through the zeal of the missionaries, in more permanent stone houses of worship whose architectural character would extend all over the islands in the course of over three centuries. Seen from the cultural/historical perspective, it is easy to understand that when in 1521Magellan gave to Queen Juana the image of the Holy Child, the Queen became so captivated by it, setting it in place of her wooden idols on a shelf or improvised altar. In 1565 the soldiers of Legazpi retrieved the icon from a makeshift place of worship which together with the rest of the town had been set ablaze by Spanish cannons. Aware of the persuasive power that an imposing church building plays in winning over the natives, the friars then embarked on the construction of a more permanent house of worship. The impressive and more permanent structures for worship that rose decade after decade later throughout the island augured well for evangelization and catechesis. In these more enduring stone buildings and the artistic expression of their architectural ornamentation are made manifest the story of the intermingling of the Christian faith with local folk culture as practiced among the Visayan people. Although most of the blueprints of European church designs were brought to Visayan shores by the friars through Mexico, craftsmen and masons, both locals and Chinese who were tasked to interpret the designs often relied on the use of indigenous plants, fruits and animals that they were more familiar with. (Figures 1-3)
Figure 1: An angel holds a holy water font shaped) after the giant clam in the San Miguel Archangel Church in Argao, Cebu
XXXIII Symposium ICOMOS Mexicano, Coatepec, Octubre 2013
Figure 2: This stone carving on a plaster of the Argao Church is also inspired from the sea shell.
Figure 3: The Giant clam is numerous in the Visayan Islands. For lack of support staff, the friars had to be at once priest, tax-collector, census taker, warrior, planner and builder. To some extent, the variations in the form and appearance of church architecture among the various groups of missionaries may have prompted moves for the stricter observance of the guidelines on design issued by the Spanish crown in 1573.The Laws of the Indies prescribed that towns along the seacoast were to build their churches near the port to impress people with their prominence and majesty even from a distance. Besides, in many
XXXIII Symposium ICOMOS Mexicano, Coatepec, Octubre 2013 places such as in Dalaguete, Boljoon, Oslob, Samboan, Ginatilan, Malabuyoc and Bantayan in the island of Cebu, the church complex was to double as fortification against any attack. Evidences of traditional housing beliefs still being practiced even during the Spanish Colonial period are found in archaeological excavations of sites within church complexes as in Boljoon and San Remgio, Cebu. The difficulty of hauling in materials, the shortage of funds and the dearth of trained carpenters and artisans accounted for the delay in the completion of many of the 18 th and 19th stone churches in Cebu. In the early 1700‟s there were only two master carpenters in Cebu, Jeronimo Quibon and Jacinto Caba and only one mason Juan de Ayco. (Klassen,1980). Still visible today are variations in the content and quality of church embellishments owing to the span of several decades that it took to finish them as well as the diverse sources that were used as inspiration for design by the Friars who constructed them and by the locals who implemented these projects. Because churches were built when Baroque-rococo art was in vogue abroad, it is common to see church facades adorned with florid scrolls, festoons and garlands, as in the catenated pediment of the Cebu Cathedral, and in the reliefs in the façades of the Basilica del Santo Nino, Argao, and Dalaguete churches. Common features include the Coat-of-arms of the Spanish crown, the Papal Tiara, and the seals of the different religious orders carved prominently above the main entrance doors. Equally eye-catching are the native interpretations of decorative bas-relief depicting seashells, local plants and fruit bearing trees. The best example of this is the fascinating façade of the San Nicolas de Tolentino Church in Miag-ao, Iloilo, a World Heritage site. (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Local flora in the carvings on the stone façade of the San Nicolas de Tolentino Church in Miag-ao, Iloilo, a World Heritage Structure. The assistance extended by skilled Chinese artisans is apparent in the intricately-carved wooden and ivory statuary ensconced in the niches of church retablos. We see this fine craftsmanship as well in the pulpits and the wooden screens in choir lofts and balconies or tribunas of the churches in Carcar, Argao, Dalaguete, Boljoon, and in the Basilica del Santo Nino. Of special appeal, although obscured amongst the profuse and showy arrangements of a fusion of Rococo and native artistry, are the starkly symbolic Stations of the Cross depicted on the inner face of the stone wall around the Argao church plaza. The images carved on the coral stone panels strongly induce meditation on the passion of Christ through their minimalist syntax. The meeting of Jesus and his Blessed Mother for example, is represented simply by two hearts – the heart of Jesus with a cross and beside it the heart of Mary pierced with a sword the blade of which runs through both hearts. Anything else would have diluted its message of utter sorrow and grief. (Figure 5).The Monarch‟s seal is also carved in the facades of Oslob, Samboan, Argao, Boljoon, Dalaguete, Dumanhug, Malabuyoc churches and in the Cebu Cathedral.
XXXIII Symposium ICOMOS Mexicano, Coatepec, Octubre 2013
Figure 5: Two hearts say it all – The heart of Mary pierced with a sword and the heart of Jesus impaledby a cross at the station of the cross in Argao where “Christ meets his blessed mother.” Many church ceilings like those of Dumanhug, Malabuyoc, and Ginatilan bore but have lost to calamities , vibrant images of biblical events and characters. Fortunately, some ceiling paintings have survived in Sibonga, Argao, Dalaguete and Boljoon. THE ROOTS OF CHRISTIAN ART Where do these Christian iconographic and architectural styles come from? The matter of aesthetic or “form” in church art and architecture has to be seen in light of the historical development of churches beginning from the early Christian era up to the present. Church design has been shaped by historical precedence. The beginning of Christian art is placed by historians at around 200 A.D. Early Christian artists borrowed much from pagan forms but endowed them with Christian symbolism. Although at the start pictures were an-iconic, they may have eventually been inspired by stories from the Old and New Testaments. Drawings were mostly found in catacombs, but impetus for art‟s development was afforded by the Edict of Milan in 313, when imperial personages began to seek religious art as part of their symbols and accoutrements. Inspiration for Early Christian images in particular may have originated from Greek and Roman traditions which were then the most proximate and thus may have lent Early Christian figures a quality of multi-valence in a significant way. Art was regarded by many as inferior to written texts and seen only as a means of catechesis for the non-literate, but art forms actually serve many other functions as well - they narrate, instruct, symbolize, serve liturgy and hold cultural significance. Similar subject matter show up in ceiling paintings executed by Canuto Avila and Ray Francia in Cebu churches of Sibonga, Argao and Dalaguete (as well as those of many churches in neighboring Bohol). And just like their verbal equivalents, they can also be used to interpret theological dogmas. Their appreciation goes beyond the literal to the more profound role as means of exegesis. The basilica plan Early Christians worshipped in the Roman basilicas which had readily accommodated the Christian gatherings. The basilicas partook of the rectangular plan of the Jewish synagogue, and their spaces allowed for what could be the equivalent of the Holy of Holies of the Temple. Some churches in the Visayas established originally on a basilica configuration had later on evolved into the cruciform type when some parish priests added the transepts or arms on both sides of the nave. An example of this is the Patrocinio de Maria Parish Church in Boljoon, built in 1783 and completed at the turn of the century by Fray Julian Bermejo. Even the original design of the Metropolitan Cathedral drafted by Engr. Juan de Ciscara,upon the request of Bishop Fray Sebastian de Foronda in 1719, was in the configuration of the basilica, with very stunted arms hardly resembling transepts.i
XXXIII Symposium ICOMOS Mexicano, Coatepec, Octubre 2013 Churches whose naves have lateral elongations or arms on both sides fall under the category of cruciform or cross vault churches. Again in Cebu, all of the cruciform churches except two are in the Latin cross plan, meaning the nave length is longer than that of the transept. Prime examples are the Basilica del Santo Nino, the Cebu Metropolitan Cathedral, St. Michael Parish Church in Argao, San Guillermo de Aquitana Church in Dalaguete, Malabuyoc, Ginatilan, Naga, San Fernando, Minglanilla, DaanBantayan. Of interest are a couple of churches, the Liloan parish church and Mandaue‟s St. Joseph parish church that belong to a category of their own. Jutting out diagonally from the middle portions of their lateral walls are short arms that lead to the transepts. The web-like configuration gives the plans of these churches a form that is neither a Latin nor a Greek cross (where the arms and the nave are of equal length). Church art in the middle ages Quite a number of church art works done in the 14 th century depict the “unedifying power struggle” between the church and temporal power in the middle ages. Examples are Raphael‟s “The meeting between Leo the Great and Atilla”; of Barocci‟s “St. Ambrose imposing a penance on Theodosius”, (after the latter ordered the massacre of Thessalonica); and Romano‟s “The donation of Constantine” (which portrays the emperor granting imperial powers to Pope Sylvester who cured him of a disease). Images documented council meetings such as the Council of Lyon in 1245, convened by Innocent IV and which summoned a crusade. In architecture, the latter part of the Middle Ages spawned an art form (pejoratively labeled by later Renaissance critics as “gothic”) that departed from the Graeco-Roman and Romanesque traditions. Churches during this period depicted the idea of transcendence through verticality and the use of spires and finials. A few parish churches in Cebu such as the Mabolo (before it was expanded in 2010), Sibonga, San Fernando and Minglanilla churches exhibit these neo-gothic elements. Religious art in the modern world The development of the Renaissance in Italy in the 15 th century signalled the beginning of the modern world. While faith in the Christian God remained, the idea of “humanism” also recalled the attitudes of the pagan world, i.e. stressing man‟s all around competence. Klassen (1980) wrote that Cathedrals such as Filippo Brunelleschi‟s Santo Spirito represented a self-sufficient system that stood for an orderly universe that could be grasped by mathematical relations. This was then followed by the Baroque period style, with its penchant for concatenation (coupled later on with exuberance of the rococo style). Gianlorenzo Bernini‟s colonnade at St. Peter‟s in Rome is said to depict the notion of eagerness and anticipation on the part of a pilgrim in his desire to achieve his goal of reaching heaven. Baroque was the prevailing architectural style at the time Christianity reached Philippine shores, via Mexico, hence the prevalence also in Cebu of its expressive characteristics. Merged later on with neo-classical elements, and further taking on native ideas of adornment, this style became the common face of our Spanish colonial structures. the ornate retablos of the Basilica del Sto. Nino, the Argao, Dalaguete, Samboan, and Boljoon churches; the exuberant reliefs in their facades and wall interiors, the elaborate and metaphorical play of colors in their ceiling paintings – all are manifestations of the reach of the baroque-rococo, albeit mediated by Mexican influence, in Philippine shores. CHURCH SPACES: THEIR THEOLOGY IN COMPARISON TO ACTUAL USAGE Before the advent of skyscrapers, the church was the most prominent structure in the towns and cities. Church towers soared high, lifting our gaze beyond mundane concerns and reminding us of the omnipresence of God. Steeples had to be tall to prompt us to keep in mind the presence of the church and the presence of God in the church. Perhaps they were also to be a measure of the church‟s spiritual and moral influence on those who fall within the ambit of its reach. The weather vanes mounted on top indicate wind direction but they symbolize also God‟s presence in all directions and of the reach of his kingdom on earth; reminding us to be guided always by the true path to salvation. They also give an aura of protection and safe haven. Indeed in many of our colonial churches built along the coastal areas, these church towers have served as beacons to seafarers signaling that they had “arrived home”. Belfries were usually built, together with the parish house or convento after the completion of the church. Most of the Spanish-period churches have belfries that are either attached to the church structure or, as in the case of the Cebu Cathedral, Boljoon and Oslob, accessed from the church through a roofed connecting area. The Ginatilan church steeple, designed by Domingo Escondrillas, soaring to a height of 29 meters is the highest in Cebu. Its archetypal pattern of fenestrations and occuli arrest the eye, verily drawing one‟s gaze upward.ii
XXXIII Symposium ICOMOS Mexicano, Coatepec, Octubre 2013 The Dumanhug church tower on the other hand commands attention for the geometric fret work carved on belts that mark its second and third levels. Of different flavor are the bulbous tops of the twin towers of Carcar church as well as that of Naga and the Basilica del Santo Nino hint of Moorish influence (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Moorish influence can be deduced in twin bulbous domes of the Catherine of Alexandria Parish Church in Carcar Cebu. The entrance door and narthex The idea of the church being heaven on earth is carried through to the main door which, as the gateway to heaven, is to be adorned appropriately. The heavily decorated entrance doors of Gothic churches in Europe just as the studded panels of the main door of the St. Michael the Archangel Church in Argao(Figure 7)convey strength and permanence. They call to mind the words spoken by Christ: “I am the gate, he who passes through me shall be saved.�(John 10:9).
XXXIII Symposium ICOMOS Mexicano, Coatepec, Octubre 2013
Figure 7: The facades of Visayan stone Churches convey strength and permanence as typified by the San Miguel Arcangel church in Cebu.. The area near the church entrance, the narthex or vestibule, is meant to be a place where the faithful are to compose themselves in preparation for a rite or the Holy Sacrifice that is about to begin. Symbolically, at the narthex, the faithful are to join Christ, in his exultant entry into Jerusalem and in the journey he is about to take towards the fulfillment of his mission as Savior. Thus during the processional, the priest representing Christ travels down the nave, (from the Latin word navalis, meaning ship), up to the altar where the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass is to be offered.iii On the cultural side, It is right in front of the main portal that candle sellers ply their goods and perform the prayer dances in behalf of petitioners. This practiced is most pronounced at the Basilica del Santo Nino de Cebu The nave and chancel or sanctuary In the Catholic tradition, as the congregation traverses the nave, it is as though they are pilgrims journeying toward union with the Creator. Its main aisle leads to the sanctuary where the altar of sacrifice is located, and where the Sacrifice on Calvary becomes present again during Holy Mass. Many church naves in Cebu (Boljoon, Argao. Dalaguete, Sibonga) have faux-vaulted ceilings, the shape that represents heaven. Of special interest is the ceiling framing of the Church in Catmon which is a virtual forest of timber, resembling an inverted hull of a ship. It is also in this humble church that we see an eye-catching stone work of the tunnel like approach leading to the belfry. The traditional atmosphere of awe and spiritually, achieved through silence and subdued lighting and that used to dominate the nave interior has been replaced by harsh lighting fixtures similar to what is used in basketball courts. The constant movements allowed after Vatican II up and down the nave and sanctuary by the servers and readers are seen by some to have diminished the essential difference in sacredness and function of both spaces. On the other hand, this change in sacred choreography gives a sense of stronger participation in the mass by the lay people. The new orientation whereby the priest is now facing the people during the mass has brought about changes in the set-up of the nave that have gained widespread acceptance and adherence. This set up makes the sacrificial celebration more communal rather than an event that looks solely belonging to the priest. Not for some though. Author Moyra Doorly (2007) thinks that this innovation represents favoring the immanent over the transcendent. The circular layout whereby the priest and altar are surrounded by the faithful, she argues, denotes that there is nothing to look beyond the priest at the altar other than more people facing the altar because circles bring our focus inward. Pope Benedict XVI himself, reflecting on the orientation of the priest and the faithful in prayer, is quoted as saying …”prayer reaches beyond the visible altar towards eschatological fulfillment, which is anticipated in the celebration of the Eucharist. The priest facing the same direction as the faithful when he stands at the altar leads the people of God on their way to meeting the Lord, who is the „rising sun of history‟, has
XXXIII Symposium ICOMOS Mexicano, Coatepec, Octubre 2013 found its sublime artistic expression in the sanctuaries of the first millennium, where representations of the Cross or of the glorified Christ mark the goal of the assembly‟s earthly pilgrimage...” Pope Benedict XVI recently revived the Tridentine Mass, where the celebrant once again faces towards the east, in a posture of leading the congregation in the direction of where “God is”. This could possibly augur well for the re-positioning of the altar back to its historical location in the altar pieces in Catholic churches. The altar and tabernacle In the Catholic faith, the main event inside the church is the celebration of the Holy Mass, and the altar table holds a place of prominence because of the profundity of the event or mystery that happens there. Thus it is endowed with the highest reverence, making it the most important element in the chancel. The Manual on the Conservation of Church Heritage in the Philippines (MCCHCP) stresses that it is there that he sacrifice in Calvary becomes present again under sacramental signs. The manual adds the altar symbolizes Christ himself who also was altar of His sacrifice. Additionally it is on this table where the Holy Eucharist rests and from where the hosts are distributed. Originally, the altar tables in Cebu‟s colonial churches were right next to the retablo and the priest said mass facing the same direction as the people. After Vatican II all the altar tables in Cebu churches, as elsewhere, were moved at some distance towards the center of the chancel, allowing space for the priest to say mass facing the congregation. As a result of the repositioning of the altar many new altar tables are often incongruent in design with the original retablos, ambos and communion rails. The Tabernacle which holds the Blessed Sacrament has in many churches been removed from the prominent place where it used to be - on the altarpiece next to the altar. The altarpiece The altarpiece is the backdrop to the altar table and usually houses the niches containing images of the saints. It can either stand alone or be attached to the sanctuary wall behind it. It is also called “retablo” or “reredo”). Most of the altar pieces of the Spanish period churches in Cebu (Basilica del Sto. Nino, Argao, Dalaguete, Samboan) are made of wood, with finely-carved geometric, floral or fruit motifs. They share common elements such as the twisted or “salomonic” columns that divide the wall into niches, the gold leaf plating that imparts an added sheen to baroque and classical moldings, and numerous sculptures in the round. Images have played and continue to play a special role in the life of the church. In fact, some images came ahead of written texts and were just as theologically and historically tasteful and valid as were words. When Christianity became publicly accepted in the 4 th century, holy images began to replace pagan and bucolic icons that had covertly symbolized Christian ideas. Artists were commissioned to create sacred images to attract simple folk to the church and to teach them lessons about the faith. Michelangelo‟s sculpture of the Pieta continues to evoke the pathos of the Blessed Mother holding the mangled body of her Son. At the Shrine of Blessed Pedro Calungsod, panels slide gently to reveal the centerpiece of the composition, the Tabernacle, which is embedded behind the wall and gloriously bathe in light. From it, a gold light burst or “resplendor” radiates throughout the entire wall, while figures of angels bowed in adoration, border the entire aweinspiring tableau. Of radically different character is the altarpiece at the Church of Our Mother of Perpetual Help also popularly called the Redemptorist Church. Here the icon of the widely-venerated Blessed Mother is borne by two angel figures at the topmost level of the layered altarpiece. A reinforced concrete, spherical baldachin (ceremonial canopy) mounted on fluted classical columns shelters and honors the image of Our Lady. Still another variation in altarpiece design is seen in the church in Loay, Bohol. Here, the entire wall is embellished not only with the familiar pendant, tendril and volute wood carvings commonly seen in churches built during the 18th and 19th centuries, the whole ensemble is crowned with a fabric “ciborio” or pavilion motif. The one in the church of the Asilo de la Milagrosa had a totally different appeal. It is an angled, three-paneled altarpiece that is wall-hung instead of free-standingThe period character of the altarpiece suits the simple, neogothic intent of the church nave, windows, columns and other elements. A sense of integrity pervades the overall composition. In the Visayas, image carving had been practiced by our pre-Spanish forbears. Queen Juana, who readily took a liking for the image of the Infant Jesus, asked for it to take the place of her idols. Carved figures or santoses brought by the Spaniards through Mexico to Philippine shores eventually became the sources of inspiration for native craftsmen or santeros. Some icons are made of precious materials because they were considered beautiful, and does not the Splendor of God‟s glory deserve to be celebrated in a manner befitting his Divine Majesty? Soon these carvings and other sacred works of art became primary cultural expressions of folk piety. Devotees relate to the santoses in a very personal manner by reaching out and touching the feet, hands and body of the statues as if they were alive. They talk to them, implore their intercession and wave goodbye to them as they leave. In a very special religious, albeit cultural way, devotees venerate sacred images, in particular that of the Holy Child or Santo Nino, as an instrument of contemplation, that brings them to an intimate, personal encounter with the Child God, an experience that moves the people to an enlivened faith.
XXXIII Symposium ICOMOS Mexicano, Coatepec, Octubre 2013 The Cross For the Christian, the most powerful symbol of love and devotion is the cross. The figure of the cross was used during pre-Christian times to represent gods, power and authority. Among Christians however, the cross was used more overtly only after the legalization of Christianity in 313 A.D. Before that, the cross stood for punishment through crucifixion, a punishment meted out to criminals. Catholic churches used to display not only the cross but the crucifix – that is the body of Christ on the cross. Sadly the crucifix has been removed in many churches and has instead been replaced by mere symbolic representations such as the risen Christ, or the phoenix, or wheat and grapes. Quite fortunately, most of the Spanish Period churches in Cebu still display the Crucifix prominently in the chancel, often hung at the center of the nave crossing such as in the Basilica del Santo Nino, the Cebu Metropolitan Cathedral , and Argao. The cross can take several forms in Catholic churches. The Chi and Rho – the first two letters of the Greek word for Christ – fused; the Tau cross is popularly associated with St. Anthony in Egypt; the Eastern cross that carries a head board and a lower bar that slants upward as a sign of our salvation; the diagonal cross that is often used in Scotland and is associated with St. Andrew, believed to be martyred on such a cross; the cross of Jerusalem which features four smaller crosses to represent the spread of the faith in four cardinal directions, used by the Crusaders and the Order of the Holy Sepulcher. Holy Week celebrations in Cebu often see men taking up a wooden crosses and carrying them up to makeshift altars, in memory of Christ‟s Sacrifice on Calvary and as a sign of penitence. (Note: The material that I have written in the above section had been previously published in Pintacasi, UST Press, Mla., Phil., 2012) Church art and architecture after Vatican II The Council held at the Vatican 35 years ago at the initiative of Pope John 23 rd and inherited by Pope Paul VI was, according to some conservative Catholic thinkers not called to change or question any matter of dogma. Vatican II was above all “pastoral” and called for a new zeal, a new animation in the interpretation of tenets of the faith amidst the rise of new ideas of morality and the emergence of new technology. Some interpretations of Post-Conciliar documents have resulted to controversial design approaches in art and architecture. One of the contentious issues is the so called “noble simplicity” in the liturgy and the arts. This concept has caused the divestment in churches of historic elements such as the communion rail, tabernacle, pulpit and choir loft. Of the sixty- eight Spanish period churches in Cebu, only four have retained their pulpits, eight still have communion rails and 30 have kept the choir lofts. Some of the more-recently built churches in Cebu have become so starkly simplified and bereft of the visual language of iconography and art works (Figures 8 and 9). For example, in some instances, the corpus has been removed from the crucifix; the tabernacle moved away from its central position in the chancel; the communion rail dismantled and the choir loft is just used to store church furniture.
Figure 8: Global trends influence the church design of this San Pedro Calungsod Church in Cebu City.
XXXIII Symposium ICOMOS Mexicano, Coatepec, Octubre 2013
Figure 9: This Modern Church inside the Talamban campus of the University of San Carlos is a departure from the cruciform plans of Filipino-Hispanic Churches. PRAYERS, DANCES AND RELIGIOUS PROCESSIONS It is important to note that local cultural practices permeate Christian church building complexes at two levels – in the tangible fabric of these churches as well as in the intangible meanings of prayer and dance gestures, religious celebrations, and superstitious practices. New Christian values and education notwithstanding, the intangible meanings seen as inherent in objects considered in Pre-Christian times to have magical properties still survive. For example after the wedding ceremony bride and groom must drink water containing petals of fragrant flowers to ensure harmonious marital relationship. Salt and rice must first be brought into the couple‟s house to signal freedom from want in the future. Post-burial ceremonies include a rite whereby upon leaving, those in attendance must pass by a small bonfire where the smoke of incense and other aromatic herbs will cleanse the persons from whatever harm might befall on them after being part of the cortege. Religious processions marking the feast day of the patron saints are very common in the islands. There are parish patron saints, and there are chapel patron saints as well in almost every sitio within each Barangay. Among the more popular are San Roque who is the favorite advocate for healing, San Isidro Labrador for harvest, San Antonio de Padua for lost objects, and Our Lady of Guadalupe for maternal succor. Included in the processions are carrozas carrying the images of patron saints bedecked with lighting, buntings and flowers. The petals of the flowers are sought after by the devotees after the procession and brought home as these are believed to be sacred and when mixed with oil from the coconut can be used as a healing potion. The mother of all feasts is the Sinulog or the Feast of the Santo Nino. Thousands of devotees flock to the island of Cebu to pay homage to their beloved Senor. Candle vendors perform an ancient native prayer-dance called sinulog to intercede in behalf of the pilgrims. The longest religious procession joined by a million people is observed on the feast day of Santo Nino every third Sunday of January. The people are openly expressive of their emotions during prayers inside the churches. They consciously raise and wave their arms in unison as they raise their voices in prayer and song. Often during Holy Mass, devotees move and freely sway their bodies in Child-like abandon to the tune of songs dedicated to “Mama Mary” or Senor Santo Nino or a favorite patron saint. In private prayer, many people are seen reaching to touch with hands and handkerchiefs the images of the saints. And in leaving the church people unabashedly wave goodbye to Jesus in the Tabernacle or the image of the Blessed Mother or those of the saints. THE CARE OF FILIPINO-HISPANIC STONE CHURCHES IN THE VISAYAS Despite the more permanent technology learned from the Spaniards, still many colonial structures are in dire need of maintenance and repair. Eroded and battered sections of the fabric tell of beatings from man-made and natural disasters. Compounding the problem is the lack of awareness on the part of the owners, administrators and even building professionals involved in these religious sites of standards and basic methods to be employed in the care of historic structures.iv In the Philippines, it was only in the latter half of the 20th Century when there was a growing consciousness about heritage preservation. The few government personnel who have undergone training abroad on the principles and methods of conservation are unable to give immediate response to the number of requests for technical assistance coming from the different towns and cities in the country.
XXXIII Symposium ICOMOS Mexicano, Coatepec, Octubre 2013 Because of this, in many instances, the value of the aesthetic element had taken a back seat to the more evidential, historic aspects of the fabric resulting to a compromised aesthetic authenticity of the place. For a considerable number of years, the fabric has been treated mainly as a narrative or “historic evidence.� This stems, from misunderstanding what about the place, whether tangible or intangible, is to be preserved and why. (Figures 10 - 12)
Figure 10: The pipe organ & ceiling paintings of this church depict a Musical theme.
Figure 11: Two cherubs holding trumpets flank the carving of a church over a door pediment.
Figure 12: Two other cherubs carry the Augustinian Emblem of a heart pierced with a cross.
XXXIII Symposium ICOMOS Mexicano, Coatepec, Octubre 2013
Conservation plans are expected to address not only the need to conserve the material fabric of the heritage object but also to craft policies for the retention and protection of the intangible elements that the thing holds. The ensemble of church, atrium, bell tower, convento, the audiencia and escuelas has been both a functional and aesthetic judgment, therefore have been intended; thus they have direct implications in the repair of the buildings. The emblematic aspects of Christian worship are plentiful in Cebu. The church facades bearing figures of the Imperial Eagle, the Spanish Monarch‟s Seal, the icons of the saints, cartouches, and native interpretations of flora and fauna not only narrate the story of the pilgrim church, they heighten for the devotee an anticipation for the beauty inside the Temple of God as well. Any new element insensitively applied or any building artifact replicated or “restored” will at best be pastiche, culturally insensitive and at worst be blasphemous against the Biblical messages embedded in the design. The matter takes on an even more tangled state-of-affairs once we bring in the issue of the cultural and theological dimensions of the spaces in church complexes. Not the least among the causes of the confusion in church design is the lack of ability on the part of the designer to grasp the essential relationship between liturgy, cultural expression of religiosity and design of church spaces. The typical stone and wood convent or “casa parroquial” huge by today‟s standards, exquisitely adorned with geometric patterns, floral themes and scenic views of the old towns and adorned with callados in transoms have not been spared of remodeling attempts. Baked tiles were used for roofing until the latter half of the nineteenth century when the availability of metal sheets made the convents safer during earthquakes. vCoral stone walls on the ground floor are being plastered over with cement; wattle and daub wall partitions replaced with plywood; azoteas are walled in; and ceiling paintings lost to typhoons. Cebu suffered a tremendous loss when the historic convento of Oslob was gutted down by fire in 2008. AN INTRICATE PURSUIT Appreciating the sundry transformations occurring in the form and fabric of these multifarious Spanish period complexes is quite a complicated pursuit, one that has generated confusion and debates. Heritage work calls for open-mindedness among workers and administrators of heritage places. The nature of conservation work involves both multi-disciplinary and interdisciplinary teamwork, often among practitioners coming from different backgrounds. Since culture is not only diverse but also dynamic, exchanges among those in the heritage field are of major importance. The first step in the care of churches is undertaking an extensive graphic documentation of the structure and the site before any intervention work is commenced. The intricacy of this activity entails skills in research methodologies that grasp the parti, or analogical approach in the original church design as well as how the place has evolved over time. Accuracy in recording the building‟s architectural dimensions, assessing the integrity of its skeletal framework and building fabric leads to prudent approaches to intervention. New designs considered to run parallel to injunctions of Vatican II however continue to emerge prompting Cebu Archbishop Ricardo J. Cardinal Vidal issued in 2005, a circular enjoining all parish priests to consult with the Archdiocesan Commission for the Cultural Property of the Church before undertaking any renovation work on heritage church sites. Cardinal Vidal emphasized that the church represents the firmness and stability of our faith and therefore must possess an aura that induces people to pray. Stressing his role as shepherd of his flock, Cardinal Vidal said: “It is our duty to let the people understand what they are doing…sometimes they do not know exactly how to express their faith…our art in dance, music and architecture must be done in a reverential way, and in line with our Pastoral thrust. We are to be guided always by the Synodal documents because they define our direction.” CONCLUSION Stone churches in the Visayan Islands in the Philippines emerged from within the bosom of a people who were culturally rich and who had actively been practicing religious rituals based on pagan beliefs. In the sixteenth century, when Christianity reached Philippine shores, the existing cultural and religious practices and beliefs ran in conflict with but eventually intermingled with each other in many aspects. The fact that the Spanish Church authorities liberally allowed for certain pre-colonial practices to continue as long as they were not diametrically opposed to the tenets of the Christian faith dissipated somehow what could have been a vicious clash between evangelizers and the local populace and an outright rejection of the alien religion. Thus, over the centuries of their existence, within the walls of the stone church complexes, there thrive religious practices fundamentally based on Christian tenets of the faith, and together with them, some surviving preChristian rites and practices. The years after the Second Vatican Council wrought drastic changes in the pastoral dimension of evangelization. Misinterpretation of the documents of Vatican II however led to un-called for changes in the plan and appearance, not only of new but also some of the venerable old churches that were built after period styles. This has set
XXXIII Symposium ICOMOS Mexicano, Coatepec, Octubre 2013 off diverse reactions from the more conservative Catholics who lament the dilution of the pedagogical and transcendental character of time-honored church design. It is worthwhile to take note of the thoughts of Pope Benedict XVI himself on the theological foundations of church art and architecture. The „place‟ he says of Christian worship is Christus totus, Christ the head and the baptized as members of his mystical body. And in Sacramentum caritatis, Pope Benedict wrote “…everything related to Eucharist, to the liturgy as a whole, ritual… sacred vessel, art – must be marked by beauty. Such beauty points beyond itself to the transcendent source of all beauty;” This means that in church art and architecture, theological principles guide the orientation, plan and shape of churches such that they accommodate the liturgy and other religious events. Even the movable elements are essential in Liturgy and worship. Additionally, although rooted in the high culture of Western society, indigenous forms of Christian art and religious practices have also been vehicles through which the Visayan has found his own self-conscious idiom that has allowed him to participate in the life of the Universal Church. In this era of modernity, architects are challenged to be able to use and aesthetic and formal grammar that allows the still existing intangible heritage borne by the tangible material and fabric of the church complex to emerge. Architecture must allow the dynamics of both cultural traditions and theological imperatives of space to co-exist. To help bring this about training needs to be given to priests and custodians of historic churches in the proper care and maintenance of the tangible material heritage, because they hold the immaterial, intangible meanings, both religious and cultural, of the structure. If preservation scientists and experts look beyond the physicality of the heritage object they have in their care to the intangible meanings that brought them into existence, and to the people‟s native expressions of the true and the beautiful, not only will their services extend the longevity of these precious legacies, they will have sustained the people‟s participation in an ecclesial dialogue. The main goal of Christian life, according to St. Robert Bellarmino, is God‟s glory and salvation. The present Pontiff, Pope Francis has demonstrated this through his deep love and respect for ordinary people belonging to other cultures. One of the first religious structures he visited is a simple chapel in a poor village in Brazil. There, the Pope interacted with the people in genuine dialogue, the kind that will bring them and the entire Christian world to that center of their lives – which is to bring God‟s Kingdom to others. May this also animate the living Church of Christ in every nation who in their native way continues to adore Him whether in humble chapels or in churches of stone.
REFERENCES Alcina, Francisco Ignacio, S.J. History of the Bisayan People of the Philippine Islands. Manila:UST Publishing House. 2005. Archdiocese of Cebu.Silver Jubilee Archdiocese of Cebu. Cebu: Archdiocese of Cebu. 1959. Bell, D. “The Naming of parts” in Conserving the Authentic. ICCROM. 2009 Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines.Manual on the Conservation of the Cultural Heritage of the Church in the Philippines. Manila: CBCP. 1998. Coseteng, Alicia M. L. Spanish Churches of the Philippines. Manila: Mercury Press. 1972. Doorly, Moya.No Place for God. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2007. Galende, Pedro, OSA. Angels in Stone. Manila: San Agustin Museum. 1987. Jose, Regalado T. Simbahan, Church Art in Colonial Philippines. Makati: Ayala Museum. 1991. Klassen, Winand, SVD. History of Western Architecture. Cebu City: San Carlos Publications. 1980. Klassen, Winand, SVD. Architecture in the Philippines. Cebu City: San Carlos Publications. 1980. Lang, Uwe Michael. “Benedict XVI and the theological foundations of church architecture” in Benedict XVI and Beauty in Sacred Art and Architecture. England: MPG Books, Bodmin, Cornwall. 2011. McNamara, Dennis. How to Read a Church. London: Herbert Press. 2011. Redondo, Felipe S. BreveReseña de lo quefue y lo quees la Diocesis de Cebu en lasislas Filipinas.Manila:Colegio de Sto. Tomas. 1886. Reid, Alcuin. “Noble simplicity revisited” in Benedict XVI and Beauty in Sacred Art and Architcture. England: MPG Books, Bodwin, Cornwall. 2011. San Agustin. Conquista de las Islas Filipinas 1565-1651 (Trans. Luis Mañeru, 1998). Manila: San Agustin Museum. 1698. Stomp, Richard. The Secret Language of Churches and Cathedrals. London: Duncan Baud Publishers. 2010. Snyder, James and Catanese, Anthony. Introduction to Architecture, New York: Mcgraw-HillBook Company. 1980. Yap, Virgilio, ResilMojares, Rodolfo Villanueva and Msgr. Cesar Alcoseba. The Catholic Church in Cebu
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END NOTES iAmong
the churches in Cebu that assume the basilica plan are the St. Peter and Paul church in Bantayan Island, and the St. Catherine of Alexandria Parish Church in Carcar, completed in 1875, although the latter has two side aisles flanking the single nave. Also falling under the basilica type is the church of St. Michael the Archangel in Samboan, one of the earliest parishes Cebu, established in 1784. Buttresses were later added to the right lateral wall after it shifted at a precarious angle due to movement of the ground beneath it. Other churches under this category are those of Alegria, Alcoy, Alcantara, Aloguinsan, Badian, Balamban, Barili, Catmon, Liloan, Moalboal, Nueva Caceres, PoroCamotes, and Sibonga. iiIn many churches in Cebu and Bohol, the paintings in the ceiling of the narthex depict Jesusâ€&#x; triumphant entry into Jerusalem. The ceiling of the vestibule of Our Lady of the Pillar church in Sibonga, Cebu, (and that of Our Lady of the Assumption Parish Church in Dauis, Bohol) portrays this scene. In both churches, the images were done by artist Ray Francia in the 1920s iiiThe Dumanjug parish church, advocated to St. Francis of Assisi, proudly owns the most elegant and tallest stone steeple in Cebu. The belfry is held up by a dodecagonal base of coral stones and tapers up to an awesome height of 24 meters. Bands of lace-like fretwork and bas- reliefs of foliage belt-up the towerâ€&#x;s second and third tiers, bringing the eye up to the ancient bells at its topmost level. No wonder Dumanjug parish priest Fr. Gene Herrera and the parishioners are zealously committed to preserving their religious legacy, which has lately suffered some damage due to the February, 2012 earthquake. ivThe churches that still have the pulpits are Argao, Boljoon, Carcar and Liloan. The eight churches that still have the communion rail are Badian, Balamban, Basilica del Sto. Nino, Boljoon, Cordova, Liloan, Pardo and Pinamungajan. The churches that still own choir lofts are Alcantara, Alcoy, Alegria, Argao, Asturias, Badian, Balamban, Bantayan, Bogo, Boljoon, Borbon, Carmen, Catmon, Cebu Cathedral, Compostela, Consolacion, Cordova, Dalaguete, Danao, Ginatilan, Liloan, Malabuyoc, Mandaue, Pardo, Pinamungajan, Samboan, Sibonga, Sogod, Talisay and Toledo vOther extant examples of these historic structures of masonry and wood are those in Sibonga, Argao, Dalaguete, Samboan, Ginatilan, Malabuyoc, Badian, the Santo Nino Basilica, and the Cathedral Convent (which today is an Ecclesiastical Museum)