Watershed & Water Quality

Photo: Tim Stout

“Hydrology is the study of water and its properties, distribution, and effects. Water is critical for the survival of plants and animals and its relative availability and abundance is a key factor in determining the natural community that occurs in a given location” (Thompson,63).

The Connecticut River is the largest river in New England, flowing roughly 406 miles. It begins in Canada, flows south creating the Vermont-New Hampshire border, continues through Massachusetts and Connecticut and terminates at the Long Island Sound into the Atlantic Ocean.

Farm & Wilderness is located in the Ottauquechee and Black River sub-basins within the Basin 10 watershed. There are many sub-basins within Basin 10, which encompasses 23 towns that range from rural to urban. This area hosts a diverse landscape with mountain peaks and hillsides. There are many lakes and ponds within this watershed that cover approximately 1,610 acres (Tactical Basin Plan, 2018).

Figure 1. Farm & Wilderness’ property is located within the Ottauquechee River sub-basin and the Black River sub-basin, which are both located within the larger Basin 10 watershed. Basin 10 is part of the Connecticut River watershed.

A watershed is a land area whose streams, rivers, and surface runoff flow into a specific body of water (Tactical Basin Plan, 2018). The Connecticut River Watershed is the largest watershed in New England, and was formed by a massive glacier that receded about 18,000 years ago. This ancient glacial Lake Hitchcock once completely encompassed the entire Connecticut River watershed area, and overtime receded, leaving behind glacial deposits and nutrient-rich soils (Larsen, 1987).

Regional Hydrology

There are two major watersheds with in Basin 10, the Ottauquechee River watershed and the Black River watershed, they are known as the sub basins of the Black- Ottauquechee watershed. Both sub basins flow from the Green Mountain range to the Connecticut River. According to the Watershed Management Division of the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, there are ten major stressors that impact the surface waters within the Basin and affect water quality (Figure1). Specifically, for the Ottauquechee River and the Black River, stressors such as sediment loading, rising temperatures of water, flow alteration, and habitat alteration are of particular concern.

The landholdings of Farm & Wilderness are divided between the two sub basins that are within Basin 10. Woodward Reservoir and its surrounding streams flow north into the Ottauquechee River. Lake Ninevah and its surrounding wetlands flow south into the Black River. Woodward Reservoir and Lake Ninevah are amongst the largest lakes within Basin 10, and they are both at the top of their respective sub-basins. Since they are large bodies of water that are amongst the first to contribute to the Black River and the Ottauquechee River, they impact the health of downstream waterbodies, and appropriate management is critical to helping to reduce the stressors that impact water quality within the entirety of the Basin.

CLIMATE & WATER QUALITY

A changing climate is predicted to amplify the stressors on Basin 10. “An increased number of highintensity rain events in conjunction with warmer temperatures will result in more flooding along Vermont’s rivers and shorelines.” (Vermont Wildlife Action Plan, 2015). The increased intensity and frequency of these storm events will increase storm water flow which can lead to flooding, and can also adversely impact fish and wildlife.

Management of landscape activities, waterbodies, and aquatic communities must address the impacts of increased water flow in order to mitigate the channel and land erosion and the nutrient loading that are caused by these storms. The addition of nutrients and sediment runoff into water bodies increases the occurrence of algae which reduce the oxygen in water and clog the gills of aquatic species (NOAA what is a harmful algal bloom?). Nutrient-heavy water is also more costly to filter in town water systems, and may be harmful to humans and animals.

Increased flood events and rising water temperatures may also assist in the spread of invasive species like knotweed and phragmites which are of concern in Vermont. This, combined with more frequent freeze-thaw events during the winter, will lead to higher water runoff in seasons that normally do not experience large flows of snowmelt or runoff. The summer months that once experienced frequent, small rainfall events are now experiencing longer periods of drought and more sudden, large rainfall events that exacerbate flooding and increase sediment runoff (Vermont Wildlife Action Plan, 2015). Management strategies to protect native species from invasive receiving a competitive advantage will be important as temperatures rise and storm water flow increases .

“For the most part, stressors result from human activity on the landscape; however, when landscape activities are appropriately managed, stressors are reduced or eliminated” (Tactical Basin Plan, 2018).

10 MAJOR STRESSORS THAT IMPACT SURFACE WATERS

Major Stressor Effects on Water Quality Sources of the Stressor

Acidity

Altered Hydrology

Aquatic Invasive Species

Channel Erosion

Encroachment

Land Erosion

Nutrient loading (non-erosion)

Thermal Stress

Toxic Substances Altered pH of lakes and ponds Atmospheric deposition

Results in periodic dewatering or inundation of habitat including extremely high velocity and rapidly changing water Non-natural variation in water flow due to water withdrawals

Decreased/altered flows from hydropower dams

Lake or reservoir fluctuations

Loss of habitat and ecological integrity of aquatic or riparian habitats Human dispersion

Natural spread

Increased sediment and nutrient loading due to stream disequilibrium Impervious cover runoff, dams, culverts, and climate change

Loss of habitat, equilibrium, and ecological process due to construction within or adjacent to floodplains, wetlands, lakes, stream, and rivers. Roads, buildings, utilities, stream crossings, dams

Increased fine sediment and nutrient loading due to erosion of exposed soils.

Ditching, cropland, forestland uses, construction sites, storm water runoff

Of surface waters

Poorly-functioning septic systems, agricultural runoff, domestic animals

Loss of habitat and equilibrium. Misinterpreted biological thermal reproductive cues by aquatic species Removal of woody and herbaceous riparian and shore land vegetation, climate change

In surface water and ground water Atmospheric deposition, inorganic and organic contaminant releases, pesticides, biologically-driven toxins

Figure 2: Source: The Vermont Surface Water Management Strategy

Hydrology

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Water Quality + Forests

Forests play an important role in mitigating the stressors that impact surface waters. Forests allow water to slowly filtrate into the ground. This environment decreases the amount and speed of water that flows into streams from stormwater runoff. An abundance of trees are an indication of good watershed health.

Trees reduce the volume of water that lands on the ground. They catch water and snow on their leaves and branches which evaporates, transferring the water back into the atmosphere. The branches and trunk of the trees also convey water to the tree roots. The shade cast by the trees allows snow to melt slowly, and the litter on the forest floor creates an irregular surface for water to move through. This slows the flow and enhances filtration of water into the soil (Green Infrastructure Center). An intact forest floor containing wood and leaf litter, tree roots, vegetation, and mineral-rich soil help filter sediment and pollutants from surface runoff (Vermont Water Quality Manual for Logging Professionals, 2018). By filtering and absorbing some dissolved chemicals and pollutants, forests are critical to enhancing the water quality of downstream waterbodies.

Trees stabilize soil and provide erosion control. Impervious surfaces like concrete or asphalt have the opposite effect on water and increase water runoff rates into nearby rivers and streams, causing erosion and sediment loading into lakes and ponds.

Any time the forest floor is disturbed by compaction or the removal of soil, the soil’s absorbancy is reduced. If soil is exposed, the likelihood of soil runoff increases and the area risks erosion (Vermont Water Quality Manual for Logging Professionals, 2018). Blocking or intercepting water through the creation of roads or trails in the forest can divert water flow and water can accumulate. Eventually, this will lead to channel erosion. “Timber harvests that remove a significant percentage of the trees in a watershed can increase the amount of water moving through the soil into streams, and in some instances, increase flooding (Vermont Water Quality Manual for Logging Professionals, 2018). Watersheds that contain 65% or more of forested cover are more protective of stream biology (NOAA, Water Quality Indicator). The sub-basins which Woodward Reservoir and Lake Ninevah are located in are approximately 91% forested. Farm & Wilderness helps to protect a portion of those trees and does not harvest timber near waterbodies including streams, vernal pools, and intermittent streams.

Farm & Wilderness is located in sub basins that are 91% forested. An abundance of trees is an indication of good watershed health.

View of Woodward Reservoir and ridgeline above Woodward camps Photo: Kelly Beerman

WATERSHED SUB-BASINS

Figure 3. Sub-basins are mapped with tree canopy shown in green. These sub-basins are 91% forested.

Hydrology

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Forested Upland Streams

Photo: Tim Stout

Steep slopes found in forests contribute to the transport of sediment into upland streams. A buffer of native vegetation along upland streams is important for stabilizing the slopes, limiting the amount of pollution that goes into water bodies, and it is also as a critical habitat for some endangered species (Tactical Basin Plan, 2018).

A high density of large trees and shrubs also helps to prevent large amount of chemicals and pollutants from entering adjacent streams and contaminating groundwater (Living in Harmony with Streams, 2016). The roots of plants and trees can help absorb, filter, and remove chemicals such as Nitrogen and Phosphorous from the water before they reach the groundwater table (Riparian Management Guidelines for ANR Lands, 2015). Soils like clay bind and hold the chemicals in place, preventing them from affecting water quality (Dramstad, 1996). In hilly or mountainous watersheds like Basin 10, water flows quickly down slope and water levels in the smaller upland streams can rise rapidly. These smaller streams are vulnerable to flooding and severe erosion can occur during storm events. This is a sensitive ecology; where even if a few trees are lost, small streams become especially vulnerable to heat and may quickly evaporate, resulting in the loss of a critical habitat for some fresh water species. “Multiple studies (Semlitsch and Bodie 2003, Petranka and Smith 2005) suggest that a 20-30 meter buffer from streams will include the majority of core habitat for stream salamanders” (Riparian Management Guidelines for ANR Lands, 2015). These woodland streams are critical habitats for rare and endangered freshwater, terrestrial, and avian species. On Farm & Wilderness Property, upland stream corridors are predominantly forested, and no timber harvesting occurs within 50 feet of stream banks (Baseline Document Report, 19).

Canopy Interception

Evaporation Precipitation

Infiltration Stored Water

Moisture Uptake + Storage

Roots bind soil to prevent erosion

Stream corridor and dissolved substance:

“Dissolved substances, such as nitrogen, phosphorous, and toxins entering a vegetative stream corridor are primarily controlled from entering the channel and reducing water quality by friction, root absorption, clay, and soil organic matter; these in turn are most effectively provided by a way corridor of dense natural vegetation” (Dramstad, 1996).

1. Contact with stems and litter slows water movement

2. Plant roots absorb dissolved substances prior to reaching the stream

3. Clay particles hold dissolved substances

4. Soil organic matter absorbs dissolves substances

Forested Upland Stream

50’ 50’ Trees and the water cycle:

Trees reduce the volume of water that lands on the ground. They intercept precipitation by catching water and snow on their leaves and branches which evaporates; transferring the water back into the atmosphere. The branches and trunk of the trees also convey water to the tree roots.

Field Dissolved substances

1 2 3 4

friction root absorption

clay soil No stream corridor Narrow stream corridor

Wide stream corridor

No timber harvest within 50 feet of streams

On Farm & Wilderness Property, upland stream corridors are predominantly forested, and no timber harvesting occurs within 50 feet of stream banks.

Wetlands + Climate Change

Nearby Connolly Pond in Shrewsbury, Vermont

Photo: Marc Cimonetti

A wetland is an area that has a water table at or near the surface of the land (Salimi et al, 1). There is a multitude of different types of wetlands; including, forested wetlands, open wetlands, wetland seeps, and vernal pools. These different types of wetlands provide important habitats for salamanders, frogs, newts, and other invertebrates as well as critical habitat for wetland plants (Thompson, 240).

In addition to providing habitat for wildlife, wetlands provide many benefits to humans that are especially important in a changing climate. Wetlands can reduce flood damage by temporarily storing and slowly releasing flood waters. Wetlands clean the water that passes through them by removing pollutants, such as nutrients and sediments before the water reaches nearby streams and rivers. They also slow down soil erosion by slowing the speed of water that passes through. Wetlands help in times of drought; since they slowly release water after filling up, they continue to provide water to surrounding areas even in dry conditions (Benefits of NC wetlands).

The waterlogged conditions of wetlands creates an environment that lacks oxygen, and this anoxic state results in large amounts of accumulated carbon. Wetlands contain 20 to 30% of the world’s carbon pool, but only cover about 5 to 8% of land surface (Salimi et al, 2). Known as carbon sinks “wetlands have been identified as one of the most productive ecosystem types; i.e. through photosynthesis, they can actively sequester and accumulate carbon as plant biomass or organic matter in soil” (Salim et al, 2). Compared to all terrestrial ecosystems, wetlands store the most carbon and, therefore, are critical to regulating climate. Water purification, flood control, and climate change mitigation are a few beneficial services wetlands provide.

However, a rapidly changing climate is also a major threat to wetlands. The biochemistry of a wetland ecosystem can be altered by increasing temperatures and altered hydrological patterns resulting in some of these important benefits and services that wetlands provide to turn into disservices. “This means that they

will no longer provide a water purification service and adversely they may start to decompose and release nutrients to the surface water” (Salimi et al, 2). If decomposition rates increase in wetlands they may shift from a carbon sink to a source of carbon and start to emit carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere (Salimi et al, 2).

VERNAL POOLS

There are numerous vernal pools and wetland seeps that support a myriad of amphibians such as spotted salamanders and wood frogs found on Farm & Wilderness land (Engstrom, 2018). Black bears, mink, bats, and other wildlife may also venture to vernal pools. Vernal pools are short-lasting, shallow pools of water found in forested areas that provide critical habitat for invertebrates, amphibians, and reptiles to mate and lay their eggs in a relatively predator-free environment. The eggs then have to mature quickly in the vernal pool and beat the heat of summer, which dries up these pools.

Mature amphibians then leave the vernal pool and live in the forest. Frogs and salamanders will travel the same migration path their entire lives, and return to the same vernal pool to breed (Thompson, 390-393). Changing climate is likely to affect the length of time which a vernal pool may exist, and influence the populations of wildlife that rely on them. Fragmentation of forests and increased recreation around vernal pools and wetland seeps are also harming the creatures that depend on this natural community. Farm & Wilderness protects numerous acres of wetlands, vernal pools and wetland seeps from development; however, a changing climate remains a threat to wetlands.

Flood + Erosion Control

Wetlands give rainwater a place to go - they hold water from heavy rain events and help prevent flooding. Wetland slow down erosion by slowing the speed of water passing through.

BENEFITS OF WETLANDS

Clean Water

Habitat

Wetlands are home to a wide variety of plants, insects, amphibians, reptiles, fish, birds, and mammals. Wetland act as “nature’s kidneys” by removing pollutants, such as nutrients and sediments, from water flowing through them.

Wetlands act as sponges, temporarily storing flood waters and releasing them slowly, after filling up, continuing to provide water to surrounding areas during dry conditions.

Ninevah Area

Photo: Andy Schulz

Water Storage

Tropical Storm Irene

Sediment runoff from the Connecticut River into the Atlantic Ocean during Tropical Storm Irene

A historic year for Vermont, 2011 saw a total of four disaster declarations all before Tropical Storm Irene even occurred in August. These disaster declarations were all due to flooding and fluvial erosion in the months of April and May (Vermont Hazard Mitigation Plan). Then Tropical Storm Irene cascaded throughout the region and caused approximately 2,500 miles of road damages. Throughout Vermont, 480 bridges and 960 culverts were damaged, and over $350 million in estimated repairs was caused by the storm (Vermont Hazard Mitigation Plan). The amount of rain that fell in south central Vermont was catastrophic and the most severe in the state. Since much of Basin 10 features steeps slopes, narrow valleys, and many small mountainous streams that follow transportation infrastructure, this Basin is especially vulnerable to flooding and erosion. “The Towns in the Ottauquechee River sub basin experienced $12,686,382 in damages and the Towns in the Black River sub basin experiences $12,535,826 in damages” (Tactical Basin Plan, 2018). After the storm, the communities of Plymouth and Mount Holly became very concerned about erosion and sediment loading in their lakes and rivers as the storm pointed out the vulnerabilities of the road and water infrastructure. Extensive flood mitigation efforts and resiliency planning within the watershed are ongoing and carried out by individuals, communities, and the state of Vermont. Financial incentives for municipalities have been established for “the adoption and implementation of municipal zoning bylaws that protect and preserve river corridors, shorelands and buffers” (Tactical Basin Plan, 2018). Within Basin 10 many towns have completed the process to become eligible for financial incentives for river corridor and floodplain protection, and Plymouth received the maximum 17.5% State match for future damages (Tactical Basin Plan, 2018). Effective July 1, 2014, Act 172 established a shore land management program to prevent sedimentation in Vermont’s lakes, ponds, and reservoirs. The Town of Plymouth, Vermont Local Hazard Mitigation Plan identifies strategies to reducing risks from flooding, severe weather, and other known hazards.

The Lakes and Ponds Management and Protection Program educates shore land property owners and town residents on the requirement of the Act. The Lake Wise program works with property owners on voluntary lake shore improvement projects, and educates the public on best management practices for conserving lake shores, shore land vegetation management standards, bank stabilization, and many other lake shore management strategies.

In an effort to maintain the shore lands and to restore areas around water bodies that need to be stabilized to prevent erosion, the Conservation Director of Farm & Wilderness holds a Natural Shoreland Erosion Control Certification since 2019 through the Lake Wise program.

The Vermont Shoreland Protection Act (Act 172)

“Sets forth standards for reasonable and responsible development of lake shore parcels, for the protection of water quality, shore land bank stability and shore land and lake shore habitat. The Act establishes the required use of best management practices to: (1) ensure development will occur on a stable slope with minimal erosion, (2) manage, treat and control erosion due to storm water runoff, and (3) provide erosion control, bank stability, and wildlife habitat” (Biennial Report Act 110).

“The topography of Basin 10, consisting of steep slopes and narrow river valleys, make it especially vulnerable to flooding and erosion” (Tactical Basin Plan, 2018).

Lake Wise Program Recommendation

A mix of trees, shrubs, and un-mown groundcover along lake front to stabilize the shore and prevent erosion is recommended to prevent sedimentation of pond and lakes

Hydrology at Farm & Wilderness

Surrounded by acres of forest and mountain peaks, Farm & Wilderness also contains two beautiful lakes - Woodward Reservoir and Lake Ninevah. These lakes are both home to numerous natural communities. Some of these natural communities are home to rare or endangered plant and wildlife species; such a loons, which have returned from near extinction in this region.

A natural community is an interacting assemblage of organisms, their physical environment, and the natural processes that affect them (Thompson, 58). Some natural communities in Vermont create certain conditions that warrant a distinction by the State because they contain very rare, rare, or uncommon characteristics and species. Two rare natural communities found at Farm & Wilderness include a dwarf shrub bog on Woodward Reservoir and an intermediate fen around Lake Ninevah. These natural communities are both types of peat lands and wetlands where plant decomposition is exceeded by plant growth (Thompson, 2000). What distinguishes a bog from a fen is the source of water: a bog has a slightly raised surface and most of its water and nutrients come from precipitation. The water is high in acidity and low in nutrients. Fens have a flat or sloped surface whose water source comes from groundwater discharge making the water mineral rich (Thompson, 309). The specifics of both these peat lands create conditions for rare natural communities.

To the north, Woodward Reservoir lies between Route 100 and Tamarack Camp. There is public boat access on the northwest shore of the reservoir, and Farm & Wilderness has agricultural fields on the southeast side. There are also a few private residences along the southern and western shorelines of Woodward Reservoir opposite of Farm & Wilderness eastern shoreline. The glacial history of the Reservoir creates the rare dwarf shrub bog that floats along the eastern shoreline of the Reservoir.

To the south, Lake Ninevah also has a dam and a public boat access point. On the southern side of the lake a 34 acre wetland that has been ranked as part of the Vermont Natural Heritage Inventory. Since it is home to several aquatic habitats such as vernal pools, mountain streams, and forest seeps it is ranked as rare natural community in Vermont.

Vermont Natural Heritage Inventory Ranking System:

S1- Very Rare

S2- Rare

S3- Uncommon

Woodward Reservoir Photo: Michael Forster Rothbart

Woodward Reservoir

View of Woodward Reservoir, the Farm, and the Bissell & Ingalls Hill ridgeline from Sauters Rock. Photo: Kelly Beerman

Woodward Reservoir is within a sub-basin that drains north into the Ottauquechee River before eventually flowing into the Connecticut River. The reservoir is about 111 acres, and a maximum depth of 51 feet (Habitat Assessment, 2019). Several water sources flow into the reservoir including overland surface water runoff, groundwater seeps, and at least three unnamed tributaries (Habitat Assessment, 2019). There is an earthen dam at the northern portion of the Reservoir that outflows into Reservoir Brook. For public recreation, a Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department public fishing and boating access area is located off Route 100 on the northern end of the reservoir. Farm & Wilderness camps are located on the eastern side of the reservoir.

Along the shoreline, Woodward Reservoir is home to a number of mature native trees and shrubs such as white pine, American beech, paper birch, eastern hemlock, and speckled alder. The overhanging riparian woody vegetation is abundant, creating good conditions for biological organisms throughout the reservoir, and numerous rock ledges and sharp drop-off create an ideal habitat for fish. There is a small portion alongside Woodward reservoir that is adjacent to the agricultural fields that is less vegetated (Habitat Assessment, 2019).Woodward Reservoir contains a floating dwarf shrub bog (S2) natural community, also known as a peat island, that hosts acid-loving plants like sphagnum mosses and sheep laurel.

Dwarf shrub bogs are open peatlands that have an environment that is low in nutrients and minerals. This environment is ideal for insectivorous plants like pitcher plants which are adapted to acidic water. In Vermont most dwarf shrub bogs occur in kettlehole basins which are depressions in the landscape formed by ice blocks left behind by glacial retreat (Thompson, 314-315). They float in open water in the center of the basin like the dwarf shrub bog found in Woodward Reservoir. Low shrubs with an abundance of flowers in early summer such as leatherleaf, bog laurel, sheep laurel, and bog rosemary are commonly found in these environments, as well as stunted black spruce and tamarack trees. They are also where birds like Lincoln’s sparrow, common yellowthroat, and rusty blackbird go to breed, and the rare four-toed salamander may be found in this type of environment. Dwarf shrub bogs are uncommon in Vermont, with few total acres statewide. Since the habitat is so specialized, it is extremely vulnerable. Changes to the water quality of Woodward Reservoir or runoff from Route 100 may threaten the habitat and the species that live on this floating wetland.

Lake Ninevah

View of Lake Ninevah and signage from Vermont Public Access Greeter Program

Photo: Elena Zachary

Lake Ninevah is in the sub-basin that flows south into the Black River, which eventually drains into the Connecticut river. The 171-acre lake is only about 12 feet at its deepest point, and is home to a variety of unique habitats and species. The Ninevah area contains a variety of wetland types totalling approximately 220 acres including 34 acres of a wetland known as an intermediate fens on the south side (Engstrom, 2018). This area is full of water features like springs, cascades, and waterfalls. The bedrock beneath the lake results in low alkalinity of the water, a condition that makes this a mineral-rich environment for plant growth. There are two surface water inputs draining to the lake; one input is located on the eastern side of Procter Hill and enters the northwest shore of the lake, and the other flows through the large peatland on the southern shore of the lake (Engstrom, 2018). This mineral-rich intermediate fen (peat land) is a wetland that stores water, mitigates downstream flooding, and protects against erosion during storms. It filters water by trapping sediment and removes nutrients and pollutants from the water. Many wetlands, including this fen, are the headwaters for many cold water upland streams that are home to rare and endangered species and plants like bladderwort and pitcher plants. The outlet of the lake is in the northeast corner where water level is controlled by the dam.

Intermediate Fens are only found in areas of Vermont where there is calcium-rich bedrock (Thompson, 310333). The groundwater enriched by the dissolved minerals from the bedrock feeds this peat land and its tall sedges, mosses, and shrubs are adapted to mineralrich environments. Similarly to the dwarf shrub bog, many birds use the low shrubs and herbaceous plants as a breeding ground. Meadow voles and masked shrews may also be found hiding beneath the grasses in this flat landscape, and dragonflies like the Canada darner are abundant (Thompson, 310-333). All examples of Intermediate fens in Vermont are under 50 acres, making them extremely vulnerable to disruption (Engstrom, 2018). Changes to water quality or water level are a threat to intermediate fens, particularly those that are along shorelines of ponds or lakes, such as the one found at Lake Ninevah. Human use can cause trampling of the fens therefore visits should be contained to the upland forests.

The fens are not structurally sound as portions of the fens may only be held together by the roots of the vegetation floating on top of the slowly moving water; “the wrong step could have some watery consequences” (Engstrom, 2018). There are at least 52 vernal pools within the Ninevah Area (Engstrom, 2018). Vernal pools, typically found in the upland forests, are depressions that fill with water in the spring and fall. The overhanging canopy of the surrounding trees shades these vernal pools and slows evaporation. The communities of wildlife that prefer a vernal pool habitat include amphibians like the Northern dusky and two-lined salamanders. Similarly, seepage wetlands are found in upland forests occurring at the base of slopes, occurring where groundwater comes to the surface. The mineral rich groundwater allows for lush vegetative growth within this wetland (Thompson, 310-333).

Half of the vernal pools found at the Ninevah Area are confirmed to be state significant because they are critical breeding habitat for vernal pool specialists like wood frogs & mole salamanders and over 100 spotted salamander egg masses and over 50 wood frog egg masses were found in the Ninevah Area during an ecological survey performed during the Spring of 2017. The amount of vernal pools found on the low flat ridge south of the lake and on the small plateau north of the lake was said to be unprecedented in the state of Vermont by the field ecologist who conducted the survey (Engstrom, 2018). There are at least seven different natural community types of wetlands found in the Ninevah Area that total 300 different wetlands. Most of these wetlands are small (1 acre of less) and cover 220 acres. This does not include the 8 acres of potential wetlands. Small wetlands play a critical role in plant diversity and are home to invertebrates that are critical in forest ecosystems. Basin swamp, forested seepage wetlands, marshes & wetland meadows, open peat land, shrub swamp, and small open seepage wetlands are all found around Lake Ninevah. Each of these are home to some state significant natural communities or endangered species (Engstrom, 2018).

Recently, a natural community with unique ecological characteristics has been identified in the state of Vermont. It is a type of small open seepage wetland made up of tall herb glades. Ecologists have called it a montane tall herb glade, and it usually makes its home at higher elevations in the Coolidge Range. The few instances of this community found in Vermont are nestled in between breaks of forest canopy and contain an abundant growth of tall herbs and are highly biodiverse. Small areas of montane tall herb glades are surprisingly found scattered throughout the Ninevah Area, and an unusually large area of this type of natural community is found on the upland north west side of the property by Salt Ash Mountain (Engstrom, 2018).

Vermont Natural Heritage Inventory Ranking System:

S1- Very Rare

S2- Rare

S3- Uncommon

Current Practices

Farm & Wilderness is conscientious in their practices, and diligent work has been done to maintain the abundant biodiversity within Lake Ninevah, Woodward Reservoir, and adjacent streams. There was a third pond with a dam known as Peggy’s Pond on the southwest side of the Woodward Area. The dam found on Peggy’s Pond was in danger of failure, and the decision was made to drain the pond and restore it to a wetland in 2019. After the dam was decommissioned, passive restoration allowed the native seed stock in the previously submerged soil to germinate, and a wetland has started to emerge.

There are ecologically-minded practices in place on Lake Ninevah on Woodward Reservoir. Through the Vermont Public Access Greeter Program, greeters have been employed throughout the summer seasons to prevent invasive aquatic plant species from entering the water. Through education, boat inspections, and signage, people are asked to clean off their boats prior to entering the water and after exiting. For many lakes in Vermont, fast spreading non-natives like Eurasian Milfoil are harmful. Eurasian Milfoil is able to grow in lower temperatures than other native plants and eventually it blocks native plants from receiving sunlight. Since Lake Ninevah is a shallow lake, only about twelve feet at its deepest part, close monitoring is critical for its health. Periodic surveying of the lake is done to monitor and remove harmful non-native species, and Lake Ninevah has been free of Eurasian Milfoil for decades.

BUFFER PROTECTION AREAS

Farm & Wilderness Stewardship plans limit timber harvesting near wetland areas. These protections follow the current use guidelines for the Forest Legacy Program and the Vermont Shoreline Protection Act (Farm and Wilderness Foundation Forest Stewardship Plan).

(TERRESTRIAL) INVASIVE SPECIES

There are a few terrestrial invasive species on Lake Ninevah that were found in 2016. The forester and the ecologist employed by the Ninevah Foundation and a representative from the Vermont Land Trust identified eight harmful non-native species including knotweed goutweed, wild (or poison) parsnip, buckthorn, wild chervil, giant hogweed, Garlic mustard, Wall-lettuce. Especially focused and concerned about these species near roads, lakeshores, and streams, the Ninevah Foundation began to collaborate with neighbors to develop a strategy to control their spread across land boundaries.

Vegetative buffers on Farm & Wilderness Property

Wetland off SAM trail on Ninevah Area