Wildlife Movement & Habitat

Photo: Tim Stout

“For the well-being of wildlife and people, connections matter.” - The Nature Conservancy

Connectivity

Farm & Wilderness land is part of a large block of forest that is important habitat for some animals. Nestled between segments of Coolidge State Forest and Okemo State Forest, Farm & Wilderness land is an integral piece of this region’s conservation puzzle.

Many wildlife species rely on large areas or “blocks” of forest habitat and on connections between these habitat blocks. When land that is home to natural communities becomes developed for agriculture, housing, or other land uses, habitat blocks become fragmented and wildlife can suffer (Sorenson and Osborne, 2014). Without connections between large areas of forest, some animals have a difficult time moving through the landscape safely and efficiently. One in five species in the United States are at risk of extinction, and the loss of biodiversity through the disruption of natural wildlife habitats is one of the main reasons why so many animals are endangered (Haddad, 2015). Supporting genetic diversity among species in a population is essential for species richness and reduces the risk of extinction. Depending on the species, some animals need thousands of acres of deep forest land to travel in their lifetime. Finding suitable habitat, mates, and food sources are all reasons for animal movement.

Farm & Wilderness

High Priority Connectivity Blocks are areas identified as being essential for habitat connectivity. The entire

spine of the Green Mountains, as well as other ecologically significant blocks of forest that connect to

surrounding states and Canada, are identified in Vermont as high priority areas important to conserve.

Habitat Fragmentation

Habitat fragmentation occurs when large, contiguous areas of habitat are divided into smaller areas of habitat. This affects species dynamics and movement, and forest and watershed composition. Fragmentation is almost always caused by human intervention and development. With increasing human population and development pressures, habitat fragmentation is likely to occur at faster rates in the region. Fragmentation, coupled with climate change impacts such as increased precipitation, temperature, and proliferation of invasive species, will likely stimulate animals to move further north to find suitable habitat, food sources, and mates. Reducing forest fragmentation will support the success of wildlife migration and help increase the survival of species as they are forced to relocate due to human development and climate challenges. (Sorenson and Osborne, 2014). Moose are one example of a species that has been affected negatively by habitat fragmentation, in particular due to increased roadways and traffic. In wintertime, salt is spread on roadways to alleviate ice accumulation. In the spring, the salt drains off the road and into pools of water. These “salt pools” attract moose and other wildlife, especially in the springtime when they are nutrient-deprived, bringing these animals closer to the edges of busy, dangerous roads (Rea, Roy V., et al. 2021). A study conducted by Vermont Fish and Wildlife found that nearly 70% of non-hunting-related moose mortalities were due to collisions with motor vehicles in the state. Higher incidents occurred in the spring and summer and salt pools were often found near to the crash site (Alexander, 1993).

An unfragmented habitat block where wildlife can move freely. Road fragmenting a habitat block, creating a dangerous crossing for wildlife. Roads and development further fragmenting and reducing viable habitat and space for wildlife.

WILDLIFE CROSSING DATA

The Wildlife Crossing map (right) identifies areas in Vermont that have high habitat suitability and are within close proximity to busy roadways to determine wildlife crossing potential. Data layers used to create this map include: • Land use and land cover

• Housing and development density • Large blocks of contiguous habitat

In this map, the more red a line is, the higher the probability of wildlife crossing a roadway. The map focuses on terrestrial species, and does not include aquatic species or their associated waterways. The dataset was created by Vermont Center for Geographic Information.

WILDLIFE CROSSING MAP

Dividing a large area of forest to the west of the Woodward Area is State Route 100. It is regarded as one of Vermont’s most scenic roads, and runs almost the whole length of the state north to south. This road is appealing to many leaf peepers, tourists, and outdoor recreation enthusiasts, as it connects to some of the most beautiful outdoor areas in the state.

This area of Route 100 is identified as an area with high potential for wildlife crossing. The proximity of large habitat blocks to one another, as well as Woodward Reservoir as a water source for wildlife, create a desirable area for wildlife to cross the road. This puts animals at risk of injury and mortality from fast-moving cars, and also compromises human safety.

More information should be gathered at this location to determine more accurate wildlife crossing potential, document incidents, and implement appropriate wildlife crossing assistance techniques. Route 100 Woodward Area

Wildlife Habitat at Farm & Wilderness

Photo: Shawn Taylor Rusty blackbird populations have declined 85% in the last fifty years, much to the dismay of ecologists and ornithologists (ebird.org). The rapid decline of these birds likely has to do with the development and destruction of wetlands, their preferred nesting habitat. In 2014, only twenty rusty blackbird nests were documented in the entire state of Vermont. One such area that the rusty blackbird has been identified is the wetland marsh just north of Lake Ninevah (Engstrom, 2018). The continued protection of this vital habitat is critically important for this bird species.

State status: Endangered.

Little brown bat populations have been steadily decreasing. White Nose Syndrome (WNS) has resulted in the loss of 5.7 million bats in the northeast U.S. since 2006. This fungus was discovered in Vermont in 2008, and since then the little brown bat and northern long eared bat populations have declined by 90% (Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department, 2015). Bats in the northeast U.S. rely on insects as their main food source, specifically insects that have aquatic larval stages (Rustad et al. 2012). Changing precipitation patterns and altered stream flow might disrupt the life cycle of these insects, therefore altering the availability of bats’ food source.

State status: Endangered.

Photo: USFWS

Common loons are the only North American loons that live in New England. They are very sensitive to disturbance, and a loud motor boat or disruptive human may cause them to abandon their nest and leave their vulnerable young. Loons are susceptible to getting tangled in fishing lines and other trash. Increased development along shorelines reduces the availability of nesting sites for loons, which may cause them to leave an area. Maintaining calm and clean waters will help loons continue to return to lakes and deep ponds in Vermont, including Woodward Reservoir and Lake Ninevah.

State status: Vulnerable. Removed from endangered species list in 2005.

Photo: Alan Schmierer Bicknell’s thrushes are ecological specialists, meaning they require very specific environments. Bicknell’s thrushes are found in high elevation spruce-fir forests. Salt Ash Mountain near Lake Ninevah hosts this forest community. The Partners In Flight organization identified 86 bird species out of roughly 450 breeding landbirds in the US and Canada to be of continental concern. Of these 86 species of concern, 19 are highlighted as being on the Red Watch List, which are identified as being “species with extremely high vulnerability due to small population and range, high threats, and rangewide declines.” Bicknell’s Thrush is on this red watch list.

State status: Rare, imperiled.

Four-toed salamanders are the smallest terrestrial animals in the Northeast. The female salamanders spend most of their lives in upland forests, but each spring migrate back to the same area they were born in to lay their eggs. These salamanders lay eggs in vernal pools, fens, and bogs. They prefer and will seek out areas that contain sphagnum moss, which have cavities perfect for hiding delicate eggs in. Though there are not any documented findings of this salamander at Lake Ninevah’s peatland, it is likely that there is suitable habitat here for this rare and elusive salamander.

State status: Rare, imperiled.

Photo: Brian Gratwicke

Photo: Jamesvincentwardhaugh Ruffed grouse prefer habitat with three age classes of forest, early succession tree species such as aspen and paper birch, and forests with some downed trees and diversity of plant cover. Aspen stands are the preferred habitat for ruffed grouse, and actively managing this type of forest for ruffed grouse may encourage them to live on Farm & Wilderness property. Their diets change seasonally: in the spring and summer they tend to eat grasses, berries, and insects; in the fall they search for beech nuts and acorns; and in winter they forage on the buds of aspen, birch, and hop hornbeam.

State status: Common, though populations tend to fluctuate from year to year.

Wildlife Habitat at Farm & Wilderness

Photo: Becker

Beavers are a keystone species, which means their presence strongly influences an ecosystem. Many natural communities would not exist if beavers were absent. Beavers dam up streams in order to create a pool of water where they build a den that offers safety from predators and warmth in winter. In doing so, beavers create water-filtering wetlands, open dense forests, and a diversity of habitats where many flora and fauna thrive. These ecosystems benefit humans by creating natural areas of stormwater management and water-holding capacity, essential for the projected increase of flooding events in New England. Beavers are found throughout the Ninevah Area. State status: Common. Monitored to maintain healthy populations.

Photo: Jitzeco Uperus Eastern bobcats are common throughout Vermont, though they are rarely seen due to their solitary nature and stealthy movement. They are very adaptable creatures, and can be found in a range of habitats. Rocky ledges serve an important role in their mating rituals, and the talus field at the southern end of Woodward Reservoir might serve as an excellent location for bobcats to mate and den in. They are a predator species, and their primary food sources include small rodents, rabbits, birds, and deer. Continuing to support habitat for prey species will support bobcat populations, which is important for ecosystem health. State status: Common. Monitored to maintain healthy populations.

Photo: Deborah Freeman

Moose are iconic, mystical woodland creatures that live in the deep forest communities of New England. They are feeling the pressures of a changing climate, and the health of their population is decreasing. In Vermont, their population decreased by 47% between 2010 and 2017 (Debow, et al. 2021). Warmer winters are pressuring moose to migrate to more northern areas to find suitable habitat. Moose typically are found in spruce-fir forests and in areas with active timber harvesting. Moose sightings on Farm & Wilderness land have been few but staff have seen moose and moose calves on or near the property. State status: Common. Monitored to maintain healthy populations.

Photo: Jitze Couperous Black bears are the only bear species found in Vermont. They are relatively shy animals, and prefer to stay away from densely populated areas. During times when natural food sources are low, black bears might be attracted to garbage and bird feeders. Ensuring that food sources like berries, acorns, and beech nuts are available for bears will help keep them safe and healthy and avoid human encounters. Farm & Wilderness has an area where beech and oak trees produce plentiful, calorie-dense hard mast. Black bears and bear signs like scratch marks on trees have been seen on the property. State status: Common. Monitored to maintain healthy populations.

White-tailed deer are incredibly adaptable animals that live throughout Vermont and New England. They prefer forest edges, where biodiversity is high and they can find a range of suitable habitats and food sources. Although deer can live in a range of habitats, they require very specific winter conditions in order to survive Vermont’s winters. Surprisingly, only 7 to 8% of Vermont forests offer suitable deer wintering habitat. The Woodward area hosts an ideal deer wintering area, and its continued conservation by the organization is essential for supporting deer through the winter months.

State status: Common. Population management strategies may be implemented.

Photo: Yankechgary

Eastern Wild Turkey populations have been increasing over the last few decades due to milder winters and changing landscape use. Though the high population of wild turkeys may seem like a problem, it is likely that with the increase of agricultural land’s conversion to development, turkey populations will decrease. Maintaining a balance of population control through regulated hunting seasons, optimal habitat, and predator-prey relationships may help turkey populations stabilize and remain healthy as climate changes. State status: Common. Population management strategies may be implemented.

A wildlife map interpreted from Brett Engstrom’s ecological study of the Ninevah Area in 2018.

Current Practices

The forest and wetland practices that Farm & Wilderness implements maintain habitats that are crucial for a diversity of wildlife.

Farm & Wilderness manages its forests and wetlands to maintain the highest quality habitat for a variety of species. Under the Forest Legacy easements and forest stewardship plans, Farm & Wilderness continues the conservation of these areas.

The beech and oak stands provide hard mast of beech nuts and acorns that are incredibly important food sources for many animals in the fall, including black bears. The stand of hemlock-spruce forest offers important deer wintering habitat. The various wetland types throughout the landholdings are also carefully monitored for invasive aquatic and terrestrial vegetation. Timber harvesting does not occur within 100 feet of these areas, a critical practice for maintaining healthy populations of amphibians, birds, and fish. This practice benefits the endangered rusty blackbird as well, who requires undisturbed wetlands for nesting. Timber harvesting does not occur in elevations over 2,500 feet. This helps preserve the preferred habitat for the imperiled Bicknell’s thrush, an ecological specialist that depends on montane spruce-fir forests at higher elevations.

Loons and other waterfowl nest on Woodward Reservoir and Lake Ninevah. Farm & Wilderness works very hard to maintain suitable habitat and conditions for these animals, by reducing the access points along the shoreline, not having an official trail that encircles the shore, and encouraging people to keep proper distance from waterfowl and other wildlife.

The Loon Watch Project is the main program for the recovery of loons in Vermont and is run by the Vermont Center for Ecostudies. Farm & Wilderness, along with neighbors at Woodward and Ninevah areas, work closely with the project biologist for this organization. This project provides the nesting area buffer sign that Farm & Wilderness posts, gathers data on loon counts each year, and helps educate and inform the public.