Mitigation and Adaptation to Northern Landscape Hazards by Kenneth Johnson

Mitigation and Adaptation to Northern Landscape Hazards Kenneth R. Johnson, M.A.Sc., MCIP, P.Eng. Earth Tech Canada

Northern regions Big….Really Big…. The Northern Regions of Canada include the Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut, in addition to the northern land claim areas of Nunavik, and Nunatsiavut. This land is home to 100,000 people and is 45 percent of Canada’s land.

Northern communities Small and distance places Northern communities are very small by southern standards. Iqaluit, the capital city of Nunavut, and the largest community in Nunavut, is only 6,000 people. Iqaluit is 2000 km north of Ottawa, and 2300 km northeast of Winnipeg.

Development needs in cold regions

Tsiigehtchic, Northwest Territories

Water supply at Carcross, Yukon.

Piped water & sewer at Iqaluit, Nunavut.

Trucked sewage discharge at Tuktoyaktuk, NWT.

Spatial elements of infrastructure The spatial elements of infrastructure in a northern community are quite limited, and have many positive and negative interactions in northern development.

Introduction to northern infrastructure The cost of infrastructure ď ŽThe cost to build a community ď Ž

Davis Inlet, Labrador is being relocated to Natuashish at a cost of $150 million for 600 residents

Climate change in northern regions Predicted temperature variations over the next 50 years

Summer temperature variations with a maximum increase of 5 to 6 degrees

Winter temperature variations with a maximum increase of 7 to 8 degrees

Northern infrastructure influenced Water supply and delivery Rankin Inlet uses an insulated, shallow buried pipe system for water distribution

Chesterfield Inlet uses an excavated reservoir, like many communities, that is filled once a year

Northern infrastructure influenced Sewage collection, treatment, and disposal

Trucked sewage collection in Repulse Bay provides service to all residents

Trucked discharge to a â&#x20AC;&#x153;naturalâ&#x20AC;? sewage lagoon in Tuktoyaktuk

Northern infrastructure influenced Roads and drainage The design, construction, and maintenance of roads and drainage in the permafrost terrain of Iqaluit present unique challenges

Northern infrastructure influenced Community airports The airport in Repulse Bay is the largest engineered earth structure in the community

Northern infrastructure influenced Community sealift operations Marine transportation, although seasonal, is the lifeblood of many communities

Fuel delivery in Fort McPherson occurs once a year

Northern Communities with Notable Landscape Hazards Aklavik, NWT - erosion and flooding of MacKenzie River Dawson City, Yukon - flooding of Yukon River Fort Good Hope, NWT - flooding of MacKenzie River Fort Liard, NWT - flooding of Liard River Fort McPherson, NWT - flooding of Pelly River Fort Simpson, NWT - erosion and flooding of MacKenzie River Fort Smith, NWT - land slides along Slave River Hay River, NWT - flooding of Hay River Nahanni Butte, NWT - flooding of South Nahanni River Old Crow, Yukon - erosion and flooding of Porcupine River Tulita, NWT - flooding of Bear River Tuktoyaktuk, NWT - erosion and flooding of Arctic Ocean Whitehorse, Yukon - flooding of Yukon River

Mitigation Measures for Northern Landscape Hazards Scientific Study – scientific and applied scientific investigations to provide a basis for hazard mitigation. Annual Surveillance – dedicated resources for annual monitoring and notification on hazards. Land Administration – land bylaws that have explicit limitations on development in hazard areas . Building Conditions – building bylaws that have explicit controls on structures to withstand hazard. Engineered Structures – engineered physical structures to protect or stabilize against hazard. Community Relocation – deliberate neighbourhood or community relocation away from hazard.

Evaluation of Mitigation Measures for Northern Landscape Hazards Scientific Study

Annual Surveillance

Land Administration

Building Conditions

Engineered Structures

Community Relocation

Aklavik

Limited

None

Limited

Dawson City

Extensive

Limited

None

Extensive

None

Ft Good Hope

Limited

None

Fort Liard

Limited

None

Ft McPherson

Limited

None

Fort Simpson

Limited

None

Limited

None

Fort Smith

Extensive

None

Extensive

None

Limited

Hay River

Extensive

Limited

Extensive

Nahanni Butte

Limited

None

Old Crow

Limited

None

Tulita

Limited

None

Tuktoyaktuk

Extensive

None

Extensive

None

Extensive

None

Whitehorse

Limited

Extensive

Limited

None

Case Studies of Northern Landscape Hazards Scientific Study

Annual Surveillance

Land Administration

Building Conditions

Engineered Structures

Community Relocation

Aklavik

Limited

None

Limited

Dawson City

Extensive

Limited

None

Extensive

None

Ft Good Hope

Limited

None

Fort Liard

Limited

None

Ft McPherson

Limited

None

Fort Simpson

Limited

None

Limited

None

Fort Smith

Extensive

None

Extensive

None

Limited

Hay River

Extensive

Limited

Nahanni Butte

Limited

None

Old Crow

Limited

None

Tulita

Limited

None

Tuktoyaktuk

Extensive

None

Extensive

None

Extensive

None

Whitehorse

Limited

Extensive

Limited

None

The Community Events of Landscape Hazards Dawson City 1925 1979

Dawson City has had five major ice-jam floods in its century-long history.

Ice broke on the Klondike River on May 7, while ice broke on the Yukon River on May 9; an ice jam formed causing severe flooding (four to five feet high) in Dawson. An ice jam on the Yukon River caused water to rise 2 metres, flooding 80% of Dawson's buildings.

Fort Smith 1968 2004

2008

August 9, a landslide some 1,000 m by 300 m broke away from the riverbank in the townsite destroying three homes and killing one person. On August 12, 2004, a landslide 500 m by 100 m west of the townsite destroyed the communities sewage discharge pipeline; reconstruction of the discharge pipeline cost $400,000. In July, a large landslide in the area of the 1968 slide has raised new concerns about riverbank stability; a geotechnical investigation is underway.

The Community Events of Landscape Hazards Hay River 1951 Major flooding caused by ice jamming around Vale Island required evacuation of the community. 1963 Major flooding caused by ice jamming in Old Town and Indian Village required evacuation of the community of Hay River. 1974 Flooding caused by ice jamming required evacuation of West Channel residents. 1985 Record high flows of the Hay River and ice jams caused serious flooding, requiring the evacuation of West Channel residents. 1992 Approximately 100 residents were evacuated as a 10-kilometre-deep ice jam at the mouth of the Hay River flooded the town.

Tuktoyaktuk The community of Tuktoyaktuk experiences storms on a annual basis that cause surges to varying degrees, every several years, a significant event causes extensive flooding and advances the shoreline erosion.

Aklavik Flooding In the 1950â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Aklavik was beginning to develop rapidly. Erosion of the Peel Channel banks lead to melting permafrost and severe flooding. The severe flooding prompted the Federal Government to begin construction of East Three (Inuvik) and the movement of the community to the new location began. The population of the community (1600 in 1952) began to decline as people moved to Inuvik. Then principal of the school organized a committee to save Aklavik and had students write and sing protest songs. The end result was that people stayed.

Dawson City Flooding Dawson City flood, 1925 The ice broke on the Klondike River on May 7th. The Yukon River ice broke in front of Dawson City at 8:15 a.m. Saturday, May 9th. The Dawson Daily News said, "It moved slowly downstream, fifteen minutes later it jammed near St. Mary's hospital and backed up as far as Church Street. The jam broke by 10:30 and the ice moved out." "Worst Floods Known Submerge City" was the headline on Thursday, May 14th. "The worst flood ever known in the Yukon began here this, Thursday, morning at about six o'clock, and the south end of the city is now under water to the depth of four or five feet, some cabins and other dwelling places are afloat.

Dawson City Flooding Mitigation

A flood levee was constructed around the community after the 1979 flood.

Fort Smith Landslide August 1968

Photo of Landslide area

2004 1968

Destruction of Sewage Discharge Line

Fort Smith Landslide August 2004

Fort Smith Landslide Mitigation Winter 2005

Landslide Area August 2004 Landslide Stabilization September 2004 Lagoon Discharge Replacement January 2005

Great Slave Lake

Hay River Flooding

1992 Approximately 100 residents were evacuated as a 10-kilometre-deep ice jam at the mouth of the Hay River flooded the Old Town on Vale Island.

Hay River Flooding Mitigation

In the early 1960â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, Hay River started relocating the community centre to the New Town on higher ground, south of the flood prone area of Vale Island.

Hay River Flooding Mitigation

New houses constructed on Vale Island are now required to include flood mitigation measures such as minimum floor elevations.

Tuktoyaktuk Erosion Study PREVIOUS SHORELINE EROSION RELATED STUDIES Tuktoyaktuk is the only community in northern Canada where shoreline erosion is having a significant and sustained impact with significant financial implications to the community infrastructure.

SHORELINE EROSION PROTECTION AND PERFORMANCE Experimental shore protection using the Longard tubes as bulkheads and groins was built in 1976. This shore protection system was destroyed by 1981, which coincided with increased storminess in the early 1980s.

Previous shoreline erosion efforts have ultimately failed to stop the erosion from advancing.

Tuktoyaktuk Erosion Study PREDICTION OF FUTURE SHORELINE POSITIONS The analysis used to predict the future shoreline positions consists of establishing the historical shoreline retreat rate prior to construction of the current protection measures; assessing the physical characteristics of the existing shoreline protection measures; dividing the shoreline erosion area into segments; estimating the maximum retreat for 10 and 25 year periods for each segment; and estimating the most likely shoreline positions for each segment.

Ten and twenty-five year predictions were developed for storm erosion.

Tuktoyaktuk Erosion Study BUILDING INSPECTION PROGRAM AND COMPILATION

A building inspection, evaluation and rating provided a context of risk within which to consider the potential shoreline erosion progression for the next 10 to 25 years. The assessment encompassed a preliminary inventory of buildings with photographs, coordinates, and a limited external inspection.

All buildings in the erosion risk area were inspected and evaluated based upon a number of general parameters.

Tuktoyaktuk Erosion Study COMMUNITY CONSULTATION A community questionnaire was developed and completed for 30 households. The purpose of the questionnaire was to gain an understanding of community members' views of a desirable community to live in, given the erosion of the Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula and the land administration challenges associated with this. The questionnaire concerned surroundings, personal dwellings, and neighbourhoods.

The erosion risk area is a desirable place to live because of the ocean and the proximity to the community centre.

Tuktoyaktukâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s community flag conveys the significance of the ocean and the land.

Tuktoyaktuk Erosion Study BUILDING RISK AND PROTECTION The building risk for the 10-year maximum erosion estimate may impact up to 10 buildings along the shoreline. These buildings may be impacted to a point that they would be considered vulnerable to damage or destruction unless they are relocated or demolished, or a well-engineered and constructed shoreline protection system is in place. One of these 10 buildings has a high rating based upon the physical rating of the buildings. The remainder of the buildings have a moderate to low rating.

The 25 year prediction of erosion suggests that as many as 15 buildings are at risk.

Although no heritage buildings, such as this log church, are at risk, the community cemetery is at risk.

Tuktoyaktuk Erosion Study COST VERSUS BENEFIT FOR BUILDING PROTECTION A cost versus benefit analysis of building protection clearly indicates from life cycle costs that building relocation would have the lowest life cycle cost. This conclusion is based upon a purely technical and economic perspective, and does not address the needs of the community residents.

The community has been incrementally adding erosion protection to the shoreline over the past decade.

Other infrastructure implications of Tuktoyaktuk shoreline erosion Tuktoyaktuk water supply Water levels in the water supply lake have been dropping steadily in the past several years

Other infrastructure implications of Tuktoyaktuk shoreline erosion Tuktoyaktuk water reservoir The reservoir was constructed of a silty sand material dredged from the harbour; the reservoir was constructed on tidal flats

Other infrastructure implications of Tuktoyaktuk shoreline erosion

Tuktoyaktuk landfill

A perimeter berm provides retention of on-site runoff; it is being eroded by periodic ocean storms

Other infrastructure implications of Tuktoyaktuk shoreline erosion Tuktoyaktuk sewage lagoon The sewage lagoon is a natural lake with a constructed berm; the berm is within the tidal zone

What next…………….. ? February 25, 2005 Nunavut wants "world-class" climate research in Nunavut "I think it's an opportunity for Canada to show leadership." Ed Picco, minister responsible for the Nunavut Research Institute in Iqaluit, said a juiced-up research facility would specialize in combining traditional knowledge with scientific research. The vision builds on the findings of the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. The Government proposes making the Nunavut Research Institute (NRI) into a central hub for research on global warming, by building on NRI's previous work, which largely involves coordinating the permits of researchers from outside the territory. They suggest Nunavut could also offer expertise from people living in the communities. In their letter, the cabinet ministers say Inuit have been reporting the effects of climate change on the ice, snow and wildlife at a more local level than any report to date.

What next…………….. ? Cold Region Integrated Infrastructure Planning CRIIP The key elements of CRIIP are a minimal framework for community development needs suggesting strategies and questions with an outcome for “appropriate incremental action in a community context”.

Flooding cuts off parts of Pangnirtung Monday, June 16, 2008 PANNIQTUUQ/PANGNIRTUNG - The Hamlet of Pangnirtung declared a state of emergency last week after flash flooding forced the closure of both its bridges. The bridges connected most of the community to its fresh water reservoir, sewage facilities and landfill. After heavy rains on June 7 and 8, major erosion caused the older of two bridges to destabilize. This prompted the hamlet to open up the second, which was still under construction. Erosion around its abutments soon forced its closure as well.

Monday, June 16, 2008 in Pangnirtung The town's SAO (Senior Administration Officer) was on our local FM radio station at noon. Here's a brief summary of some of the main points on what was mentioned: •Every household will continue to receive 500L of water per day. •High pressure water pumps are now located on both sides of town - these are to be used in the case of a fire. •A temporary garbage dump will be placed on the south-end of town. •The town is acting quickly to find a solution for the disposal of raw sewage. •A top notch bridge expert is expected to arrive in town this afternoon. •Soil geologists will arrive tomorrow to drill core samples and evaluate the shoreline. • Both shorelines are highly unstable - considerable erosion continues as the river changes courses. •A temporary walking bridge is in the works - will be established with culverts and soil/gravel. •Canoe service continues between both sides - schedule dictated by tides and need. For interest sake: Several students in the local school mentioned that their parents remember a similar storm and flood caused extensive erosion on the Duval River in 1958.

Potential Mitigation Measures for Pangnirtung Scientific Study – scientific and applied scientific investigations to provide a basis for hazard mitigation. Annual Surveillance – dedicated resources for annual monitoring and notification on hazards. Land Administration – land bylaws that have explicit limitations on development in hazard areas . Building Conditions – building bylaws that have explicit controls on structures to withstand hazard. Engineered Structures – engineered physical structures to protect or stabilize against hazard. Community Relocation – deliberate neighbourhood or community relocation away from hazard.

Pangnirtung looks ahead to avert future crises as emergency ends Thursday, July 10, 2008 Officials in Pangnirtung, Nunavut, are exploring ways to prevent flash floods from damaging their infrastructure again, having ended a state of emergency in the community last week . Pangnirtung has two outstanding issues. First, it has to pick a site for a new bridge, which needs to be installed this fall. Second, it needs measures to prevent the damages from happening again.

References Cold Region Integrated Infrastructure Planning â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A Traditional Tool for Community Development. Alberta Association, Canadian Institute of Planners (AACIP) Annual Conference. Edmonton. 2004. Development Needs for Northern Communities â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The Challenges Associated with the Continuing Boom. AACIP Planning Digest. 2004. Erosion Progression and Adaptation Strategy in a Northern Coastal Community. International Conference on Permafrost. Zurich. 2003. Community Planning and Climate Change in the Canadian North. Plan Canada. 2001.