Theorizing Things by culture context

THEORIZING STATUS,

THINGS:

PROBLEMS

CRITICAL

AND

INTERPRETATION

PRASAD

material

'There is an extraordinary despite

their pervasive

Things occupy significant

State

culture,

portions

in scholarly

Disciplines

and areas of study such as industrial philosophy,

the significance within

these branches

is either infrequent

objects,

of learning.

Design studies,

studies

understanding

but also other disciplines

by expanding

of objects.

culture

pertaining

objects

to artefacts

as objects,

life.' (Daniel Miller,

1987).

space in our daily lives and yet their

or scattered

design,

but the symbolic

rather than social terms, can benefit culturally-rooted

discussion

as well as media and cultural

of material

theory,

and symbolic

appearance

engineering,

University

as the context for modern

of physical

discourse

OF OBJECTS

design

lack of academic

presence

OF THE

BORADKAR

Arizona

KEYWORDS:

BENEFITS

across academic

anthropology,

studies, meanings

material

do routinely

departments.

culture

examine,

and values ascribed

studies,

analyse

to them vary widely

which has traditionally

regarded

its discourse

a more socially-

This knowledge

to include

will serve to inform

about the role of design in fashioning

and debate

objects in formal and

not only design

objects.

This essay presents an overview of how things are theorized

theory locates the practices

in several disciplines,

a larger, social critique. And finally, this discourse will equip

methodologies,

and aims to interrogate

instrumentally

of things, thereby strengthening

across these fields. If objects

its presence and authority

in material culture studies.

more critically, design may become less pragmatic,

more informed by the social, CRITICAL

political and economic concerns central to cultural and

TH EORY

media studies. Similarly, armed with a better understanding

Max Horkheimer,

of design, media and cultural studies might supplement

critical theory, also offers several suggestions

analysis of institutions,

within

design studies with a more inclusive and robust conception

promote dialogue, and suggest benefits for

research as well as teaching are theorized

respective

of design and production

texts, audiences

with a deeper consideration

significant

and technologies

of technological

the processes of their evolution.

its

PAGE DESIGN

as the pioneer of that may be

in creating a theory of objects. Critical theory

could be described as 'a rigorous critical engagement

objects and

Also, locating things within

THE

often regarded

JOURNAL.

with social and philosophical

3 VOLUME

ISSUE

issues ...aimed at the cross-

PAPERS

THEORIZING OF

fertilization

THINGS: THE

STATUS,

CRITICAL

of research methods derived from the social

sciences with a Marxist theoretical conceptualizing

social relations'.

framework

for

about a subject,

being so linked with each other that a

approaches.

often used in art and design and may be defined

as something

that is a result of artistic human labour. In

archaeology,

artefact may be used to refer to products of

prehistoric naturally

or aboriginal

craft to differentiate

them from

produced ones. This may be contrasted

term 'product'

of things should therefore

refers to the end result of a process. Product is a term

be composed of a set of basic

propositions

that can help outline some of their

primarily

fundamental

meanings.

engineering

These propositions

can then

with a series of secondary

ones to

add detail and further develop the primary meanings. 2. 'The smaller the number of primary principles comparison

with the derivations,

derived from Latin productum,

with the

few are basic and the rest derive from these'. A theory

be supplemented

and disciplinary

derived from Latin roots arte and factum,

Horkheimer (1972, p.188) offers three valuable suggestions.

the propositions

BENEFITS

OBJECTS

The term 'artefact',

(Edgar and Sedgwick,

of propositions

AND OF

the basis of specific attributes

2002, p90-91).

1. Theory is 'The sum-total

PROBLEMS

INTERPRETATION

employed in design (as in product design) and (as in new product development),

and the

process being referred to is often mechanized.

Inherent

this definition

of products is the understanding

exist in identical,

that they

multiple copies as they are manufactured

in large quantities.

the more perfect the

which too

A 'device' has its etymologica]

roots in

theory.' Hence, if possible, theories should be simple in

Old French devis, and signifies a thing created or adapted

their construction,

for a specific purpose. This term makes a reference to the

but should allow application

across

a variety of object categories.

technology

'The real validity of the theory depends on the derived

which allows it to perform the particular

propositions

is designed. 'Gadgets'

experience

being consonant

with the actual facts. If

and theory contradict

two must be reexamined: be gathered

each other, one of the

Empirical information

should

from the materia] world of things in

order to support theoretical

construction,

embedded within it (mechanical,

ingenious

are small tools that often possess an

quality. Here, too, the presence of technology

foregrounded

sold, mostly in large quantities.

appropriately

linguistic

premises should be considered

creation of comprehensive

in the

roots to Latin commoditas,

function,

It is significant

MULTIPLE

TERMS

to define accurately

FOR

Perhaps the most non-discipline semantically

PAGE DESIGN

object stands in opposition

that exists distinct from people.

among them on

THE

and economic

to subject, and is regular]y discussed as the inanimate

gadgets, etc).

common parlance they may be often employed to convey one may distinguish

existence

is derived from the Latin word objectum (noun

before someone. In philosophy,

used to describe physical goods. Though in

similar meanings,

and their usage often

form of objectus), which means to throw or put something

the severa] terms

(such as objects, things, commodities, frequently

THINGS

owe their

but their presence in Marxist analysis as well. The

word 'object' THE

'Commodities'

amplifies not only their mercantile

theories of things.

sense, and

things that may be bought and

the facts do not confirm the theory, it should be

These fundamental

as a defining aspect of the thing. The term

refers to merchandise,

adjusted.

etc),

tasks for which it

'goods' finds usage largely in a commercial

and if

electronic,

JOURNAL.

expansive

4 VOLUME

ISSUE

specific and

term is 'things.' Its label does

entity

PAPERS

THEORIZING OF

not amplify anyone

of its attributes,

multiple interpretations

STATUS,

CRITICAL

PROBLEMS

AND

INTERPRETATION

BENEFITS

OBJECTS

T HI N GSA NOT HE 0 RIE S

thereby facilitating

IN 0 ES I G N RES EAR C H

of more or less equal value.

However, that the terms 'objects' used interchangeably

THINGS: THE

and 'things'

may be

Within design research objects tend to be generally

is obvious in Dant's definition.

under-theorized

and their social and cultural significance

'Things are objects available to our senses as discrete and

everyday life scarcely examined

distinct entities which do not count as other beings or

that if designers are to understand

other objects' (Dant 1999, p 11). Confessing that 'things'

activities,

have effectively

through academic discourse. This paper attempts to create

the attention

dodged an exacting

of philosophers,

definition

in spite of

Attfield (2000) defines them

as, 'Objects of human production

and exchange

through which people live their everyday existence:

of critiquing

for the development

inspired by Kenneth

Burke's perspective

that allows the

(a) A better understanding

opposing views. Burke (1984)

in other disciplines

amalgamation

of seemingly

explains perspective

by incongruity

in which metaphors

can be used to expose relationships

between objects typically ignored in language. incongruous ordinary

and extraordinary

observation

analysis abounding niceties'

Therefore

brings

This incongruity

obvious,

trivial

appears

thing.

subtleties

of industrial

at first

(e) A pedagogical

But its

and society

of the social and cultural impact

design activity tool for use in design practice and

thing,

Increasingly

and theological

conviction

visible in the work of design scholars is the that the meanings

of objects should be situated

not only within the context of design and manufacturing

by human and/or mechanical dimensions

multiple and fluid meanings,

activity but also within the circumstance

labour with material

with symbolic and utilitarian

value, that signify art as well as technology,

and extraordinary.

of the role of objects as signifiers

design education.

(1992, p4I).

and immaterial

understanding

of objects

(dJ A better understanding

Things may be defined as physical entities that are fashioned

of how objects are theorized

of culture, human relations

is also evident in

out that it is a very strange

in metaphysical

means

to bring to design:

and interdisciplinary

(cJ A higher awareness

can be put together to create

that, 'A commodity

sight an extremely

(b) A comprehensive of the meanings

concepts such as material and immaterial

a new understanding. Marx's

This research attempts

as a creative strategy

of a theoretical

the culture of objects.

would like to propose a definition by incongruity

full import of their

of a lack in design studies and lays the

foundation

in detail. It is clear, though,

this is an area that deserves further investigation

awareness

with and

Walsh, 1989; Woodham,

that possess

examination

and that are at once ordinary

The purpose of this expansive

cultural activity (Doordan,

1995; Forty, 1986; Sparke, 1987;

1997). In these publications,

the

of designed objects often reveals the influence

of the social sciences, especially

definition

of social and

anthropology

studies. Margolin (2002) advocates

and cultural

the recognition

of design

is to clarify that things operate in everyday life as examples

as a cultural practice, and lists these major areas of study

of physical substance

it may address: design practice, design products,

while signifying

symbolic meanings.

Any theory of things needs to accommodate that is inherent

this multiplicity

in their existence.

discourse and metadiscourse. theorization

PAGE THE

DESIGN

JOURNAL,

Research related to the

of things may be located under the category

5 VOLUME

design

ISSUE

PAPERS

THEORIZING OF

of design products,

THINGS: THE

STATUS,

CRITICAL

AND OF

the identity and interpretation

of products'.

the consumptive

culture by analysing understanding

Objects under-theorized

are

delineate

in design

research

BENEFITS

OBJECTS

comprehend

which Margolin (2002, p25J) explains

as, a 'Study ... that emphasizes

PROBLEMS

INTERPRETATION

the trajectory

journeys

objects exists in disciplines

minds of designers,

industrial

design is relatively young and has not

things. One way of

this aspect of contemporary

For several reasons, a large volume of the discourse around

discipline,

and interpreting

objects make incredibly

from their origins as immaterial inventors

and engineers

theoretical

trajectory

architecture

have a reasonably

has traditionally

allied disciplines

such as

long history. Second, design

been concerned

of production,

distribution

manufacturing,

Industrial

use, and of waste and abandonment.

have a commandingly

studio courses rather than critical/analytical emphasis on the teaching created the situation

institutions

larger number of skill-based

level are mostly unfamiliar

of sharing and exchange,

writes so eloquently

and

questions

with the theories that could be

incomplete

discipline,

specific aspects of the existence

contributes

a condition

relevant and enlightening

that directly

to the relative scarcity of published

disciplines

research

Understanding of

objects

understanding

Through their ubiquitous

studies reveals an increasing

culture

and perspectives

presence in our material landscape,

boundaries

objects foregrounds

of objects. Though

predominated

components

but they also serve

each one of these

significant

from the social sciences, disciplinary

more by aesthetic

and technological

also makes it difficult to create an inherently

cultural practices

we can better

theoretical

PAGE THE

DESIGN

JOURNAL,

of the

meanings of things that engenders such a diversity of reading

read ancient

artefacts,

rather

The very multiplicity

cultural practices. Just as archaeologists in excavated

to be

of things cannot be entirely attributed

the divisions among disciplines.

role in the

of identity, and they are material embodiments

In design, our present

of objects is only partial; it continues

in our knowledge

gadgets as much as they

are frivolous excesses; they playa

of theories, methods

than social and cultural concerns. However, the deficiency

of our cultural lives. Inherently

they are utilitarian

recognition

are far from permeable.

material elements of our environments,

formation

each discipline

in themselves,

is one

understanding

polysemic,

provides only a partial reading of the object.

things press on us. They are present not only as visual and

as rudimentary

of what it is to be human

And, though current research in design history and design

within the discipline.

means

and

As Miller (1998, p20)

understanding

In the process of theorization,

than theoreticians,

of possession

within the diversity of culture'.

used in the analysis of objects. Third, being a professional

practitioners

Each one of these

in his seminal essay Why Some Things

into the fundamental

at the undergraduate

design has a much higher percentage

they

Matter, such studies are a 'Highly effective means to enquire

ones. This

of design ability and skill has

where students

this

activities signifies a unique culture: that of design and

more with the production

in educational

through

and consumption,

acquire and discard multiple meanings.

of things rather than their analysis and interpretation. design programmes

to their deaths

into garbage bins or dispersal into recycling containers. As they interact with several stakeholders

by contrast,

complex

concepts in the

existed long enough to be able to build a comprehensive foundation;

culture is to

of the designed object. When viewed

for their entire existence,

outside design. First, as a formal

nature of contemporary

model for their interpretation

6 VOLUME

ISSUE

cohesive

and analysis.

PAPERS

THEORIZING OF

lack

THINGS:

THE

of a comprehensive or studying

STATUS,

CRITICAL

PROBLEMS

AND

INTERPRETATION

theory

departments,

objects

BENEFITS

OBJECTS

examples of objects listed under a certain

category may also be claimed by other disciplines.

The study of objects remains diverse in approach

example, though television

and 'eclectic in its methods. Approaches

and cultural studies, it may also appear under science and

archaeology, acceptable

geography,

from history,

design and literature

contributions'

are all equally

technology

these synopses nonetheless

adds richness to the discourse, but also means that the

the key disciplinary

scholarship

disciplines

situation

tends to be scattered

has prohibited

theory for studying

across disciplines,

the development

things grounded

This

DISCIPLINES

often shared, as are emphases

The following examination

Of the four main branches positions

adopted, methods used, examples of objects analysed results sought by the scholars in disciplines and interpret

of their designated

or semiotic) are

and viewpoints

and sociocultural

of anthropology,

anthropology

(such as

Though traditionally

that critique

of indigenous

of artefacts

associated

and cultures.

with objects and practices

cultures and bygone civilizations,

anthropologists

academic

archaeology

are the two most directly

involved in the interpretation

and

objects. As scholars often share theories

and methods regardless

modes of analysis

Anthropology

DESIGN

will clarify ideological

among these

rather than production).

OF THINGS OUTSIDE

some of

and elastic - the same Ur texts

and criticism (such as Marxist, rhetorical

in a comprehensive

consumption DISCOURSE

ideas. Topical boundaries

are permeable

in their

constitute

and scholars are often cross-referenced,

of a coherent

array of concerns, methods, and approaches.

THE

studied under media

studies. By no means comprehensive

descriptions,

(Miller 1998, pI9). This diversity

is regularly

For

(Appadurai,

1986; McCracken,

Miller, 2001) have turned their attention of consumption contemporary

and mass-produced, society. According

task of the anthropological

many 1988;

to the study

everyday objects in

to Berger (1992, p.47), 'The

analyst of material culture is to

see the role that various objects play in the most important myths and rituals of specific cultures and subcultures and the manner in which all of these relate to dominant values and beliefs'. By viewing objects as cultural data, sociocultural

anthropologists

their meanings.

are able to better comprehend

They gather information

long periods of time using ethnographic such as field observation

over reasonably research methods

and key informant

interviewing.

Using a wide array of research methods, anthropologists have more recently undertaken growing variety of artefacts Figure 1. Disciplinary approaches to the study of things.

shops, magazines,

PAGE THE

DESIGN

JOURNAL.

ISSUE

including

of a

interiors of barber

food, military vehicles, chairs and toys.

7 VOLUME

the examination

PAPERS

THEORIZING OF

Archaeology,

THINGS, THE

STATUS.

CRITICAL

PROBLEMS

AND

INTERPRETATION

BENEfITS

OBJECTS

deal about the ways in which culture works in late-modern

on the other hand, may be defined as

the scientific study of ancient cultures (typically preliteratel

societies such as our own.' A more recent text by Bull (2000,

through the scrutiny

p.lO) furthers the study of the Walkman by providing

archaeologists sampling,

of the artefacts

use methodologies

aerial photography,

left behind. In general,

account that 'Draws Critical Theory together with a more

such as excavating,

chemical and visual analysis,

nuclear dating in order to understand

the artefacts

of their

scrutiny. For example, if found at an archaeological lithics and projectile invaluable

their natural

cultural

Cultural studies is inherently methodologies

studies

multidisciplinary;

from various disciplines,

methodology'.

orientated

Both studies situate the

of society, and draw from theories life, urban environments,

and consumption.

Several other cultural

the role of objects in society using

specific case studies. In his work with subcultural

groups

in postwar Britain, Hebdige (1988) provides an in-depth

of the practices

of entire civilizations. and

tied to an empirically

theorists have examined

habits. Therefore, pottery, jewelry, baskets,

Media

phenomenological

technology

about how past cultures managed

or their broken bits, become repositories

approach

that contend with everyday

resources, the skill levels of their toolmakers

and their hunting

ethnographic

object within structures

site,

points used in spears can reveal

information

analysis of the Mods and their fascination

with the Italian

motor scooters, the Vespas, manufactured

by Piaggio. More

notable is Hebdige's Subculture:

it absorbs

and in its analysis,

(1979) because of its brilliant

it situates a wide range of cultural products within the

ethnography

social issues of race, gender, ethnicity,

preferences

and sexuality.

The Meaning of Style

amalgamation

of theory and

to study the identity of objects and musical of social groups. In general, these and other

According to Cavallaro (2001), cultural studies may be

cultural studies of things heavily emphasize

the importance

seen as 'A cluster of approaches

of processes of consumption,

reject

1970s - have prompted meaning,

which - especially since the

a radical reassessment

of notions of

history, identity, power, cultural production

cultural consumption:

and

determinism

are generated

in use. Material

Cultural studies scholars derive their

ideologies and interpretive

School.

of the politics of power is central to media and

recognized

and assert that meanings

culture

Born out of anthropology,

tools from critical theory, the

origins of which can be traced back to the Frankfurt Recognition

technological

unequivocally

studies

material culture studies may be

today as the one field of study that is wholly

engaged with materiality

and its significance

cultural studies discourse, and its critique is often inspired

world. Scholars in this area have established

by Marxism, feminism, structuralism,

are worthy of study and their examination

post-colonial

studies

understand

and queer theory. A good example of a cultural studies approach study of the Walkman introduced 1979. In performing

a 'cultural

1970s anthropologist

is a

by Sony Corporation

associated

cultural processes. In the late Baron

not only for

reasons of utility and status, but also to make 'Visible and stable the categories

and medium of modern culture', They suggest that 'Through

economic approach

studying

attention

one can learn a great

PAGE DESIGN

can help us

Mary Douglas and economist

Gay et al (1997, p2) refer to it as, 'A typical cultural artefact

THE

that objects

Isherwood proposed that goods are consumed

study' of the Walkman, du

its "story" or "biography"

in the social

JOURNAL.

seen in anthropology

ISSUE

(1979, pS9). In its socio-

this book has accelerated

8 VOLUME

of culture'

the increasing

towards the study of goods

PAPERS

THEORIZING OF

and buying behaviours of Things Appadurai 'Approach situation

THINGS: THE

STATUS,

CRITICAL

that can characterise

BENEFITS

OBJECTS

that technology

shapes society as much as

it is shaped by it. 'What matters is not technology

(1986, P 12) suggests that we should, as things in a certain situation,

AND OF

have suggested

of their owners. In The Social Life

commodities

PROBLEMS

INTERPRETATION

but the social and economic system in which it is embedded'

(Winner 1999, p28). In its analysis

many different kinds of

of objects, this area of

thing, at different points in their social lives', He argues,

study urges us to avoid technological

as do cultural studies scholars, that one should take into

of a more socially informed

account all the stages of the object's journey

technological,

life: production, influential

distribution

through its

and consumption.

determinism

in favour

reading of technology.

instead of being a sphere separate

'The from

society, is part of what makes society possible - in other

In another

words, it is constitutive

book, Material Culture and Mass Consumption,

Wajcman

Daniel Miller (1994) develops the idea of consumption, referring to it as a positive force in the development

itself

of society: (MacKenzie and

]999, p23) The study of science and technology

has also engaged with feminism to show that gender

identity, hence reversing the usually negative critique

identities

found in Marxist analysis. It is also suggested

understanding

through

should be taken into account for a full of the social aspects of technology.

these and other more recent texts that our culture is

Schwartz-Cowan's

progressively

of the earliest texts to open up an arena for a gender-based

becoming

study of consumption imbalance

is particularly

caused by the historical

These approaches alienation

a more material one and the necessary to adjust the

understanding

More Work for Mother (1983) was one

of technology

and technologists,

bringing together scholarship

emphasis on production.

and technology

do not view objects as signifiers of the

perspectives

caused by modern life, but as markers of the

fruitfully

in sociology, science

studies and cultural studies. These

have led to the development

processes by which we understand

society and ourselves.

understanding

of domestic technologies

As author of other groundbreaking

texts such as Material

as ovens, microwaves,

refrigerators,

of a more holistic and products such

shavers etc (Attfield,

Cultures: Why Some Things Matter (]997) and editor of

2000; Cockburn,

the new Journal of Material Culture, Miller has established

] 995). Bijker critiques specific material goods such as

himself as a leading voice in material culture and has

bicycles, Bakelite and bulbs (1995) through

given tremendous

called 'social construction

is particularly consumption

impetus to this area of study. This work

significant

as it has dramatically

opposed to the traditional

as scholarship

culture remains eclectic in approach embrace various combinations

view. Material

and

technology

studies

of engineers

PAGE

9 VOLUME

ISSUE

by users rather than

and designers. Researchers observations

and use

in the homes of

fully the relationship

domestic and the technological.

JOURNAL,

progress. Just

that objects have multiple,

and questionnaires

people to comprehend

of science and technology

DESIGN

that emphasizes

STS scholars have made it clear that our

surveys, interviews

(STS)

in the origins,

THE

a framework

material culture studies

this area often conduct extensive

An emerging group of scholars interested nature and social significance

symbolic meanings,

by the intentions

analysis,

critical theory as well as ethnography. Science

in anthropology,

material world is socially constructed

and has begun to

of philosophical

of technology'

and semiotics has emphasized

a perspective

production-centric

1983; Sparke,

the role played by people in technological

recast

as a social tool used in the development

of identity and a sense of self, presenting

]992; Schwartz-Cowan,

between the

PAPERS

THEORIZING OF THE

Semiotics

and product

Though not defined as a discipline, attention

as a widely practised

method that appears is concerned

with

that can be taken as a sign. A sign is everything

else'. (Eco, 1979) This definition

substituting

for something

by Eco outlines the primary

Pioneered

Saussure and American

by Swiss linguist Ferdinand pragmatist

semiotics may be understood

the language

qualities of advertising.

he relies on the foundation

of a Marxist view of political

Charles Sanders Peirce,

as an area of study as well as

objects is composed around linguistic structures.

rather than social

In his study of consumption,

locates objects simultaneously

within semiotics and political from two distinct

which he referred to as use-value

exchange-value commodity

Jean BaudrilIard

(tradability).

BaudrilIard

system with structural

semiotics by adding

symbolic and sign value. The meanings

investigation

depend entirely upon the process of signification

of the meanings

of texts

(utility) and

overlays Marx's

a method of analysis. As a method, it is widely used in the and interpretation

Though

economy, semiotics as well as sociology, his critique of

perspectives,

of brands and the

seductive and manipulative

economy. Marx viewed commodities

of semiotics with signs and the process of

signification.

AND BENEFITS OF OBJECTS

values of form and function,

semiotics deserves

which can be taken as significantly

concerns

STATUS, PROBLEMS INTERPRETATION

semantics

often in the analysis of objects. 'Semiotics everything

THINGS: CRITICAL

of things, to him, - a table,

(which could include images, objects, as well as media). Of

for example, exists only if it is designated.

particular

1980s, several designers used semiotics as a stepping-stone

significance

is the work done by French social

critic Roland Barthes (1957), exemplified written Mythologies plastic, margarine, circulation

in which he theorizes

forms in the cognitive the application

years. His goal

and social contexts

of the knowledge

these items, thereby

industrial

design' (Krippendorff

Building upon Saussure's

semantics

functioned

was to expose the myths surrounding their true meanings.

of product semantics.

It was

defined as 'the study of the symbolic qualities of man-made

things such as

the Citroen DS, soap and other goods in

in France during the post-war

uncovering

towards the development

in his eloquently

In the early

of their use and

gained to objects of and Butter, 1989). Product

as an analytical

instrument

and

triad of the sign, signifier and signified, Barthes introduces the

as a tool for generating

concept of myth, a second order semiological

however, was short lived; it was perceived as a style rather

robs language

of its primary meanings.

polysemy, he unveils the ambiguous

system that

In his discussion

nature of the signifier to

new product forms. Its influence,

than a generative/interpretive

method and it fell out of

favour by the end of the 1980s.

show that any given signifier may have multiple signifieds, suggesting

SOME

that texts and objects can and do possess multiple

meanings. His approach of decoding meanings oftexts as non-textual

objects and practices

signalled

shift in the way everyday objects were conceived Barthes set in motion a paradigm

in theory.

shift by assessing objects

not only as social symbols but also as myths and signs. Following Marx and Barthes, Baudrillard

a consuming

society by emphasizing

discipline

constructs

perspective

of questions

and methods that each

to study things provides a unique

and helps uncover specific meanings,

comprehensive

critiques. As anthropology

already entered circulation

PAGE DESIGN

Though the framework

examines social meanings

symbolic and sign

THE

IMPACTS

also operate as a bias and impede the generation

(1996, 1981)

offers a cultural critique of the role of commodities

AND

0 F KEY IDE A SID I SCI P II N E S

as well

a substantial

LIMITATIONS

JOURNAL,

10 VOLUME

ISSUE

generated

it may of more

typically

by artefacts

that have

within specific social groups,

PAPERS

THEORIZING OF

THINGS:

THE

it tends to focus more on processes of consumption rather than production

STATUS.

CRITICAL

PROBLEMS

AND

INTERPRETATION

(use)

BENEFITS

OBJECTS

material (and hence cultural) forms of technology.

(design and manufacturing).

treating

objects as texts, semioticians

And though with the growth of material culture studies

techniques

anthropologists

they may generate

are expanding

mass-manufactured traditionally

their field of study to include

goods in urban exchange

systems.

dimensional.

they have produced cultural critiques of the

material possessions cultures through

of indigenous

influential

and often isolated

extended ethnographic

research. Drawing

capitalist

production.

This approach.

treats humans as cultural dupes controlled

Although

or one-

semiotics has been tremendously including

cultural as being an

practice rather than a theory, and as being elitist

because it

meanings

of objects cannot simply be read using linguistic

structures

without understanding

are produced,

by larger

distributed,

how the objects themselves

shared, consumed

and discarded.

A theory of things should attempt to transcend

Although

cultural studies does expose the

heavy-handed

strategies

often employed by corporations,

fails to recognize the power exercised by consumers

all things. The critique centers around the fact that the

organizations.

constraints it

though

choice. More recent studies, however, have acknowledged that consumption

critiques that are incomplete

in a variety of disciplines

analytical

in turn, has been

criticised as being heavily production-centric,

and if unaided by other methods.

because of the belief held by some that it is applicable

mediated by the political structures

society. in the process often exposing the hegemony

are often limited by

studies and design. it has also been critiqued

upon Marxist theories, cultural studies scholars critique objects as products

of 'reading',

that disciplinary

boundaries

so that we may fully understand materiality

in all its complexity

mentioned

ideas and books

earlier have led to several adjustments

in the

acquisition

stylistic resistance

cultures, and as a means

to authoritatively

power structures

primary goal is material culture studies. Though there is

of undermining

and subverting

than acquiescing

rather

to them. Scholars in material culture

studies are often unfamiliar and manufacturing

disagreement

with processes of design

that govern the characteristics

objects such as aesthetics,

claim the study of objects as its

whether or not material culture may be

of a discipline

generated

has definitely

it is quickly gaining the status

in its own right apart from anthropology progressed

beyond a field of study. The new

examine formal aspects

and establishment.

The study of media technologies

media objects has led to an increased

awareness

of objects (such as form, colour and graphics) through a

studies across several academic departm~nts

cultural lens. Similarly, science and technology

including

scholars,

studies

in their emphasis on the social construction

technology,

intentionally

disregard the motivations

designers and manufacturers. these intentions

responsible

meanings

for the

DESIGN

of cultural

in universities.

design. Graduate courses in design increasingly

there is a greater awareness

JOURNAL.

research is being conducted

1 1 VOLUME

of the culturally

determined

of products. There is no doubt that more

ethnographic

P AGE THE

and

include cultural texts in their syllabi and in design practice.

Though invisible to users.

are at least partially

and

Journal of Material Culture testifies to this growing interest

Because of their interest in issues of ritualized

practice. they tend to infrequently

of things. One area that has emerged

referred to as a discipline,

usability and price. and their

analyses are hence limited to the meanings consumption.

academic conception

and multiplicity.

Some texts have also explained to dominant

of goods as

tend to construct,

the social significance

It is clear that the groundbreaking

could be a form of self-development.

these

ISSUE

in design than

PAPERS

THEORIZING OF

ever before, and this reflects a realization to design products that are meaningful pertinent

to see them as culturally

than as expressions increasing

STATUS,

CRITICAL

AND OF

everything

that in order

BENEFITS

OBJECTS

from toothpicks

is categorized automobiles,

produced items rather

to computers.

contained

the process and products

If this diversity

into product types (such as furniture, consumer

electronics),

that a theory also accommodates

This steadily

of design has led to the birth of important journals

PROBLEMS

INTERPRETATION

to people it is

of form and function.

interest in theorizing

THINGS: THE

it is equally important

the specific products

within each of the categories

(such

as the Eames lounge chair, the Volkswagen

such

Beetle, the

as Design Studies in the late 1970s, Design Issues and the

iPod, etc). As Miller (1994) suggests, 'The generality

Journal of Design History in the 1980s, and The Design

materiality,

Journal in the 1990s. These journals

of the material quality of artefacts,

the growing maturity

not only reflect

of the discipline,

they have also

that is any attempt to construct

general theories

commodities,

forms and so forth, must be complemented

aesthetic

by another

established design as a professional and scholarly endeavour. A

strategy that looks to the specificity

significant shift has also occurred in the way consumption

and the way form itself is employed to become the fabric of

conceptualized

- it is perceived

practice that casts consumers and subjective

meanings

cultural worlds.' Though the iPod from Apple Computer can

more as a non-alienating as active creators of collective

be situated within the category of all mp3 players, it also

rather than as powerless individual

stands apart as a significant,

has changed the academic

meanings

labourers.

This approach

meanings

ascribed to things and has partially

more production-centric,

traditional

balanced

of material domains

the

iconic product with unique

outside the general category. A theory should be

able to highlight

the meanings

of objects that are associated

with the product category as well as those that differentiate

Marxist analyses.

it from the rest. THE

PROBLEMS FOR

be expansive

things is confronted

The enormous

of objects represents

quantity

the first challenge.

enough to encompass

and interpretations

should the boundaries

difficulty

the construction

with a series

and staggering

variety

Can a single theory

this magnitude?

is it possible for a theory to accommodate meanings

The

DES I G N RES EAR CHIn

The process of theorizing of challenges.

OF THEORIZING

Second,

all possible

drawing

And

boundaries

of a theory of things, the difficulty

that all relevant interpretations

are included while excluding

concerns

of objects

not of relevance

significant

one: can boundaries

be constructed

around a

all of its pertinent

readings?

Assuming that this is indeed possible, the task is then to precisely demarcate

the boundaries

within which a theory

third, how does the theorist avoid problems of fetishism in

of things should limit itself, and to clearly specify what

this process? If unresolved,

these problems will hinder the

is outside its purview. To be effective, theorization

development

viable theories of things.

address all attributes

of adequately The

diversity of

and

specificity

It is important

that any theory of things accounts

the prodigious

diversity

for

which includes

DESIGN

environment.

The attributes

are corporeal.

ephemeral.

cultural,

PAGE THE

of things that influence

should

their existence

and meaning in relation to people, other things, and the

mat e ria I i ty

of materiality

design studies. This question leads to a larger and more

theory of things to incorporate

of objects, and if not, where

be drawn to limit the discourse?

lies in ensuring

JOURNAL,

and political.

12 VOLUME

ISSUE

of direct significance

to design

economic, social, technological,

PAPERS

THEORIZING OF

Tendency Fetishism attribute

towards

THINGS: THE

STATUS,

CRITICAL

fetishism

materiality

that the study of

itself is a form of fetishism. Are we, through this

process of analysis and theorization

BENEFITS

OBJECTS

that may face

this task, it is a worthy exercise with several benefits

human qualities to objects and develop obsessive to them. It has been suggested

AND OF

of design. In spite of the impediments

may be defined as a process in which people

attachments

PROBLEMS

INTERPRETATION

truly able to understand

to design. Locating objects within theory can not only advance design's understanding it can galvanize

of the material world but

its self-reflexivity.

Theoretica]

can be used prior to the conceptualization

knowledge

of a new product

our culture and ourselves more clearly, or are we ultimately

to steer the design, or after its launch to study impact. Were

reducing objects to mere fetishes? Subjecting

designers to embark on projects with some knowledge

things simply

to the gaze, or reducing them to 'text', 'art' or 'semiotic'

a critical theory of things, they may find a better means

may amount to mere fetishism (Miller 1994, p9). According

of understanding

to Marx, fetishism only helps to reproduce

application

commodities

capitalism,

turns

and persons objectified'

also extends toward the redesigns of products

that may be due for a new version or for those that may

into strange things, and leads to a situation

where 'things are personified

the impact of their design actions. Its

(Edgar

have failed after introduction.

Theories of things can also

and Sedgwick 2002, p72). Recent studies in materia] culture

perform an invaluable

(Appadurai,

learn about the creative process at undergraduate

1986; Attfield, 2000; Miller, 1994; Dant, 1999),

however, have questioned

the Marxist interpretation

fetishism as an alienating,

destructive

industrial

pedagogical

design, such a theoretical

function.

approach

As students levels in

can provide

them with a vantage point from which to understand

practice. Instead,

the

fetishism is critiqued as being a narrow and incomplete

social and cultural role of objects in society. The research

analysis of the practice of consumption.

that students typically

based approaches

Such consumption-

can be supplemented

treat objects as integral elements of

conduct during studio assignments by and organised

on the basis of

cultural life and emphasize that their values surpass mere

theory. Similarly, graduate

use and exchange.

design can employ theories of things as a means of

consumption

This perspective

and the theorization

interpretive

validates

the study of

of objects as a necessary

analysing

of things and therefore

from several disciplines,

of people, society

disciplines

and culture.

The limited time available to reduce time-to-market

The response to under-theorization of a new comprehensive disciplines,

of the role played

by design and designed goods in processes of fetishization,

can take the form

exchange

theory that draws from severa]

and consumption.

Theories of things generated

within design can complement

addresses the existing problems, locates things

within a larger social critique and expands the discourse

science and technology

JOURNAL,

13 VOLUME

ISSUE

and build upon those in

studies such as actor-network

theory, social construction

PAGE DESIGN

of media

of design processes. Anthropology

culture, can gain a better understanding

design practice.

THE

of the production

and material culture, in their study of everyday life and

often minimizes the attention

devoted to critical analysis in industrial

things needs to draw

its benefits can extend across

their analyses

forms with knowledge

for research and the pressure

as well. Scholars in media and cultural studies

can supplement BEN E F ITS 0 F THE 0 RI Z IN G

students

the role of objects in society.

Just as the process of theorizing

activity aimed at creating a more comprehensive

understanding

and postgraduate

of technology

(SCOT) and so on,

PAPERS

THEORIZING OF

further advancing

the increasing

THINGS: THE

engagement

and design. The growing literature

STATUS,

CRITICAL

PROBLEMS

AND

INTERPRETATION

between STS

BENEFITS

OBJECTS

Doordan, D. (2003) 'On Materials'. Design Issues, 19, (4), 3-8. Douglas, M, Et Isherwood, B. (l979J.

in design, evidenced

The World of Goods. Basic

Books: New York.

by the increasing

number of journals

signifies a maturing

and critical texts,

of the discipline.

directed toward the theoretical

du Gay, P., Hall, S., Janes, L., Mackay, H. Et Negus, K. (1997).

Scholarly endeavours

interpretation

Cultural Studies: Story of the Sony Walkman. Sage: Thousand Oaks. Eco, U. (1979). A Theory of Semiotics.

of material

Doing

University

of Indiana

Press: Bloomington.

things can only advance this process. The several benefits listed of theorising robustness,

things will contribute

Edgar, A. Et Sedgwick P. (2002).

to the richness,

Cultural Theory: The Key Concepts.

Routledge: London. Forty, A. (1986).

diversity, and growth of the field of design

Objects of Desire: Design and Society

1750-1980.

Thames and Hudson: London.

studies, as well as other areas of inquiry aligned with the

Hebdige, D. (1979). Subculture: The Meaning of Style. Methuen: London.

study of things.

Hebdige, D. (1988). Hiding in the Light: On Image and Things. Routledge:

London.

Horkheimer, M. (1972).

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P. (1995). Mutant Materials

in Contemporary

Design. Krlppendorff,

K. Et Butter, R. (1989), 'On the Essential Contexts of

Abrams: New York. Artifacts or on the Proposition Appadurai,

that Design is Making Sense (of

A. (1986) (Ed.). The Social Life of Things: Commodities Things)'. Design Issues, V, (2), 9-39.

in Cultural Perspective. Cambridge University Press: New York. MacKenzie, D. Et Wajcman, J. (1999). 'Introductory Attfield, J. (2000).

Essay and General

Wild Things: The Material Culture of Everyday Issues'. In D. MacKenzie EtJ. Wajcman (Eds.), The Social Shaping of

Life. Berg: Oxford. Barthes, R. (1957J. Mythologies.

Technology. Open University Press: Philadelphia ..

J. Cape: London.

Margolin, V. (2002). Baudrillard,

The Politics of the Artificial:

Essays in Design

J. (1981]. For a Critique of the Political Economy of and Design Studies. University of Chicago Press: Chicago.

the Sign. Telos Press: St. Louis. BaudriIlard,

J. (1996).

Marx, K. (1992).

The System of Objects. Verso: New York.

Capital: A Critique of Political Economy (Vol I).

Penguin: London. Bayazit, N. (2004). 'Investigating

Design: A Review of Forty Years McCracken, G. (1988).

Culture and Consumption:

New Approaches

of Design Research'. Design Issues, 20 (I), ] 6-29. The Symbolic Character of Consumer Goods and Activities. Berger, A. (1992). Reading Matter: Multicultural

Perspectives

Indiana

on University Press: Bloomington.

Material Culture. Transaction:

New Brunswick. Miller, D. (] 994). Material Culture and Mass Consumption.

Bijker. W. (1995).

Of Bicycles, Bakelite, and Bulbs: Toward a Theory

of Sociotechnical

Change. MIT Press: Cambridge.

B. Blackwell: Oxford. Miller, D. (1987). Material Culture and Mass Consumption. Buchanan, R. (2000). 'Design Research and the New Learning'. Design B. Blackwell: Oxford.

Issues, 17 (4), 3-23.

Miller,

Bull, M. (2000). Sounding

D. (199B).

Out the City: Personal Stereos and the

Material Cultures: Why Some Things Matter.

University of Chicago Press: Chicago. Management

of Everyday Life. Berg: Oxford.

Burke K. (19B4). Permanence and Change: An Anatomy

of Purpose.

Miller, D. (200]).

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Schwartz-Cowan,

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University of California Press: Berkley. Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave. Basic

Cavallaro, D. (2001). Critical and Cultural Theory: Thematic

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Variations. Athlone Press: London. Cockburn, C. (1992). 'The Circuit of Technology'

In R. Silverstone

Sparke, P. (1987). Design in Context. Chartwell Books: Secaucus. ft

Sparke, P. (1995). As Long as its Pink: The Sexual Politics of Taste. E. Hirsch (Eds.), Consuming Technologies: Domestic Spaces (32-47,

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Technology and Cultural Form.

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OBJECTS

Winner, L. (1999). 'Do Artifacts have Politics'. In D. MacKenzie Et J. Wajcman, The Social Shaping

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BIOGRAPHY Prasad Boradkar

is an Associate Professor in Industrial

Design at

Arizona State University in Tempe. He is the Co-Director and Project Leader of Innovation CriticalCorps.

Space. as well as Co-Director and Founder of

Innovation

Space is a transdisciplinary

Arizona State University where students researchers,

inventors

and businesses to explore user-centred

concepts that improve society and the environment. an interdisciplinary

laboratory

group of design researchers

of the designed environment

central objective of Prasad Boradkar's

product

CriticalCorps

the social

and everyday life. The

research activities

is to

perform critical cultural analysis of objects, thereby expanding accepted meanings in industrial working

on a book entitled

to the Culture

of Objects,

and educators who

use critical and cultural theory as a means to undestand significance

and faculty partner with

their

design discourse. He is currently

Designing

Things:

A Critical

Introduction

to be published by Berg Press in the UK in

2008.

ADDRESSES

FOR

CORRESPONDENCE

College of Design, Arizona State University, P.O. Box 872105, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA. Tel: + ] 480965

8685.

Email: prasad.boradkar@asu.edu

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to thank his dear friend Paul Rothstein who carefully read the rather unwieldy, somewhat unclear and unbearably long first draft of the article. He misses him.

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