38th Annual Executive Function Conference Digital Binder by cvanderberg

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Research Institute for Learning and Development www.researchild.org www.smarts-ef.org

38 T HA N N U A L

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION CONFERENCE

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION, MOTIVATION, AND ENGAGEMENT: Fostering Social-Emotional Learning and Positive Behavior in Students

LYNN MELTZER, Ph.D., CONFERENCE FOUNDER AND CHAIR

VIRTUAL CONFERENCE NOVEMBER 9 & 10, 2023 — ONLINE

Thursday, November 9th 9:30 - 9:35

Conference Logistics and Technology Overview Elizabeth Ross, M.A.

9:35 - 9:50

Welcome Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., Conference Founder and Chair

9:50 - 10:50

Unlocking Students’ Potential: Promoting Motivation, Flexible Thinking, and Stress Management in the Classroom Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D.

10:50 - 11:00

Q&A

11:00 - 11:15

Break

11:15 - 12:05

Bright Kids Who Couldn’t Care Less: Rekindling Students’ Motivation Ellen Braaten, Ph.D.

12:05 - 12:15

Q&A

12:15 - 1:00

Lunch and/or SMARTS Optional Session

>12:25-12:55

Optional Session: SMARTS: A Practical Approach for Teaching Executive Function Strategies Across the Curriculum

1:00 - 1:50

Rethinking Challenging Behaviors: Combining Neuroscience, Compassion, and Common Sense Stuart Ablon, Ph.D.

1:50 - 2:00

Q&A

2:00 - 2:15

Break

2:15 - 3:05

Motivation Station: Using Visual Scales to Help Students Think Beyond Awesome or Awful Michelle Garcia Winner, M.A., CCC-SLP

3:05 - 3:15

Q&A

3:15 - 3:30

Break 1

3:30 - 4:30

Panel: EF & Social-Emotional Learning Anthony Bashir, Ph.D., CCC-SLP, Josh Clark, M.Ed., Ari Fleisher, M.Ed. Michael Greschler, M.Ed., Peter Isquith, Ph.D., Mindy Scirri, Ph.D.

4:30 - 4:45

Q &A

4:45

Closing Remarks Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D.

Friday, November 10th 9:30 - 9:35

Conference Technology Overview Elizabeth Ross, M.A.

9:35 - 9:45

Day Two Overview Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., Conference Founder and Chair

9:45 - 10:35

Exercise: An Antidote to Stress for Challenging Times John Ratey, M.D.

10:35 - 10:45

Q&A

10:45 - 11:00

Break

11:00 - 11:50

The Elephant in the Classroom: Promoting Equity in School Systems Tommy Chang, Ed.D.

11:50 - 12:00

Q&A

12:00 - 12:15

Break

12:15 - 1:05

Panel: EF Across the Grades — Success Stories from Administrators and Teachers Polly Metz, MPS, M.A.Ed., Lynn Carpenter, M.S.Ed., M.A., Ebonia Williams, M.A., Kevin Mackey, M.A, M.Ed.

1:05 - 1:15

Q&A

1:15 - 2:00

Lunch Break and/or Optional Networking Sessions

>1:25 - 1:55

Optional Networking Sessions 2

2:00 - 2:50

Beyond Bribes and Threats: Challenging the Conventional Wisdom About Discipline and Motivation Alfie Kohn, M.A.

2:50 - 3:00

Q&A

3:00 - 3:15

Break

3:15 - 4:15

Panel: EF and Social-Emotional Learning: The Keys to Resilience Julie Dunstan, Ph.D., Shelly Levy, M.S., M.Ed., Susannah Cole, M.Ed., Joan Steinberg, M.Ed., Joanna Christodoulou, Ed.D., Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed., Leah Benjamin, Psy.D.

4:15 - 4:30

Q&A

4:30

Closing Remarks Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D.

Concurrent Speakers 1. From Frenzied to Focused: Time Management and Organization Strategies for School and Home Michael Greschler, M.Ed. & Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. 2. Executive Function and Social-Emotional Learning: Strategies for Perspective Taking and Self-Awareness Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. & Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. 3. Overcoming Math Anxiety with Executive Function Strategies Joan Steinberg, M.Ed. 4. Resilient Preschools: Opening the Window for Learning in Early Childhood Julie Dunstan, Ph.D., Susannah Cole, M.Ed., and Stephanie Guthman, Ph.D. 5. Students Can’t Organize What They Can’t See: Making Language Visible for Learning Anthony Bashir, Ph.D., CCC-SLP, Bonnie Singer, Ph.D., CCC-SLP, and Jessica Curtin, M.Ed. 6. Resilience in Students with Reading Challenges: The Intersection Between Neuroscience and Educational Practice Joanna Christodoulou, Ed.D. 7. The Science of Reading Meets the Art of Instruction: Designing Instructional Practices for Students with LD Josh Clark, M.Ed. & Adam Hickey, Ed.M., MSEd 8. Universal Design for Learning: What It Is and How It Promotes Students Agency Ari Fleisher, M.Ed. 9. Understanding the Cycles of Anxiety, Avoidance, and Accommodation Arielle Gartenberg, Psy.D, NCSP & Leah Benjamin, Psy.D. 10. Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome: When Students Can’t Get Things Done Peter Isquith, Ph.D. 11. Reading Comprehension: Strategies That Improve Accuracy and Reduce Reading Anxiety Tami Katzir, Ph.D.

Faculty Bios Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., is the President and Co-Founder of the Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD) in Lexington, MA. She is a Fellow and Past-President of the International Academy for Research in Learning Disabilities. She is the Founder and Program Chair of the Annual Executive Function and Learning Differences Conference which she has chaired for the past 38 years. For 30 years, she was an Associate in Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education and an Adjunct Associate Professor in the Department of Child Development at Tufts University. Her 40 years of clinical work, research, publications, and presentations have focused on understanding the complexity of learning and attention differences. Dr Meltzer’s extensive publications include articles, chapters and books, most recently, Executive Function in Education: From Theory to Practice (2018), Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom (2010) and The Power of Peers in the Classroom: Enhancing Learning and Social Skills (2015), co-edited with Karen Harris. Together with her ResearchILD staff, she has developed SMARTS, an evidence-based Executive Function Curriculum for elementary, middle, and high school students (www.smarts-ef.org). She has been an invited speaker at numerous national and international conferences, including the International Association for Cognitive Education conference in South Africa. She has been honored with a number of awards including the Council for Learning Disabilities Outstanding Research Award and the Innovative Program of the Year Award from CHADD (Children with Attention Deficit Disorders). Stuart Ablon, Ph.D., is Founder and Director of Think:Kids in the Department of Psychiatry at Massachusetts General Hospital. An award-winning psychologist, Dr. Ablon is Associate Professor and the Thomas G. Stemberg Endowed Chair in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School. He is the author of three books, Changeable, hand-picked by Malcolm Gladwell, Adam Grant, Dan Pink, and Susan Cain for their Next Big Idea Club, The School Discipline Fix, and Treating Explosive Kids: The Collaborative Problem Solving Approach. Dr. Ablon received his doctorate in clinical psychology from the University of California at Berkeley and completed his training at Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School. One of the world’s top-rated thought-leaders and keynote speakers, Dr. Ablon teaches educators, parents, clinicians, managers, and leaders a very different approach to understanding and addressing challenging behavior of all types and in all people. Dr. Ablon has helped

hundreds of organizations throughout the world implement the Collaborative Problem Solving approach. Anthony Bashir, Ph.D., CCC-SLP, serves as a consultant to Architects for Learning. He was formerly the Coordinator of the Freshman Academic Studies Program at Emerson College, the Disability Services Coordinator, and the Director of the Writing and Learning Center. His research interests center on the effects of early preschool speech and language disorders on life outcomes. He currently collaborates with Dr. Bonnie Singer on the development of written language instructional and intervention strategies that integrate executive and self-regulatory functions into the writing process. Leah Benjamin, Psy.D., is a licensed clinical psychologist working at The Concord Center. She specializes in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT) for adolescents and adults with anxiety disorders, depression, personality disorders, and body focused repetitive behaviors (BFRBs). Dr. Benjamin is trained in the Comprehensive Behavioral Model (ComB) for BFRBs, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) for Adolescents, and is foundationally trained DBT therapist. Dr. Benjamin completed her undergraduate degree at Brandeis University (B.A. in Psychology and Gender Studies), and her graduate degrees at Antioch University New England (Psy.D., M.S. in Clinical Psychology). Dr. Benjamin is also passionate about groups, outreach, training, and consultation. She is a teen Mental Health First Aid instructor, and enjoys collaborating with other organizations to help attend to the mental health needs of their communities. Dr. Benjamin is also an active volunteer with Take This, a nonprofit organization dedicated to decreasing stigma and increasing support for mental health in the game enthusiast community and inside the game industry. Ellen Braaten, Ph.D., is the Executive Director of the Learning and Emotional Assessment Program (LEAP) at Massachusetts General Hospital, and an Associate Professor of Psychology at Harvard Medical School. Dr. Braaten is widely recognized as an expert in the field of pediatric neuropsychological and psychological assessment, particularly in the areas of assessing learning disabilities and attentional disorders. She is the co-author of many books and articles for parents and professionals including the bestselling book, Bright Kids Who Can’t Keep Up. Her newest book, Bright Kids Who Couldn’t Care Less: How to Rekindle Your Child’s Motivation was published in March of 2023.

Lynn Carpenter, M.S.Ed., M.A., is the Director for the Center for Professional Development and Engagement at the Churchill School and Center. The Churchill School is a school for students with language-based learning disabilities in New York City. Lynn has been an educator for over 20 years, having earned her M.A. as a Reading Specialist from Teachers College, Columbia University. Lynn also has her M.S.Ed from St. Johns University as a School Building Leader. Lynn was an adjunct instructor at Teachers College, Columbia University and at Manhattanville College. She is also the President of the New York chapter of The Reading League. Her previous roles at the Churchill School include reading specialist and high school co-principal. Her work as Director of the Center focuses on providing professional development and parent training in areas such as learning disabilities and executive functioning. Tommy Chang, Ph.D., Ed.D., brings over 25 years of education experience and leadership to the New Teacher Center, including significant positions in schools, districts, and nonprofit organizations. His journey began with and continues to return to the life-changing moment he answered the call to become a teacher. Before his most recent position as acting CEO and President of Families In Schools, Tommy spent three years as a consultant and coach to school system leaders and advised organizations such as Great Public Schools Now LA, FourPoint Education Partners, and Whiteboard Advisors. He has served on several nonprofit boards such as Leading Educators and Silicon Schools Fund as well as Education Leaders of Color, an organization dedicated to elevating the leadership, voices, and influence of people of color in education to lead more inclusive efforts to improve education. From 2015-2018, he served as superintendent for Boston Public Schools during which time the district saw increases in student graduation rates and decreases in school dropout rates. He also supported the development and implementation of The Essentials for Instructional Equity, an innovative framework for teaching and learning aimed at closing opportunity and achievement gaps. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed., is a SMARTS Instructional Designer and Professional Development Trainer at ResearchILD in Lexington, MA. Jessica works on SMARTS course design, development, and implementation. She also delivers SMARTS training, consultations, and coaching services for a variety of audiences. Jessica has been a classroom educator for over 20 years in both public and private schools while serving on various curriculum and design committees. Her Community Engagement and Instructional Design work has inspired her to create content that engages all learners. Jessica has also led Professional Development training in

the areas of Diversity, Equity, & Inclusion, Social Emotional Learning, and STEM initiatives. Jessica holds a Master’s Degree in Education from Southern Connecticut State University, along with a certification in Instructional Design and her Professional Educator License. She also had the opportunity to study education abroad in Bath, England at the University of Bath. Joanna Christodoulou, Ed.D., works at the intersection of education and neuroscience. She holds positions as Associate Professor in the Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders at the MGH Institute of Health Professions, Adjunct Lecturer on Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education (HGSE), and Research Affiliate at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Her research focuses on the brain-behavior relationship underlying reading, language, math, and attention, and the nature of development and difficulties in these areas. She completed an MA program at Tufts University in Child Development; an EdM program at HGSE in Mind, Brain, and Education; doctoral training at HGSE in Human Development and Psychology; and post-doctoral training in the Gabrieli Lab at MIT. She serves on the Massachusetts Branch of the International Dyslexia Association (MABIDA) Board. She is the recipient of fellowships and funding from organizations including the National Science Foundation; the Fulbright Foundation; the Spencer Foundation; and the International Mind, Brain, and Education Society Award for Transforming Education through Neuroscience. Josh Clark, M.Ed., is the Head of School at Landmark School, one of the oldest and most prestigious schools for students with dyslexia in the country located in Beverly, Mass. He previously served as head of The Schenck School in Atlanta, Ga. and the Bodine School in Memphis, Tenn. He's involved with several professional organizations and currently serves as the chair of International Dyslexia Association and is an Expert Contributor to Made By Dyslexia.. Josh is very interested in promoting the science of reading as a vehicle for education reform and social good. Josh is the proud father of two brilliant dyslexic learners and is also made by dyslexia. Susannah Cole, M.Ed., is an author and executive function coach who partners with students to explore systems, habits and mindsets that facilitate learning how to learn. Through building trusting relationships, she empowers students to set meaningful goals and actively direct their learning towards fulfilling their personal aspirations. As the managing director of reFLEXions®, she works alongside a team to provide resources, professional coaching and consultation to build

Flexible Mindsets that help educators to reframe teaching as an equitable pathway towards building resilience and adaptability for all students. Susannah holds a MEd in developmental psychology and has grown her expertise throughout the past 25 years working in the field of education. She has taught at all levels from preschool through college. For decades, she worked in educational settings as an early childhood educator, integrated middle school teacher, a specialized autism therapist, learning support teacher and college professor. With the aim of making learning engaging and accessible to all students, Susannah has served as an educational consultant to families, educators and schools. Through workshops, peer mentoring and international presentations, she has spearheaded efforts to build professional learning and coaching communities. Her calling is to transform classrooms into spaces that centre responsiveness, relevance, and curiosity and where we can bring all of ourselves to our learning. Jessica Curtin, M.Ed., holds certification in education (grades 1-5) and special education (grades K-8). In the past 25 years, she has taught general and special education for the Department of Defense Schools in Ansbach Germany as well as private and public schools in New England. Currently, Jess is the Vice President of Professional Development for Vivido and an Educational Consultant/Instructional Specialist for Architects For Learning. Along with Drs. Bonnie Singer and Anthony Bashir, she is co-author of EmPOWER Tools for Teachers and EmPOWER Tools for Students. Jess is particularly passionate about giving teachers practical and easy-to-use teaching methods that help them get the best out of their students. Julie Dunstan, Ph.D., believes that the essence of equity lies in equipping all learners with the tools they need to respond adaptively and resiliently to the adversity of today’s complex and ever-changing world. For decades, she has partnered in a wide range of community settings to engage children, families, programs and organizations in self-discovery and forging a pathway for directing their own journey. Julie holds an MA in early childhood and a PhD in education. She has conducted policy research on child development, family needs, addictions, literacy amongst inmates and learning differences. Julie has lectured at the undergraduate and graduate levels in psychology, education and organizational development and has presented internationally. Julie and her colleague, Susannah Cole, recently co-authored Flexible Mindsets in School: Channelling Brain Power for Critical Thinking, Complex Problem-Solving and Creativity. Julie has driven cutting-edge initiatives including: ICAN Math; the I-PLAY Preschool intervention; Pirates of Pondering that lays the early foundation for executive function processes;

and Changemakers that targets critical thinking, complex problem-solving and creativity and encourages action towards solving social problems. Julie sees herself as a Changemaker who strives to transform mindsets and create learning environments where investigators, innovators and inspirers can thrive. Ari Fleisher, M.Ed., manages visioning and operations for the NH UDL Innovation Network. She supports educators in exploring how UDL can help to further meaningful learning in their classrooms. Ari facilitates small and large teams as they identify barriers and design strategic, intentional ways to make learning more effective and inclusive. Through her previous work with curriculum, school climate and culture, and social-emotional learning, Ari has loved to see learning environments come alive, both in and out of classrooms. Ari believes that UDL can help to deepen students’ excitement about learning, sparking that innate joy of discovering something new. She is thrilled to be spreading UDL to help students, educators, schools and systems set up for long-term success. Michelle Garcia Winner, M.A., CCC-SLP, is the founder and CEO of Think Social Publishing, Inc, (a.k.a. Social Thinking). She is a globally recognized thought leader, author, speaker, and social-cognitive therapist who is dedicated to fostering awareness and development of our social and emotional selves, whether neurodivergent or neurotypical. Across her 30 plus year career she has created numerous evidence-based strategies, treatment frameworks, and curricula to help family members and interventionists foster the development of social competencies and problem solving in those they support. She and her team continually update the Social Thinking® Methodology based on the latest research and their ever evolving clinical insights. Arielle Gartenberg, Psy.D., NCSP., is a licensed clinical psychologist and a nationally certified school psychologist (NCSP). She specializes in Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) for children, adolescents, and young adults with anxiety and mood disorders, personality disorders, and trauma-related disorders. Additionally, Dr. Gartenberg has extensive experience supporting youth with ASD and learning disabilities. Dr. Gartenberg graduated Phi Beta Kappa from Union College with a B.S. in Psychology. She received her Psy.D. in School Psychology from the Graduate School of Applied & Professional Psychology (GSAPP) at Rutgers University. After obtaining her doctorate, Dr. Gartenberg worked as a school psychologist at a therapeutic day school where she provided comprehensive assessment, case management, and counseling services grounded in evidence-based interventions

(e.g., DBT-STEPS-A). She subsequently trained at McLean Hospital as a Beckwitt-Hughey post-doctoral fellow in Adolescent Clinical Psychology in the 3East Intensive Residential & Step-Down Programs. Dr. Gartenberg is foundationally trained in DBT (Adolescent Family Emphasis) and intensively trained in DBT Prolonged Exposure (DBT PE) for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Dr. Gartenberg also provides school consultation and DBT-informed parent coaching. She presents to educators, trainees, and lay audiences on topics related to DBT, school-based mental health services, parenting, and autism. Michael Greschler, M.Ed., has been with ResearchILD since 2011 and serves as the Director of the SMARTS Program. Michael oversees the development and growth of the SMARTS program, leading our curriculum development and instructional design teams and working closely with educators across the US and around the world to develop customized professional development and training programs to support the success of all students. In addition to his SMARTS work, Michael works as an educational specialist, using executive function strategy instruction to support teenagers and young adults. He is a frequent presenter at workshops, conferences, and webinars and has authored chapters and articles on topics related to executive function. Michael holds a Master’s Degree in Education in Human Development and Psychology from the Harvard Graduate School of Education. Stephanie Guthman, Ph.D., holds a MA in School and Clinical psychology, MA in Educational Psychology, and PhD in Human and Organizational Systems. Her work in school settings and non-profit agencies focuses on diagnostic evaluations, therapeutic interventions and community needs assessments. She has delivered technical assistance, trained and worked collaboratively with service organizations and government agencies on initiatives aimed at empowering and creating systemic, community-targeted change. Stephanie co-led Bermuda’s first island-wide research project on Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs). Her personal and professional exploration of the concept of ACEs has led her to pursue the study of the consequences that trauma has on early development and throughout the lifespan. Stephanie is passionate about her work and spirituality. She believes in living life with a purpose and reimagining possibilities. Adam Hickey, Ed.M., M.S.Ed., is currently the Landmark School research coordinator and a Landmark Outreach consultant. Previously, Adam taught American literature in addition to his administrative role as an academic advisor. Adam is a graduate of the Harvard Graduate School of Education where he studied language and literacy development. While studying at Harvard, he

taught at the Maria L. Baldwin School in Cambridge as a reading specialist and explored the influence of early intervention on struggling readers at the elementary level. He also holds a master’s degree in education from Simmons University. Adam is a licensed reading specialist and moderate special needs educator. Peter Isquith, Ph.D, is a Licensed Psychologist with specialty in developmental neuropsychology who evaluates students in schools across New England. He is a Senior Attending Neuropsychologist with the Deaf and Hard of Hearing Program at Boston Children’s Hospital where he is an Instructor in Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School. His research focuses on the development and disorders of self regulation across the lifespan. Peter is author of numerous works on the topic and is co-author of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) family of instruments and the PostConcussion Executive Inventory (PCEI). Tami Katzir, Ph.D., is a professor and the head of the Edmond J. Safra Brain Research Center for the study of Learning Disabilities. She received her PhD in Applied Child Development at Tufts University (2003), and was a faculty member at the Harvard Graduate School of Education in the Mind Brain and Education Program (2003-2008). She also was a visiting professor of Neurology at the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA (2009-2012), as well as a scholar in residence at the Stephan Wise Academy School at Bel-Air. She was the chair of the Dept of Learning Disabilities at Haifa University in 2013-2016. Her research interests revolve around the cognitive, emotional and biological basis of reading development and reading disabilities in diverse populations. She has examined the role of fluency in reading in different orthographies as well as the relationship between linguistic and social-emotional processes in reading fluency and comprehension. Tami Katzir's research is supported by various foundations, including the Spencer Foundation, the U.S. Department of Education, the Piper Foundation, the Israel Science Foundation and the Israeli Department of Education. She received teaching awards as well as the Etti and Dusty Miller award of excellence for junior faculty. She is the author of close to a 100 publications and is a member of the editorial board of several leading academic journals such as applied psycholinguistics, Mind Brain and Education, and Annals of Dyslexia. She is also a member of several literacy committees in the Israeli Ministry of Education. In recent years, together with her colleagues, she has developed two innovative multi-component intervention programs focused on the basic social, linguistic and cognitive skills that promote reading development in children.

Alfie Kohn, M.A., is the author of 14 books on education, parenting, and human behavior, including Punished By Rewards (1993/2018), Beyond Discipline (1996), The Schools Our Children Deserve (1999), Unconditional Parenting (2005), The Homework Myth (2006), And The Myth Of The Spoiled Child (2014). He has written for most of the leading education periodicals and has appeared twice on “Oprah.” Time magazine described him as “perhaps the country’s most outspoken critic of education’s fixation on grades [and] test scores.” Kohn works with educators and parents across the country and speaks regularly at national conferences. He lives (actually) in the Boston area and (virtually) at www.alfiekohn.org. Shelly Levy, M.S., M.Ed., serves as Director of Professional Development and Training at the Research Institute for Learning and Development in Lexington, MA. Shelly provides leadership to all ResearchILD educator and teacher training programs and offerings. She mentors and manages a team of trainers, and develops professional development training programs which promote the success of all students, while working closely with organizations, administrators and school systems tailoring to their needs. Working with the curriculum development team Shelly authors SMARTS curriculum materials. She presents at numerous conferences and webinars on topics related to executive function and learning differences. As an Educational Specialist, Shelly works with students of all ages, elementary age through college, who struggle with learning, attention, and executive function challenges and provides specialized instruction and academic support in the areas of reading, writing, test preparation, and executive function skills. Shelly has been in the field of Special Education for over 30 years with the majority of her career as a Director of Support Services. She holds a M.Ed. in Special Education from David Yellin College of Education, Jerusalem and a M.S. in Management from Lesley University. Kevin Mackey, M.A., M.Ed., is a SMARTS Executive Function and Equity Fellow who has created a two-week executive function class for high school students called Expert Learning. In his current position as an Intervention Specialist at Saint Ignatius High School in Cleveland, Ohio, Kevin supports neuro-diverse students to improve their learning outcomes across a rigorous curriculum: co-teaching English and Math classes, coaching executive functioning strategies, and collaborating with stakeholders. He draws upon his experiences teaching elementary through college students and has earned Masters’ Degrees in Rhetoric, Special Education, and Elementary Education.

Polly Metz, MPS, M.A.Ed., has spent the last 18 years working as an educator in southern Connecticut serving as a special education teacher in the sixth through eighth grades. She has been an instructional leader for special education since we all reconfigured what “going to school” would look like in the fall of 2020. Throughout her career, Polly has worked with students on their executive function strategies both in school and at home, with the benefit of using the SMARTS curriculum for the past two years. She has also served on various district curriculum review and technology committees. Polly earned a Bachelor of Science degree in Elementary Education before pursuing her Masters degree in both Special Education and Education Technology. John Ratey, M.D., is an Associate Clinical Professor of Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School, specializing in Neuropsychiatry. With over 60 peer-reviewed articles and 12 books, including the groundbreaking "Driven to Distraction" series on ADHD with Ned Hallowell, MD, he is an authority on the brain-fitness connection. His bestseller, "Spark: The Revolutionary New Science of Exercise and the Brain" solidified his expertise in ADD, Autism, and Aging and Cognition. Dr. Ratey's passion for Psychiatry stems from his early experiences caring for challenging patients at Harvard's Massachusetts Mental Health Center. He pursued advanced education at Harvard and the University of Pittsburgh Medical School, where he excelled in Psychiatry. As an author and speaker, Dr. Ratey has influenced global perspectives on mental health and exercise, with engagements worldwide and media recognition. Additionally, he has held notable roles as an Adjunct Professor and consultant, promoting physical fitness initiatives. Recognized as one of the Best Doctors in America and honored for advancing the field of psychiatry, Dr. Ratey is committed to patient care, maintaining private practices in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Los Angeles, California. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D., is a learning differences specialist and consultant in private practice and former Professor and Chair of Education. In addition to training future and current general and special education teachers, her career has centered on working with children and young adults and their families to successfully navigate school and special education systems; develop lifelong academic and career strategies and skills; practice mindfulness stress reduction techniques; and, ultimately, build confidence and the capacity for self-knowledge and self-advocacy. Research interests include empowerment, executive function, teacher preparation, transition, and visual factors related to reading challenges. Dr. Scirri is currently a SMARTS executive function

curriculum trainer, coach, and consultant and is part of the SMARTS@Home curriculum development team; writes curriculum content and blogs for homeschooling organizations; and works closely with the Parent Network of Western New York to provide curriculum and training to teachers and administrators, service providers and staff, and parents and caregivers. She lives in Western New York with her husband, a son in his first year of college, a daughter who is homeschooling 10th grade, and two dogs. Bonnie Singer, Ph.D., is the founder and CEO of Vivido, whose mission is to teach education professionals to make learning visible. For her entire career, Dr. Singer has been interested in the ways in which language and cognition interrelate to support and constrain spoken and written language and academic performance. She is particularly passionate about working with students who struggle with executive functions and written expression. In partnership with Dr. Anthony Bashir, Dr. Singer developed EmPOWER™, a method for teaching expository writing, Brain Frames®, visual tools that organize language, Unlocking Sentences, an approach to teaching sentence comprehension, as well as the Qualitative Writing Inventory and Me & My Writing/My Students’ Writing assessment scales. Dr. Singer’s primary research and numerous publications focus on the relationship between spoken and written language, cognition, spatial processing, and self-regulated learning. In addition to her lead role at Vivido, Dr. Singer is the CEO of Architects For Learning, where she directs an interdisciplinary staff that provides education intervention, assessment, and consultation services in the Boston area. Joan Steinberg, M.Ed., is the Director of Educational Therapy at ResearchILD, Lexington, Massachusetts. She provides parent consultations as well as educational therapy and executive function coaching to students, particularly those who struggle with math. In addition, Joan has offered professional development workshops in math strategy instruction to teachers and has presented at national conferences for organizations including the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), STEMCON, and the Learning Differences Conference sponsored by ResearchILD. In her individual work with students, she has noticed the prevalence of math anxiety and has worked to lessen this anxiety in students using executive function strategies. Prior to working at ILD, Joan was a special education teacher and then the Director of Education at The Harbor Schools, Inc., a residential treatment center for adolescents with learning, behavioral and emotional disabilities She has an undergraduate degree in Elementary Education from the University of Rochester (Phi Beta Kappa) and a Master’s Degree in special education from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Ebonia Williams, M.A., Ebonia Williams is a dedicated educator with fifteen years of teaching experience. Her personal journey with ADHD, as an adult, sparked a profound interest in executive function. This newfound fascination prompted her to explore the far-reaching impacts of executive function strategies. She immediately recognized how important it is to incorporate these strategies into the curriculum for her students. Being in a SMARTS fellowship program gave Ebonia an opportunity to see how these abstract ideas could become concrete, and how these strategies provide a language for children to understand how they learn. Ebonia has helped her students develop many new capacities to find success in the classroom.

Research Institute for Learning and Development Board of Directors

Research Institute for Learning and Development, Professional Advisory Board

Tim Donohue, M.S. Chair; Executive Vice President, e-Learning Solutions at IHRDC

Bob Brooks, Ph.D., Co-Chair Clinical Psychologist, Faculty, Harvard Medical School (part-time), lecturer and author

Jane Gertler, Ed.D. Education Consultant; Former Director, Office of Teaching and Learning/Churchill School

C. Julie Dunstan, Ph.D., Co-Chair Psychologist, Founding Director, ReFLEXions I-PLAY Program; Director, The Reading Clinic

David Giordano, J.D. Managing Partner, Giordano Law, LLC Rich Hirschen, CPA, CGMA Partner, Gray, Gray & Gray, LLP Suellen Inwood, M.S. Director, Co-founder, Easton Country Day School Alec Lai, M.Ed. Founder & CEO, Zephyr Business Group Na'ama Landau, B.A. Senior Director of Business Strategy & Outreach, Collegewise Emily Legere, M.B.A. VP, Chief of Staff, Acoustic Ben Niles, M.A. Associate Director, Annual Fund & Special Gifts, Mount Auburn Cemetery Alex Pire, B.A. Head of Product, Amundi Asset Management, US Anjali Sastry, Ph.D. Senior Lecturer, MIT Sloan School of Management Senior Strategist, Jameel World Education Lab, OPen Learning, MIT William Warren, B.S. Senior Associate Scientist, Life Biosciences

Carolyn Cowen, Ed.M. Aspiring Novelist, Communications Strategist, Executive Editor-in-Chief, International Dyslexia Association Editorial Boards Beth Ribeiro, M.Ed. Retired Guidance Counselor/Lexington Public Schools; Educator and Guide at Orchard House Loring Brinckerhoff, B.A. Former Director, Office of Disability Policy for Educational Testing Service (ETS); Consultant Bonnie Singer, Ph.D. Founder and CEO, Vivido & Architects For Learning Andrea Masterman, Ph.D. Licensed Psychologist and Coach Anthony Bashir, Ph.D., CCC-SLP Consultant, Architects for Learning & Vivido, Adjunct Faculty, School of Education and Human Development, Boston College Lou Salza, M.Ed. Grandfather, Gardener, Retired Educator and CoFacilitator of ISACS New Heads Network Sally Grimes, Ed.M. Director, Founder, The Grimes Reading Institute; Consultant, Professional Development for Administrators and Teachers

Research Institute for Learning and Development Conference Staff Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D. President and Director, Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD)

Lorissa Gomez, M.B.A. SMARTS Operations Coordinator, Research Institute for L and Development (ResearchILD)

Mark Logan, Ph.D., M.B.A. Executive Director, Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD)

Caitlin Vanderberg, M.Ed. SMARTS Program Associate, Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD)

Robin Winston, B.S. Executive Assistant, Conference Manager, Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD)

Taylor McKenna, M.A., M.Ed. SMARTS Program Associate, Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD)

Jamie Cutler, M.S. Director of Marketing and Communications, Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD)

Laurel Black, M.Ed. SMARTS Curriculum Designer & Trainer and Educational Specialist, Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD)

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Director, SMARTS program, Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD) Elizabeth Ross, M.A. SMARTS Media Manager, Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD)

Emmaline Cook, B.A. Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD) Intern, Research and Publication

List of Attendees Rahmah Abdul Rahman Zamawi

Amina Abdulahi

Fuad Abdulmalik

Behaviour Coach Ministry of Education Singapore Singapore

Special Education Paraprofessional Twin Cities International Schools MN aminaa@iecmail.net

Special Education Paraprofessional Twin Cities International Schools MN fuada@iecmail.net

Rahmah_Abdul_Rahman_ZAMAWI@moe.gov.sg

Liza Abreu

Kaltun Ahmed

Habon Ahmed

Upper School Academic Advisor Carrollton School of the Sacred Heart FL labreu@carrollton.org

Special Education Paraprofessional Twin Cities International Schools MN kaltuna@iecmail.net

Special Education Paraprofessional Twin Cities International Schools MN habona@iecmail.net

Jason Alemany

Eliza Aliotta

Dena Almaraz

Special Education Teacher and ResearchILD EF Fellow Herberg Middle School MA jalemany@pittsfield.net

Instructional Coach Barrington 220 School District IL EAliotta@barrington220.org

Resource Teacher Da Vinci Science High School CA dalmaraz@davincischools.org

Patricia Alves

Lois Aubin

Cynthia Ballas

Grade 8 Learning Specialist The American School in London England patricia_alves@asl.org

Special Education Administrator and ResearchILD EF Fellow Reid Middle School MA laubin@pittsfield.net

Special Educator to Evaluation Team Mount Abraham Unified School District VT cynthia.ballas@mausd.org

Faith Barrett

Jennifer Bausmen

Sally Beach

Special Education Teacher Foothills Composite High School / Alberta High School Of Fine Arts PA fbarrett@acschools.org

Teacher Martha's Vineyard Public Schools MA jbausman@mvyps.org

Special Education Teacher St. Jude the Apostle Catholic School GA sbeach@saintjude.net

Morgan Beidleman

Christina Bell Macher

Nikki Benjamin

Psychologist CO mbeidleman@reachlearningservices.com

Learning Lab Facilitator Good Sheperd Episcopal School TX cbellmacher@gsesdallas.org

Exceptional Education Teacher West Florence High School SC nbenjamin@fsd1.org

Barbara Bennett

Courtney Bennett

Mary Ellen Bettencourt

Educational Therapist, Educational Consultant, ADHD Coach WA educationaltherapy@barbara-bennett.com

Counselor Martha's Vineyard Public Schools MA cbennett@mvyps.org

Learning Specialist, Private Practice MA mebettencourt@yahoo.com

Donna Bowen

Elizabeth Bowen

Christie Britt-Diaz

Learning Specialist and ResearchILD EF Fellow Merick Academy Charter School NY

School Psychologist and ResearchILD EF Fellow Boston Public Schools MA ebowen01@gmail.com

Associate Lower School Head Carrollton School of the Sacred Heart FL cdiaz@carrollton.org

dbowen261@gmail.com

Jenny Bruno

Molly Buckley

Devin Burkhart

Grade 5 Math Teacher/ Lower School k-5 Math Coordinator King School CT jebruno@kingschoolct.org

Literacy Coach and ResearchILD EF Fellow Mendell Elementary School MA Mbuckley3@bostonpublicschools.org

Special Education Teacher The Forman School CT devin.burkhart@formanschool.org

Meyon Burns

Whitney Butler

Anne Caldwell

Special Education Teacher Ocean Lakes High School VA meyon.burns@vbschools.com

Intervention Specialist St. Xavier High School OH wbutler@stxavier.org

Teacher Martha's Vineyard Public Schools MA acaldwell@mvyps.org

Tzippy Calm

Regina Canto

Alissa Cappelleri

Assistant to Director of Student Services/History/Jewish History Hebrew Academy of Long Beach NY tcalm@skahalb.org

School Counselor Carrollton School of the Sacred Heart FL rcanto@carrollton.org

Program Development Coordinator New Frontiers in Learning NY acappelleri@nfil.net

Katherine Carroll

Amelie Carvallo

Joanne Casale

Learning Specialist Marist School GA carrollk@marist.com

Learning Support Teacher International College Spain Spain amelie.carvallo@icsmadrid.org

Special Education Teacher Rundlett Middle School NH jcasale@sau8.org

Shania Castillo

John Cavanagh

Jill Chalstrom

Student Achievement Specialist Minnetonka High School MN shania.castillo@minnetonkaschools.org

School Psychologist Northwest BOCES CO john.cavanagh@nwboces.org

School Psychologist Northwest BOCES CO jill.chalstrom@nwboces.org

Elizabeth Chapman

Rafia Chaudhry

Savonae Cherrington

Learning Support Teacher The Galloway School GA echapman@gallowayschool.org

High School Psychologist United Nations International Schools (UNIS) NY rchaudhry@unis.org

Teacher Martha's Vineyard Public Schools MA scherrington@mvyps.org

Pui Meng Choi

Low Yin Choo

Mila Cichon

Master Educational Psychologist Ministry of Education Singapore Singapore

Lead Teacher (Special Educational Needs) Ministry of Education Singapore Singapore low_yin_choo@schools.gov.sg

Grade 5 Learning Specialist The American School in London England milena_cichon@asl.org

Marcy Cohen

Sharon Colucci

Paola Consuegra

Academic Support Manager Pingry School NJ mcohen@pingry.org

Student Services Curriculum Specialist Northmont City Schools OH scolucci@northmontschools.net

Upper School Head Carrollton School of the Sacred Heart FL pconsuegra@carrollton.org

Judy Cortese

Francine Cox

Nathan Crosby

Supervisor or Student Services Cathedral-Carmel School LA jcortese@cathedralcarmel.net

Special Education Teacher Malvern Preparatory School PA fcox@malvernprep.org

Learning Coach Foothills Composite High School / Alberta High School Of Fine Arts Canada crosbyn@fsd38.ab.ca

CHOI_Pui_Meng@moe.gov.sg

Emily Crossland

Yulisa Cruz

Faith Darling

Teacher Martha's Vineyard Public Schools MA ecrossland@mvyps.org

High School Learning Specialist The American School in London England yulisa_cruz@asl.org

Dean of Faculty, US Math Teacher Bullis School MD faith_darling@bullis.org

Amy Darpel

Feza DeChiara

Alysa Decker

Director of Advancement Covington Latin School KY amy.darpel@covingtonlatin.org

Para professional Martha's Vineyard Public Schools MA fdechiara@mvyps.org

Special Education Teacher Mount Abraham Unified School District VT alysa.decker@mausd.org

Rose Delorme Metayer

Wick DeYoung

Laura Dixon

Director, McCarthy Institute and ResearchILD EF Fellow Boston Latin School MA rdelormemetayer@bostonpublicschools.org

Independent Tutor/Learning Specialist Dynamic Tutoring Solutions IL deyoung@dynamictutoringsolutions.com

HS History/Government Teacher West Florence High School SC laura.dixon@fsd1.org

Joan Dlugos

Ann Dolin

Verna Donovan

Special Education Teacher Malvern Preparatory School PA jdlugos@malvernprep.org

Founder/Educational Expert/EF Coach & Presenter Educational Connections VA Ann@ectutoring.com

Speech & Language Pathologist St. Xavier High School OH vdonovan@stxavier.org

Lisa Doyle

Alexandra Driansky

Teri Driver

Special Education Teacher West Florence High School SC ldoyle@fsd1.org

School Counselor Pingry School NJ adriansky@pingry.org

Administrator - Student Support Services Williamson County Schools TN teri.driver@wcs.edu

Leah Duggan

Irene Duros

Adam Dyer

Director of School Counselors Masconomet Regional High School MA iduros@masconomet.org

Director of Student Life The Briarwood School TX adyer@briarwoodschool.org

Grade 7 Learning Specialist The American School in London England leah_duggan@asl.org

Allie Dysart

Elisabeth Ebb

Simonette Echeverri

Upper School Learning Coach The Mount Vernon School GA adysart@mountvernonschool.org

Occupational Therapist MA fourebb@comcast.net

School Counselor Carrollton School of the Sacred Heart FL secheverri@carrollton.org

Randy Eckart

Lisa Ellis

Sharon Engler

Study Skills Teacher North College Hill High School OH ellis.l@nchcityschools.org

Special Education Teacher Martha's Vineyard Public Schools MA sengler@mvyps.org

Ceri Everett

Wendy Federowicz

Special Education Director Twin Cities International Schools MN randye@iecmail.net

Kim Eroh Special Education Teacher, Autism Team Lead Pine Lake Preparatory NC kim.eroh@pinelakeprep.org

Special Education Teacher Twin Cities International Schools MN cerie@iecmail.net

Rachel Fessenbecker

Ryan Fleming

Teacher Burlington County Institute of Technology NJ rfessenbecker@burlcoschools.org

Todd French School Psychologist Northmont City Schools OH todd.french@northmontschools.net

Intervention Specialist St. Xavier High School OH rdfleming@stxavier.org

Donghuan Fu United Nations International Schools (UNIS) NY dfu@unis.org

Special Education Teacher Martha's Vineyard Public Schools MA wfederowicz@mvyps.org

Ann Foley Director of Remedial Language Services Middlebridge School RI annfoley52@gmail.com

Vicky Garcia Multilingual Achievers Program Coordinator CA garciavic@sonoma.edu

Sandra Gee

Heather Gevry

Cherie Gill

6-8 Learning Support Teacher Canadian International School of Hong Kong Hong Kong sandragee@cdnis.edu.hk

Special Educator Mount Abraham Unified School District VT heather.gevry@mausd.org

Special Education Teacher San Benancio Middle School CA cgill@washingtonusd.org

Emilia Giordano

Angela Glassburn

Kathi Gould

Teacher Martha's Vineyard Public Schools MA egiordano@mvyps.org

PLTMS Counselor Prophetstown-Lyndon-Tampico Middle School IL angieg@plt3.org

Educational Therapist Educational Connections CT kathi@ectutoring.com

Stacy Graziosi

Kierra Grippa

Lindsey Groettum

Learning Resource Teacher Christ School NC sgraziosi@christschool.org

Learning Specialist Pingry School NJ kgrippa@pingry.org

Special Education Building Coordinator 279Online MN groettuml@district279.org

Susan Gunderman

Careino Gurley

Heidi Gustafson

Headmaster First Baptist Christian School (GA) GA sgunderman@fbcskennesaw.com

Student Achievement Specialist Minnetonka High School MN careino.gurley@minnetonkaschools.org

General Education Teacher Sauk Centre Public Schools #743 MN heidi.gustafson@isd743.org

Margaret Hackett

Mohamednur Hanshi

Radmila Harding

Director of Special Education Match Charter Public School MA meg.hackett@matchschool.org

Special Education Paraprofessional Twin Cities International Schools MN mohamednurh@iecmail.net

Special Education Teacher The King David School Australia Radmila.Harding@kds.vic.edu.au

Kelly Harris

Frances Havard

Edwina Hawes

Director of Teaching and Learning The Winchendon School MA kharris@winchendon.org

Bridge Program Teacher Wooster School CT frances.havard@woosterschool.org

School Psychologist Martha's Vineyard Public Schools MA edwina.hawes@mvyps.org

Erin Heavy

Kathi Henderson

Mia Henry

Learning Support Teacher International School of Basel Switzerland erin.heavey@isbasel.ch

Special Education Social Skills Specialist Plano Independent School District TX kathi.henderson@pisd.edu

Special Education Teacher Hill Top Preparatory School PA mhenry@hilltopprep.org

Anisa Hersi

Wendy Hines

Rosemary Hodges

Special Education Paraprofessional Twin Cities International Schools MN

Special Education Teacher Athens Academy GA whines@athensacademy.org

Director of Education, Co-Head of School The Norman Howard School NY rhodges@normanhoward.org

anisah@iecmail.net

Laurin Hoegy

Ida Holper

Brittany Holsapple

Student Support Teacher and ResearchILD EF Fellow Stanley Humphries Secondary School British Columbia lmhoegy@lakeheadu.ca

School Counselor Prophetstown-Lyndon-Tampico Middle School IL iholper@plt3.org

Head of Support/Special Ed Teacher International School of Basel Switzerland brittany.holsapple@isbasel.ch

Katrina Hong

Meghan Houghton

Christine Hrinak

Head of School The Pinnacle Academy FL hong-pa@outlook.com

Special Education Teacher Martha's Vineyard Public Schools MA mhoughton@mvyps.org

Associate Director of Educational Support Services Salesianum School DE chrinak@salesianum.org

Mackenzie Hulett

Johnna Ithier

Maki Itoh

Special Education Teacher Monticello Community School District IA mackenzie.hulett@monticello.k12.ia.us

Emotional/Autistic Support Teacher Pine Road Elementary School PA johnnaithieris@gmail.com

School Counselor King School CT mitoh@kingschoolct.org

Zekeriya Jabril

Helen Jackson

Larissa Jacobson

Special Education Paraprofessional Twin Cities International Schools MN Zekeriyaj@iecmail.net

Educational Psychologist The American School in London England helen_jackson@asl.org

4th Grade Teacher Churchill School and Center NY ljacobson@churchillschoolnyc.org

Maggie James

Carmen Johnson

Nakia Johnson

Special Education Teacher Bradley East Elementary School IL mjames@bradleyschools.com

School Psychologist and ResearchILD EF Fellow Catalyst Schools IL cjohnson@catalystschools.org

Special Education Teacher and ResearchILD EF Fellow MATCH Public Charter High School MA nakia.johnson@matchschool.org

Kelli Jones

Debbie Jordan

Adrienne Joss

Instructional Coach Johnston County Schools NC kellijones@johnston.k12.nc.us

Inclusion Specialist Byers High School CO gdla@comcast.net

Lower School Learning Specialist Bullis School MD adrienne_joss@bullis.org

Kate Karasek

Barbara Kavanagh

Matthew Kelly

Instructional Coach Barrington 220 School District IL kkarasek@barrington220.org

Special Education Teacher Lower Moreland High School PA bkavanagh@lmtsd.org

School Counselor Academy of Notre Dame MA mkelly@ndatyngsboro.org

Ellen Kerkhoff

Dorothy Killmeyer

Amanda Knicely

Mental Health Team Lead, Psychologists and Social Workers Douglas County School District CO ekkerkhoff@dcsdk12.org

Learning Specialist Sewickley Academy PA dkillmeyer@sewickley.org

Project Aware Coordinator Marshall University Center of Excellence for Recovery WV knicely7@marshall.edu

Karen Knight

Angie Koontz

Tirza Kramer

MS/US Academic Support Specialist Trinity Valley School TX knightk@tvs.org

School Counselor and ResearchILD EF Fellow Somonauk Middle School IL koontza@somonauk.net

Creative Writing Teacher Milton Gottesman Jewish Day School of the Nation's Capital DC Tirza.Kramer@miltongottesman.org

Kim Krause

Brett Kugler

Chris Kuka

Special Education Teacher Malvern Preparatory School PA kkrause@malvernprep.org

Learning Specialist Charles E. Smith Jewish Day School MD bkugler@cesjds.org

General Education Teacher Summit High School OR chris.kuka@bend.k12.or.us

Jessica Kulp

Tracy Kunce

Katherine Lamanna

Student Support Coordinator Cannon School NC jkulp@cannonschool.org

Executive Function Support Coach/SLP Cooperative Association for Special Education IL tkunce@casedupage.com

Education Consultant MA kate@skillfulmindcoaching.com

Kyle Lambert

Lenore Layman

Kari Leal

Special Education Teacher Masconomet Regional High School MA klambert@masconomet.org

Learning Specialist Charles E. Smith Jewish Day School - Lower School MD llayman@cesjds.org

Teacher Martha's Vineyard Public Schools MA kleal@mvyps.org

Laura LeBeau

Jackie Leeser

Chew Houy Ling Serene

Intervention Specialist New Albany-Plain Local Schools OH lebeau.2@napls.us

Special Education Teacher Lower Moreland High School PA jleeser@lmtsd.org

Head of Department (Special Educational Needs) Ministry of Education Singapore Singapore chew_huoy_ling_serene@schools.gov.sg

Andrea Livesey

Erica Lopez

Kevin Mackey

Social Wellness Teacher and ResearchILD EF Fellow Joseph Lee K-8 School MA

Teacher Washington Episcopal School MD elopez@w-e-s.org

Intervention Specialist and ResearchILD EF Fellow St. Ignatius High School OH kmackey@ignatius.edu

alivesey@bostonpublicschools.org

Hope MacLeod

Natalie Maisey

Danielle Makarious

Director of Student Support Services Martha's Vineyard Public Schools MA hmacleod@mvyps.org

High School Assistant Principal The American School in London England natalie_maisey@asl.org

Team Chair - High School Special Ed Prospect Hill Academy Charter School MA dmakarious@phacs.org

Sarah Maley

Margot Marcou

Cyprian Marubi

High School Counselor United Nations International Schools (UNIS) NY smaley@unis.org

Lead Faculty Landmark School MA mmarcou@landmarkschool.org

Special Education Teacher Twin Cities International Schools MN cyprianm@iecmail.net

Mary Alice McCann

Kelli McCravy

Tami McKinney

Music Teacher Martha's Vineyard Public Schools MA mmccann@mvyps.org

Behavior Interventionist Forsyth County Schools GA f39985@forsyth.k12.ga.us

Intervention Specialist St. Xavier High School OH tmckinney@stxavier.org

Alissa Meyers

Abby Miller

Carly Miller

Intervention Specialist Evergreen High School CO ali.meyers@jeffco.k12.co.us

Associate Principal and Director of Student Support Services Hebrew Academy of Long Beach CA amiller@skahalb.org

Psychologist Ethical Culture Fieldston School NY cmiller@ecfs.org

Naimo Mohamud

Elizabeth Molland

Suzanne Moore

Special Education Paraprofessional Twin Cities International Schools MN naimom@iecmail.net

Learning Specialist Marin Country Day School CA lmolland@mcds.org

Educational Services Professional EF Coaches/Educational Therapists OR mooreeducationalservices@gmail.com

Johnice Moore

Sean Murray

Hollie Nelson

High School Counselor The American School in London England johnice_moore@asl.org

Special Education Teacher Bullis School PA murrays@pasd.com

Behavior Interventionist Tuscaloosa County School System AL hnelson@tcss.net

Lay Hong Ng

Belinda Nicholson

Jennifer Nicodem

Senior Educational Psychologist Ministry of Education Singapore Singapore

Accommodations Support Coordinator IL nicodemj@cod.edu

NG_Lay_Hong@moe.gov.sg

Director of Student Services The American School in London England belinda_nicholson@asl.org

Emily Nutley

Esther Nyagwencha

Rachel O'Brien

Director of Academic Services St. Xavier High School OH enutley@stxavier.org

Special Education Teacher Twin Cities International Schools MN esthern@iecmail.net

Special Education Teacher Unionville-Chadds Ford School District PA robrien@ucfsd.net

Megan O'Heran

Kaitlin O'Malley

Caryl Oris

Behavior Therapist Falls Church City Public Schools VA oheranm@fccps.org

Special Education Teacher Needham High School MA kaitlin_omalley@needham.k12.ma.us

School Psychiatrist Sewanhaka Central High School District NY carylomd@gmail.com

Violeta Ortega-Verdugo

Mariel Ortíz García

Luly Otero

Special Education Teacher and Workability Coordinator United Nations International Schools (UNIS) CA vortega-verdugo@valverde.edu

School Psychologist Martha’s Vineyard Public Schools MA mgarcia@mvyps.org

School Counselor Carrollton School of the Sacred Heart FL lotero@carrollton.org

Ivonne Pang

Kim Patterson

Kathryn Payne-Gray

Senior Educational Psychologist Ministry of Education Singapore Singapore Ivonne_PANG@moe.gov.sg

Special Education Teacher Martha's Vineyard Public Schools MA kpatterson@mvyps.org

Middle School Learning Specialist Woodland School CA kgray@woodland-school.org

Caroline Payton

Carly Pence

Anna Peraza

Director of Learning Support and Staff Development Oakhill School South Africa c.payton@oakhill.co.za

Upper School Learning Coach The Mount Vernon School GA cpence@mountvernonschool.org

Learning Specialist Carrollton School of the Sacred Heart FL aperaza@carrollton.org

Deborah Peterkin

Emily Phillips

Nicole Pinson

Teacher West Florence High School SC dpeterkin@fsd1.org

School Psychologist Northwest BOCES CO emily.phillips@nwboces.org

School Counselor St. James Episcopal Day School LA npinson@stjameseds.org

Duncan Pringle

Krista Puruhito

Victoria Rahman

Grade Level Dean & NEST Director The American School in London England

Associate Teaching Professor ASU Prep Digital AZ krista.puruhito@asu.edu

Parent Parents CA vicky.r.rahman@gmail.com

duncan_pringle@asl.org

Lisa Raison

Amy Raney

Emily Rice

Special Education Department Chair/ASD Resource Teacher West Florence High School SC lraison@fsd1.org

Director of Academic Learning Lab Good Sheperd Episcopal School TX araney@gsesdallas.org

Learning Specialist Washington Episcopal School MD erice@w-e-s.org

Jessica Rooney

Anna Ross

Ellen Rossi

General Education Teacher Laurel School OH jrooney@laurelschool.org

Academic Services Coordinator Trinity Valley School TX rossak@tvs.org

Kindergarten Teacher Martha's Vineyard Public Schools MA erossi@mvyps.org

Molly Saavedra

Michael Scanlon

Yvonne Schlangen

Social Worker Long River Middle School CT msaavedra@region16ct.org

Special Education Teacher Bluffs Middle School NE mscanlon@sbps.net

Graduation Coach and ResearchILD EF Fellow Creek Wood High School TN yschlangen@dcstn.org

Aurie Schuerle

Veronica Sedor

Karen Selvarajan

School Psychologist Switzerland of Ohio Local School District OH aurie.schuerle@swissohio.k12.oh.us

School Psychologist/Student Services Supervisor Northmont City Schools OH vsedor@northmontschools.net

Year Head Ministry of Education Singapore Singapore karen_selvarajan@moe.edu.sg

Hesbon Simba

Zoe Smith

Heather Statz

Special Education Teacher Twin Cities International Schools MN hesbons@iecmail.net

Resource Room Teacher and ResearchILD EF Fellow Boston Latin School MA zsmith@bostonpublicschools.org

High School Learning Specialist The American School in London England heather_statz@asl.org

Courtney Stegman

Alyssa Steller

Susan Stevens

Behavior Coach Mecosta-Osceola Intermediate School District MI cstegman@moisd.org

Homeschool Teacher CA stelleralyss@gmail.com

Principal Martha's Vineyard Public Schools MA sstevens@mvyps.org

Cinamon Streva

Kimberlee Strickfaden

Lyndsey Stroh

Special Education Teacher and ResearchILD EF Fellow SR1 Charter and Preparatory STEM Academy MS

K-12 Student Services Coordinator Pine Lake Preparatory NC kimberlee.strickfaden@pinelakeprep.org

Learning Specialist Academy of Notre Dame MA lstroh@ndatyngsboro.org

cstreva@sr1cpsa.org

Jesenia Suarez

Robert Super

Parvin Taraz

Middle School English Learning Specialist Gulliver Prep FL jsuarez@gulliverprep.org

Teacher Assistant Needham High School MA robert_super@needham.k12.ma.us

Chief Academic Officer Wooster School CT parvin.taraz@woosterschool.org

Heidi Tesfaye

Ann Thompkinson

Adam Thurlow

Special Education Teacher Twin Cities International Schools MN heidit@iecmail.net

FL purplepompom0@gmail.com

Adjustment Counselor Masconomet Regional High School MA athurlow@masconomet.org

Pier Trudelle

Jaime Tujo

Shelby Turner

Director of School Improvement & Accountability Teton County School District #1 WY ptrudelle@tcsd.org

Special Education Teacher Hinsdale South High School IL jtujo@hinsdale86.org

School Psychologist Northmont City Schools OH shelby.turner@northmontschools.net

Sherry Van Blyderveen

Arti Vyas

Catlyn Waltemire

Psychologist Ontario, Canada info@newleafpsychology.ca

School Counselor School Lane Charter - Elementary Campus PA avyas@schoollane.org

School Psychologist Northmont City Schools OH catlyn.waltemire@northmontschools.net

Alex Wannamacher

Zak Warsame

Deekha Warsame

Middle School Resources Program Coordinator The Summit Country Day School OH wannemacher_a@summitcds.org

Special Education Paraprofessional Twin Cities International Schools MN Zakariyew@iecmail.net

Special Education Paraprofessional Twin Cities International Schools MN deekhaw@iecmail.net

Jen Weiland

Katie Welch

Jecolia White

Teacher Martha's Vineyard Public Schools MA jweiland@mvyps.org

Buttonloop, COTA MA kwelch1881@gmail.com

School Counselor Pine Lake Preparatory NC jecolia.white@pinelakeprep.org

Leslie Winter

Jessica Winters

Jenilee Woltman

Learning Specialist St. Bernard Academy (TN) TN

School Psychologist Martha's Vineyard Public Schools MA jessica.winters@mvyps.org

Speech-Language Pathologist Educational Service Unit 13 NE jwoltman@esu13.org

lwinter@stbernard.org

Jess Yarow

Michelle Yauss

Samantha York

Grade 6 Learning Specialist The American School in London England jessica_yarow@asl.org

Director of Intervention Services; SSD Coordinator; Intervention Specialist St. Xavier High School OH myauss@stxavier.org

Upper School Learning Specialist Far Hills Country Day School NJ syork@fhcds.org

Mary Young

Laura Zumbach

Program Chair, Learning Development Oak Park and River Forest High School IL mymccyoung7@gmail.com

Special Education Teacher Monticello Community School District IA laura.zumbach@monticello.k12.ia.us

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November 9, 2023 - Day 1 Plenary Speakers

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Unlocking Students’ Potential: Promoting Motivation, Flexible Thinking, and Stress Management in the Classroom Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D. President and Co-Founder, Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD) Overview During this presentation, Dr. Lynn Meltzer will focus on approaches that can rekindle students’ engagement, motivation, and involvement in the learning process in view of the sharp increases in school anxiety, stress and overload. Her presentation will address the vital importance of nurturing students’ metacognitive awareness, executive function, and social-emotional learning amidst the escalating pace and demands of today's schools. We will briefly discuss a classroom-based system that teachers can easily use to understand students’ profiles of strengths and weaknesses as well as strategies that engage them in the learning process. Attendees will learn about executive function strategies that they can embed into their daily teaching to help students to set goals, think flexibly, organize, prioritize, and self-monitor. Additionally, we will focus on approaches that build students’ motivation and self-confidence so that they actively use strategies in their classwork, homework, and test preparation. By weaving these transformative executive function processes into their teaching paradigms, educators empower students to learn HOW to learn, so that they develop into motivated, adaptable, and resilient students equipped to excel both academically and in the broader spectrum of life. References Barkley, R. (2012). Executive Functions: What they are, How they work, and Why they evolved. New York: The Guilford Press. Brown, T. (2014). Smart but Stuck: Emotions in Teens and Adults with ADHD. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Diamond A. (2012) Activities and programs that improve children's executive functions. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 21: 335

Dweck, C. S. (2008). Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. New York, NY: The Random House. Meltzer, L.J. (Ed) (2018). Executive Function in Education: From Theory to Practice (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L.J. (Ed.) (2010). Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom. New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L.J. (2014). Teaching executive function processes: Promoting metacognition, strategy use, and effort. In Goldstein, S. & Naglieri, J.(Eds.) Executive Functioning Handbook. New York: Springer, 445-474. Meltzer, L.J., & Basho, S. (2010). Creating a classroom-wide executive function culture that fosters strategy use, motivation, and resilience. In Meltzer, L.J. (ed.) Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom. New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L.J., Basho, S., Reddy, R., & Kurkul, K. (2015). The role of mentoring in fostering executive function, effort, and academic self-concept. International Journal for Research in Learning Disabilities. Meltzer, L.J., Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., & Stacey, W. (2015) Executive Function and Peer Mentoring: Fostering Metacognitive Awareness, Effort, and Academic Success. In Harris, K., & Meltzer, L. (Eds.) The Power of Peers in the Classroom: Enhancing Learning and Social Skills. New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L.J., Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., Stacey, W., Ross, E., & Snow, E. (2015). SMARTS Executive Function and Mentoring Program, www.smarts-ef.org. Naglieri, J. & Goldstein, S. (Eds.) Executive Functioning Handbook. New York: Springer, 2014. For additional information, visit www.researchild.org, www.smarts-ef.org, or contact me at lmeltzer@researchild.org.

Unlocking Students’ Potential: Promoting Motivation, Flexible Thinking, and Stress Management in the Classroom

Unlocking Students’ Potential with EF Strategies

WHAT is Executive Function?

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Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

WHAT is Executive Function?

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

WHAT is Executive Function? An umbrella term for all the cognitive processes that control: • Goal-directed behavior • Flexible thinking • Working memory…juggling information mentally • Self-regulation © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

WHAT is Executive Function?

Goal Setting

Shifting Flexibly

Organizing & Prioritizing

Self-Monitoring

Working Memory © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

Executive function strategies are essential for most daily activities

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Resilience Academic Success

Metacognition Effort Self-concept Emotional Regulation

Executive Function Strategies

(Meltzer, 2007, 2010) © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

Overview • WHAT is Executive Function(EF)? • WHY are EF strategies essential for learning and for reducing anxiety and stress? • HOW do we foster metacognitive awareness so that students are motivated and engaged in school? • HOW do we teach EF strategies that promote success and reduce stress in academic and social situations?

WHY are EF strategies essential for learning and for reducing anxiety and stress?

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

EF Strategies are critical for learning

Structure the minutes and hours each day

Learn independently

Estimate time for schoolwork, sports, activities, friends Schedule & pace learning & reading

“I get so frustrated. I have all these ideas in my mind but I can’t figure out how to start writing… I just get stuck and I give up.” © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

“When I got a big assignment that I didn’t understand, I got so angry because I just spent an hour staring at a blank word document and couldn’t figure out how to start….it was really tough and incredibly stressful.”

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

EF, Stress, & Anxiety

• Stress shifts cognition from topdown control processes to bottom-up automatic processes.

10/26/22, 12:44 AM

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• Stress affects working memory, cognitive flexibility, and cognitive inhibition. • Stress impairs executive control and forces attention away from important information. •

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC5003767/

https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1KoqVPEia50jTYA1dzo3eJIyI2MACUzbw

1/1

Attention

Effort

Executive Function

Emotional Regulation © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

HOW do we foster metacognitive awareness so that students are motivated and engaged in school?

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Metacognitive Awareness

Self-understanding: • HOW do I think? • HOW do I learn?

• HOW do my strengths and weaknesses affect my learning?

• WHAT strategies work best for me?

“My teacher and parents tried dozens of approaches to help me stay organized and engaged in the classroom but I still struggled. I felt so anxious and frustrated and I kept hoping that somebody could help me understand how to learn more easily.” (Billy, 24yrs)

HOW to Foster Metacognitive Awareness

Ø ‘Know Yourself’ Venn Diagrams. Ø MetaCOG Survey and Toolkit ü Motivation & Effort Survey (ME) ü Strategy Use Survey (STRATUS)

Ø Strategy Reflection Sheets

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Metacognitive Awareness: Know Yourself Activity

My Strengths

My Weaknesses

HOW to Foster Metacognitive Awareness: Billy’s Know Yourself Venn Diagram

My Strengths:

My Challenges:

1. Working hard.

1. Paying attention.

2. Remembering things for tests.

2. Organizing my things.

3. Understanding what I read.

3. Organizing my time.

4. Learning new strategies.

5. Taking notes on what I read. 6. Checking my work.

5. Solving math problems.

Foster Metacognitive Awareness: MetaCOG Surveys

• ME (Motivation and Effort Survey) • STRATUS (Strategy Use Survey)

ResearchILD, 2004, 2014

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Motivation and Effort Survey

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Motivation and Effort Survey

Motivation and Effort Survey Class Report

Strategy Use Survey

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Strategy Use Survey

Strategy Use Survey NEXT STEPS S uggested w ays you c an im prove S e l f -Mo ni t o r i ng and S e l f -C he ck i ng • Put a post-it note by your desk with a reminder to read over your work before handing it in. • Before you leave for school in the morning, ask yourself if you have all the items you need. • When logging out of your computer for the day, quickly check if you completed all your tasks for the day.

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Strategy Use Survey: Class Report

HOW to Foster Metacognitive Awareness

Ø ‘Know Yourself’ Venn Diagrams. Ø MetaCOG Survey and Toolkit ü Motivation & Effort Survey (ME) ü Strategy Use Survey (STRATUS)

Ø Strategy Reflection Sheets

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Foster Metacognitive Awareness: Strategy Reflection Sheets

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Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Strategy Reflection Sheets

Strategy Reflection Share •

What strategy did you use?

•

How did you use the strategy?

•

Was the strategy helpful?

•

How did you know that it was helpful?

After reviewing their EF Profiles, students reported one thing they learned:

r ou fo ank y ay th llenges. s to ld like fix my cha I wou g me helpin der 6th gra

I ha v to re e the c a v wha ise and pacity a be t I do to reform tter b lear ecom 10 th e ner! grad e r

I that know I now to make re e futu need for th ve to goals gs I ha in on th ve on. impro der 8th gra

I need to work on my memory for assignments to help me get better grades and not miss assignments. 6th grader

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

HOW do we teach EF strategies that promote success and reduce students’ stress?

Executive Function & Social-Emotional Learning

Unclogging the Funnel with EF Strategies

• Goal Setting • Cognitive Flexibility/ Thinking Flexibly •Organizing & Prioritizing •Remembering/Accessing Working Memory • Self-Monitoring & Checking © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Teach EF Strategies Explicitly

Use metacognitive prompts for teaching all strategies: • WHAT is the strategy? • WHEN is the strategy most helpful? • HOW should the strategy be used? © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

Long-Term Projects Summarizing & Note-Taking

Math Problem Solving Written Language

Triple-Note- Monthly Tote Planning Shifty Math Diagnostic Lizard

Studying

PPCQ

Test Taking Skim & Scoop

Reading Comprehension

Top-3-Hits

Executive Function Strategy Tool Box

Expose students to music, dance, yoga, sports which build EF strategies in a fun way.

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Goal-Setting

CANDO Goals C= Clear A=Appropriate N=Numerical D=Doable O=Obstacles considered

CANDO Goals Long-term goal: I want to earn a B+ in math this year.

Short-term goals: I want to practice math word problems for 30 minutes a day

Lesson 2.1

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

CANDO Goals CANDO Goals Help make your goal doable by listing 3 steps needed to achieve it. “I want to improve my score on the next math test by 10 points.” Steps for reaching the goal:

Lesson 2.1

CANDO Goals This goal is doable because there are 3 steps listed to help achieve it.

Study 30 minutes a day Lesson 2.1

Review my notes from class every night

Make flash cards to practice 4x/week

Improve math score by 10 points!

CANDO Goals What are some obstacles that might get in the way of reaching the goal? I got busy with other work and didn’t review my flash cards. I left my notes at home.

I couldn’t do the HW because I didn’t understand it! Review my notes from class every night

Improve math score by 10 points!

Make flash cards to practice 4x/week

Study 30 minutes a day

Lesson 2.1

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

CANDO Goals What are some ways to overcome obstacles ? • Spend extra time studying the

I forgot my notes at next night. school. • Study during a free block.

I didn’t understand • Talk to the teacher the next day. • Ask a friend or parent for help. the lesson and couldn’t do my HW. I was too busy with other work. Lesson 2.1

• Make up studying time on the weekends, in the morning before school, or during a free block.

Cognitive Flexibility: Shifting & Thinking Flexibly

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Cognitive Flexibility: Shifting & Thinking Flexibly Switching flexibly between approaches. • Shifting back and forth between major themes and relevant details. • Focusing on big ideas and ignoring irrelevant information. © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Shifting Flexibly

Teach students to shift perspectives and to self-monitor flexibly when they read, write, solve math problems, and interact socially.

Shifting Flexibly: Teach Multiple Meanings

“Hit the road!” © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Shifting Flexibly:

Teach Multiple Meanings

Kids make nutritious snacks.

Shifting Flexibly: Triple Note Tote for Reading, Writing, Studying

Topic/Main Idea

Details

• Vocabulary word

• Definition

• Math Formula

• Explanation of

• Main Idea

Memory Strategy

term • Details related to

• Association • Cartoon • Drawing

main idea

SMARTS Elementary, Lesson 3.2,Lesson 4B.4 Lesson 4B.3

Shifting Flexibly: Triple Note Tote for Reading, Writing, Studying Triple Note Tote Strategy

SMARTS EF Curriculum For Middle & High School © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Organizing and Prioritizing 10/18/23, 11:31 AM

Organizing my belongings 1 color.png

Organizing and Prioritizing Time

Tug of War “Have-to’s”

Lesson 4A.4

vs.

“Want-to’s”

Organizing and Prioritizing Time

Fred’s Have-to’s and Want-to’s Start Book Report

Read 20 minutes

Play Fortnite

Ride Bike Lesson 4A.4

Go to karate

Practice Piano

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Organizing and Prioritizing Time

Fred’s Daily Planner Have-To’s

Want-To’s

start book report

play Fortnite

Read 20 minutes

Play Fortnite

read for 20 minutes

ride bike

practice piano

go to karate

Lesson 4A.4

Start Book Report

Ride Bike

Go to karate

Practice Piano

Organizing and Prioritizing Time Fred’s Daily Planner 7:30 - 8:00

Read for 20 minutes

8:00 - 3:00

SCHOOL

3:00 - 3:30 3:30 - 4:00

e“ c e th

4:00 - 4:30 4:30 - 5:00

P la

5:00 - 5:30

Hav

s” F e to ’

IR S T

Start book report

5:30 - 6:00 6:00 - 6:30

DINNER

6:30 - 7:00

Practice piano

7:00 - 7:30 7:30 - 8:00

Lesson 4A.4

Self-Monitoring and Self-Checking

Top 3 Hits Strategy © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

TOP 3 HITS Strategy

• Recognizing and fixing the kinds of mistakes YOU make. • Knowing, finding AND correcting errors. • Asking, “Does it make sense?” © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Shifting Flexibly in Social Situations I’m Wearing Your Shoes

When we take someone else’s perspective, we try to see things from their point of view

Shifting Flexibly in Social Situations I’m Wearing Your Shoes Regulating Emotions: Conflict Resolution Strategies

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Shifting Flexibly in Social Situations I’m Wearing Your Shoes

What could I have done differently? § How could shifting flexibly and perspective-taking have helped solve the conflict? § How can we use this knowledge to stop conflicts before they start?

Fostering Positive Mindsets

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD EF Conf, 2023; www.researchild.org; www.smarts-ef.org

11 Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools Embedding Executive Function Strategies in the Curriculum LYNN MELTZER

cademic performance in our 21st-century digital schools is increasingly dependent on students’ ability to set goals, organize, prioritize, shift flexibly, access working memory, and self-monitor, all processes that are critically important from elementary school through college (Barkley, 2012; Brown, 2006, 2014; Denckla, 2007; Meltzer, 2007, 2014). These executive function (EF) processes are the underpinnings for accurate and efficient performance in school, especially for those academic tasks that require students to integrate and synthesize multiple subskills, namely, reading comprehension, writing, studying, test taking, and long-term projects (Brown, 2014; Goldstein & Naglieri, 2014; Meltzer, 2013, 2014; Meltzer & Basho, 2010; Meltzer, Reddy, Greschler, & Kurkul, 2013). This chapter provides an overview of research-based EF strategies that are important for all students and are critically important for students with learning and attention difficulties. These strategies are most effective when they are taught explicitly and integrated into the classroom curriculum. The first section focuses on a theoretical framework 263

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PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS

for understanding metacognition and EF processes and their impact on students’ effort, resilience, and academic performance (Meltzer, 2014; Meltzer, Basho, Reddy, & Kurkul, 2015). The second section addresses techniques for promoting metacognitive awareness and embedding EF processes into the curriculum in five core areas: goal setting, cognitive flexibility, organizing and prioritizing, accessing working memory, and self-monitoring. The connections between students’ self-understanding and use of EF strategies, on the one hand, and their attention and emotional regulation in the classroom, on the other hand, are also discussed briefly. The third and final section describes the SMARTS Executive Function and Mentoring Program (Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015) a research-based EF curriculum that provides teachers with procedures and materials for integrating EF strategies into the curriculum (Meltzer, 2014, 2015; Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, & Stacey, 2015).

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE I’m naturally smart. I have a lot of common sense. But I’m not very organized and I procrastinate a lot. Executive function strategies helped me shift perspectives and understand myself better. I wish I had learned this stuff when I was younger. I could have used it throughout school. —Kyle , 10 th grader

As discussed in Part I of this book, EF is a multifaceted construct or “umbrella term” for the complex cognitive processes that underlie flexible, goal-directed responses in novel or difficult situations (Anderson, 2002; Barkley, 2010, 2012; Denckla, 2007; Goldstein & Naglieri, 2014; Meltzer, 2007, 2010). The core EF processes that influence academic performance include goal setting, cognitive flexibility/shifting, organizing and prioritizing, working memory, and self-monitoring (Meltzer, 2007, 2010, 2014; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015) (see Table 11.1 for definitions). These EF processes often affect students’ ability to complete academic tasks that involve synthesis and integration such as initiating writing assignments, summarizing information, taking notes, completing projects with multiple parts, studying, and submitting work on time (Barkley, 2010; Dawson & Guare, 2010; Denckla, 2007; Denckla & Mahone, Chapter 1, this volume; Meltzer, 2010, 2014; Meltzer & Basho, 2010; Meltzer, Dunstan-Brewer, & Krishnan, Chapter 5, this volume). Academic tasks that are often challenging for students with EF weaknesses are listed in Table 11.2.

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools 265 TABLE 11.1. EF Processes Defined Goal Setting: Identifying short-term and long-term objectives. Figuring out a purpose and end-point. Cognitive Flexibility/Shifting: Switching easily between approaches. Looking again, in a brand new way. Prioritizing and Organizing: Ordering based on relative importance and arranging information systematically. Identifying what’s most important and sorting and categorizing information. Accessing Working Memory: Juggling information mentally. Juggling information and ideas in one’s mind. Self-Monitoring: Identifying errors and self-correcting. Finding and fixing one’s own mistakes. Note. Copyright 2014 by ResearchILD. Reprinted by permission.

Students who struggle with these EF processes often experience frustration and failure, and begin to feel that their brains are “clogged” with information. The paradigm that we use to explain these difficulties is based on the analogy of a “clogged funnel,” as is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 5 (Figure 5.1, repeated here as Figure 11.1). Instruction that emphasizes EF strategies can help students to “unclog the funnel,” and prevent increasing difficulties as the complexity and pace of the curriculum intensify. A comprehensive discussion of these EF weaknesses can be found in my book, Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom (Meltzer, 2010), and strategies for teaching specific EF processes can be found in our recently launched SMARTS Online Executive Function Curriculum (Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015; www.smarts-ef.org).

PROMOTING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION ACROSS THE GRADES Executive function strategies helped me learn that, even when things are hard, I can do them. I can use strategies to make things easier. If there is a really hard word problem in math, I can read the problem and then rewrite the problem in my own way. Then it’s easy. —Jordan, eighth grader

Explicit strategy instruction benefits all students and is essential for students with learning and attention difficulties (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2014; Meltzer 2013, 2014; Meltzer, Katzir, Miller, Reddy, & Roditi,

266 PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS TABLE 11.2. Impact of EF Processes on Academic Performance Goal Setting •• Setting realistic short-term goals for homework completion and projects. •• Setting realistic monthly, quarterly, or year-long goals for academic and outof-school activities. •• Breaking down long-term goals into smaller, manageable steps. Shifting Flexibly/Cognitive Flexibility •• Shifting approaches flexibly during reading comprehension, writing, and math tasks. •• Shifting between major themes or key concepts and relevant details. •• Problem-solving flexibly to get “unstuck” in academic and social situations. Organizing and Prioritizing •• Time: ▫▫ Allocating adequate time to important tasks and major goals. ▫▫ Planning and allocating time to the multiple steps in assignments, for example, writing papers, taking notes (history, science), completing longterm projects. •• Workspaces: ▫▫ Reducing distractions and clutter in work areas. •• Materials: ▫▫ Using class notes, textbooks, and study guides strategically. ▫▫ Creating systems for categorizing and finding materials easily. •• Ideas: ▫▫ Organizing and prioritizing ideas on the basis of the main themes or key concepts (reading comprehension, writing). ▫▫ Prioritizing details that are important versus details that are irrelevant and can be ignored (reading comprehension, writing, math). •• Information: ▫▫ Dividing time between reading and research versus output, such as writing a paper, layout, editing. Accessing Working Memory •• Following multistep directions. •• Completing math calculations, especially mental computation. •• Studying effectively so that critical information is retained over time to prevent the “Friday spelling test effect” (Meltzer, 2010). •• Remembering to hand in completed homework and other assignments on time, for example, students with EF difficulties often leave school with their homework still in their bags. •• Remembering to bring necessary books and materials from school to home and back again. Self-Monitoring •• Checking and correcting work strategically, for example, use of personalized error checklists. •• Monitoring progress systematically on classwork, papers, projects, and tests.

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools

267

Key Executive Function Processes • Goal Setting • Shifting Flexibly/Cognitive Flexibility • Organizing and Prioritizing • Accessing Working Memory • Self-Monitoring

2004; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; Swanson, 2001; Swanson & Hoskyn, 2001). When classroom instruction promotes students’ metacognitive awareness so that they understand their own profiles of strengths and weaknesses, they are more likely to generalize their strategy use across content areas. Students also need to develop an understanding of the goals and benefits of using specific strategies for tasks so that they make the effort to adapt these strategies to fit their personal learning profiles. For example, the strategies needed to study for a math test that emphasizes procedural knowledge will differ from the strategies needed to study for a Spanish test that emphasizes memorization of vocabulary. This section highlights selected approaches for teaching EF strategies explicitly and systematically in the context of the curriculum. The initial focus is on the critical role of metacognitive awareness, with suggestions for promoting metacognitive awareness in the classroom. This is followed by subsections on each of the five key EF processes, namely, goal setting, cognitive flexibility/shifting, organizing and prioritizing, accessing working memory, and self-monitoring. Within each subsection, we discuss the role of the specific EF process in the context of the academic curriculum, specifically, reading, writing, math, and the other content areas. Each subsection also includes a brief overview of a few relevant teaching strategies, many of which are core components of the SMARTS Online Executive Function Curriculum (www.smarts-ef. org; Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015). The last subsection briefly summarizes the important connections between these EF strategies and students’ emotional regulation in the classroom.

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PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS

METACOGNITIVE AWARENESS When you know what your strengths and weaknesses are, it gives you a different understanding of the work you have to do. It helps you reevaluate what you’re doing. If I know I have a paper to write, I’ll spend more time planning it out and figuring out where to attack differently. —Bob , 10 th grader

Metacognitive awareness, a concept originally defined by Flavell (1979) and Brown, Bransford, Ferrara, and Campione (1983), refers to each student’s understanding and beliefs about how he or she thinks and learns, as well as the strategies that can be used to accomplish specific tasks. Students’ self-understanding about their learning profiles, as well as their strengths and weaknesses in academic and social situations, influence their selection of specific strategies on academic tasks (Meltzer, 2010; Meltzer, Katzir, et al., 2004). Metacognitive awareness also boosts students’ motivation to master and use these strategies in their daily classwork and homework so that their academic performance improves beyond a single task (Meltzer, Reddy, Pollica, & Roditi, 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Sales, et al., 2004).

PROMOTING METACOGNITIVE AWARENESS IN THE CLASSROOM Teachers can promote students’ metacognitive awareness when they build a culture in their classrooms that helps students to understand their learning profiles as well as the importance of using strategies for their academic work. More specifically, they can teach students explicitly what strategies are, why they should use strategies, and which strategies are effective for which tasks. Formal and informal assessment methods can help teachers to understand each student’s self-perceptions and use of EF strategies. Three practical approaches that are easy to implement in classrooms are discussed briefly below: the MetaCOG survey system, the Know Yourself Venn Diagrams system, and strategy reflection sheets. 1. MetaCOG-R Survey System (Metacognitive Awareness System— Revised) (Meltzer, Katzir, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Pollica, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Sales, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Kurkul, Reddy, & Basho, 2014; Meltzer, Reddy, & Sayer, 2014). The MetaCOG-R, for use with 9- to 18-year-olds, is a criterion-referenced assessment system. As is discussed in greater detail in Meltzer, Dunstan-Brewer, and Krishnan (Chapter 5, this volume), the MetaCOG-R compares students’, teachers’, and parents’ perceptions of students’ effort, strategy use, and academic

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools 269

performance (Meltzer, 2014; Meltzer, Katzir, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Pollica, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Sales, et al., 2004; see also Meltzer, 2010, available at www.researchild.org and smarts-ef.org). These strategy ratings focus on academic areas that depend heavily on EF processes—for example, reading comprehension, written language, homework, and studying (see Table 5.3 in Chapter 5 on p. 130); Meltzer, Katzir-Cohen, Miller, & Roditi, 2001; Miller, Meltzer, Katzir-Cohen, & Houser, 2001). The MetaCOG is described in greater detail by Meltzer, Dunstan-Brewer, and Krishnan (Chapter 5, this volume). Survey systems such as the MetaCOG-R can be used for a variety of purposes over the course of the school year: a. To understand students’ views of their own effort, use of strategies, and academic performance. b. To help educators and clinicians to compare their own judgments with their students’ self-perceptions as well as parents’ perceptions. c. To develop a system for teaching strategies to help students plan, organize, prioritize, shift flexibly, memorize, and check their work. d. To track students’ understanding and implementation of these strategies over time. Completion of the three MetaCOG surveys helps students to develop an understanding of their own learning profiles. This self-understanding is the foundation for building students’ metacognitive awareness and their use of EF strategies (see Meltzer, Dunstan-Brewer, & Krishnan, Chapter 5, this volume, for additional information). A sample of the qualitative items on one of the students’ surveys in the MetaCOG, the MERS (Motivation, Effort, and Resilience Survey) is provided in Figure 11.2 to illustrate the often differing perceptions of students and their teachers. On another MetaCOG questionnaire, the STRATUS Strategy Use survey, students are required to rate their use of strategies in their academic work (see Table 11.3). 2. “Know Yourself” Venn Diagrams System (www.smarts-ef.org). Students’ self-understanding can be promoted by using the SMARTS “Know Yourself” Venn Diagram strategy, which provide a structured method for encouraging students to think about their strengths and weaknesses so that they begin to understand their learning profiles and to recognize which strategies work best for them (see Figure 11.3). The Venn Diagram strategy helps students to make their learning profiles

270 PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS

Teacher’s Comments: Ben works hard when the task is structured. However, he has no self-confidence and his concentration is erratic. His grades are poor and I’m not sure how to help him. FIGURE 11.2. MERS Survey: Sample of sixth-grade student’s self-understanding of his effort and academic performance.

TABLE 11.3. Sample Items from the MetaCOG STRATUS Strategy Use Survey •• I have trouble breaking down my homework into smaller, more manageable parts. •• I have trouble organizing my thoughts before I write. •• When I read or write, I struggle to figure out the main ideas. •• When I am learning something new, I connect it to something I already know. •• When I do my work, I ask if my answers make sense. •• If the method I am using to solve a problem is not working, I use another way of solving it. Note. The STRATUS comprises 30 items. Items from Meltzer, Reddy, et al. (2014).

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FIGURE 11.3. Know Yourself Venn Diagram strategy for promoting students’ metacognitive awareness and understanding of their strengths and weaknesses (Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015; www.smarts-ef.org). Copyright 2015 by ResearchILD. Reprinted by permission.

explicit so that they recognize and embrace their strengths and understand that their weaknesses are not all-encompassing. 3. Strategy Reflection Sheets. Strategy reflection sheets require students to reflect on and describe the processes and strategies they use for their classwork, homework, and test preparation. These comprise a multiple-choice format, structured questions, and an open-ended format and can be adjusted based on each student’s specific needs. As is illustrated in Figures 11.4a and 11.4b, completing and sharing strategy reflection sheets helps students to understand which strategies work well for them, as well as why, where, when, and how to apply specific strategies to their schoolwork.

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PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS Strategy Reflection Sheet: Multiple-Choice Format

(a)

What strategies did you use for your writing assignment and preparing for your test? ___ Mapping and Webbing ___ Graphic Organizer ___ Linear Outline ___ BOTEC*

___ Sentence Starters ___ Personalized Editing Checklist ___ Triple Note Tote* ___ Other

FIGURE 11.4. Strategy reflection sheets for writing and test preparation. (a) multiple-choice format (asterisks indicate SMARTS strategies) (b) openended format. Copyright 2004 by ResearchILD. Reprinted by permission.

Metacognitive awareness and effective strategy use are promoted when teachers provide incentives to make strategy use count. When grades for homework and tests include points for completing strategy reflection sheets, teachers promote strategic learning in all students. Furthermore, daily or weekly strategy shares allow students to discuss their use of strategies with one another. This process is strengthened by grouping students into “executive coaching teams” who support one another so that a culture of strategy use develops in the classroom. A summary of easy-to-use techniques for promoting students’ metacognitive awareness and use of EF strategies, is provided in Table 11.4. In summary, when teachers create a classroom culture that promotes metacognitive awareness and self-understanding, they can maximize the effectiveness of teaching EF strategies in the context of the curriculum.

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools 273 TABLE 11.4. Easy-to-Use SMARTS Techniques for Promoting Students’ Metacognitive Awareness and Use of EF Strategies in Classroom Activities Strategy reflection sheets for homework Students are graded for completing strategy reflection sheets for selected homework and test preparation assignments. This activity builds metacognitive awareness and strategic habits of mind. Strategy shares Brief daily or weekly discussion times for students to share their favorite personalized strategies from the week’s homework. Personalized strategy note cards and/or notebooks Students record their favorite strategies on strategy note cards or in strategy notebooks to make practice easier at school and at home. Strategy-of-the week display board and strategy wall Students’ favorite strategies are showcased in different content areas on display boards. Students vote for a Strategy of the Week for display. By year’s end, students’ favorite personal strategies cover classroom walls. Note. SMARTS Executive Function Curriculum (Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015). Copyright 2015 by ResearchILD. Reprinted by permission.

Goal Setting We talked about goals, long-term goals and short-term goals. I learned that one of my weaknesses is that I don’t plan ahead for things, so I always do that at the last minute. SMARTS taught me how to break apart my work into pieces, so I can do one piece at a time. —John, ninth grader

Goal setting involves the selection of specific, realistic objectives and goal-relevant activities in all aspects of students’ lives including their classwork, homework, and after-school activities. When students set their own goals, they are more motivated to make the effort to attain these goals (Krishnan, Feller, & Orkin, 2010; Zimmerman, 2000; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). Goal setting also enhances motivation and self-efficacy and requires students to: • Understand their learning strengths and weaknesses as well as their learning profiles. • Understand the “big picture” and envision the end point of a task. • Value the task. • Recognize that goals need to be attainable. Students who are able to set goals and to shift from the “big picture” to the details are usually more successful with the complex tasks that are

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typical of our 21st-century schools (Meltzer, 2007, 2014). In contrast, students with poor self-understanding of their learning profiles often fail to set short-term and long-term goals, which often compromises their performance and their involvement in after-school activities (Krishnan et al., 2010). The foundations of effective goal setting and planning are often developed when parents use daily schedules, calendars, and agendas. In the early grades, these strategies are important for schoolwork, longterm projects, and after-school activities. These strategies are even more critical in the middle and high school grades when students are required to understand the goals of their assignments and to plan their study time, as well as their approaches to projects and papers. As students juggle multiple deadlines for different ongoing assignments and projects, they often underestimate the amount of work involved in major projects and open-ended tasks. As a result, they need strategies for breaking down tasks into manageable parts. Students also need to build goal-oriented schedules for planning their homework and study time after school when there is less structure. As is evident from Table 11.5, goals should be clear, appropriately realistic, and structured in a step-wise fashion. Furthermore, likely obstacles should be considered, together with potential solutions that are clearly identified. When students analyze their goals systematically, they are more likely to achieve their goals, especially in view of the fact that they often set goals that are vague and unrealistic (e.g., “I want to go from C’s to all A’s this semester”; “I want to be the best student in the class”). Strategies such as the SMARTS CANDO Goal-Setting Strategy (see Table 11.5; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015) can help students to set realistic, achievable goals and to identify the steps needed to achieve these goals as well as the potential obstacles that can interfere with the process (see Table 11.5). Students can set academic and nonacademic goals early in the school year and can be taught to review these at specific times throughout the year.

Cognitive Flexibility/Shifting Learning about cognitive flexibility was my favorite part of SMARTS. That’s not something you see in school a lot. Usually it’s like, “Here’s a question, now find the answer.” It was so interesting to think about problems in a different way and to begin to understand how important it is for school. —Jen, ninth grader

Cognitive flexibility, or the ability to think flexibly and to shift approaches, is a critically important EF process that is often challenging

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TABLE 11.5. The SMARTS CANDO Goal-Setting Strategy Mnemonic

Purpose

Example

Clear

Avoids the use of vague words

“I want to earn at least a B on my science tests.”

Appropriate

States a goal that is attainable and realistic

“I will improve by at least one letter grade.”

Numerical

Quantifies the goal so that progress is measurable

“I will study science for 2 hours a week.”

Doable

Breaks down the steps needed to achieve the goal

“In order to get an A or B on the next test, I will study for 1 hour every day over the next 5 days.”

Obstacles Considered

Anticipates likely obstacles and incorporates potential solutions

“I feel like I’m stuck on my research paper, I need to schedule a meeting with my science teacher to get help.”

for students, especially for students with learning and attention difficulties (Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007; Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015). The ability to adapt to unfamiliar or unexpected situations, to shift mind-sets and problem-solving approaches, and to integrate different representations, develops across the lifespan and varies across individuals (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b; Deák, 2008; Dweck, 2008; Elliott & Dweck, 2005). In fact, developmental changes from childhood into adulthood influence children’s ability to manage complex academic tasks and to process many components simultaneously (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b; Semenov & Zelazo, Chapter 4, this volume). Typically, students in the early elementary grades have a more limited understanding of the importance of shifting flexibly and using a range of different approaches and strategies than do middle and high school students. As students advance into the higher grades, their ability to learn new concepts is often connected to their willingness to abandon previously successful approaches and to shift flexibly to alternative methods (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b). Futhermore, students’ motivation, interest, passion, and attention also influence their willingness to try using different approaches and to shift flexibly from one approach to another, rather than continuing to rely on the same approach to tasks (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008; Semenov & Zelazo, Chapter 4, this volume). Overall, this ability to shift approaches and to synthesize information

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in novel ways is essential for effective reading, writing, math problem solving, note taking, studying, and test taking. In the reading area, accurate and efficient decoding requires students to flexibly coordinate the letter–sound relationships with the meanings of printed words (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b), and the role of cognitive flexibility in reading comprehension is even more important. Specifically, reading comprehension requires students to process the meaning of text, flexibly access their background knowledge, recognize the purpose or goal of reading (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b), and monitor their own comprehension (Block & Pressley, 2002; Scornavacco et al., 2015). When reading text that incorporates complex or figurative language, students need to shift between the concrete and the abstract, between the literal and the symbolic, and between the major themes and the relevant details. Furthermore, reading for meaning taxes students’ ability to flexibly manage many different types of linguistic information at the word level, sentence level, and paragraph level (Klingner, Vaughn, Boardman, & Swanson, 2012). Similarly, when writing, students must shift between their own perspective and that of the reader, and between the important concepts and supporting details. Writing also requires students to shift flexibly between genres, topics, formats, and core concepts (Harris & Graham, 2009; Harris, Graham, Mason, McKeown, & Olinghouse, Chapter 13, this volume). In the math domain, students’ understanding of concepts, computational procedures, and word problems depends on their cognitive flexibility. Students are required to shift from the words and sentences in math problems to the numbers, operations, algorithms, and equations needed to solve the problems (Steinberg & Roditi, Chapter 12, this volume). They also need to learn how and when to shift problemsolving schemas so that their final calculations are accurate and logical (Montague & Jitendra, 2006). In content-area subjects, including science and history, students are required to differentiate main ideas from details in their textbooks. Students’ understanding of the material depends on their ability to shift from the main themes to the details and to use context clues to shift flexibly among the different possible meanings of words and phrases (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2012, 2014). Similarly, learning a foreign language requires a significant amount of flexible thinking, as students are challenged to shift back and forth between their native language and the new language they are learning. Finally, studying and test taking require students to shift among multiple topics or problem types, as they are often presented with information that is formatted differently from the ways in which they have learned or studied it before. Similarly, students are required to shift flexibly when tasks require them to apply their knowledge to novel tasks or situations—for

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example, applying their background knowledge or theoretical understanding to solving a math equation or answering a history question on a test (Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015). For students who struggle to shift flexibly between perspectives and to process multiple representations easily, academic tasks often become progressively more challenging beyond the first few grades in school (Meltzer, 2014; Goldstein & Naglieri, 2014). Furthermore, these students experience mounting difficulty as the curriculum demands increase in complexity and require them to interpret information in more than one way, change their approach when needed, and choose a new strategy when the first one is not working (Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015).

Strategies for Promoting Cognitive Flexibility A variety of instructional approaches can be used to promote flexible thinking across different grades and content areas. First, when teaching emphasizes systematic approaches to thinking critically and to solving problems creatively, students are required to think flexibly about ways in which their solutions could lead to different possible outcomes. Second, when teaching encourages peer discussion and collaborative learning, students are exposed to multiple viewpoints and can be challenged to approach problems from the perspectives of their peers (Yuill, 2007). Strategies for shifting flexibly can also be embedded into daily activities at home and in school. Activities with jokes, riddles, word categories, and number puzzles can help students to practice using flexible approaches to language interpretation and number manipulation. The efficacy of using jokes to teach flexible thinking in the early grades has been demonstrated in an interesting series of studies (Yuill, 2007). Their findings indicated that an explicit focus on the ambiguous language in jokes generalized to reading comprehension as students were required to think about and analyze language in different ways. As one example, students’ reading comprehension and interpretation of text can be improved by presenting different scenarios that teach them to analyze language and to shift among different interpretations. When they come across words or sentences that do not make sense to them, they can be taught to stop reading and to ask themselves the following questions: • Does the word have more than one meaning? • Can the word be used as both a noun and a verb?

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• Can a different syllable be emphasized in the word to give it a different meaning? • Can a different part of the sentence be emphasized to change its meaning? • Does the passage contain any figurative language, such as metaphors or expressions that may be confusing? Shifting strategies are critically important for improving students’ reading comprehension, written language, and understanding of content-area material. In the area of reading comprehension, students can be taught to shift flexibly between and among major themes and relevant details based on the goals and content requirements of the reading tasks (Meltzer & Bagnato, 2010; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015). For example, the SMARTS Skim and Scoop strategy can be used to teach students to skim text systematically and to identify the main idea and important details in a passage (see Figure 11.5). As is evident from Figure 11.5, students fi nd the main idea by

FIGURE 11.5. The SMARTS Skim & Scoop Strategy: A strategy for shifting flexibly from the main ideas to the details and back.

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scanning the passage and circling the key words that are repeated most frequently. They then jot down the other key words in the margin of the passage; this helps them to visualize the subtopics of the passage and reinforces the idea that the main idea can be broken down into subtopics. Students then skim each paragraph looking for repeated words, synonyms, and common ideas, restating the common theme as the topic of that paragraph. This structure helps students to shift between the main ideas, subtopics, and supporting details and to begin to develop a broad outline of the passage. Similar shifting strategies can be used to improve written language. For example, three-column note-taking systems and graphic organizers make explicit connections between the main ideas and supporting details and help writers to shift more fluidly between the two. Using the SMARTS Triple Note Tote strategy, students record the major themes, core concepts, or key questions in the first column, the relevant details in the second column, and a memory strategy in the third column (see Figure 11.6). The Triple Note Tote strategy helps students to differentiate between important concepts and details and also to separate relevant information from details that are irrelevant and should be ignored. This strategy can also be used to organize and prioritize information and terms as is shown in Figure 11.7 in the next section.

Organizing and Prioritizing When I learned strategies for organizing, it helped me to get my work done, to cut it up so it doesn’t seem so daunting any more. I learned to focus on the main idea, then the supporting details. It has made the work simpler and it’s way better than just jumping right in without a plan and messing up a lot. —Victor , seventh grader

Organization, or the ability to systematize and sort information, is an EF process that underlies most academic and life tasks. Students need to learn strategies for systematically organizing their time, their materials, and their ideas. They also need to learn how to apply these strategies to their writing, note taking, studying, and test preparation. These strategies become increasingly important in the upper elementary grades when students are presented with an increasingly large volume of detailed information that they are required to organize for effective learning. How well they learn and remember information depends on how effectively they use strategies for organizing and prioritizing the concepts and details so that working memory is less cluttered. While many students successfully participate in class and accurately complete

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FIGURE 11.6. Triple Note Tote: A SMARTS strategy for shifting flexibly between main ideas and details for reading and writing.

structured homework assignments, they may have more difficulty with independent, open-ended tasks. Reading and note taking, studying for tests, and completing written assignments all require students to impose their own structure on information. When organizational strategies are taught systematically in the context of schoolwork, students are more likely to generalize these strategies and to succeed academically (Krishnan et al., 2010). Improved academic performance and higher grades, in turn, increase students’ motivation to use these strategies independently and to generalize them across different contexts (Meltzer, 2010).

Strategies for Promoting Organizing and Prioritizing Strategies for organizing and prioritizing information all underlie efficient reading comprehension, writing, note taking, studying, and test preparation. Strategies such as templates, thinking maps, and graphic

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organizers provide a structured format for helping students to read for meaning, extract major themes, and relate new with known information (Kim, Vaughn, Wanzek, & Shangjin, 2004). Graphic organizers are also effective for improving students’ reading comprehension across subject areas, in particular language arts, math, science, social studies, and foreign languages. Most importantly, these organizational strategies can be taught across multiple grade levels from elementary school through high school and beyond (Krishnan et al., 2010). For example, three-column note-taking systems guide students to ask themselves active questions about the text they are reading and writing about and help them with reading, writing, summarizing, note taking, and studying. Three-column note-taking systems also encourage students to identify the main ideas, “chunk” information into manageable parts, organize and prioritize information, and develop strategies for memorizing the information for quizzes and tests (see Figure 11.6). Similar organizational strategies are also important for complex writing and note taking, which require students to focus on multiple processes simultaneously including listening, organizing, prioritizing, separating main ideas from details, and then writing down these ideas (Graham & Harris, 2003; Harris & Graham, 2009; Harris, Graham, Mason, McKeown, & Olinghouse, Chapter 13, this volume). Many students read their textbooks and articles without taking notes, or they take notes in a random, scattered way that does not reduce the information load. Other students have difficulty deciding which information should be recorded and struggle to separate the key concepts from the supporting details, so they need the writing process to be broken down explicitly by using organizers and templates that match their learning profiles. For example, the SMARTS BOTEC strategy uses a mnemonic and a visual image to help students to organize and prioritize a large volume of information and to focus on the important steps when they are completing homework, studying, or taking tests. As is evident from Figure 11.7, the BOTEC strategy helps them to Brainstorm, Organize their thoughts, generate a Topic Sentence or thesis statement, Elaborate by providing Evidence, and draw a Conclusion. Students’ academic performance generally improves when they use the organizational strategies discussed above for writing, taking notes, studying, and completing tests.

Accessing Working Memory I used to think I was really bad at math. I could never remember anything! Then I learned to create crazy phrases and acronyms to help me remember and also to calculate things in my head . . . It’s so much easier now! —K atie , fifth grader

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Essay Question: How do you feel about homework? BRAINSTORM your ideas here: A lot of people feel that being tired is the reason why they more focused on playing video games than on doing homework. People have trouble listening and paying attention in class. ORGANIZE: Choose three ideas from your list above that relate best to the essay question. 1. Being tired 2. More important things 3. Understanding TOPIC SENTENCE: There are obstacles that prevent kids in school from doing their homework.

FIGURE 11.7. BOTEC: A SMARTS strategy for organizing and prioritizing information for writing.

”Working memory” refers to the ability to store information for short time periods while simultaneously manipulating the information mentally, for example, holding the major themes in mind while sorting through the details, or calculating a math problem mentally. Working memory is a critically important process that focuses the mind, directs mental effort, and also helps students to ignore distractions and to accomplish tasks (see Swanson & Kong, Chapter 9, this volume). In fact, Baddeley (2006) and Swanson & Kong (Chapter 9, this volume) emphasize that working memory often functions as the central executive that directs the other cognitive processes, including the individual’s ability to inhibit impulses, shift attention, and direct effort to the task at hand (see Swanson & Kong, Chapter 9, this volume). Working memory therefore plays a critical role in listening comprehension, reading comprehension, written expression, mental computation, math problem solving, as well as efficient and accurate long-term learning. Students who use strategies to access working memory efficiently are generally more successful with tasks that require them to focus on multiple processes simultaneously such as following directions, responding to oral questions, completing multistep directions, and mental computation in math (Kincaid & Trautman, 2010). Reading comprehension and written language are also heavily dependent on working memory as students need to remember and manipulate

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multiple details (e.g., spelling, punctuation, rules of grammar) as they remember the main ideas, organize their ideas, prioritize important information, and figure out which details to ignore. Similarly, summarizing, taking notes, and studying for tests require students to focus on multiple processes simultaneously and to remember key ideas, formulate notes while listening, and identify major themes while writing (Kincaid & Trautman, 2010). Memorizing information in the classroom is heavily dependent on students’ ability to focus and sustain their attention in order to make connections, retain information, and retrieve relevant details. In fact, attention and memory are so strongly linked that the two processes are often viewed as part of the same executive process (Swanson & Sáez, 2003; Swanson & Kong, Chapter 9, this volume). To remember, retain, and retrieve information, students benefit from learning strategies for sustaining their attention, attaching meaning to information, chunking information, as well as rehearsing and reviewing. When students are able to make meaningful associations, they are more successful with transfer of information into long-term memory and its later retrieval (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2012).

Strategies for Enhancing Working Memory Teaching students to use working memory strategies is linked with the process of teaching them strategies for organizing and prioritizing information in meaningful ways so that they can reduce the large volume of information they are required to memorize, especially in the content areas such as science, biology, and history. Mnemonics comprise one of the most effective methods for chunking information and retaining important details so that information can be mentally manipulated in working memory (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2012; Regan, Evmenova, Mastropieri, & Scruggs, 2015). Mnemonic strategies (e.g., keywords, pegwords, acronyms, acrostics) encourage students to connect new information to what they already know, make meaningful connections to seemingly disconnected details, and improve retention of information (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 2000; Regan et al., 2015). For example, students can be taught to remember the states and their capitals by region using crazy phrases that help them to organize, sequence, and chunk the information so that there are fewer details to memorize. Some students prefer to use visual strategies, such as personalized diagrams, cartoons, graphic organizers, and templates (Kincaid & Trautman, 2010). Chants, rhymes, and songs are also important to teach to students who rely on verbal or auditory strategies to memorize. As students learn and practice memory strategies, they benefit from modeling and support from

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teachers and peer mentors, who can encourage them to create their own memory strategies that match their individual learning profiles and to practice applying these strategies to their schoolwork (Kincaid & Trautman, 2010).

Self-Monitoring/Self-Regulation If a kid keeps getting D’s on his test, but he doesn’t stop to think about why he’s getting a D, he can’t do any better. You have to look at your tests and find patterns in your mistakes, then you can see the hard stuff coming and be prepared. —Jake , 11th grader

“Self-monitoring” refers to the ways in which learners manage their cognitive and metacognitive processes to track their own performance and outcomes (Zimmerman, 2000; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). When students self-monitor, they review progress toward their goals, evaluate the outcomes, and redirect their efforts when needed. The ability to self-monitor depends on students’ metacognitive awareness, as well as their flexibility in shifting back and forth from the themes to the details. Therefore, students’ self-monitoring strategies relate to their ability to recognize when, how, and why to use specific strategies; to check the effectiveness of their strategy use; to evaluate and revise their strategy use; and to continually adjust their use of strategies based on the task demands (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). Many students, especially students with learning and attention problems, have difficulty reflecting, monitoring their own learning, and evaluating the connections between their effort, strategy use, and performance. As they focus their effort on reading, writing, math problem solving, and content learning, they may struggle to monitor their attention and performance, and may have difficulty shifting among a range of problem-solving approaches or strategies that are available to them (Klingner et al., 2012; Montague, 2003). Students therefore need systematic, structured, and scaffolded instruction in using self-monitoring strategies flexibly so that they can become independent learners who do not need the assistance of others to complete academic tasks successfully (Graham & Harris, 2003; Reid & Lienemann, 2006). Numerous studies have shown that teaching self-monitoring strategies systematically to students can improve their performance significantly (Graham & Harris, 2003). Explicit, structured teaching encourages students to slow down and allocate the necessary time to spiral back and forth between the task demands and their own output (Meltzer, 2013, 2014; Reid & Lienemann, 2006). Students also need to be

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taught self-regulation strategies such as asking themselves questions as they go through the steps of problem solving as well as monitoring their own performance systematically (Montague, 2003). Explicit and systematic instruction therefore helps students to gain access to strategic knowledge, apply strategies, and regulate their use of strategies and overall performance. For example, in the writing domain, students need to be taught strategies for shifting mind-sets from that of the “writer” to that of the “editor” as they often have difficulty identifying their own errors. A “one-size-fits-all” generic editing checklist is often ineffective, as different students make different types of errors (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). While one student may consistently make spelling errors but have no difficulty with organization, another may have the opposite profile. When students develop explicit and personalized checklists for particular assignments, they know what to check for and they make fewer errors (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). Self-monitoring and editing are often easier if students edit their work using a different colored pen, if they read their written work aloud, or if they write the original draft on a computer, print it out, and edit a hard copy. Peer editing is also extremely powerful if a systematic process is implemented in the classroom (see Harris, Graham, Mason, McKeown, & Olinghouse, Chapter 13, this volume).

Strategies for Improving Self-Monitoring and Self-Regulation Students often realize that their writing is weak but they do not know how to revise their writing to improve the content, structure, and organization using specific strategies. Even when they are given a rubric that outlines the expectations for the assignment, they may have difficulty determining whether their writing meets the criteria. They benefit from a guided process for analyzing several of their writing samples to determine their most common mistakes and using this process to develop personalized editing checklists (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). They also benefit from creating personalized checklists to help them to check their work systematically. Figure 11.8 provides one example of a personalized strategy that a sixth grader developed to cue him to check his writing for errors he commonly made, particularly the extent to which he mixed his tenses and used awkward sentence structure. Finally, when taking tests, students also benefit from developing personalized strategies and checklists for editing their work before handing in their tests. Personalized self-checking cards and mnemonics to remember the core ideas are most beneficial (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). For example, Figure 11.9 illustrates a strategy for checking tests that incorporates a visual image for those who more easily remember

286 PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS

STOPS S– Sentence Structure T– Tenses O–Organization P– Punctuation S– Spelling

visual information as well as a “crazy phrase” for those students who more easily remember verbal information. Overall, effective self-monitoring requires students to reflect on their progress toward a goal, select strategies that work, and alter ineffective strategies (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). The quality of students’ academic work improves when they are able to recognize the value of reviewing their work and shifting mind-sets so that they know what to look for and how to shift flexibly from the major themes to the details (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010; Meltzer & Basho, 2010). As discussed in the next section, students’ motivation and emotional mind-sets frequently affect their willingness to make the often superhuman effort needed to stop, reflect, check, and correct multiple drafts of their work, processes that are critically important for long-term academic success.

Emotional Regulation Students’ self-understanding and their ability to engage actively in the learning process through the use of EF strategies is strongly connected with their ability to regulate their emotions in and outside the classroom (Stein, 2010). The effects of emotion on the learning process range along a continuum. Specifically, moderate emotional arousal has a positive influence on students’ attention and use of EF processes including working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibition (Gross, 2007; Stein,

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Checking Strategies for Tests Name Did I write my name on the test? Direc�ons Did I follow the direc�ons? Strategies  Did I use my strategies? Correc�ons Did I check and make correc�ons? Never Drink Sour Cocoa! FIGURE 11.9. Self-checking strategy for tests. Copyright 2010 by ResearchILD. Reprinted by permission.

2010). In contrast, extreme emotional reactions (e.g., anxiety, anger) often disrupt students’ attention and ability to shift flexibly in academic and social situations as well as their ability to learn and remember new information (Stein, 2010). More specifically, the relationship between anxiety and performance is characterized by a U-shaped curve so that a moderate level of anxiety is optimal for most students so that they make the effort to organize and prioritize information and to use strategies flexibly. In contrast, test performance is often poor when students either are not anxious at all and have consequently not studied, or are excessively anxious, which interferes with attention, working memory, and overall performance (Goleman, 1995). In the classroom, students’ self-understanding as well as their ability to regulate and shift their emotions are important processes underlying efficient learning. As students develop strategies for regulating their emotional responses in the classroom, they more easily attend to instructions, sustain their effort, and curb their frustration in response to difficult tasks (Stein, 2010). They also learn how to collaborate with peers and to adjust their behavior to fit the classroom’s “culture” and routines. More specifically, when students regulate their emotions they can more easily focus attention on the academic content rather than their feelings, use self-talk to encourage themselves when anxious, ask for help when needed, and express their feelings in socially acceptable ways (Stein, 2010). As discussed by Stein (2010), a proactive approach to

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addressing students’ emotional regulation in the classroom involves four critical components: • Understanding each student’s learning profile and emotional vulnerabilities. • Understanding what kinds of triggers may upset each student. • Developing individualized prevention and intervention plans for vulnerable students. • Telling students ahead about upcoming changes, transitions, challenges, or requests for participation in classes. Prevention approaches for teachers focus on helping students to avoid frustration and get started by providing structure, breaking down tasks into smaller steps, giving alternative assignments or test formats if needed, or providing flexible due dates (Stein, 2010). Intervention approaches also focus on avoiding judgment, anger, or blame; providing a system of collaborative supports; and offering choices to students (e.g., safe places to reduce stress; quiet rooms for taking tests). The next and final section of this chapter provides a brief overview of a systematic EF curriculum that includes procedures and materials for integrating EF strategies into the curriculum (Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015).

SMARTS: A SYSTEMATIC PROGRAM FOR TEACHING EF STRATEGIES IN THE CONTEXT OF THE CURRICULUM I am naturally smart. I have a lot of common sense. But I’m not very organized and I procrastinate a lot. SMARTS helped me shift perspectives and develop strategies to understand myself better. I wish I had learned these SMARTS strategies when I was younger. I could have used it during my entire academic career. —Kyle , 12th grader

As has been emphasized throughout this chapter, all students benefit when EF strategies are taught explicitly and are embedded systematically into the daily curriculum (Meltzer, 2014, 2015; Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015). The final section of this chapter briefly summarizes the SMARTS Executive Function and Mentoring program, a research-based program that is designed to foster metacognitive awareness and EF strategy instruction in combination with peer mentoring and peer coaching (Meltzer, 2013; Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Reddy, Greschler, & Kurkul, 2013). SMARTS is an acronym for Strategies, Motivation, Awareness, Resilience, Talents, and Success, and each of these strands is

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a core component of this program (Meltzer, 2013; Meltzer et al., 2011; Meltzer et al., 2012; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015). The SMARTS program is anchored in a theoretical paradigm that is designed to promote the key processes that are the underpinnings for resilience and success, namely, metacognition, EF strategies, persistence, and academic self-concept (see Figure 5.2 and discussion in Meltzer, Dunstan-Brewer, & Krishnan, Chapter 5, this volume). When students understand how to learn, they can become flexible thinkers and problem solvers who can be taught strategies to help them organize, prioritize, shift flexibly, and self-monitor when they complete their classwork, homework, and tests (Meltzer, 2010, 2014; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; www.smarts-ef.org). Once this foundation of metacognitive awareness has been established, EF strategies can be taught explicitly and systematically so that students learn to set their own goals, organize and prioritize information, shift flexibly in both academic and social situations, use effective strategies for accessing working memory, and self-monitor effectively. Students’ academic selfconcept, effort, and resilience can be enhanced further by building a supportive peer-mentoring and peer-coaching community in schools, when this is logistically feasible. As is discussed below, the SMARTS program has been designed to promote metacognitive awareness, to teach EF strategies explicitly and systematically, and to promote academic selfconcept and resilience using explicit instruction that is complemented by peer mentoring, if possible (see Figure 11.10). To help teachers provide explicit teaching of EF strategies that are linked with the academic curriculum, SMARTS Online has been developed, pilot-tested, and evaluated in public, private, charter, and home school settings over the past 8 years (Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015). SMARTS Online explicitly addresses the important processes that have been discussed in this chapter, namely, metacognitive awareness, goal setting, cognitive flexibility, organizing and prioritizing, accessing working memory, and self-monitoring. This year-long curriculum comprises 30 lesson plans, PowerPoint presentations for the classroom, handouts and worksheets, and training videos, all of which focus on teaching EF strategies explicitly and systematically from the late elementary grades into high school (see Figure 11.11 for selected lessons from the SMARTS Curriculum) (Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015; www.smarts-ef.org). These EF strategies are designed to help students to become active learners who can begin to use strategies effectively for their classwork, homework, and studying. In summary, the SMARTS Executive Function and Mentoring program is designed to help teachers to implement EF instruction in their

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classrooms in the most practical, efficient, and effective manner possible, as is summarized briefly below (Meltzer, 2013, 2014; Meltzer, Bascho, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015).

SMARTS: Helping Teachers to Promote Flexible Learning in Students SMARTS was a lifeline for us. My main job is to get kids to be successful in school, and SMARTS has been a great support. It’s given me a whole new perspective, and respect for the fact that not every kid thinks or performs the same way. —11tH- gradE tEacHEr

Our work with educators who have implemented the SMARTS Executive Function curriculum in their classrooms has consolidated a number of principles than can guide the practice of teachers who strive to promote flexible thinking in their students and to embed EF strategies into the curriculum. These principles include the following:

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• Teachers foster metacognitive awareness in their students by integrating activities that promote self-understanding into classroom tasks. • Teachers foster flexible thinking and strategic mind-sets in their students using a strengths-based approach to instruction. • Teachers develop a best practices model of EF strategy instruction that takes account of students’ strengths and challenges when they assign classwork, homework, and tests. FIGURE 11.11. The SMARTS Online Executive Function Curriculum: Selected units and lessons. Copyright 2015 by ResearchILD. Reprinted by permission.

• Teachers develop an awareness of ways in which their own teaching styles affect the EF demands they place on their students. • Teachers create a culture of strategy use in their classrooms by embedding EF strategies in their curriculum and daily teaching practices.

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• Teachers create classroom activities that take account of the interactions among EF strategies, effort, academic self-concept, and academic performance as well as the cycle that builds persistence, resilience, and long-term academic success. • Teachers integrate EF strategies into students’ homework assignments, long-term projects, and tests and they make strategy use count by assigning grades and extra credit for strategy use. • Teachers create opportunities for students to share their strategies in groups and to showcase strategies that they have created independently. • Teachers and schools create a strategic and reflective learning environment across grades and content areas that integrates EF into all aspects of learning while promoting a strengths-based approach to instruction for all students. • Teachers implement peer mentoring or peer coaching in their classes to increase the impact of these EF strategies on students’ learning. • Teachers recognize that a systematic peer support system provides a powerful forum for helping students to understand their learning profiles, to develop metacognitive awareness, and to apply EF strategies to their schoolwork and homework (Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015).

SMARTS: Helping Students to Learn HOW to Learn The SMARTS strategies really helped me a lot. Once I learned about goal setting and other strategies in SMARTS, I created a schedule for getting my homework done, I finished my homework more quickly, and I got better grades. SMARTS was a great program for me. —Jenny, eighth grader

As teachers implement practices and strategies that promote flexible thinking, students learn HOW to learn and benefit in the following ways: • Students increase their metacognitive awareness and their selfunderstanding so that they can identify their strengths and weaknesses as well as their personal and academic goals. • Students understand that EF strategies and focused effort are important for academic success. • Students begin to value the process of learning as they become cognitively flexible and learn to shift flexibly during problemsolving and other academic tasks. • Students learn how to set attainable academic goals, organize and

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prioritize information, and think flexibly when they read, take notes, write, and study. • Students begin to recognize that their own effort, persistence, and determination are critical for fostering academic and life success. • Students view themselves as part of a community of learners who can help one another through peer mentoring and peer coaching, a process that also strengthens emotional self-regulation (see Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015, for details).

SMARTS Intervention Studies: Summary of Findings Our school-based studies over the past 8 years have consistently demonstrated that SMARTS benefits general education as well as special education students by helping them to understand their strengths and weaknesses while building their motivation to work hard and to use learning strategies in their schoolwork (Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Sayer, Reddy, & Greschler, 2015). In our most recent SMARTS intervention study, sixth- and seventh-grade teachers were trained to use the SMARTS curriculum to teach EF strategies to 200 general and special education students while the control group teachers continued to provide the usual curriculum to another 200 students. Compared to nonSMARTS students, special education and general education students in the SMARTS program used significantly more EF strategies in their classwork. They were also more flexible, worked harder when they completed their classwork and homework, and showed higher levels of self-understanding (Meltzer, Sayer, et al., 2015; Sayer, Meltzer, Reddy, Greschler, & Stacey, 2015). These students were also more resilient and optimistic in their approach to the many academic challenges they faced on a daily basis (Meltzer, Sayer, et al., 2015). One of our most interesting findings was that students with learning difficulties in the intervention group showed significant increases in cognitive flexibility over the course of the school year. In contrast, students with learning difficulties in the control group declined in their cognitive flexibility so that they were less flexible in their approach to problem-solving and learning tasks despite the fact that they were receiving individualized remediation in school. In other words, students with learning difficulties who were receiving small-group pull-out services in the learning center at least once or twice weekly were nevertheless deteriorating in their ability to shift flexibly. In contrast, the students in these learning centers who were taught EF strategies explicitly and systematically in the context of their academic work showed improvements over the course of the year. Teachers also reported that the breadth and depth

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of the SMARTS program made a major difference to the quality of students’ classwork and homework. In a series of other school-based intervention studies, our findings highlighted the importance of strengthening students’ cognitive flexibility and teaching students strategies for thinking flexibly. Specifically, SMARTS students with higher cognitive flexibility scores were more goal-oriented, more persistent, and worked harder in school (Meltzer et al., 2011). Students who were flexible thinkers also used more strategies in their schoolwork and were more organized. Classroom teachers rated these students as having stronger academic performance and as checking their work more frequently (Meltzer et al., 2011). Overall, students’ cognitive flexibility, academic self-concept, and goal orientation all influenced their effort, persistence, and academic performance. When a mentoring component was included in the SMARTS intervention, our findings from four studies with middle and high school students in four low-income inner-city schools in Boston showed that positive mentoring relationships increased students’ motivation, effort, and strategy use, resulting in improved self-concept and self-efficacy (Meltzer et al., 2011; Meltzer et al., 2013; Meltzer, Kurkul, et al., 2014; Meltzer, Reddy, et al., 2014). More specifically, students in stronger peer mentoring relationships displayed significantly higher levels of effort and strategy use in comparison with students in weak peer mentoring relationships (Meltzer et al., 2013; Meltzer, Reddy, et al., 2014; Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015). These students also used strategies more frequently and consistently in their classwork, homework, projects, studying, and tests. Interestingly, students in stronger peer-mentoring relationships showed higher levels of metacognitive awareness as evidenced on their completed strategy reflection sheets as well as by their ability to identify and correctly apply EF strategies. Furthermore, they showed significantly higher levels of resilience in comparison with students in weak peer-mentoring relationships (e.g., “I do not let problems stop me from reaching my goals”) (Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015). Findings also showed that the intervention had positive effects on teachers’ self-understanding and approaches to teaching (Meltzer, Sayer, et al., 2015; Sayer et al., 2015). Prior to the SMARTS intervention, teachers reported that they did not use consistent approaches to teaching strategies in special education or general education classes. At the end of the school year, the special education and the general education teachers reported that they were able to collaboratively develop unique, interactive ways to embed the SMARTS EF strategies into the curriculum. Most importantly, teachers reported that they and their students developed stronger metacognitive awareness and began to value the importance of using EF strategies (Meltzer, Sayer, et al., 2015; Sayer et al., 2015).

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CONCLUSIONS The growing presence of technology and the increased pace of our 21stcentury classrooms have increased the pressure on students to set goals, problem-solve flexibly, organize, prioritize, and self-monitor. As a result, schools are placing more emphasis on the importance of promoting metacognitive awareness in students and teaching EF processes explicitly and systematically. When school programs integrate explicit instruction in EF strategies and emotional regulation into the curriculum, they provide students with a strong foundation for developing self-confidence, a positive work ethic, and resilience, the gateways to academic and life success. Our SMARTS Executive Function Curriculum has been developed as one step toward meeting this critical need by promoting students’ metacognitive awareness and understanding of why, where, and how to use specific strategies to help them succeed with the academic curriculum across the grades and content areas. Hopefully, the next decade will see many more programs that build EF strategies into students’ daily work, thereby promoting positive self-concept, persistence, resilience, and academic success in all students. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We offer our thanks to the dedicated staff and interns at the Research Institute for Learning and Development for their help and support and for their invaluable suggestions, in particular, Michael Greschler, Kim Davis, and Sylvie Wong. Thanks, too, to Bee Keswa and Thelma Segal for their help with the manuscript preparation. Thanks to Stacy Parker Fischer and the Oak Foundation for supporting our work on EF and SMARTS for many years and for helping so many teachers and students to become flexible, strategic learners.

REFERENCES Anderson, P. (2002). Assessment and development of executive functioning (EF) in childhood. Child Neuropsychologia, 8(2), 71–82. Baddeley, A. (2006). Working memory: An overview. In S. Pickering (Ed.), Working memory and education (pp. 3–26). Burlington, MA: Academic Press. Bagnato, S., & Meltzer, L. (2010). Self-monitoring and self-checking: The cornerstones of independent learning. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Promoting executive function in the classroom (pp. 160–174). New York: Guilford Press. Barkley, R. (2010). Evaluating executive functioning deficits in everyday life. ADHD Report, 18(6), 9–10. Barkley, R. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. New York: Guilford Press.

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Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools 297 and their effects on the reading comprehension of students with LD: A synthesis of research. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37(2), 105–119. Kincaid, K., & Trautman, N. (2010). Remembering: Teaching students how to retain and mentally manipulate information. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Promoting executive function in the classroom (pp. 110–139). New York: Guilford Press. Klingner, J., Vaughn, S., Boardman, A., & Swanson, E. (2012). Now we get it!: Boosting comprehension with collaborative strategic reading. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Krishnan, K., Feller, M. J., & Orkin, M. (2010). Goal setting, planning, and prioritizing: The foundations of effective learning. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Promoting executive function in the classroom (pp. 57–85). New York: Guilford Press. Mastropieri, M. A. & Scruggs, T. E. (1998). Enhancing school success with mnemonic strategies. Intervention in School and Clinic, 33, 201–208. Mastropieri, M., & Scruggs, T. (2012). How can teacher attitudes, co-teaching and differentiated instruction facilitate inclusion? In C. Boyle & K. Topping (Eds.), What works in inclusion? (pp. 153–163). Berkshire, UK: Open University Press. Mastropieri, M., & Scruggs, T. (2014). The inclusive classroom: Strategies for effective differentiated instruction (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Meltzer, L. (2004). Executive function in the classroom: Metacognitive strategies for fostering academic success and resilience. Paper presented at the Learning Differences Conference, Cambridge, MA. Meltzer, L. (Ed.). (2007). Executive function in education: From theory to practice. New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L. (Ed.). (2010). Promoting executive function in the classroom. New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L. (2013). Executive function and metacognition in students with learning disabilities: New approaches to assessment and intervention. International Journal for Research in Learning Disabilities, 1(2), 31–63. Meltzer, L. (2014). Teaching executive functioning processes: Promoting metacognition, strategy use, and effort. In J. Naglieri, & S. Goldstein (Eds.), Handbook of executive functioning (pp. 445–474). New York: Springer. Meltzer, L. (2015, October). Executive function and flexible thinking: The foundations of academic success and resilience. J. L. Wiederholt Award and Distinguished Lecture Keynote Address presented at the Council for Learning Disabilities Conference, Las Vegas, NV. Meltzer, L., & Bagnato, J. S. (2010). Shifting and flexible problem solving: The anchors for academic success. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Promoting executive function in the classroom (pp. 140–159). New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L., & Basho, S. (2010). Creating a classroom wide executive function culture that fosters strategy use, motivation, and resilience. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Promoting executive function in the classroom (pp. 28–54). New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L., Basho, S., Reddy, R., & Kurkul, K. (2015). The role of mentoring in fostering executive function, effort, and academic self-concept. International Journal for Research in Learning Disabilities, 2(2), 91–123.

298 PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS Meltzer, L., Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., & Stacey, W. (2015). Executive function and peer mentoring: Fostering metacognitive awareness, effort, and academic success. In K. Harris & L. Meltzer (Eds.), The power of peers in the classroom: Enhancing learning and social skills (pp. 1–32). New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L. J., Greschler, M., Stacey, W., Kurkul, K., Ross, E., & Snow, E. (2015). SMARTS Online Executive Function Curriculum. Available at www.smarts-ef.org. Meltzer, L., Katzir, T., Miller, L., Reddy, R., & Roditi, B. (2004). Academic self-perceptions, effort, and strategy use in students with learning disabilities: Changes over time. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 19(2), 99–108. Meltzer, L. J., Katzir-Cohen, T., Miller, L., & Roditi, B. (2001). The impact of effort and strategy use on academic performance: Student and teacher perceptions. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 24(2), 85–98. Meltzer, L., & Krishnan, K. (2007). Executive function difficulties and learning disabilities: Understandings and misunderstandings. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Executive function in education: From theory to practice (pp. 77–106). New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L., Kurkul, K., Reddy, R., & Basho, S. (2014, February). Executive function strategies: The link between effort and academic self-concept. Paper presented at the Pacific Coast Research Conference, San Diego, CA. Meltzer, L., Reddy, R., Brach, E., Kurkul, K., Stacey, W., & Ross, E. (2011, April). The SMARTS Mentoring Program: Fostering self-concept, motivation, and executive function strategies in students with learning difficulties. Paper presented at the annual conference of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA. Meltzer, L., Reddy, R., Greschler, M., & Kurkul, K. (2013, June). In L. Meltzer (Chair), Executive function and effort: The effects of peer mentoring in students with learning differences. Paper delivered at the 37th annual conference of the International Academy for Research in Learning Disabilities, Boston, MA. Meltzer, L., Reddy, R., Pollica, L., & Roditi, B. (2004). Academic success in students with learning disabilities: The roles of self-understanding, strategy use, and effort. Thalamus, 22(1), 16–32. Meltzer, L. J., Reddy, R., Sales, L., Roditi, B., Sayer, J., & Theokas, C. (2004). Positive and negative self-perceptions: Is there a cyclical relationship between teachers’ and students’ perceptions of effort, strategy use, and academic performance? Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 19(1), 33–44. Meltzer, L., Reddy, P., & Sayer, J. (2014). Metacognitive Awareness System, Revised (MetaCOG-R). Lexington, MA: Research Institute for Learning and Development. Meltzer, L., Sayer, J., Reddy, R., & Greschler, M. (2015, October). Executive function, effort, and resilience in the classrooom: What does our research tell us? Paper presented at the Council for Learning Disabilities Conference, Las Vegas, NV. Miller, L., Meltzer, L., Katzir-Cohen, T., & Houser, R. (2001). Academic heterogenity in students with learning disabilities. Thalamus, 19(1), 20–33.

Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools 299 Montague, M. (2003). Solve it: A mathematical problem-solving instructional program. Reston, VA: Exceptional Innovations. Montague, M., & Jitendra, A. K. (2006). Teaching mathematics to middle school students with learning difficulties. New York: Guilford Press. Regan, K., Evmenova, A., Mastropieri, M., & Scruggs, T. (2015). Peer interactions in the content areas: Using differentiated instruction strategies. In K. Harris & L. Meltzer (Eds.), The power of peers in the classroom: Enhancing learning and social skills (pp. 33–68). New York: Guilford Press. Reid, R., & Lienemann, T. O. (2006). Strategy instruction for students with learning disabilities. New York: Guilford Press. Sayer, J., Meltzer, L., Reddy, R., Greschler, M., & Stacey, W. (2015, October). Metacognitive awareness and executive function in the classroom: The impact on students and teachers. Paper presented at the Council for Learning Disabilities Conference, Las Vegas, NV. Scornavacco, K., Moore, B., Boardman, A., Lasser, C., Buckley, P., & Klingner, J. (2015). Using collaborative strategic reading to promote student discourse. In K. Harris & L. Meltzer (Eds.), The power of peers in the classroom: Enhancing learning and social skills (pp. 102–142). New York: Guilford Press. Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (2000). The effectiveness of mnemonic instruction for students with learning and behavior problems: An update and research synthesis. Journal of Behavioral Education, 10, 163–173. Shanahan, C. H., & Shanahan, T. (2008). Content-area reading/learning: Flexibility in knowledge acquisition. In K. B. Cartwright (Ed.), Literacy processes: Cognitive flexibility in learning and teaching (pp. 208–234). New York: Guilford Press. Stein, J. (2010). Emotional self-regulation: A critical component of executive function. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Promoting executive function in the classroom (pp. 175–201). New York: Guilford Press. Swanson, H. L. (2001). Research on intervention for adolescents with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis of outcomes related to high-order processing. Elementary School Journal, 101, 331–348. Swanson, H. L., & Hoskyn, M. (2001). Instructing adolescents with learning disabilities: A component and composite analysis: Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 16(2), 109–119. Swanson, H. L., & Sáez, L. (2003). Memory difficulties in children and adults with learning disabilities. In H. L. Swanson, K. R. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of learning disabilities (pp. 182–198). New York: Guilford Press. Yuill, N. (2007). Visiting Joke City: How can talking about jokes foster metalinguistic awareness in poor comprehenders? In D. MacNamara (Ed.), Reading comprehension (pp. 325–345). New York: Erlbaum. Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13–39). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Zimmerman, B. J., & Schunk, D. H. (Eds.). (2001). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theoretical perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Copyright © 2018 The Guilford Press. No part of this text may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. Purchase this book now: www.guilford.com/p/meltzer

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Bright Kids Who Couldn’t Care Less: Rekindling Students’ Motivation Ellen Braaten, Ph.D. Associate Professor, Harvard Medical School; Kessler Family Chair in Pediatric Neuropsychological Assessment; Executive Director, Learning and Emotional Assessment Program (LEAP)

Overview Nowadays, growing numbers of students are struggling to find interest in school, and these disengaged students defy easy categorization. Their lack of motivation is not tied solely to processing speed, anxiety, depression, apathy, or learning challenges. Addressing their disinterest goes beyond adjusting curricula or increasing effort. In her presentation, Dr. Ellen Braaten will draw from recent research and clinical insights to address the question of why so many students appear unmotivated. She will examine factors influencing children's motivation: their aptitudes, sources of pleasure, as well as the activities they invest time in. Dr. Braaten will introduce the "Motivational APP" framework, encompassing aptitude, pleasure, and practice which she will connect to children’s individual personalities and neurocognitive profiles in the larger context of societal expectations. Attendees will learn how expectations can often hinder motivation and how to help students set goals that are tailored to students who have difficulties. References Braaten, E. (2023). Bright Kids Who Couldn’t Care Less: How to Rekindle Your Child’s Motivation. New York: The Guilford Press Braaten EB, Ward A, Vujik P, Cook N, McGuinness P, Lee B, Samvavitz A, Doyle A. (2017). Impaired processing speed: An understudied phenomenon across neuropsychiatric disorders in youth. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 32:656-666. Braaten, E, & Willoughby, B (2014). Bright Kids Who Can’t Keep Up. New York: The Guilford Press.

Cook NE, Braaten EB, Vujik PJ, Lee BA, Samkavitz AR, Doyle AE. (2019), Slow processing speed and sluggish cognitive tempo in pediatric ADHD: Evidence for differentiation of functional correlates. Child Psychiatry and Human Development 50:1049-1057. Doyle AE, Colvin MK, Beery CS, Koven MR, Vujik PJ, & Braaten EB. (2022). Distinct patterns of emotional and behavioral change in child psychiatric outpatients during the COVID-19 pandemic. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 16 (12), 2-15.

Bright Kids Who Couldn’t Care Less: Rekindling Students’ Motivation

Ellen B raaten

N ovem b er 9, 20 23

A ssociate Professor

38 th A nnu al Execu tive

H arvard M ed ical Sch ool

Fu nction C onference

Outline

W hat we'll cover this afternoon: • How have kids have lost their way? • How do we get our kids back on track? • How do we support them in making aligned choices going forward? • Case study • Final thoughts and questions

Part I

Bright kids who have lost their way

We're going too fast The pace at which we live has changed • Fewer transitions between spaces • Fewer activities in general • More time online

What is Processing Speed?

Colloquially: how quickly you can get stuff done • Reflects automaticity/fluidity with which one can process, evaluate and respond to information • Assessment varies widely; term often used variably • Examined extensively in relation to ADHD • Overlaps with other constructs (e.g. sluggish cognitive tempo)

Is PS the reason for lack of motivation? Imagine EF is the car, and PS is the engine

What's going on?

Expectations

Is there anything wrong with being normal? 9

Pressure to be perfect

Pressure from comparison

Situations that can trigger a loss of interest

Changes at school • Increases in expectations • Transition points - middle school and high school • Poor teacher-student match • Loss of services/accommodations • Loss of preferred classes

Changes in activities • Sports injuries • Poor coach match • Higher pressure to "win" at something once enjoyable • Too little time to be bored

Changes in social life • Friends "moving on" / changes in interests • Friends moving away or changing schools • Peer group starts engaging in risky behavior • Bullying • Increased participation in social media comparison

Changes in family life • Divorce/separation of parents • Death of a loved one • Moving to a new town • Financial and housing insecurity

Some kids say "screw it" It's too hard to keep up, so why try? • Learning differences • Over-scheduling • Out of step with development • Too much reliance on executive function processes • College and over-parenting • Depression, anxiety

Children are behind in academics across the board Curriculum Associates (the company behind iReady assessments) compiled data from over 3 million assessments to show that more children are below grade level than should be

(Curriculum Associates, 2021)

And COVID has made it all worse Lots of kids are saying "screw it" because of the stress and trauma we've been enduring for the past two years Our own research shows that, on average, most individual psychopathology domains and psychosocial concerns worsened.

(Doyle et al., in press)

Certain groups of children may be particularly at risk for complex mental health difficulties Our research, and the research of others in the field, indicate that certain risk factors - especially prior m ental health issues - m ake som e kids very vulnerable at this tim e

(Panchal et al., 2021)

Part II

How do we help our kids get back on track?

What is motivation?

The Why

Motivation theories

Instinct theory of motivation

Incentive theory of motivation

Drive theory of motivation

Arousal theory of motivation

Instinct theory of motivation

Ages 58

• All of us are born with innate biological tendencies – or instincts -- that help us survive • Think about the role of biology and how it might relate to your child’s difficulties

Incentive theory of motivation • People are motivated to do things because of external rewards

Ages 58

• Think about the incentives that work for your child.

Drive theory of motivation

Ages 58

• Motivation is affected by our need to reduce internal tension – complete or not complete homework • Are there instances where your child seems driven to act in a certain way to reduce tension?

Arousal theory of motivation • People take certain actions to either decrease or increase levels of arousal, so that we are in that middle zone. • What kind of things does your child tend to do when bored or overwhelmed?

A child without a strong self-concept, where she doesn’t understand her strengths nor see those strengths celebrated by others, will struggle to develop motivation

A child who lacks strong friendships or a sense of belonging may find it hard to motivate, as they lack both a base of support and a source of identity

A child who focuses primarily on avoiding punishment may struggle to develop intrinsic motivation, or any motivation at all

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

as it relates to motivation

A child who lacks the basic necessities might not be able find the motivation for anything other than meeting their physiological needs

Questions to ask

What exactly is it that they don't care about? • Is it activities? • Have they not found any activity they like? Did they like an activity in the past, but stopped caring about it? • Is it school? • All academics or just one class? • Is it friendships? • Do they not care about making new friends? Or did they stop caring about hanging out with old friends? • Is it family? • Are they not engaging in family mealtimes? Or have they stopped spending free time with siblings?

How do I know they don't care? • What behaviors is your child exhibiting that make you know she doesn’t care? • • • •

Tantrums. Never leaves his room. Doesn’t do her math homework. Never wants a friend over for a playdate. ✩ Write all of them down and “star” the ones that are most traumatic for you and the most problematic for her. They might not be the same.

Once you've honed in on the issue, then we can move on to what we can do to help

What is the parenting APP?

Together, the APP represents strengths your child may have – and point out where they might be struggling

Aptitude WHAT AM I GOOD AT DOING?

How to find a child's aptitudes

Ask your child's teacher

Look at any previous testing

Look beyond "typical" aptitudes

Look for new perspectives Listen to what "outsiders" say

Pleasure WHAT DO I ENJOY DOING? 38

Parents want their children to be “happy” – but spend little time thinking about what makes your child happy. It’s not always easy to answer this question!

Identifying happiness

What to notice

When are they smiling and laughing the most?

What are they curious about?

What have they enjoyed in the past?

Who do they "light up" around?

Developing a sense of pleasure

• Activating the senses • Playing without product • Scheduling time to play... and time for boredom • Sleep • Letting go of overpraising

Keeping a happiness calendar or gratitude practice 43

Practice WHAT DO I PERSIST AT DOING? 44

What is practice?

Where Aptitude and Pleasure Combine as a Desire to Do Something

Practice should be developmentally appropriate and deliberate 47

• Distractions • Tedium • Lack of success in the past • Being asked to do too many things that were out of their reach • Not being given appropriate feedback

What gets in the way of practicing?

Concentration and the "flow" state

Part III

How do we support kids in making aligned choices going forward?

Talk to kids from a young age about what lights them up Some questions to start with: • W hat are the sorts of things you think you're good at doing? • W hat makes you the happiest/most frustrated? • W hat things do you want to do better or try harder at? • W ho you admire and why? Or: • Fill in APP diagram with the child

If college isn't their path How you encourage life-long learning and growing?

Questions to ask yourself: • Are they excited about the prospect of college? • Did they fill out the application

Disinterest

themselves? • Do they get good grades? • Do they attend class regularly? • Do they have an idea of what they want to study?

Other kids want to go to college, but have no idea how to get there How can we support them in pursuing their goals?

The research shows that the transition to college is marked by many "invisible" barriers, beyond affording tuition: • Filling out forms (like the FAFSA), especially for kids who have non-traditional family structures or complicated custody • Managing costs beyond tuition - like transportation, books, and housing • Needing to care for family members • Academic confidence and academic under-preparation (Bloom 2007; Carey, 2019; Cox 2016)

What is goal setting?

Good Goals are: 1

Chosen

Proximal

Clear and Specific

Mastery-focused

Framed positively

Paired with meaningful, consistent

feedback

Repeatedly revised

Finding aligned goals

Some questions to ask when exploring possible goals: • What makes you happy? • What do you look forward to? • What makes you feel excited? • What things are hard, but you like doing them anyway? • Who are people you admire? Why do you admire them?

The Goal-Setting Cycle f le

Se tG

oa Ex

u te

ce Re

iv e

fe e

dba

Seeing a child's strengths

"... from the perspective of positive psychology, which means that we are as focused on strength as on weakness, [we are] as interested in building the best things in life as in repairing the worst, and as concerned with fulfilling the lives of normal people as with healing the wounds of the distressed (Seligman, 2002)

History of Character Strengths • The idea of "character strengths" began as an

offshoot of the positive psychology movement when Martin Seligman began investigating a “Manual of the

Sanities”

• During a three-year project, 55 scientists reviewed

historical and contemporary values to create a taxonomy of strengths (reviewing everything from Plato to Pokémon cards!) (Peterson & Seligman, 2004)

• Studies done across cultures - 54 countries and all 50 states (Park, Peterson, and Seligman, 2006)

Understanding one's strengths has been associated with:

Why Character Strengths?

• Increased self-esteem (Terras et al., 2009) • Individual and family resiliency (Suzuki et al., 2015; Miller, 2002) • Better trust between parents and professionals(Tedeschi and Kilmer, 2005; Bird et al., 2012) • Increased parent optimism (Peer & Hillman, 2014) • GROWTH MINDSET

6 Virtues

24 Character Strengths VIACHARACTER.ORG

Part IV

Case Study

Meet Gemma • Junior in high school, struggles with learning difficulties and slow processing issues • Exploring gender expression • Interested in music performing • Evaluated at 7 and 11 • No assessment for learning issues in the past • ADHD? Anxiety? Gender issues?

WISC-V

Reading

Executive Functioning

Sentence Completion

When I see myself in the mirror, I . . . think I’m ugly. The best thing about me is . . . I love my friends I can’t. . . stop worrying The best thing about my body. . . is my voice. I learn best . . . when I can be hands-on. I am happiest when . . . I am with my friends When I’m with other people . . . I can pretend to be okay. I feel nervous when . . . things are unpredictable. I am happiest when . . . I am creating music. The best thing about school . . . is when I get to go home. The worst thing about school . . . it makes me want to run home. School is . . . overwhelming.

GEMMA'S TOP STRENGTHS

Questions to Consider? How would you align this teen’s strengths 1

How does gender, race, and cultural conditioning play into this discussion of “getting kids back on track?” What were the expectations of the adults in this teen’s life?

with their goals? How did their strengths align or clash with the expectations of the adults in their life?

What did you learn from the neuropsych data that can inform their goals going forward?

Map it out: what were this teen’s aptitudes? What did they love doing? What were they practicing?

Reframing Negative Descriptors

How your temperament overlaps with your child’s or student’s

Key Takeaways

It's not that they "don't care" -

We can help kids get back on track

Creating an aligned future

kids might be lost for many different reasons (slow

by focusing on strengths within the APP, setting goals, and emphasizing

meaning being open to all possibilities.

processing speed, effects of the

a growth mindset.

pandemic, etc.)

Your Homework

• What are your own strengths? What do you practice? What brings you pleasure? What are your aptitudes?

• What is the first goal you can remember having? Did you accomplish it? If so, how? If not, what happened?

• How has your mindset changed over time?

• What activities do you currently praise in kids? Why those?

Works Cited

Bloom, J. (2007). (Mis)reading Social Class in the Journey Towards College: Youth Development In Urban America. Teachers College Record, 109(2), 343–368. Carey, R. L. (2019). Am I Smart Enough? Will I Make Friends? And Can I Even Afford It? Exploring the College-Going Dilemmas of Black and Latino Adolescent Boys. American Journal of Education, 125(3), 381–415. https://doi.org/10.1086/702740 Cox, R. D. (2016). Complicating Conditions: Obstacles and Interruptions to Low-Income Students’ College “Choices.” The Journal of Higher Education, 87(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1353/jhe.2016.0005 Curriculum Associates (2021).. Understanding Student Learning: Insights from Fall 2021. https://www.curriculumassociates.com/-/media/mainsite/files/i-ready/iready-understandingstudent-learning-paper-fall-results-2021.pdf Doyle A., Colvin M., Beery C., Koven M., Vuijk P., Braaten E., (In Press). Distinct patterns of emotional and behavioral change in child psychiatry outpatients during the Covid-19 pandemic. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health. Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2006). New Directions in Goal-Setting Theory. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(5), 265–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00449.x Panchal, U., Salazar de Pablo, G., Franco, M., Moreno, C., Parellada, M., Arango, C., & FusarPoli, P. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 lockdown on child and adolescent mental health: Systematic review. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787021-01856-w

Thank you!

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Rethinking Challenging Behaviors: Combining Neuroscience, Compassion, and Common Sense Stuart Ablon, Ph.D Founder and Director, Think:Kids, Massachusetts General Hospital; Thomas G. Stemberg Endowed Chair in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School Overview Traditional school discipline, which relies on rewards and consequences to change students’ behavior, does not work for many students and may actually make matters worse. This is because a lack of motivation is not the cause of challenging behavior in the classroom. In his presentation, Dr. Stuart Ablon will discuss how behavior and compliance are determined by skill, not will. Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS), the evidence-based approach that Dr. Ablon teaches, combines this shift in thinking with concrete strategies that make trauma-sensitive teaching actionable. CPS has been shown to improve behavior, decrease the need for punitive discipline, build skills, decrease stress, and improve relationships between educators and students. References Ablon, J.S. (2019). What Is Collaborative Problem Solving and Why Use the Approach?. In: Pollastri, A., Ablon, J., Hone, M. (eds) Collaborative Problem Solving. Current Clinical Psychiatry. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12630-8_1 Resources ●

Understanding Thinking Skills free course

●

The Best Way to Improve Executive Functioning Skills

●

Introduction to Collaborative Problem Solving for Educators course

●

Rethinking Our Approach to Youth Mental Health Care

●

The Benefits of Changing School Discipline

●

Books and other resources can be found here: https://thinkkids.org/books-resources/

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What causes students to struggle?

Rethinking Challenging Behavior: Combining Neuroscience, Compassion, and Common Sense J. Stuart Ablon, PhD Director, Think:Kids Massachusetts General Hospital Harvard Medical School

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If conventional wisdom is correct, then…

Conventional wisdom …

STUDENTS DO WELL IF THEY WANT TO

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Side effects of carrot and stick approaches DO

• Teach basic lessons • Provide external motivation

Extrinsic

DON’T

Motivators

• Teach complex thinking skills

Intrinsic Drive

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Conventional wisdom is almost always wrong.

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Student success is about skill, not will

Flexibility & adaptability Frustration tolerance Problem-solving

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Skills

Impact of chronic stress/trauma Toddlers' Brains

Language & Communication

HEALTHY BRAIN

TOXIC STRESS

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Cycle of Chronic Stress/Trauma & Punitive Discipline

ENDING the Cycle of Chronic Stress/Trauma & Punitive Discipline

Chronic Stress/ Trauma

Punitive Discipline Cycle of Chronic Stress/ Trauma & Punitive Discipline Challenging Behavior

Chronic Stress/ Trauma

Punitive Discipline Cycle of Chronic Stress/ Trauma & Punitive Discipline

Skills Deficits

A d a p te d fro m A b lo n a n d P o lla stri, T h e S c h o o l D isc ip lin e F ix , 2 0 1 8

Challenging Behavior

Skills Deficits

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POSITIVE Cycle of RELATIONAL Discipline

Relational Discipline

Good news: Skills can be built!

Less Stress

Positive Cycle of Relational Discipline

Reduce Behavior

Build Skills

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Functional analysis of cognition vs. behavior

Students do well, if they can

Thinking Skills

Antecedent

Behavior

Collaborative Problem Solving

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Consequence

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Three plans: Your options for responding to problems

Goals achieved by the three plans GOALS

Plan A

Impose will

Plan B

Solve the problem collaboratively

PLAN A

PLAN C

PLAN B

Pursue expectations Reduce challenging behavior Build skills Solve problems durably Build a helping relationship

Plan C

Drop or reduce the demand

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Plan B ingredients

Plan B in action

1. Empathize Understand the student’s perspective.

This is hard!

2. Share Share our perspective. 3. Collaborate Brainstorm, assess, and choose a solution.

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Plan B: Modeled and practiced

The Neurobiological Sequence of Plan B 3. Collaborate

Empathize

Identifying, clarifying, and expressing concerns; regulating emotions

Collaborate

Perspective-taking, recognizing impact on others, empathy

Cortex REASON Limbic Region

Generating solutions, reflecting on multiple thoughts, considering outcomes, moving off original idea

RELATE

MidBrain /Brainstem REGULATE

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2. Share our concern

Source: Perry & Ablon, 2019

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Trauma-informed

Collaborative Problem Solving and cultural humility • Avoids use of power and control

Practicing CPS makes being “trauma-informed” actionable

• Reduces power differential

CPS emphasizes: • Not assuming you know or understand

• Helps students confront triggering situations safely

• The need to gather information to understand the student’s unique perspective and experience

• Gives students control without sole responsibility

• Empathy does not mean agreeing or disagreeing - it means understanding

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Collaborative Problem Solving is an evidence-based practice As listed by:

Evidence

• California Evidence-Based Clearinghouse for Child Welfare • Blue Menu of Evidence-Based Psychosocial Interventions for Youth (PracticeWise Evidence-Based Services Database)

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Collaborative Problem Solving research summary CPS has had a positive impact in multiple settings

Results: 63% decrease in office referrals for discipline, 200% less than comparison schools

CPS is associated with positive outcomes

Percent Change in Sending Students Out of Class for Discipline M arshalltown, IA Elementary Schools 150%

• Schools

125%

• Challenging behaviors & symptoms • Treatment programs • Punitive discipline • Juvenile detention

100%

143%

75% 50%

• Educator stress

-25%

• Youth and adult skills

-25%

• In-home supports • Hospitals

-63%

-50%

• Youth satisfaction

-75%

• Clinics

W oodbury Elementary (trained in CPS)

Average of 5 District Peer Schools (not trained in CPS)

P re -C P S (2 0 1 8 -2 0 1 9 ) to P o st-C P S (2 0 2 1 -2 0 2 2 ) Source: Pollastri, Epstein, Heath, & Ablon (2013), Harvard Review of Psychiatry

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63%

73%

Reduction in school office referrals

6 out of 10

CPS Implementation

Reduction in oppositional behaviors at school

Teachers report reduced stress

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Collaborative Problem Solving and MTSS

Collaborative Problem Solving as SEL: Future-ready skills

Collaborative Problem Solving Intervention Support – Frequent individualized intervention – Assessment & intervention planning – Individual, proactive problem-solving practice

Tier 3

CPS provides a roadmap for helping students develop the skills to prepare them for the real world. Skills like:

Communication Problem-Solving

Targeted Support – Individualized, frequent problem-solving practice – Classroom or small group interventions

Tier 2

Collaboration

Perspective-Taking

Universal Support

– School-wide clear & realistic routines & expectations – Classroom group problem-solving of expectations & common challenges – Embedded in classroom discussions & all interactions

Tier 1

Creativity Empathy Flexibility

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Collaborative Problem Solving

Questions? CPS builds emotion- & selfregulation skills

Adult and youth collaborate and share decisionmaking S e lf-

M anagem ent

CPS builds cognitive flexibility skills

R e sp o n sib le D e c isio n -

S e lfA w a re n e ss

M a k in g

CASEL

S o c ia l

R e la tio n sh ip

A w a re n e ss

S k ills

CPS builds social thinking skills

CPS develops the adult/youth relationship CPS builds language & communication skills

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Youth is supported in generating their own solutions

To Participate:

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Stay connected and learn more

www.ThinkKids.org

www.StuartAblon.com

@ThinkKids

@StuartAblon

@ThinkKids

When we RETHINK challenging behavior, amazing things can happen.

#KidsDoWellIfTheyCan

#CollaborativeProblemSolving

#SkillNotWill

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Collaborative Problem Solving books

Bring Collaborative Problem Solving to your school

J. S T UA RT A BLON & A L ISH A R . POLL A S T R I

THE SCHOOL DISCIPLINE FIX Public Training

Associate Program

Partnership Program

Individuals & Small Groups

Whole Team or School Training

School/District-wide Implementation

C H A N G I N G B E H AV I O R U S I N G T H E

C O L L A B O R AT I V E P RO B L E M S O LV I N G A PPROACH

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You can’t use Plan A to get your colleagues to do Plan B!

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Students do well

if they can!

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Adults do well

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if we can too!

www.thinkkids.org

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Chapter 1 What Is Collaborative Problem Solving and Why Use the Approach? J. Stuart Ablon Noncompliant, defiant, aggressive behavior is a leading cause of referral for youth mental health services [8]. Furthermore, not only are behavioral difficulties the primary concern of parents during early childhood but also a leading cause of teacher stress in schools [2]. Children who evidence such behaviors are typically assigned any of a variety of psychiatric and related disorders, including attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), conduct disorder (CD), attachment disorders, depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), nonverbal learning disorder, language processing disorders, and sensory integration disorder. Regardless of the label, parents, educators, mental health clinicians, pediatricians, and the juvenile justice system all struggle with how to manage these difficult and seemingly intractable behaviors. Electronic Supplementary Material The online version of this chapter (https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12630-8_1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

J. S. Ablon (*) Think:Kids Program, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA e-mail: sablon@mgh.harvard.edu © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 A. R. Pollastri et al. (eds.), Collaborative Problem Solving, Current Clinical Psychiatry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12630-8_1 apollastri@mgh.harvard.edu

J. S. Ablon

Our society’s current treatment of children with challenging behavior flows directly from “conventional wisdom” that understands challenging behavior as being coercive, attention seeking, manipulative, and/or the by-product of poor motivation. This viewpoint leads to interventions relying on operant procedures such as rewards and punishments. Giving or revoking privileges in a home, sticker charts and detention and suspension in school, or more complex point and level systems in therapeutic facilities are all examples of such interventions. These interventions typically fail to solve the chronic problems caused by challenging behavior. As long as we continue to view children with social, emotional, and behavioral challenges through the lens of this conventional wisdom, it is likely that failure rates and costs will remain disturbingly high and true success stories of at-risk kids will remain disturbingly low.

The Paradigm Shift Fifty years of research in the neurosciences has shown us why our current interventions demonstrably do not work. Conventional wisdom is wrong. Challenging kids do not lack the will to behave well. They lack the skills. In the same way that youth with learning disorders struggle with thinking skills in areas like reading, writing, or math, research in the neurosciences has shown that most youth who exhibit chronic challenging behaviors lack the skills needed to behave well. Specifically, youth with behavioral challenges are delayed in the development of critical thinking skills related to flexibility, frustration tolerance, and problem-solving [1]. In some cases, these lagging skills are the direct result of chronic, toxic stress, or trauma experienced during early childhood that has been shown to be a neurotoxin to the brain – literally delaying brain development [10]. However, there are myriad causes of such delays in development. The analogy of a learning disorder is quite apt. Not long ago, kids who had trouble reading were thought of as lazy or dumb and treated as such –

apollastri@mgh.harvard.edu

Chapter 1. What Is Collaborative Problem Solving…

despite the sad irony that the child struggling to read was usually trying harder than anyone else in the class to do so. Thankfully, today, people recognize that these children and adolescents have a disability that simply requires a different method of teaching. In the Think:Kids program at Massachusetts General Hospital, we aim to accomplish a similar shift in perspective and practice with youth with challenging behavior who are still completely misunderstood and their challenges completely mistreated. Rather than try to motivate these kids to behave better, we recognize that these children are ironically trying harder than anyone to behave themselves but lack the skills to do so. Our approach teaches the skills of frustration tolerance, flexibility, and problem-solving through a structured and replicable process of helping adults and kids learn how to resolve problems collaboratively.

The Collaborative Problem Solving Approach The Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS) approach represents a novel, practical, compassionate, and highly effective model for helping challenging children and those who work and live with them. The CPS approach was first articulated in the widely read book, The Explosive Child [3], and subsequently in the treatment manual for the approach entitled, Treating Explosive Kids: The Collaborative Problem Solving Approach [4]. First and foremost, CPS provides an overarching philosophy and way of thinking, which helps serve as an anchor for adults working with these youth, especially amidst challenging circumstances. This overarching philosophy, epitomized by the phrase, “Kids do well if they can,” suggests that all children are inherently motivated to try to be as successful and behave as adaptively as possible. Implicit in this philosophy is also the understanding that if a child is not behaving adaptively, something (other than a lack of motivation or desire to do well) must be standing in his or her way (Video

apollastri@mgh.harvard.edu

J. S. Ablon

1.1). It is then the job of the adults to figure out what specifically is interfering and to determine how best to help. Once adults have been acquainted to the overarching mind-set, or philosophy behind the approach, CPS provides a specific assessment, planning, and intervention process all of which flow from this basic premise.

Assessment The Collaborative Problem Solving Assessment and Planning Tool (CPS-APT) is used by adults to structure the assessment process. This process begins by allowing the adults around the youth the opportunity to describe the specific types of challenging behavior that the youth exhibits. This gives an opportunity for the adults to describe how challenging the behavior is and to potentially receive some empathy for what is required to contend with these daily challenges. Listing the challenging behaviors also allows the adults to gauge the level of acuity and risk involved in those behaviors. For example, refusal carries less immediate risk than assaultive behavior. Once the adults have described the nature of the youth’s challenging behavior, the discussion is oriented around identifying the predictable circumstances in which those behaviors occur. The situations in which the challenging behaviors occur are referred to as the list of problems to be solved. These problems to be solved encompass the precipitants, antecedents, or triggers to the challenging behavior and the specific expectations that the youth is not meeting. Adults are instructed to try to achieve as much specificity as possible in identifying the situations in which the challenging behavior occurs. That specificity will prove helpful when it comes time for the problem-solving process. In addition, identifying specific precipitants in turn enables adults to hypothesize about the lagging skills underlying those problems. Once adults have identified these specific precipitants, they then use the reference sheet on the second page of the CPS-APT to identify the primary skills deficits giving rise to the challenging

apollastri@mgh.harvard.edu

Chapter 1. What Is Collaborative Problem Solving…

behavior. Adults are instructed that these initial hypotheses will be tested during the intervention phase. For now, these hypotheses serve to foster a compassionate and understanding mind-set with regard to the youth’s challenging behavior. Once adults have identified a number of specific precipitants and have guesses as to the underlying skills deficits causing those situations to be problematic, they are ready to begin the planning process.

Planning The planning process in CPS involves reviewing the goals that adults have with regard to the youth. The range of goals typically discussed include reducing challenging behaviors, pursuing adult expectations, solving chronic problems durably, building skills, and forming a helping relationship with the youth. Once goals have been discussed, the planning process involves illustrating how adults have three options for responding to any of the problems on their list of problems to be solved. Those options include imposing their will, which we refer to as “Plan A,” dropping an expectation temporarily, which we call “Plan C,” and attempting to solve the problem collaboratively in a mutually satisfactory way, which we refer to as “Plan B.” Adults are then encouraged to reflect on which of their goals each of the three Plans pursues. In doing so, adults come to see that Plan A is an attempt to get their expectations met, but likely does not reduce challenging behavior and often times actually triggers it. Adults also come to realize how Plan A does not solve problems in a durable way, build neurocognitive skills, or contribute meaningfully to the forming of a helping alliance. It is important to clarify to adults that Plan C does not represent “giving in” or capitulating. Rather, Plan C is a strategic decision on the part of the adults to prioritize other goals. By temporarily dropping an expectation, adults come to see that challenging behavior is reduced, even though the expectation is temporarily set aside and no skills are trained. The heart of CPS, however, involves

apollastri@mgh.harvard.edu

J. S. Ablon

the process of Plan B, where adults pick specific problems and use a standardized process to try to resolve them collaboratively with the youth. Adults are taught to understand how the ingredients of this process of working toward a mutually satisfactory solution to a problem build a helping relationship and engage both interaction partners in the practice of training crucial neurocognitive skills. The empathic nature of the Plan B process is also less likely to trigger the youth and, as such, reduces challenging behavior while still pursuing adult expectations (Fig. 1.1). Adults are instructed that while Plan A may be required for immediate safety issues, those circumstances will recur if the problem is not solved durably and skills are not built. While Plan B has significant advantages to the other two options, it is not feasible to collaborate on solving all problems simultaneously. As such, the planning process of CPS involves prioritizing which problems to focus on first. Adults are instructed to focus on problems that the youth is more invested in or that may simply be easier to solve as a starting point. Once adults have selected the problems they want to begin working on first, they must decide how the other problems will be handled in the interim. Plan A is selected if pursuing adult expectations is more important than reducing challenging behavior. Plan C is selected if keeping the youth GOALS

PLAN A

PLAN C

PLAN B

Try to get your expectation met Reduce challenging behavior Build skills, confidence Solve problems Build relationship

Figure 1.1 Goals purused by using each of the three plans taught in CPS

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Chapter 1. What Is Collaborative Problem Solving…

calm and reducing challenging behavior are a higher priority than pursuing the expectations of adults in that specific circumstance. A very common misconception during the planning process of CPS is to confuse simply setting expectations with imposing one’s will when those expectations are not being met. Adults are reassured that they should continue to set appropriate, realistic, and predictable expectations for youth, and that doing so is critical for all youth. The three Plans are used when those expectations which have been set are not being met by the youth. The simplicity of these three options allows adults to create a plan that facilitates consistency among the adults around the youth. While not every situation can be made predictable, through this planning process, adults also realize the dangers of Plan A in any emergent situation as well as a temporary benefit of Plan C. Perhaps most importantly, adults realize that Plan B is the only one of the three options that effectively pursues each of the five goals listed above.

Intervention As mentioned above, the heart of the intervention of CPS is the process of Plan B. However, it is important for people to recognize that Plan B is only one component of the CPS approach. The philosophical shift in mind-set and the above described assessment and planning process all contribute meaningfully to the outcomes of CPS. While adults are often eager to being practicing the process of Plan B with youth, it is always important not to neglect fidelity to the other aspects of the model. Having established the specific circumstances in which challenging behavior predictably occurs, adults are taught that the far preferable form of Plan B is what is referred to as Proactive Plan B as opposed to what is called Emergency Plan B, the latter of which takes place in the heat of the moment, and as such, is much less likely to durably solve

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J. S. Ablon

problems. Emergency Plan B is a form of crisis management or de-escalation, where Proactive Plan B takes place well before a predictable problem occurs and during a time when the youth is well regulated and accessible and the adult has had time to think and plan. Whether conducted emergently or proactively, Plan B has three basic ingredients to it. Those ingredients are intended to always be done in the same order: 1. Empathy: clarify youth concern 2. Share the adult concern 3. Brainstorm, assess, and choose a solution The Empathy ingredient is often the most challenging for adults. It involves beginning the conversation with a neutral observation about the problem to be solved (as opposed to the challenging behavior). Adults are taught specific tools to facilitate the process of gathering information from the youth about the youth’s concerns or perspective about the problem to be solved. These tools include clarifying questions, educated guesses, reflective listening, and the targeted use of reassurance. Adults are instructed that their goal in this first ingredient is to gather as much information as possible regarding the youth’s concerns. The role of adults in the first ingredient is often described as that of a detective on an information-gathering mission. Only once adults have identified a youth’s concerns or perspective about a specific problem to be solved do they move to the second ingredient of Plan B where they describe their own concerns or perspective about the same problem succinctly to the youth. The third and final ingredient of Plan B involves inviting the youth to brainstorm potential solutions to the problem and assessing together when they address both parties’ concerns and are realistic and doable. The youth is given the first opportunity to generate solutions and is encouraged to reflect upon whether they are indeed mutually satisfactory, realistic, and doable, before selecting a solution and making a plan to enact it. Adults are taught to expect Plan B to not go smoothly in the beginning. In fact, they are trained to notice where Plan B conversations get stuck, as those places illustrate whether the

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Chapter 1. What Is Collaborative Problem Solving…

hypothesized skills deficits are indeed where the youth struggles. Adults come to realize that there is no more effective way to figure out with which problem-solving skills a youth struggles than by paying attention to where the youth gets stuck when problem-solving. Similarly, adults come to understand that the best way to help youth develop better problemsolving skills is by engaging in repeated practice at solving problems with them. It is the repetition of the three ingredients of Plan B where the skills training occurs. The fact that this skills training occurs in a naturalistic and relational context is crucial to the generalizability of the skills training (the neurobiological principles underlying this form of skills training through the practice of Plan B will be covered in depth in Chap. 2. Once adults come to realize that the power of Plan B is as much in the process as the outcome, they tend to persevere when Plan B gets stuck and/or when initial solutions do not prove effective. Ultimately, the repetition of the Plan B process solves problems while meeting adult expectations and reduces challenging behavior while building skills and relationship.

From the Living Room to the Staff Room CPS was first used as a parenting approach before being formally tested in outpatient therapy for families with children who met criteria for oppositional defiant disorder and exhibited some mood dysregulation. A randomized controlled trial found that CPS produced significant improvements across multiple domains of functioning at posttreatment and at 4-month follow-up. These improvements were in all instances equivalent, and in many instances superior, to the improvements that resulted from parent training [5]. The first implementation of CPS in a system was on a child psychiatric inpatient unit at the Cambridge City Hospital outside of Boston Massachusetts. By training inpatient staff to use CPS, the hospital was able to completely eliminate the use of restraint and seclusion [6]. As the results from that

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J. S. Ablon

study were shared publicly, multiple inpatient units across North America became interested in using CPS as a means to decrease restraint and seclusion. Subsequent studies replicated the dramatic reduction of restraint and seclusion in child and adolescent inpatient units [9]. The next systemic implementation of CPS occurred in juvenile detention facilities in the state of Maine, where recidivism rates were dramatically reduced in addition to restrictive interventions [11]. Interest in CPS became more widespread throughout a variety of therapeutic programs including residential treatment centers, day treatment centers, and therapeutic schools, and large multiservice systems began training staff in CPS across multiple settings and campuses [12]. Ultimately, school systems also became interested in using CPS to transform disciplinary policies and procedures as a means to decrease challenging behavior and resulting teacher stress as well as rates of detention, suspension, and expulsion [13, 14]. Since that time, various other types of systems and programs have found that implementing CPS addresses their concerns and goals, including mentoring programs, foster care programs, and police forces. Because CPS provides a common, unifying philosophy, language, and process that is applicable across systems from individuals’ homes to schools, to therapeutic, and to correctional facilities, we have found that it has been an appealing approach for a vast array of systems. CPS has been increasingly implemented across entire communities, large national and international organizations, and systems of care [7].

Lessons Learned from Implementation As CPS has been exported to many different types of settings, and more and more entire systems, it has become increasingly clear what the primary obstacles are to effective implementation and how best to address them. Reflecting on what has been learned through the field of implementation science, our lived experience mirrors many of those conclusions [2].

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Chapter 1. What Is Collaborative Problem Solving…

This book represents our latest thinking on how best to implement CPS, flowing both from lessons learned from implementation science as well as from our experiences. It includes much of the information we have been gathering for the last two decades on how to maximize the chance of success implementing the CPS approach across different types of settings. Chapter 2 focuses on the effect of chronic, toxic stress and trauma on brain development and helps readers to understand how CPS promotes the types of interactions necessary for healthy biologic development. The concepts described in this chapter are relevant in any setting where CPS is implemented but especially in settings that serve youth who have been exposed to chronic stress and trauma. Chapter 3 provides an overview of the field of Implementation Science and its implications for the implementation of CPS specifically. As stated above, taking these factors into account when designing an implementation plan is crucial to maximizing successful outcomes. Chapter 4 focuses on implementation of CPS in milieu and community-based settings. The chapter will highlight common issues related to implementation across therapeutic settings and also covers implications for specific settings. Chapter 5 details the nuances of implementing CPS specifically in educational settings. Special attention is devoted to the integration of CPS within existing school structures. CPS also lends itself well to implementation across entire systems; Chap. 6 describes the critical factors to consider when planning large-scale, system-wide implementation. The next two chapters provide important information about evaluation: Chap. 7 focuses on mechanisms to assess CPS integrity with a particular eye toward helping systems use such data to maintain the integrity of implementation over time, while Chap. 8 assists the reader in developing a plan for systematically evaluating the outcomes associated with implementing CPS across all types of settings. Implementation of CPS often reveals challenges among staff that can be successfully addressed using the CPS process itself; finally, Chap. 9 focuses on the relevance of CPS for management, supervision, and mentorship.

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J. S. Ablon

Conclusion Social, emotional, and behavioral challenges manifest themselves in youth of all ages and all backgrounds, and we encounter these children in many different settings. Youth educational, mental health, and correctional services, though well intended, have been limited in their ability to address challenging behaviors in youth. Adults know that reward and punishment techniques don’t work for many of the youth they serve; but they don’t know what else to do. CPS is an evidence-based approach that has proven effective across all these settings by teaching adults that instead of punishing challenging behaviors, they can help children to develop skills in the areas of problem-solving, flexibility, and frustration tolerance – skills that, once developed, will naturally result in improved behavior. The remainder of this book provides detailed information about ways you can increase the odds of successful implementation of CPS in your setting.

References 1. Abel MH, Sewell J. Stress and burnout in rural and urban secondary school teachers. J Educ Res. 1999;92(5):287–93. 2. Fixsen D, Naoom S, Blase K, Friedman R, Wallace F. Implementation research: a synthesis of the literature. Tamps: University of South Florida, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute, National Implementation Research Network; 2005. 3. Greene RW. The explosive child: a new approach for understanding and parenting easily frustrated, chronically inflexible children. New York: Harper Collins; 1998. 4. Greene RW, Ablon JS. Treating explosive kids: the collaborative problem solving approach. New York: Guilford Press; 2005. 5. Greene RW, Ablon JS, Goring JC, Raezer-Blakely L, Markey J, Monuteaux MC, Rabbitt S. Effectiveness of collaborative problem solving in affectively dysregulated children with oppositional-defiant disorder: initial findings. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2004;72(6):1157.

apollastri@mgh.harvard.edu

Chapter 1. What Is Collaborative Problem Solving…

6. Greene RW, Ablon JS, Martin A. Use of collaborative problem solving to reduce seclusion and restraint in child and adolescent inpatient units. Psychiatr Serv. 2006;57(5):610–2. 7. Hone M, Tatartcheff-Quesnel N. System-wide implementation of collaborative problem solving: practical considerations for success. Paper presented at the 30th Annual Child, Adolescent & Young Adult Behavioral Health Research and Policy Conference, March, Tampa; 2017. 8. Loeber R, Burke JD, Lahey BB, Winters A, Zera M. Oppositional defiant and conduct disorder: a review of the past 10 years, part I. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39(12):1468–84. 9. Martin A, Krieg H, Esposito F, Stubbe D, Cardona L. Reduction of restraint and seclusion through collaborative problem solving: a five-year prospective inpatient study. Psychiatr Serv. 2008;59(12):1406–12. 10. Perry BD. The neurosequential model of therapeutics: applying principles of neuroscience to clinical work with traumatized and maltreated children. In: Working with traumatized youth in child welfare. New York, NY: The Guilford Press; 2006. p. 27–52. 11. Pollastri AR, Epstein LD, Heath GH, Ablon JS. The collaborative problem solving approach: outcomes across settings. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2013;21(4):188–99. 12. Pollastri AR, Lieberman RE, Boldt SL, Ablon JS. Minimizing seclusion and restraint in youth residential and day treatment through site-wide implementation of collaborative problem solving. Resid Treat Child Youth. 2016;33(3–4):186–205. 13. Schaubman A, Stetson E, Plog A. Reducing teacher stress by implementing collaborative problem solving in a school setting. Sch Soc Work J. 2011;35(2):72–93. 14. Stetson EA, Plog AE. Collaborative problem solving in schools: results of a year-long consultation project. Sch Soc Work J. 2016;40(2):17–36.

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Motivation Station: Using Visual Scales to Help Students Think Beyond Awesome or Awful Michelle Garcia Winner, M.A., CCC-SLP Founder and CEO of Think Social Publishing, Inc (Known as “Social Thinking”) Overview Unlocking students' potential for self-evaluation is crucial as they navigate the challenges of adolescence and young adulthood. This presentation delves into the use of visual scales as a powerful tool to facilitate nuanced self-assessment beyond simple labels like "awesome" or "awful." By showcasing two distinct types of visual scales, this presentation will provide practical strategies that empower individuals to consistently evaluate their progress toward their goals. During this presentation, participants will: - Develop a heightened awareness of their emotional landscape, observing how their feelings evolve throughout the day. - Articulate the application of visual scales in helping adolescents and young adults gain insights into the dynamics behind their changing emotions over time. - Harness the potential of data represented on visual scales to effectively self-assess their advancement or challenges encountered while pursuing their goals. In summary, this presentation will focus on ways in which the integration of visual scales can equip both educators and students with a valuable skillset for fostering personal growth and self-reliance. References Boulter, C., Freeston, M., South, M., & Rodgers, J. (2014). Intolerance of uncertainty as a framework for understanding anxiety in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(6), 1391–1402. doi:10.1007/s10803-013-2001-x.

Myers, K., Winters, N. (2002) Ten-Year Review of Rating Scales. I: Overview of Scale Functioning, Psychometric Properties, and Selection. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. Volume 41, Issue 2, doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200202000-00004 Orchard, F., Westbrook, J., Gee, B. et al. Self-evaluation as an active ingredient in the experience and treatment of adolescent depression; an integrated scoping review with expert advisory input. BMC Psychiatry 21, 603 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03585-5 Taing, M.U., Smith, T., Singla, N., Johnson, R.E., C.-H., C. (2013) The relationship between learning goal orientation, goal setting, and performance: a longitudinal study. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12119

Michelle Garcia Winner MA, SLP-CCC; Motivation Station

Research Child - 38th Annual Executive Function Conference

Over 25 years ago I began to develop the Social Thinking Methodology in a high school district in California.

Motivation Station Using Visual Tools to Help Students Think Beyond Awesome or Awful

Speaker: Michelle Garcia Winner, MA, CCC-SLP Founder of the Social Thinking® Methodology www.socialthinking.com

Common diagnoses

A fit for some, not for all…

§ Autism, Asperger’s Syndrome or ASD § ADHD § Social Communication Disorder § Semantic Pragmatic Disorder § Nonverbal Learning Disorder (NLD) § Gifted and talented – Twice exceptional § Fetal Alcohol Syndrome § Overlap with mental health diagnoses § Brain injury § Behavioral challenges § Neurotypical or those with undiagnosed issues

• 4 years to adulthood • Solid/strong language & academic learning skills • For those who can “think about thinking” & “talk about thoughts and thinking” • Neurodivergent and neurotypical • If it’s not helpful, it’s not a good fit!

Given their reluctance, it was obvious these students needed something different.

My students with stronger social self-awareness had contempt for social-skills instruction.

Rather than teach them, I used my time initially to find out about them and their experiences. I encouraged humor.

When I first started working with my students, some would say: “I hate social skills!” “If people leave me alone, I’ll leave them alone.” “Why should I care about people at my school? I don’t like any of them!”

This is how the Social Thinking Methodology began to emerge.

Michelle Garcia Winner MA, SLP-CCC; Motivation Station

Research Child - 38th Annual Executive Function Conference

Ultimately, my students began to explore how the social and organizational worlds work, leading them to learn strategies to navigate to regulate based on their selfdetermined goals.

The methodology is intended for use with neurotypical and neurodivergent individuals with solid to strong language skills, from 4 years old and across the school and adult years.

We use Social Thinking Vocabulary and teaching frameworks to build knowledge about how the social world works, to help them navigate to regulate within it.

Today we’ll focus on social relationships.

Here are 10 popular vocabulary

It takes work to build relationships, make and keep friends.

10 Core Social Thinking Vocabulary Concepts 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Thoughts & Feelings Think with Eyes The Group Plan Body in the Group Whole Body Listening

6. Expected-Unexpected Behavior 7. Smart Guess 8. Flexible and Stuck Thinking 9. Size of Problem 10. Sharing an Imagination

Many individuals we work with have questions about friendship.

Michelle Garcia Winner MA, SLP-CCC; Motivation Station

Research Child - 38th Annual Executive Function Conference

How we are treated by another person is held in our memory based on how that person made us think and feel.

Friendships, have a past, present and possibly, a future.

How we treat others, also becomes part of another person’s memory.

Friendships also involve different levels of social problem solving. Friendship provides us practice in “we thinking,” as we seek to understand our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and perspectives.

The ability to make and keep friends, let friends go, and then make new ones is something most of us take for granted.

Friendships ebb and flow across our lives.

Michelle Garcia Winner MA, SLP-CCC; Motivation Station

Research Child - 38th Annual Executive Function Conference

The concept of FRIENDSHIP is abstract (like many social concepts)

• • •

Teaching needs to be concrete Providing visual supports can help Allowing for student input is critical

10/20/23

A friend is someone…

-a off . in… ga

, ain -ag on

Friendships are not like a tattoo. They can be “on again-off again” across time.

“Teach me how to make a friend?”

off ain ag

Quick greeting to briefly connect with many people in a day.

in, ga

A VISUAL SUPPORT FOR EXPLAINING FRIENDSHIPS

-a On

Level 1: Friendly Greetings

THE FRIENDSHIP PYRAMID

1. You trust 2. You likely share something in common (interest, experience, location, etc.) 3. You like how you feel when around them 4. Who shares the mutual interest in developing or sustaining the friendship

Michelle Garcia Winner MA, SLP-CCC; Motivation Station

ain ag

A person you met in a specific place (school, work, sports) and then make plans to eat lunch, hang out, or play with them in that same place.

ain -ag off

ain ag

in, ga

off

Regularly plan to hang out with specific people in a small or larger group; all participants support each other.

-a On

in, ga

People who make plans to spend extra time with each other at home, in the community (movie, shopping, meal) or hanging out online. There is a mutual effort and benefit with all people involved.

Level 5: Bonded Friend

-a On

Level 4: Friend

in, ga off ain ag

People you share secrets, dreams, fears, and frustrations. Most of us have only 1-3 close friends at any time.

-a On

Level 6: Close Friend

10/20/23

off

ain -ag off

in, ga

Someone you talk to because they happen to be near you (not prearranged).

-a On

Level 3: Situational Friendship

-a On

Level 2: Acquaintance

Research Child - 38th Annual Executive Function Conference

Michelle Garcia Winner MA, SLP-CCC; Motivation Station

Research Child - 38th Annual Executive Function Conference

One of the many students have sought to learn about the Friendship Pyramid.

See Friendship Pyramid Handout This pyramid has been explored with many individuals, but not easily embraced by all.

What we choose to do or not do, impacts how other’s think and feel.

Whether you’re 4 years old or 14, 24, 40, or 74, friendships can easily get complicated

Relationships are emotional. 42

Unfortunately, the human brain pays more attention to negative social information than positive. 44

When shown the Friendship Pyramid, a student exclaimed:

Wait!! I don’t want to make friends! 45

Michelle Garcia Winner MA, SLP-CCC; Motivation Station

He insisted he disliked most people and that he was also highly disliked by others.

Research Child - 38th Annual Executive Function Conference

What do I do now?

It takes time to dislike people. There is only so much time in the day. How do you use your time?

Neutral – Don’t pay attention to them Disapproving: give people mean looks

PYRAMID OF DISLIKE

Hate: fight/yell Actively, totally ignore

Pyramid of Dislike,

of f-a ga in

Spend more time being mean

After we created the

he realized that there were some people he’d like to make friends with.

On -ag ain ,

Mean language

Now he wondered if other kids would want to be friends with him. 48

Friendships are emotional Humans tend to build relationships by often complaining together.

Do I want you as my friend? 51

Michelle Garcia Winner MA, SLP-CCC; Motivation Station

Research Child - 38th Annual Executive Function Conference

Feelings: What we feel, free of language-based descriptions Emotions: The language-based vocabulary we use to try and describe our feelings

We feel without language.

Tip: Our language will almost always be insufficient for describing our complex feelings.

Sometimes it’s easiest to make sense of our feelings without having to translate them into emotion words.

Feelings constantly shift throughout a day. Awareness of feelings is important for social emotional self-regulation.

ive sit o P Neutral

Encourage individuals to use strategies to reflect on their feelings without necessarily having to explain their feelings with words.

Ne gat ive

Michelle Garcia Winner MA, SLP-CCC; Motivation Station

Research Child - 38th Annual Executive Function Conference

Tracking feelings across a day

Feelings Journal:

Find this scale free in your handouts

- Feelings +

Tracking feelings across a day

Time passage across the day

….Then tell us what was happening during different feeling states.

- Feelings +

Tracking feelings across school day With teacher Asleep before school

Silent reading, then spelling

Getting ready for Doing math worksheet school

History, Science

Recessdidn’t have anyone to be with

Went home

Copying down homework

Time passage across the day

This process of tracking feelings with a visual graph across time began with helping an engineer, whose wife complained he was always negative.

Michelle Garcia Winner MA, SLP-CCC; Motivation Station

Research Child - 38th Annual Executive Function Conference

The more we understand about a person’s feeling journey, the better we understand how they are perceiving different experiences across the day. This information helps us to ask more specific questions. It also helps us to learn how we may better advocate for them, if this is needed.

13-year-old boy, very smart with social learning differences

Autistic 14-year-old boy, depressed and anxious

PE Lunch Engineering Spanish Math Tutorial

As individuals become more comfortable exploring their feelings, they begin to figure out what emotion words are comfortable for them to to use. 68

Where does MEH go on this scale?

Michelle Garcia Winner MA, SLP-CCC; Motivation Station

Research Child - 38th Annual Executive Function Conference

- Feelings +

Tracking feelings across school day Happy

Happy Asleep

good

glad lonely

stressed

Avoid assumptions that highly verbal people can use their language to describe their socially based problems in a manner that helps us to help them.

frustrated

Time passage across the day

Help individuals learn about the social communication process.

Social Thinking breaks down information to help individuals build their social competencies.

4 Steps to Establish Face-to-Face Communication 1. Think about who I may want to talk to in this context. 2. Establish a physical presence to show intention to communicate. 3. Use my eyes to think about others. 4. Use language to relate to others.

Michelle Garcia Winner MA, SLP-CCC; Motivation Station

Research Child - 38th Annual Executive Function Conference

Awareness of physical presence A question I began to ask teens that changed the trajectory of the Social Thinking Methodology….

“Do people think about you when you are not talking to them?”

Have students consider what they are doing, saying or not doing or saying to encourage others to perceive them in the manner they desire, in pursuit of their own social goals.

Many individuals think that if they are not talking to someone then people are not aware of them.

There is a difference between Taking Perspective

& Getting Perspective

• Taking Perspective: when we guess how another will feel and think about a particular issue. • Getting Perspective: asking the individual how they feel and think about a particular situation/problem and/or having them visually represent their dilemma or experience to you.

Use popsicle sticks or other small, light-weight objects available to help GET YOUR STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVE.

Michelle Garcia Winner MA, SLP-CCC; Motivation Station

Research Child - 38th Annual Executive Function Conference

The magic of teaching with popsicle sticks • Every stick is a person • Every person has a brain • Every brain has a thought • Every thought is tied to an emotion

Break information down to make social learning concrete. 83

Why don’t people talk to me in groups?

By using these objects, we can help explain how different aspects of the social world work within our schools, work environments and other places in our community.

My response: what’s it look like?

Michelle Garcia Winner MA, SLP-CCC; Motivation Station

Research Child - 38th Annual Executive Function Conference

Why won’t people come to have lunch with me?

“The others don’t think you’re part of the group. When your body’s out of the group, they don’t think you want to be in the group”

Why don’t people let me join the group?

Group Group ME Group

Groups don’t go to people; people go to groups.

Shoulders closed and feet/hips pointing toward each other. Not the right time to approach.

Teacher: “The student has made improvements, but when he doesn’t want to work, he distracts others.”

Shoulders, feet open. Better time to approach.

Teaching point: We all see and hear what is going on around us, even if we act like we don’t notice!

Michelle Garcia Winner MA, SLP-CCC; Motivation Station

Research Child - 38th Annual Executive Function Conference

Student’s point of view: “I’m only distracting one person. Student shows me what his classroom looks like.

But people keep saying I am distracting them, and I’m not!”

Teaching point: People tend to figure out social information with their eyes, ears, and brain. If you are distracting one person, then you are distracting many because all people can see and hear you. Student’s response: “Oh!”

Why won’t my teacher call on me in class?

Teaching point: The teacher tries to be fair to all 25 students in the class. Since there are so many it must feel like she is not calling on you, because she can call on you approximately 1 out of every 25 times!

Teacher must think about all the students. Everyone wants a turn!

No matter how socially competent we may feel, there are times each of us may feel social anxiety.

Michelle Garcia Winner MA, SLP-CCC; Motivation Station

Research Child - 38th Annual Executive Function Conference

We don’t eliminate anxiety but instead help people learn to manage it, so they can achieve their own personal social goals.

Virtually all humans occasionally experience social anxiety. For individuals who have a history of difficulties relating to peers, social anxiety may be persistent and compelling.

100

101

My students helped me to map out the journey of their, situationally based social anxiety

As I worked with teens, I noticed that many expressed they felt like they were “social failures.” They often experienced compelling social anxiety.

102

1. I doubt my abilities 2. I make excuses 3. I make internal selfdefeating comments (negative inner voice) 4. I have negative feelings about my ability 5. I avoid trying 6. I give myself more proof that I can’t do it

103

After further discussion and awareness building, we worked together to consider how they could manage their anxiety in a productive manner.

104

105

Michelle Garcia Winner MA, SLP-CCC; Motivation Station

Spiral of Success: Within that same social context, I realize:

Research Child - 38th Annual Executive Function Conference

1. I can try it 2. I rely on my positive inner coach 3. I remind myself to use my strategies 4. I keep my emotions calm 5. I attempt it 6. I teach my brain I can do it!

106

107

Free article: Addressing Social Competencies and Social Anxiety Using the Spirals of Anxiety

Becoming aware of one’s own social competencies helps us manage our social anxiety!

www.socialthinking.com

108

109

It’s so important to learn to manage one’s anxiety so that it doesn’t overwhelm our desire to relate with others.

110

Socially Curious and Curiously Social

Book for teens and young adults

111

Michelle Garcia Winner MA, SLP-CCC; Motivation Station

Research Child - 38th Annual Executive Function Conference

We help to instill the belief that each of us can learn to experience wellbeing, when we have strategies to help us communicate effectively and manage our anxiety.

We work with many mature adults.

112

113

Social Learning for a Lifetime of Well-Being

114

Addressing Social Competencies and Social Anxiety Using the Spirals of Anxiety Michelle Garcia Winner, MA, CCC-SLP Updated: April, 2022 © 2022 Think Social Publishing, Inc. Years ago, an astute clinician strongly encouraged our team to explore how social learning and anxiety intersect as part of the Social Thinking® Methodology. While we realized we had been teaching social strategies that seemed to reduce anxiety, we were not really teaching about how anxiety impacts social learning. This is mainly because we are a group of speech-language pathologists, and that seemed to be crossing into the domain of mental health. But as we learned about how anxiety can impact the well-being of students who have stronger social and self-awareness (both neurotypical and neurodivergent), it was clear that social anxiety was undermining their ability to access their social competencies when stressed. For those familiar with our work, we encourage an interdisciplinary viewpoint, which means we all should be learning about social pragmatics, sensory systems, emotional regulation, counseling, behaviorism, educational demands, etc. This doesn’t mean people should become practicing professionals in those areas but rather become informed team members. We believe those who are in the role of supporting students must be aware of the whole person and their overall needs and goals. With this philosophy in mind, we began to explore the role of anxiety in social learning.

Anxiety Aha! Insights The more I explored traditional treatments for anxieties, the more I realized that different types of anxiety require different types of support. For example, there are “phobic anxieties” where students will not engage in a particular behavior due to fears about a specific event (e.g., won’t flush a toilet; won’t go in an elevator, etc.). This type of anxiety is often managed well with a cognitive-behavioral therapy focusing on recognizing when a fear is healthy or reasonable and when it is not healthy or unreasonable (e.g., flushing a toilet). Another type of anxiety is social anxiety. Social anxiety, as the words suggests, is anxiety with a social twist. But it’s not just about a fear of talking with someone. Social anxiety can be much more complex and includes meeting new people, asking for help or directions, initiating a call, being in a job interview, presenting to a group, going on a date, expressing an opinion, volunteering, and a host of others. This means that supporting those with social anxieties is not as simple as addressing the fear and then simply desensitizing. Social anxiety is the complex interplay that involves the person, the social situation, how they process what is happening, and then being able to decide what to do (or not do) in that moment. It is complicated!

Social situations are dynamic and complex involving processing and responding to several cues all at once (e.g., nonverbal, verbal, situational and perspective-taking). In a nutshell, supporting a person who has social anxiety will need to focus on helping them learn a range of social competencies and strategies to use when in increasingly complex and/or stressful social contexts. So, we teach individuals that building or recognizing their social competencies can help to mitigate some of their social anxieties.

Several years ago, I developed a tool, alongside and with input from my clients, to help them deal with the complexity of learning about their own social anxiety while also learning about their own social competencies. We collectively named it, The Spirals (i.e., Spiral of Social Success* and Spiral of Social Failure*).

*Note: Success and Failure are terms that were used and resonated most with my clients as they tried to describe their experiences with social anxiety and accessing their social competencies. This tool is not about teaching success or failure but rather a way to explain how anxiety can result in not being able to access your social strategies or strengths (failure) and how managing anxiety can result in being able to access your social strategies or strengths (success).

The Spirals are informed by metacognitive teachings and highlight the spiral of thoughts, feelings, and actions people may experience in response to a social expectation that leads to either social success or social failure. It also illustrates the importance of learning to manage our social anxiety in partnership with developing or encouraging the use of our social competencies.

Strategies Must Belong to the Individual—Not Us If we impose or teach strategies without the input and buy-in as to the relevance of that strategy in an individual’s life, then we have wasted our time and theirs. The strategies we introduce must be flexible enough for the individual to feel like the tool can fit and support their unique circumstances. In other words, if we are the person taking ownership of their stated problem or goal, then there is no ownership on the part of the individual to use the strategy in the future. That said, we need to be transparent in teaching that some strategies may not make their lives feel more comfortable or easy at first. Just like learning any new way of thinking or doing, it can feel uncomfortable and even a little stressful. We need to assure them it's okay to feel some stress —we all do at times. Lastly, we need to help them to feel proud of themselves for their progress. Important Note: This tool is for those who report or show anxiety related to social situations or social anxiety (e.g., hanging out with peers, calling, joining groups, etc.) and not for more literal

learners who may express or show anxiety around “world-based” anxieties (e.g., flushing toilets, loud sounds, fans, schedules, etc.).

The Self-Defeater’s Role in the Spirals Most of us rely on an inner coach or private voice in our heads to encourage us to do or try things that are uncomfortable or remind us that we already know how to do something (i.e., competencies to get through the social demand or task we are stressing over).

The opposite is having a self-defeater or inner critic voice in our heads. This voice, rather than encouraging us to push through something or recognize we have the competencies says, “You’re no good at this,” or “You have never been able to do this, so you won’t be able to do it now.” Those who have a powerful self-defeater voice often default to avoiding the uncomfortable task at hand, while those with a strong inner coach have a far better chance of pushing themselves through the uncomfortable task.

Strong self-defeater voices can flood us with benign excuses for avoiding the task at hand and not pushing through an uncomfortable moment. Instead, the self-defeater voice defaults to reasons why we shouldn’t try. During our clinical sessions, we take the time to explore these self-defeating comments and reasons for avoiding or not trying something. Here are some examples for not making phone calls (or even texting) established friends. (Note: These comments came from students who had worked to develop the social competencies needed for calling/texting but were still struggling with social anxiety.) ● I was busy and they don’t want to hear from me anyway. ● I had too much homework to call. ● I will do it tomorrow, but I’m not good at it. ● I will do it next year when I am in a new school. ● I could not find my cell phone and I never remember their number.

Group Plan: Re-Train the Brain Our group started discussing how our brains are always learning. If we default to doing or saying that same old things (e.g., what we are used to), then we are teaching our brains we can only do what is familiar or routine. So, if students are used to thinking and feeling like they can’t use their cell to call, then they have taught their brains that they literally do not have the ability to do it. Our group also took the time to explore and study default patterns; what our brains are most comfortable doing and what we teach our brains when listening to the self-defeater voice.

So, helping students to explore options for trying new or stressful or anxiety provoking actions needed to start with building the social competencies first. These strategies were developed alongside the student and each student was encouraged to show or prove to themselves that

they already built the competencies in a safe environment (clinic or school group). Do this first before ever being asking them to try anxiety-laden tasks outside of this setting. We also learned that anxiety has deep roots and does not want to go away easily! This means that even when students show themselves that they have increased competencies, their anxiety may still get in the way of accessing their strategies.

The following is a short overview of how to introduce the Spirals. Please always start by teaching the Spiral of Social Success first. Note that the movement in the spiral relies on accessing one’s inner coach, strategies, and emotion awareness. If the student struggles with any of these core components, then please make sure to go back and teach before moving through the rest of the spiral teaching.

The Spiral of Social Success The Spiral of Social Success encourages a growth mindset because it teaches that we can better manage our social anxieties by developing a positive mindset and learning specific strategies that foster development of social competencies. This spiral also encourages metacognitive awareness to help social learners coach themselves through socially stressful times.

Concepts to Focus on When Teaching 1. Students have a choice in how to respond when social anxiety strikes. 2. Focus one’s attention on navigating through the social interaction, rather than focusing on one’s social anxiety. 3. Practice strategies for developing needed social competencies, as well as managing one’s anxiety. 4. A can-do perspective is powerful! Guide students toward feeling positive, rather than negative, about their ability to socially engage with others. 5. Social interactions can be uncomfortable. Learn to become comfortable with discomfort in pursuit of one’s social goals. 6. Be patient with yourself. Learn to manage your anxiety while affirming your social competencies.

A social situation happens...

1. You may encounter some stress approaching this situation. In the past, your self-defeater voice pushed you to bail out due to anxiety. Instead of starting by doubting yourself, explore what strategies you can use to deal with the uncomfortable social situation. 2. Use your inner coach to remind yourself how much better you will feel once you use your strategies. Remind yourself that you know these strategies. Tell yourself, “I can try this.” 3. Remind yourself that you already know and have practiced strategies. Give yourself a break and recognize that you feel better when you see yourself demonstrating your social competencies. 4. This encourages you to implement the use of the strategies. 5. This results in the fact you are training your brain that “you can do it” better than you have done it before!

The Spiral of Social Failure The Spiral of Social Failure explains how and why individuals struggle to learn to manage their social anxiety. This spiral helps individuals notice a pattern that likely exists within them when trapped in a negative mindset. This also encourages interventionist to discuss with social learners what they experience at each point of the spiral.

Concepts to Focus On When Teaching

1. When individuals create a negative mindset, it leads them to doubt they can do anything differently, perpetuating their negative mindset. 2. The difference in one’s actions when using one’s internal self-defeater versus inner coach voice. 3. People often make excuses to avoid learning and/or practicing new strategies, although they may not realize it. 4. This negative thinking process leads people further into negative feelings about their ability to relate to others, further limiting the chance they will seek to relate. 5. People experience learned avoidance which teaches their brains, over and over again, that they “can’t do it!” A social situation happens...

Here's how this looks: 1. You encounter the same stressful situation. 2. Your self-defeater voice fills your brain with reasons and excuses for why you won't engage in this situation today. 3. Your self-defeater voice tells you, “You can't do it” and that “you have never been able to do it”. 4. You feel negative emotions and listen to your self-defeater voice. 5. You want to avoid putting yourself in the situation.

6. You teach your brain (or your brain learns) that you cannot do it! Your memory of this situation reinforces that you just can’t do it!

From our experience, teaching with the Spirals can: 1. Help individuals take responsibility for their own learning and accomplishments. 2. Change the conversation from offering reasons or self-defeating excuses for not trying to talking about successes and effort in trying. 3. Teach that the spirals can teach their brains in a proactive way or self-defeating way. 4. Motivate individuals to recognize their own strengths and social competencies.

Can Individuals Have Both Social Competencies and Social Anxiety? Based on our clinical experience, some students have developed social competencies but still have high levels of anxiety. While the Spirals lessons may be helpful to some, it is best practice to have a mental health professional figure out the complexities of anxiety.

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Panel: Executive Function and Social-Emotional Learning Anthony Bashir, Ph.D., CCC-SLP Consultant to Architects for Learning Josh Clark, M.Ed Head of School, Landmark School Ari Fleisher, M.Ed. Associate Project Director for Professional Learning, CAST, Universal Design for Learning Michael Greschler, M.Ed. SMARTS Director, ResearchILD Peter Isquith, Ph.D. Senior Attending Neuropsychologist with the Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Program, Boston Children’s Hospital Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. SMARTS@Home Curriculum Developer and SMARTS Trainer, ResearchILD LD Specialist and Homeschool Consultant, Learnabilities Overview Executive function strategies are powerful tools for promoting effort, persistence, and resilience in students with learning, attention, and social-emotional difficulties. When students struggle in school, they often believe that their teachers view them as “dumb” or “lazy”. Furthermore, when they feel overwhelmed by the academic and social demands of school, they often give up and develop negative beliefs about their abilities. Executive function strategies, in combination with social-emotional support, can have a dramatic impact on their performance. In this panel, each speaker will discuss the importance of ensuring that students have opportunities to understand their strengths and challenges, to self-advocate, and to succeed academically and socially. Each panelist will respond briefly to the following question:

How do we build self-understanding, motivation, and flexible thinking so that we promote engagement and reduce stress in school? References Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., Guy, S. C., & Kenworthy, L. (2015). Behavior rating inventory of executive function, 2nd Edition. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. Greschler, M. & Levy, S. (2019) Executive function and organization. ResearchILD. [Webinar]. YouTube. https://tinyurl.com/r5jrj4py Scirri, M. (2021). Homeschooling: How to build executive function strategies, Part 1. SMARTS Blog. https://smarts-ef.org/blog/homeschooling-a-unique-opportunity-to-build-executive-function-strat egies-part-1/ Singer, B. D., & Bashir, A. S. (1999). What Are Executive Functions and Self-Regulation and What Do They Have to Do With Language-Learning Disorders?. Language, speech, and hearing services in schools, 30(3), 265–273. https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461.3003.265 Until Learning Has No Limits®. CAST. https://www.cast.org/ Wexler, Natalie. “More Evidence That Our Approach To Reading Comprehension Is All Wrong.” Forbes, https://www.forbes.com/sites/nataliewexler/2023/09/04/more-evidence-that-our -approach-to-reading-comprehension-is-all-wrong/. Accessed 5 Oct. 2023.

Chapter 1

Understanding, Assessing, and Teaching Executive Function Processes The Why, What, and How Lynn Meltzer

John is a puzzle to me. He seems so bright and creative, and he always contributes wonderful ideas to our class discussions. However, he often does not hand in homework, he does not seem to study for tests, and he is usually late with projects. I don’t know if he is just lazy. I wish he was more motivated and invested in his work. —Sixth-grade teacher

cademic success in the digital age is increasingly linked not only with students’ technological expertise, but, even more important, with their mastery of such processes as goal setting, planning, prioritizing, organizing, shifting flexibly, holding/manipulating information in working memory, and self-monitoring. Collectively, these are termed executive function processes. Beginning in the early grades, students are now required to organize and integrate a rapidly changing body of information that is available through the Internet and to take greater responsibility for their own learning. Teachers give students lengthy reading and writing assignments, as well as long-term projects, that rely heavily on these executive function processes. Students are also expected to become proficient at note taking, studying, and test taking—all tasks that require the simultaneous organization and integration of multiple subskills. Academic success therefore depends on students’ ability to plan and prioritize their time, organize materials and information, separate main ideas from details, shift approaches flexibly, monitor their own progress, and reflect on their work. As a result, it has become increasingly important for classroom teachers to teach strategies that address executive function processes systematically, in order to help students understand how they think and how they learn. 3

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This chapter provides a paradigm for understanding and teaching students strategies that address executive function processes. The chapter also begins to describe how to address the needs of the increasing numbers of students who exhibit major weaknesses in such processes. These students benefit from explicit and systematic strategy instruction, as well as from accommodations for classwork and homework. There is a focus on five major themes: 1. What is executive function, and how do selected executive function processes affect academic performance? 2. Why are executive function processes so important? 3. How can teachers begin to understand and informally assess students’ executive function processes? 4. How can teachers address the needs of students with executive function weaknesses? 5. How can core strategies be taught across tasks, content areas, and grades?

What Is Executive Function, and How Do Executive Function Processes Affect Academic Performance? I sit down and my mind feels like there’s a hurricane building. I grab an idea . . . if I can think of three good sentences, I go with it. If not, I find another idea. —John, eighth grader

Until recently, studies of executive function processes have primarily been the domain of neurologists and neuropsychologists, who have emphasized the importance of the prefrontal cortex in controlling these processes and the behaviors that are affected by them (Anderson, Rani, Jacobs, & Anderson, 2008; Denckla, 1996; Diamond, 2006; Holmes Bernstein & Waber, 2007). Over the past several years, educators have begun to recognize the importance of executive function processes for educational performance. This shift is due in part to clinicians’ efforts to explain why so many extremely bright students fail to perform at the level of their potential, and why certain students present as “poor students” despite their strong performance on short, highly structured, standardized measures (Denckla, 2005, 2007; Meltzer, 2007). In fact, weak executive function processes are often associated with such students’ academic difficulties, and especially with the problems they experience in deploying and coordinating the many skills needed for such tasks as open-ended projects, term papers, and tests. Executive function processes can be explained by using the analogy of a mountaintop view (Meltzer, 2007, 2008a, 2008b) (see Figures 1.1a and 1.1b). A person standing at the top of a mountain has a bird’s eye-view of the entire panorama spread out below—in other words, an overview of the “big picture.” Standing at the bottom of the mountain, the viewer only sees thousands of leaves on individual

Understanding, Assessing, and Teaching

FIGURE 1.1a. The panoramic view from the mountaintop allows students to focus on the major themes or the “big picture.”

FIGURE 1.1b. From the bottom of the mountain, there is only a view of individual trees.

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

trees. Executive function processes allow the viewer to shift back and forth flexibly between the big picture seen from the mountaintop and the numerous details seen from the bottom of the mountain. Just as they do for the viewer on the mountaintop, executive function processes help students to understand the “big picture” or major themes as well as the relevant details and to shift back and forth between the two. In this book, we discuss practical suggestions that teachers can implement to address five key executive function processes: goal setting, planning, and prioritizing; organizing; retaining and manipulating information in working memory; shifting flexibly; and selfmonitoring/self-checking (Meltzer, 2007, 2008a, 2008b; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007). These executive function processes are critically important for all aspects of academic performance.1 Table 1.1 gives both formal and “student-friendly” definitions for several of these processes, as well as examples. Because so many academic tasks require the coordination and integration of multiple subskills, as well as the ability to shift back and forth from the themes to the details, executive function weaknesses can have a significant impact on the accuracy and efficiency of students’ performance. Writing, summarizing, note taking, and reading complex text for meaning may be particularly challenging for students with such weaknesses, whose struggle to produce can be explained by using the analogy of a clogged funnel. This analogy for understanding the impact of weak executive function processes on academic performance is illustrated in TABLE 1.1. Examples of Several Key Executive Function Processes Process

Definition

Example

Prioritizing

Ordering based on relative importance Figuring out what’s most important

Ordering information for written work, projects, and tests Separating main ideas from details on reading and writing tasks

Organizing

Arranging information, systematizing Moving and sorting information

Using charts and graphic organizers for writing Using maps and webs for reading and writing

Using working memory

Manipulating information mentally Juggling information in the brain

Taking notes; completing multistep projects; completing math calculations mentally; thinking about themes while reading.

Shifting

Switching easily between approaches Looking again, in a brand-new way

Predicting different endings for novels Understanding different word meanings in text Applying different problem-solving approaches to word problems

Self-monitoring/ Self-checking

Reviewing work for common errors Recognizing and fixing the most common kinds of mistakes

Using personalized checklists Shifting to a checking mindset and back

Note. Italics indicate “student-friendly” definitions. 1 Strategies for addressing the other executive function processes such as inhibition, selective atten-

tion, and activation, are beyond the scope of this book.

Understanding, Assessing, and Teaching

Figure 1.2 (Meltzer, 2007, 2008a, 2008b; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007). As is evident from this figure, students with executive function difficulties often experience an overload of information, so that input exceeds output. They struggle to plan, organize, and prioritize, with the result that information becomes clogged in the top of the funnel. Because these students cannot process this information rapidly enough and cannot shift approaches flexibly, they cannot easily unclog the funnel to produce finished work. For students with executive function weaknesses, therefore, their conceptual reasoning abilities may be stronger than their output and productivity. Consequently, these students are inefficient with their work and have difficulty showing what they know in the classroom; their study skills and test performance are compromised; and their academic grades may not reflect their actual intellectual ability. As these students enter middle and high school, their difficulties become more evident, due to the mismatch between their skills and the curriculum demands. They have particular problems with academic tasks that involve the coordination and integration of different subskills, such as getting started on writing assignments; summarizing information; taking notes; studying; planning, executing, and completing projects in a timely manner; sustaining attention during long, detailed assignments and remembering to submit their work on time (see Table 1.2 for more specific examples). Furthermore, their problems with attention, working memory, and inhibition create additional challenges, and their productivity with classwork and homework is affected. Students therefore need to understand their own learning styles. This will help them to discover which strategies work well for them, as well as why, where, when, and how to apply each specific strategy. This understanding is referred to as

Accessing working memory

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

TABLE 1.2. Common Difficulties Experienced by Students with Executive Function Weaknesses Planning •• Planning and allocating time to the many steps involved in different assignments (e.g., writing papers, taking notes for history or science, or completing long-term projects). Prioritizing •• Prioritizing by allocating more time and effort to major projects and tests. •• Figuring out which details are critical and which details can be ignored when reading, taking notes, or writing essays. •• Estimating how much time to spend on reading and research versus output (e.g., writing a paper, editing, and layout). Organizing •• Organizing ideas, such as summarizing key ideas on strategy cards rather than rereading the text over and over. •• Organizing materials such as class notes, textbooks, and study guides. •• Organizing workspace (e.g., reducing distractions and clutter). Shifting •• Shifting flexibly from the major themes to the relevant details to meet the demands of the reading, writing, or studying task. •• Using outlines such as graphic organizers or linear outlines to get “unstuck” when writing papers or projects. •• Shifting between operations and between words and numbers for math computation or word problems. Accessing Working Memory •• Studying strategically so that complex information is retained over time to prevent the “Friday spelling test effect” (Meltzer et.al., 2006). Here, students remember facts and spelling for quizzes and tests, but do not connect concepts and cannot juggle the information mentally so they can access this information on a long-term basis. •• Remembering to hand in completed assignments on time (e.g., students with executive function difficulties often leave school with their homework still in their bags). •• Remembering to bring necessary books and materials from school to home and back again. •• Keeping in mind the importance of remembering to check and correct “careless errors” when writing papers, taking tests, or doing homework. •• Performing consistently across situations, content areas, and tasks.

metacognition, or the ability to think about one’s own thinking and learning. Metacognition underlies students’ use of executive function processes and is discussed further in the next two sections of this chapter.

Why Are Executive Function Processes So Important? My success is due to the strategies I learned, as well as my self-understanding and the confidence I developed after I used the strategies and got higher grades. —Sean, 11th grader

Academic success for all students, and particularly for students with learning difficulties, is inextricably linked with their motivation, effort, persistence, academic self-concept, and self-efficacy (Brunstein, Schultheiss, & Grassman, 1998; Helliwell,

Understanding, Assessing, and Teaching

2003; Kasser & Ryan, 1996; Meltzer, Reddy, Sales Pollica, & Roditi, 2004b; Pajares & Schunk, 2001; Sheldon & Elliot, 1999). These cognitive and motivational processes are connected cyclically with students’ use of executive function strategies, as well as with their academic performance (Meltzer et al., 2004b; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007). As is evident from Figure 1.3, strategies that address executive function processes provide an entry point for improving academic performance. When students learn and apply these strategies effectively, they become more efficient and thus begin to succeed academically. Academic success in turn boosts self-confidence and academic self-concept, which results in more focused effort so that students’ hard work is targeted strategically toward specific goals. In this way, a cycle of success is promoted (Meltzer, Katzir, Miller, Reddy, & Roditi, 2004a; Meltzer et al., 2004b; Meltzer et al., 2004c). The learning environment and the instructional methods/materials all play an important role in mediating this cyclical relationship. For all students, but particularly for students with learning and/or attention difficulties, effective strategies and focused effort will help them to bridge gaps between their skills and the academic demands they face (Graham & Harris, 2003; Swanson, Harris, & Graham, 2003; Swanson & Hoskyn, 2001). In other words, their academic performance is often dependent on their knowledge of and willingness to use strategies. Maintaining the effort and hard work needed to master and implement strategies is often a major struggle for students with learning and attention difficulties (Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007). In fact, they may need to work much longer hours than their peers, and their grades may not reflect their effort. When these students use strategies for organizing, prioritizing, and checking, they are often able to bypass their deficits and to shift flexibly among different approaches and mindsets. When they select meaningful and realistic goals, make the effort needed to attain these goals, and self-regulate their cognitive and emotional processes, they

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

usually succeed (Raskind, Goldberg, Higgins, & Herman, 1999) (See Chapters, 3, 4, and 8). To build their motivation, persistence, and work ethic, students need to understand their profiles of strengths and weaknesses. Doing so enables them to determine which strategies work well for them, as well as why, where, when, and how to apply specific strategies. As noted above, this understanding is known as metacognition, or the ability to think about own’s own thinking and learning. More specifically, metacognition, as defined originally by Flavell (1979) and Brown, Bransford, Ferrara, and Campione (1983), refers to each student’s understanding and beliefs about how he or she learns, as well as the strategies that can or should be used to accomplish specific tasks. Students’ metacognitive awareness therefore includes their knowledge and understanding of their own learning profiles, as well as their understanding of those executive function strategies that match their strengths and weaknesses and help them to master different tasks. For example, students like Chace (see Figure 1.4) are aware of their struggles with organization, and they are often frustrated that their academic performance does not match their strong intellectual potential. Students like Chace are more likely to make the effort needed to use strategies that help them to stay organized and focused when they develop metacognitive awareness and are highly motivated to succeed and meet their goals. In other words, students’ understanding of their strengths and weaknesses, as well as their motivation and beliefs, directly affect their selection of specific strategies and their willingness to persist with specific tasks. Beliefs about ability often span a number of areas, as discussed by Reid and Lienemann (2006):

FIGURE 1.4. Chace, an exceptionally bright eighth grader, depicts his daily struggle to stay organized and focused as an ongoing battle because of his executive function difficulties.

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•• General ability: “How good am I as a learner? How smart am I?” •• Competency on specific tasks: “How good am I at this specific task (e.g., writing a report about the civil rights movement)?” •• Control over outcomes: “Can I control how well I do? If I work hard on this task, will I do well?” •• Causes of failure : “Why did I succeed or fail? Did I succeed because I worked hard and used appropriate strategies on this task?” •• Understanding the benefits of specific strategies: “Did I do well because I used specific organizational and self-checking strategies?” When students can answer such questions, they reach a better understanding of the match between their own learning profiles and specific strategies, and thus become more likely to persist in acquiring and using these strategies. They are also more likely to make the extraordinary effort needed to apply the strategies to the many open-ended academic tasks that they face in school on a daily basis. Sustaining this major effort is often dependent on students’ passions, as well as their interest in particular subjects. Specifically, interest-based motivation in learning frequently influences the kinds of strategies students use, as well as their learning outcomes (Hidi, Renninger, & Krapp, 2004; Yun Dai & Sternberg, 2004). Students’ interest in school often begins to decrease as early as first grade (Renninger et al., 2004). There is an even steeper decline in middle and high school, when the curriculum content constrains students’ ability to engage their interests and explore new challenges (Gardner, 1983; Hidi et al., 2004). As a result, many bright and talented students with learning and attention difficulties may “give up” and become unproductive in the later grades. At this time, their limited interest in the curriculum content is no longer strong enough to harness their motivation to expend the often superhuman effort needed to master the academic demands. For these students, executive function strategies can provide a lifeline to academic success.

How Can Teachers Begin to Understand Students’ Executive Function Strengths and Weaknesses? I am a hard worker and I am not the best, nor am I a miracle worker. —Jamie, eighth grader My teacher probably thinks I am one taco short of a combo plate, if you know what I mean. —Jamie, eighth grader Jamie is a very bright student who is a puzzle to me. He does well on quizzes and short tests, but he often does not hand in his homework. His performance is inconsistent, and his grades are up and down. —Jamie, eighth-grade teacher

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

Teachers are often puzzled by the inconsistent performance of students like Jamie, who attain high grades on specific, short-term tasks (e.g., quizzes), but underachieve on more demanding tasks (e.g., written reports, essays, math problem solving, long-term projects, or tests that span a broad content area). When teachers understand the role of executive function processes, they can more easily recognize the extent to which students like Jamie may struggle to perform adequately on open-ended tasks or tasks that require the coordination and integration of multiple skills and strategies. This context can help teachers to reframe their understanding of their students with executive function difficulties, so that they focus on these students’ strengths and academic potential, rather than viewing them as “unmotivated,” “lazy,” or “not trying hard enough.” Classroom-based assessment measures can help teachers to understand their students’ strengths and weaknesses, and to determine whether students’ difficulties fall within the “normal range” or are problematic and need referrals for assessment. (As shown in Figure 1.5, it is often helpful to compare students’ own descriptions of their learning styles, and their perceptions of how their parents or teachers might describe their learning styles, with the parents’ or teachers’ actual descriptions.) A few specific assessment approaches that teachers can use are discussed below.

How Can Teachers Informally Assess Executive Function? Teachers’ insights about students’ specific difficulties and their input into the assessment process are critically important. In fact, teachers are often informal diagnosticians who rely on their observations as well as on a variety of classroom-based assessment methods—a process we (Meltzer, 1993; Roditi, 1993) have referred to as assessment for teaching (AFT; see Figure 1.6). In this regard, informal assessment methods help teachers to understand students’ use of executive function processes and to pinpoint why and how particular students may be struggling. Performance-

Student’s Self-Perceptions •• How would you describe yourself as a student? “A very organized student and a good listener.” •• How do you think your teachers would describe you as a student? “Pretty neat and a pretty good listener.” Teacher’s Perceptions •• What words would come to mind to describe this student (e.g., motivated, hard-working, invested)? “Distracted, curious, eager to please, fidgety, impulsive.”

FIGURE 1.5. Perceptions of Sally, a sixth grader who views herself as a good student, compared with her teacher’s perceptions of her.

Understanding, Assessing, and Teaching

FIGURE 1.6. The Assessment for Teaching (AFT) model.

based assessment and portfolio assessment (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1991) are examples of these types of classroom measures. By implementing an AFT cycle, teachers access baseline information about their students’ learning profiles that helps them to understand each student’s level of metacognitive awareness, effort, and strategy use. Teachers can then introduce specific instructional approaches, assess students’ progress, and modify instruction. The continuous cycle linking assessment and teaching allows teachers to adjust their instructional methods to the changing needs of their students. In fact, many of these principles are incorporated into the response to intervention (RTI) approach that has recently been introduced into schools (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1991; Kame’enui, 2007). Currently, there is a dearth of measures teachers can use to understand their students’ executive function processes, and teachers must often rely on their personal insights as well as information they acquire from their conferences with parents. The Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF; Gioia, Isquith, Guy, & Kenworthy, 2000; Gioia, Isquith, Kenworthy, & Barton, 2002) is a highly reliable and widely used questionnaire system that consists of multiple rating forms, a parent questionnaire, and a teacher questionnaire, as well as a self-rating form for students from 12 years into adulthood. The BRIEF includes 86 items that assess behaviors associated with the core executive function processes, such as “Forgets to hand in homework, even when completed,” “Gets caught up in details and misses the big picture,” “Becomes overwhelmed by large assignments,” and “Underestimates the time needed to finish tasks.” Another criterion-referenced assessment system that compares students’, teachers’, and parents’ perceptions of the students’ metacognitive awareness and

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

strategy use is the Metacognitive Awareness System (MetaCOG; Meltzer et al., 2004b; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007; Miller, Meltzer, Katzir-Cohen, & Houser, 2001).2 The MetaCOG, for use with 9- to 18-year-olds, comprises five rating scales that allow teachers to compare their own judgments with their students’ self-ratings of their effort, strategy use, and academic performance (see Table 1.3). These strategy ratings focus on academic areas that depend on executive function processes, including written language, homework, studying, and taking tests (Meltzer, KatzirCohen, Miller, & Roditi, 2001; Miller et al., 2001). As is evident from Table 1.3 and the descriptions that follow, the three student surveys assess students’ self-ratings of their motivation and effort, as well as their strategy use in key academic areas. The two teacher surveys include similar questions, so that a direct comparison can be drawn between students’ and teachers’ ratings. Teachers can use these questionnaires at the beginning of the school year to gain an understanding of how much effort students think they put into their work, how often they use strategies, and how well they think they perform academically (Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007). Teachers can also discuss students’ self-ratings on these surveys at parent conferences, so that parents and teachers can gain shared insights into students’ views of the importance of hard work and academic success.

MetaCOG Student Surveys Motivation and Effort Survey The Motivation and Effort Survey (ME) consists of 38 items asking for students’ self-ratings of their effort and performance on different academic tasks that depend on executive function processes (alpha = .91) (Meltzer et al., 2004c; Meltzer, Sayer, Sales, Theokas, & Roditi, 2002). Sample items are shown in Figure 1.7. Students rate themselves on a 1–5 scale (from “never” to “always”) in terms of how hard they work and how well they do in selected academic areas, such as reading, writing, math, homework, studying for tests, and long-term projects. They are also required to describe themselves as students. TABLE 1.3. Components of the Metacognitive Awareness System (MetaCOG) Student questionnaires •• ME—Motivation and Effort Survey •• STRATUS—Strategy Use Survey •• MAQ—Metacognitive Awareness Questionnaire Teacher questionnaires •• TPSE—Teacher Perceptions of Student Effort •• TIQ—Teacher Information Questionnaire 5-point rating for all surveys 2 For more information about the MetaCOG Surveys, please contact the Research Institute for Learn-

ing and Development (ResearchILD) at www.researchild.org.

Understanding, Assessing, and Teaching

•• I spend as much time as I need to get my work done. •• I finish my work even when it is boring. •• I do schoolwork before other things that are more fun.

FIGURE 1.7. Sample items from the Motivation and Effort Survey (ME): Students’ ratings of their motivation and effort on a 1–5 scale.

Strategy Use Survey The Strategy Use Survey (STRATUS) consists of 40 items that assess students’ selfreported strategy use in reading, writing, spelling, math, studying, and test taking (alpha = .945). Items focus on students’ perceptions of their use of planning, organizing, memorizing, shifting, and self-checking strategies for their schoolwork (see examples in Figure 1.8).

Metacognitive Awareness Questionnaire The Metacognitive Awareness Questionnaire (MAQ) consists of 18 items that assess students’ understanding of what strategies are and how they can apply strategies to their schoolwork (see examples in Figure 1.9). Students are also asked what they think a strategy is both before and after strategy instruction has occurred, to provide the teacher with insights about the effectiveness of strategy instruction. As is shown in Figure 1.10, students like these eighth graders have a fairly good understanding of strategies.

•• When I have to remember new things in school, I make up acronyms to help me. •• Before I write, I plan out my ideas in some way that works for me (outline, list, map). •• When I do math, I ask if my answers make sense.

FIGURE 1.8. Sample items from the Strategy Use Survey (STRATUS): Students’ ratings of their strategy use on a 1–5 scale.

•• When you begin something new, do you try to connect it to something you already know? •• When you begin something new, do you try to think about how long it will take and make sure you have enough time?

FIGURE 1.9. Sample items from the Metacognitive Awareness Questionnaire (MAQ): Students’ ratings of their understanding of strategies on a 1–5 scale.

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION What do you think a strategy is? •• A strategy is something that helps you remember something hard, like the Preamble to the Constitution or biology terms. •• A strategy is a way to help people order and organize things to prepare for a test. Also, it’s a good shortcut because it helps, but it isn’t cheating and it’s fun. •• A strategy is something to help you write a long paper where you need to brainstorm to figure out what is most important.

FIGURE 1.10. Examples of eighth graders’ definitions of a strategy.

MetaCOG Teacher Surveys Teacher Perceptions of Student Effort The Teacher Perceptions of Student Effort (TPSE) survey consists of 38 items that assess teachers’ ratings of students’ effort in different academic domains (alpha = .980) (Meltzer et al., 2004a, 2004b, 2004c). Teachers rate students’ effort and performance in reading, writing, math, homework, tests, and long-term projects—all academic tasks that rely on executive function processes (see Figure 1.11 for sample items). Teachers also rate students’ overall strategy use and academic performance in response to this question: “If you had to assign a grade for this student’s overall academic performance, what would this be?”

Teacher Information Questionnaire The Teacher Information Questionnaire (TIQ) assesses teachers’ understanding of the terms metacognitive, strategy, and effort, as well as their understanding of effective ways for promoting students’ strategy use and executive function processes in the classroom (see Figure 1.12 for sample items). Completion of this survey at the beginning of the school year helps teachers to reflect about their teaching philosophy and practices, and to develop an awareness of the importance of addressing executive function processes.

•• S/he spends as much time as needed to get his/her work done. •• S/he does not give up even when the work is difficult.

FIGURE 1.11. Sample Items from the Teacher Perceptions of Student Effort (TPSE): Teachers’ ratings of students’ effort and strategy use on a 1–5 scale.

Understanding, Assessing, and Teaching

•• Students use strategies effectively without being taught these strategies directly. •• Teaching the curriculum is more important than teaching strategies. •• It is possible to motivate every student to work hard.

FIGURE 1.12. Sample Items from the Teacher Information Questionnaire (TIQ): Teachers are asked their views about ways of teaching strategies effectively in the classroom (a 1–5 scale assesses the extent of their agreement or disagreement).

In summary, teachers can use survey systems such as the MetaCOG for a variety of purposes over the course of the year: •• To understand students’ views of their own effort, use of strategies, and academic performance in the classroom. •• To develop a system for teaching strategies that help students plan, organize, prioritize, shift flexibly, memorize, and check their work. •• To help teachers understand their students’ perceptions and judgments, and to compare their own views with their students’ self-perceptions so that they can reach all their students and teach them to learn how to learn over the course of the school year.

Comparisons of Students’ versus Teachers’ Perceptions As is evident from Tables 1.4a and 1.4b, teachers can directly compare their own perceptions with the views of their students, to help them plan their teaching and connect with each of their students. Students’ perceptions of their own effort and strategy use are often very different from their parents’ and teachers’ perceptions, as has been shown in a number of studies (Meltzer et al., 2004a, 2004b, 2004c; Stone & May, 2002). For example, Figure 1.13a (page 19) shows the self-ratings of John, a fifth grader. John rates himself as a strong student who works hard, with the goals of “getting a second master’s degree” and “making the world a better place.” When asked how his parents would describe him, his response reflects his parents’ emphasis on the importance of working hard in school. When John’s teacher is asked to judge his effort and performance, her comments reflect her perception that John has difficulty sustaining his attention and that his academic performance would be much stronger if he could focus. A sixth-grade student named Lucy (whose self-ratings are shown in Figure 1.13b on page 19) views herself as very bright and hard-working, as does her teacher. However, her teacher also recognizes that Lucy’s performance may be compromised by her organizational and attention difficulties.

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

TABLE 1.4a. Students’ versus Teachers’ Ratings of Their Motivation and Effort on Academic Tasks That Involve Executive Function Processes ME—Students •• Doing well in school is important to me. •• I spend as much time as I need to get my work done. •• I keep working even when the work is difficult. I work hard on: •• Homework •• Long-term projects •• Studying for tests •• Other activities (sports, music, art, hobbies)

TPSE—Teachers •• Doing well in school is important to this student. •• S/he is a hard worker. •• S/he does not give up even when the work is difficult. Please judge how hard this student works: •• Homework •• Long-term projects •• Studying for tests •• Other activities (sports, music, art, hobbies)

Note. The ME and TPSE each comprise 36 items, which are rated on a 1–5 scale.

TABLE 1.4b. Students’ versus Teachers’ Ratings of Their Performance on Academic Tasks That Involve Executive Function Processes ME—Students

TPSE—Teachers

Please judge how well you do on: •• Organization •• Long-term projects •• Making a plan before starting work •• Using strategies in my schoolwork •• Checking my work •• Homework •• Tests •• Long-term projects

Please judge how well this student does on: •• Organization •• Long-term projects •• Making a plan before starting work •• Using strategies in his/her schoolwork •• Checking his/her work •• Homework •• Tests •• Long-term projects

These examples reflect the discrepancies between students’ self-perceptions and their teachers’ judgments. In fact, students frequently overrate their level of academic performance in comparison with their teachers’ ratings, as documented in many of our own studies and those of others (Meltzer et al., 2004a, 2004b; Stone & Conca, 1993; Stone & May, 2002). This discrepancy between teachers’ and students’ judgments is often linked with students’ poor metacognitive awareness and with teachers’ limited understanding of the extent to which executive function weaknesses are detrimental to students’ performance. When teachers understand these discrepancies and the reasons for them, they can use the MetaCOG questionnaires as a starting point for an important set of discussions with students and parents, so that they can all set common goals for the school year and can work toward these goals with similar expectations and objectives. Goal setting and prioritizing—two of the core executive function processes—can help students and teachers plan and reevaluate performance over the course of the school year (see Chapter 3).

Understanding, Assessing, and Teaching

Teacher Ratings and Comments: Inconsistent effort, has trouble focusing; his work would be so much better if he could focus.

FIGURE 1.13a. Comparison of a student’s versus a teacher’s ratings of the student’s school performance and effort.

Teacher Ratings and Comments: She is a bright student who has difficulty listening and is disorganized.

FIGURE 1.13b. Comparison of a student’s versus a teacher’s ratings of the student’s school performance and effort.

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

How Can Teachers Address the Needs of Students with Executive Function Weaknesses? I could use the crazy phrases strategy for other things in school, because, you know, it’s fun. Your mind is basically going to go for the fun stuff. . . . If it sounds like fun, it will help you remember more. —Levon 11th grader

Teachers can establish a strong foundation for executive function strategies when they teach their students to become metacognitive learners—that is, to think about how they think and learn. The questionnaire systems discussed above, such as the BRIEF and the MetaCOG, provide entry points for this process and help students to begin to reflect about the learning process and their specific learning styles. When instruction emphasizes metacognition and continually empowers students to use strategies, then students like Levon develop control over the learning process. As they begin to understand their learning profiles, they learn when to use strategies, as well as which strategies to use for what tasks. This self-awareness not only helps them understand their ongoing struggle to stay organized, but motivates them to learn and use executive function strategies for their academic work. To meet the needs of students with executive function weaknesses such as Levon, a culture of strategy use should be created within every classroom and across the entire school. Teachers need to develop a systematic, strategic cycle of change that extends from school to home and back to school. When teachers stress that students’ use of strategies is as important as accuracy, then strategy use becomes a habit of mind. This ensures continuity across the grades and generalization across content areas, so that students can understand and apply the strategies they learn on a continuing basis. Table 1.5 provides a few guidelines for creating a strategic classroom culture; more specific and detailed suggestions are given in Chapter 2. Students’ use of strategies occurs in stages, and they may initially use strategies incorrectly or unsuccessfully. For example, an early difficulty is reflected in TABLE 1.5. How to Create a Classroom Culture That Promotes Executive Function •• Teach students to become metacognitive learners who think about how they think and learn. •• Make strategy use count by grading students on the basis of their use of strategies as well as their final answers. •• Use strategy reflection sheets for homework and tests, and give credit when students take the time to think about and explain how they have completed tasks. •• Strategy reflection sheets ensure that students allocate homework and study time to the processes as well as the strategies that work, rather than focusing on only the end product or content of learning. •• Create daily 5- to 10-minute strategy-sharing discussions for the class. These discussions are important opportunities for students to share their strategies with one another, as this process helps students to understand how they learn and think. •• Use peer tutoring to help students brainstorm with one another about whether or not an approach is an effective strategy for a specific task. •• Implement a peer-mentoringprogram to promote self-understanding, effort, persistence, and resilience in students with learning and attention difficulties.

Understanding, Assessing, and Teaching

FIGURE 1.14. Self-reflection of Jay, a sixth grader, about the flaws in his approach to memorizing information such as lists of terms.

the comment of Jay, a sixth grader, that “I don’t think my trick works very well” (see Figure 1.14). However, through self-reflection and self-regulation, students can eventually refine and apply these strategies to all the domains. Doing so will enable them to master more complex integrative tasks, such as writing, summarizing, note taking, and studying (Harris & Pressley, 1991).

How Can Core Strategies Be Taught across Tasks, Content Areas, and Grades? The way my mind works with that liquified gobble of dots, my notes would look scattered on a page. One of the most useful strategies I learned was three-column notes. With this system, I learned to make a hierarchy of notes and have it structure around itself and relate to things. This structure helped me to study and to write long papers. —Brandon, college graduate

As noted above, students need to learn when to use which strategies and in what contexts. In particular, students need to recognize that not all strategies work for all tasks and all content areas all of the time. In other words, strategies need to be matched not only with the student’s learning style, but with the task content and the context. Once students recognize the purpose and benefits of using strategies for tasks that are heavily dependent on executive function processes, they can be encouraged to personalize specific strategies, many of which can then be applied to different academic tasks across content areas and across the grades. As Table 1.6 demonstrates, strategies in each of five selected executive function processes can be embedded in the curriculum at different grade levels. Students

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

TABLE 1.6. How to Scaffold Executive Function Strategies into the Curriculum across the Grades Common Classroom language: Grades 1–8

Metacognitive questions (for students to ask themselves)

Remembering/Acccessing working memory •• Acronyms •• Crazy phrases •• Cartoons

Chunk Attach Meaning Rehearse

Can I review? Can I recite? Can I record? Can I picture it?

Organizing •• Triple Note Tote •• Mapping and webbing •• Strategy cards

S²: Sort and Sequence or 4C’s: Cluster, Categorize, Color, Chart

Can I sort into categories? Can I make a chart? Can I use color? Can I cut and paste the material?

Shifting •• Shifty accents •• Shifty images

“Let Go and Shift Gears”

Can I try another way? Can I make Plan A and Plan B?

Checking •• Personal checklist •• RE-view

“Top Three Hits” “Switch Pens”

What are my common mistakes? Did I switch pens?

Executive function strategies a

aThese strategies are all from BrainCogs (ResearchILD & FableVision, 2003).

can become metacognitive learners and can begin to understand when and where to use these strategies by asking themselves structured questions that help them to reflect. Selected strategies that help students to organize, prioritize, and check can be taught in the first few grades in school and modified slightly for more complex tasks in the higher grades (see later chapters for more examples). For instance, the STAR strategy (see Figures 1.15a, 1.15b, and 1.15c) is a useful and very versatile strategy for summarizing reading material, organizing ideas for writing, taking notes, and studying in a variety of content areas (Meltzer et al., 2006). It helps students to plan, organize, prioritize, and shift between the main ideas and the details—whether they are reading for meaning or writing book reports in the first few grades (see Figure 1.15a), preparing complex science reports in the middle school grades (see Figure 1.15b), or completing challenging history assignments in the high school grades (see Figure 1.15c). For essay writing or book reports, strategies like the STAR strategy can be used to help students focus on the major themes or main ideas. They can then use more detailed three-column note-taking systems to add relevant details to the paragraphs they write (e.g., the Triple Note Tote strategy from BrainCogs; see Chapter 2 for a fuller discussion). When all students—and particularly students with learning disabilities—use effective strategies such as these to develop their executive function processes, their academic performance often improves, which in turn enhances motivation and effort. This in turn results in more efficient and successful academic performance (Meltzer, 1996; Meltzer et al., 2001, 2004c), as

FIGURE 1.15a. The STAR strategy: An organizer for a fourth grader’s book report about Hatchet by Gary Paulsen. From Meltzer and Krishnan (2007). Copyright 2007 by The Guilford Press. Reprinted by permission.

FIGURE 1.15b. The STAR strategy: An organizer for a seventh grader’s science project about space travel to Mars. From Meltzer and Krishnan (2007). Copyright 2007 by The Guilford Press. Reprinted by permission.

FIGURE 1.15c. The STAR strategy: An organizer for a 10th grader’s history paper about the French Revolution.

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

described earlier. All these interconnected processes are essential for helping all students attain the academic success of which they are capable and deserving.

Drive to Thrive: A Model Program for Integrating Strategies into the Daily Classroom Routine Drive to Thrive is a model program that integrates strategy instruction focused on executive function processes into the school curriculum (Meltzer et al., 2004b, 2007a; Meltzer, Sales Pollica, & Barzillai, 2007b; Noeder, 2007). The program creates a school and classroom culture where general and special education teachers have a shared understanding of the importance of nurturing efficient executive function strategies, focused effort, and positive academic self-perceptions in their students. Drive to Thrive incorporates the same philosophy as Graham and Harris’s self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) (Graham & Harris, 2003; Harris & Graham, 1996; Reid & Lienemann, 2006), namely, that effective strategy instruction depends on student–teacher collaboration, and that strategies need to be personalized for each student, domain, and setting. Within a Drive to Thrive classroom, classwork and homework focus consistently on the how of learning, rather than only on the final product. As a result, students begin to value the process of learning. Students are taught how to remember and recall previously learned information, and how to plan, organize and prioritize information for assignments and tests. There is an emphasis on flexibility and the ability to shift approaches in all learning and problem-solving situations. Independence is supported as students become increasingly aware of the benefits of using executive function strategies and are motivated to make the effort to continue using strategies that work for them. Over time, students begin to view themselves as capable learners; this results in positive mindsets and a willingness to make the effort needed to apply strategies to a wide array of tasks in different content areas. Drive to Thrive focuses on building a cycle of academic success in all students through teacher training, use of multimedia software (BrainCogs), and peer tutoring (BrainCogs Squad). Participating teachers are trained to create a culture of strategy use in their classrooms, and to promote metacognitive awareness and strategy use in their students by embedding executive function strategies in their curriculum and daily teaching practices (see Chapters 2–7 for more detailed discussions). The following principles are emphasized (Meltzer et al., 2004a, 2004b, 2004c; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007): •• Teachers foster metacognitive awareness and strategic mindsets in their students. •• Students and teachers view themselves as part of a community of learners who help each other to succeed and thrive.

Understanding, Assessing, and Teaching

•• Students accept that hard work and focused effort are critically important for academic success, and that they will thrive if they have the drive. •• Teachers acknowledge that effort is domain-specific, and that students may sometimes need to work harder in one content area (e.g., math) than in another (e.g., language arts). •• Students recognize that persistence and determination are critically important for fostering academic and life success. •• Teachers gain an understanding of the close interactions among effort, strategy use, academic self-concept, and classroom performance, as well as the cycle that builds persistence, resilience, and long-term academic and life success. In a series of 10 studies over the past decade, we have evaluated the efficacy of our Drive to Thrive program in six school systems with over 100 teachers and over 1,000 students (Meltzer et al., 2004a, 2004b, 2004c, 2006, 2007b). We have shown the importance of teaching strategies that strengthen the key executive function processes. We have also demonstrated that students’ use of strategies in general and executive function strategies in particular, plays a critical role in school performance, and that it influences their perceptions of themselves as competent learners and good students (Meltzer et al., 2004b). For students with learning and attention problems, our findings have indicated that their self-perceptions often frame their willingness to work hard and to use strategies to compensate for or bypass their difficulties and to achieve greater success in school (Meltzer et al., 2004b). Students who develop an understanding of their learning styles, and of the importance of applying strategies to their schoolwork, begin to recognize that their struggles are not insurmountable. They also begin to recognize that they can be more successful academically when they learn and apply executive function strategies to their schoolwork (Meltzer, 2007; Meltzer et al., 2004b; 2007b; Noeder, 2007). As displayed in Figure 1.16, our overall findings have shown that executive function strategies, in combination with effort, influenced students’ performance on homework, and long-term projects, as well as their overall academic performance. It should be noted that R2 refers to the amount of variability that can be explained by students’ use of strategies as well as their effort. Developmental differences, as well as shifts in the complexity of the school curriculum, frequently affect students’ performance in ways that need to be understood by teachers and other school professionals (see Chapter 2 for more examples). In particular, changes in students’ self-concepts and self-efficacy between the elementary grades (grades 3–5) and the middle and high school grades often affect their effort and academic performance. This is particularly evident in students with learning difficulties who are struggling academically. In one study of over 380 students, we identified changes between elementary and middle school that have important implications for the classroom (Meltzer et al., 2004b). In grades

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

Executive Function Strategies

Homework

R2 = .347

DomainSpecific Effort

Long-Term Projects

Overall Performance

FIGURE 1.16. Combined effects of executive function strategies and domain-specific effort on academic performance.

3–5, regardless of whether students with learning difficulties judged themselves as good students or poor students, they still viewed themselves as hard workers who used strategies in their schoolwork (Meltzer et al., 2004b). They also judged themselves as working exceptionally hard in all academic areas—namely, reading, writing, spelling, math, science, and social studies. In contrast, at the middle school level, differences in academic self-concepts influenced students’ judgments of themselves as good or poor students, as strategic learners, and as hard workers who were willing to make the effort to learn. Academic self-concepts particularly affected the effort and performance of students with learning difficulties: They were not as willing to work extremely hard in challenging academic areas that demand sustained effort and use of executive function strategies, such as writing, mathematics, science, social studies, homework, long-term projects, and studying for tests. These findings have important implications for classroom teachers, given that written work, long-term projects, and assignments in content area subjects (e.g., science and history) often require students to write multiple drafts and exert maximal effort to revise, edit, and improve their work. Furthermore, as we have shown in our Drive to Thrive studies, successful strategy use mediates the relationship between students’ self-reported levels of effort and their academic self-concepts (Meltzer et al., 2004a, 2004b, 2004c) and produces significant improvements in students’ completion of homework and long-term projects, as well as in their overall academic performance.

Understanding, Assessing, and Teaching

Conclusions The digital age has had a significant impact on the pace and efficiency of the workplace and there is greater demand for individuals who can solve problems efficiently and can develop and implement complex plans efficiently and accurately. As discussed in this chapter, because executive function processes have assumed increasing importance over the past decade, they need to be introduced into the classroom curriculum and taught systematically. Specifically, students need strategies for learning how to learn by shifting flexibly from the big picture (seen from the top of the mountain) to the numerous and often confusing details that need to be prioritized and organized (at the bottom of the mountain). In the next six chapters, we discuss specific strategies that teachers can implement to help their students become successful learners who can master the challenges of 21st-century society, with its emphasis on executive function processes as well as rapid and efficient output. It should be emphasized that teachers are not expected to master all of the suggestions provided in this book, but rather to select those strategies and approaches that fit their own and their students’ needs, and that can be integrated into the curriculum at appropriate times.

Copyright © 2010 The Guilford Press. All rights reserved under International Copyright Convention. No part of this text may be reproduced, transmitted, downloaded, or stored in or introduced into any information storage or retrieval system, in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereinafter invented, without the written permission of The Guilford Press. Purchase this book now: www.guilford.com/p/meltzer2

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November 10, 2023 - Day 2 Plenary Speakers

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Exercise: An Antidote to Stress for Challenging Times John Ratey, M.D. Associate Clinical Professor, Harvard Medical School

Overview Exercise has a remarkable ability to manage stress while boosting important cognitive functions that improve learning. When students are involved in physical activity, their bodies release endorphins, which are natural mood lifters that also reduce stress and anxiety. By regulating cortisol, the stress hormone, exercise prevents chronic stress and its negative effects on the learning process. In this presentation, Dr. John Ratey explains how exercise triggers neurotransmitters and neurohormones that support optimal brain performance. It increases blood flow to the brain and releases Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), a substance that helps brain cells grow and connect, crucial for learning. This cognitive growth, combined with the positive emotions exercise brings, helps combat the impact of stress. Exercise not only distracts from stress—it brings the mental clarity that is so important for learning. Regular physical activity improves sleep quality, which is essential for managing stress and boosting cognitive abilities. Yoga, in particular, eases muscle tension and builds long-term stress resilience. Most importantly, exercise sharpens the attention networks, making learning easier, fostering composure, and improving stress management. In summary, exercise not only counters stress but also enhances cognitive abilities, creating a powerful cycle that strengthens stress management skills and improves learning. References Hallowell, E. M., & Ratey, J. J. (2022). The Cerebellum Connection. In ADHD 2.0: New science and essential strategies for thriving with distraction-from childhood through adulthood. Ballantine Books.

Exercise: the tonic for our times

John Ratey, MD

E M OT I O N A L R E G U L AT I O N

EXERCISE PLAY

OPTIMIZING COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING

Every student at Madison Junior High completes a computer-based fitness test

Students spend one day a week in the school's state-of-the-art fitness center.

33% of freshmen in California were overweight or obese. 3% of freshmen were overweight or obese. 19,000 children in the district. An international benchmarking test comparing the achievement of eighth-grade students . In 1999, Naperville District 203 scored #1 in science and #6 in math. An amazing 94.1% of Naperville parents were satisfied with the PE curriculum.

Another example of shameless self-promotion Sparkinglife.org Johnratey.com

JOHNRATEYMD ON FACEBOOK

MAYO CLINIC • OVER 1600 SCIENTIFIC PAPERS REVIEWED • SHOWED THAT EXERCISE IMPROVES BRAIN • PREVENT COGNITIVE DECLINE • LESSENS THREAT OF ALZHEIMER’S • IMPROVES TEST SCORES AT ANY AGE • IMPROVES MOOD, ENERGY, MOTIVATION

EXERCISE MAKES US SMARTER • First, it optimizes your mind-set to improve alertness, attention, and motivation; • Second, it prepares and encourages nerve cells to bind to one another, which is the cellular basis for logging in new information; and • Third, it spurs the development of new nerve cells.

EXERCISE HAS AN EFFECT TO INCREASE LIFE FORCES IN MANY WAYS: 1. SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY 2. NEUROGENESIS 3. COLLATERAL CIRCULATION, 4. Also IMPROVES HBP, DIABETES, OBESITY, OTHER RISK FACTORS Cotm an CW , B erchtold N C, Christie LA.Exercise builds brain health: key roles of grow th factor cascades and inflam m ation. Trends N eurosci. 2007 Sep;30(9):464-72.

Role of pa in diabetes management and prevention Hayes, Kriska Pa lifestyle plays vital role in both Magagement of type I diabetes Prevention and management of type 2 diabetes PA weight lose and weight management Improves insulin/glucose profile for people w pre diabetes, glycemic control w people type 2 diabetes, and qualtiy of life for everyone Type 2 diabetes – pa reduces risk of cardiovascularall cause mortality

ADHD 2.0 The update A killer- Russ Barkley - ADHD costs on average 13 years of living- they die sooner Ferrari engine with Bicycle Breaks Battle of the DMN and the TPN The Cerebellum Tonic of Exercise

The Anterior System has a Major Role in Executive Function •

The executive function com ponent of the anterior system : • Planning • Organization • Initiate or delay a response

•

M ediated by the prefrontal regions of the cortex and their interconnecting pathways and structures

•

Dysfunction in these areas leads to disruption in the organization and control of behavior http://www.driesen.com/prefrontal_cortex.htm

MORE NERVE TRAFFIC RISES UP FROM THE LIMBIC SYSTEM THAN DOWN FROM THE CORTEX. OUR EMOTIONS THEN RULE OUR CONGNITIVE BRAIN. EXECUTIVE

FUNCTION

AGE, EXPERIENCE, AND PRACTICE ADD TO OUR CORTEX’S ABILITY TO INHIBIT, CONTROL, SCULPT OUR BEHAVIORAL RESPOSNES. PSYCHOTHERAPY, DRUGS, LEARNING FROM ONES MISTAKES, COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL TRAINING, VISUALIZATION, “ICON IMPLANTS” (RELIGION, NLP, HYPNOSIS, GROWTHALL CAN INCREASE THE POWER OF THE CORTEX TO HELP MASTER THE NETHER REGIONS

Understanding the Demon of the Mind

Connectome Default mode

Hot topic -- 13 studies on DMN and ADHD 2021

Task Positive Anti-Correlated – glitchy switch with ADHD

DMN Explained ADHD • DMN activity is lessened but not gone during transitions and when there is task specific activations • default-mode of brain activity to denote a state in which we e are awake and alert, but not actively involved in an attention demanding or goal-directed task • The more demanding the task the greater deactivation and DMN persists to a greater degree during simple sensory tasks, early sleep stages • Task activity leads to a decrease in activity of PCC- precuneus/ posterior cingulate cortex • BUT NOT WITH ADHD • DMN ACTS AS A MAGNET PULLING AWAY FROM TASK!!!! • Treatment: Meditation, Medication, Movement, Create Stellar Environments

The Cerebellum Connection

Fun Facts 10% of Brain Volume yet 75% of neurons Gyroscope of movement and higher brain functions Dysmetria of Thought- Jeremy Schmahmann Smaller vermis in ADHD- Differences in Autism, Schizophrenia, Mood, Addictions Dyscoordination @ 40% with ADHD

Cerebral volume is ∼4% smaller in ADHD patients compared to controls

Very neuroplastic – trainable

Charleston Progressive Academy Exercise Impacts Self-Control Public Magnet School, Grades 4-8, Approximately 120 children 100% of students on school breakfast and lunch programs. Program: §Added 40 minutes of exercise in the morning §Exercise was performed in gym in station format. §Activities included: §Basketball §Dance Dance Revolution §Double Dutch" jump roping §Pogo stick jumping

1st Semester 2006 - 2007 Outcomes: Disciplinary Referrals Year 2006 2007 Referrals: 661 353 Suspensions: 71 24

Teachers reported : Students are more focused. Students are more focused during the MAP (Measure of Academic Progress) testing as well. Teachers observed: Students testing immediately after morning activities did better — meeting or exceeding individual growth targets — than middle scholars taking the test late morning or in the afternoon.

3 x wk for 16 wks (30 minutes)- 75-80% of Cardiac reserve.

EXERCISING RATS MAKE MORE GABA CELLS IN HIPPOCAMPUSMORE RESISTANT TO THREATS – IMMEDIATE AND LONGER TERM STRESSORS HAVE TO BE MORE THREATENING

6 WEEKS OF RUNNING VS CONTROL

Physical exercise prevents stress-induced activation of granule neurons and enhances local inhibitory mechanisms in the dentate gyrus. Schoenfeld TJ, Rada P, Pieruzzini PR, Hsueh B, Gould E. J Neurosci. 2013 May 1;33(18):7770-7. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5352-12.2013.

Can exercise help treat anxiety? https:/ / www.health.harvard.edu/ blog/can-exercise-help-treat-anxiety-2019102418096

• Engaging in exercise diverts you fromthe very thing you are anxious about. • Moving your body decreases muscle tension, lowering the body’s contribution to feeling anxious. • Getting your heart rate up changes brain chemistry, increasing the availability of important antianxietyneurochemicals, includingserotonin, gamma aminobutyricacid (GABA), brain-derived neurotrophicfactor (BDNF), and endocannabinoids. • Exercise activatesfrontal regions of the brainresponsible for executive function, which helps control the amygdala, our reacting systemto real or imagined threats to our survival. • Exercising regularlybuilds up resources that bolster resilience against stormy emotions. •

OXYTOCIN · Oxytocin immediately reverses our body’s response to stress. · It creates a buffer against stress in the future. · It helps activate the neuroplasticity we need for learning and change. · It heals wounding of previous relationships · It helps “re-wire” our brain’s “rules” of relationship.

Walking and Creating

Of the students tested for creativity while walking, 100 percent came up with more creative ideas in one experiment, while 95 percent, 88 percent and 81 percent of the walker groups in the other experiments had more creative responses compared with when they were sitting. O p p ezzo M , S ch w artz D L .

G ive yo u r id eas so m e leg s: th e p o sitive effect o f w alkin g o n creative th in kin g . J E xp P sych o l L earn M em

C o g n . 2014 Ju l;40(4):1142-52.

IN THE MOMENT

Motor Problems Predict Severity • 159 ASD kids (14-33 months) relationship of fine and gross motor skills and social communicative skills (using calibrated autism severity scores). Fine motor and gross motor skills

significantly predicted calibrated autism severity {p < .05). Children with weaker motor skills have greater social communicative skill deficits.

• working on motor skill with balance training and many different types of exercise has positive effect and outcome.

The Effects of an Intensive Balance Training Program on Attention and Behavior in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Dr. John Ratey, MD Nicole G. Kinney PT, DPT, C/NDT The Center for Discovery October 2019

P i c t u re s o f B a l a n c e Tra i n i n g E q u i p m e n t

BOSU Ball

Balance Beam

Hurdles

• 75% (24 students) had change on the Inattention T-SAID scores • 18.78% (6 students) had a decrease on the Inattention TSAID scores • 6.25% (2 students) did not have a change on the Inattention T-SAID scores

When children have marked problems with motor coordination, they often have problems with attention and impulse control Apart from inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity, ADHD in childhood presents with an impairment of motor coordination and balance functions. We analyzed spontaneous and externally perturbed stance in ten adult patients suffering from ADHD. Findings were compared to data from ten matched healthy subjects. Results: Spontaneous sway amplitudes and velocities were larger in ADHD patients compared to healthy subjects. Postural instability in adult ADHD - A pilot study.Jansen I, Philipsen A, Dalin D, Wiesmeier IK, Maurer C.Gait Posture. 2019 Jan;67:284-289. doi: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2018.10.016. Epub 2018 Oct 17

ADHD in US • Percent of children 5-17 years of age ever diagnosed with ADHD: 10.2% (2012-2014) • Percent of boys 5-17 years of age ever diagnosed with ADHD: 14.1% (2012-2014) • Percent of girls 5-17 years of age ever diagnosed with ADHD: 6.2% (2012-2014)

How Far Do I have to Run Today?

Exercise & Learning – The JACK Ef fect

Effects of physical activity on executive function and motor performance in children with ADHD.Ziereis S, Jansen P.Res Dev Disabil. 2015 Mar;38:181-91. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2014.12.005. Epub 2015 Jan 3.

• A total of 43 children with ADHD (32 boys and 11 girls) aged between seven and 12 years • 12 week training – 2 groups general sport or specific balance training Participants in EG1 took part in a training which focused on the abilities ball handling, balance and manual dexterity. Participants in EG2 group were trained in sports without a specific focus. And a control group • Both intervention groups improved on executive function measures and no difference in the improvement between groups

Move to Focus, Move to Motivate: The Power of Exercise

Bout of Exercise-- taking a little bit of Ritalin and a little bit of Prozac

Time In versus Time Out Best Exercise- Regularly Scheduled, With Someone, Outside, FUN

What should I do • For substantial health benefits, adults should do at least 150 minutes (2 hours and 30 minutes) a week of moderate-intensity, or 75 minutes (1 hour and 15 minutes) a week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous intensity aerobic activity. Aerobic activity should be performed in episodes of at least 10 minutes, and preferably, it should be spread throughout the week. • 7 Minute Exercise-

• TABATA- HIIT- High Intensity Interval Training

E xe r c i s e s Aerobic Strength training Balance- Yoga, tai chi, martial arts of any sort Rhythm Dance, dance, dance, Fun, Small Tribes Outside Mindfulness

Recommendations • Get the heart rate up- Martin Gibala • DO something FUN • Activity with others • Get Outside

Variety is the Spice of Life • Cardiovascular training significantly improved attention and abstract reasoning performances, whereas resistance training significantly improved praxis. In fact, each of the three types of PA interventions produced different effects on cognition, over the course of the 12 weeks • Different physical Activities combined might guarantee a variety of stimuli that may favor biological and physiological adaptations in human

E ffects o f d ifferen t typ es o f p h ysical activity o n th e co g n itive fu n ctio n s an d atten tio n in o ld er p eo p le: A ran d o m ized co n tro lled stu d y. Iuliano E 1, di C agno A 2, A quino G 3, F iorilli G 4, M ignogna P5, C alcagno G 6, D i C ostanzo A 7E xp G erontol. 2015 O ct;70:105-10.

High Intensity Help • The music-only and music-and-video conditions led to the highest valence and enjoyment scores during and after exercise regardless of intensity. • Findings indicate that attentional manipulations can exert a salient influence on affect and enjoyment even at intensities slightly above ventilatory threshold. •

Can high-intensity exercise be more pleasant?: attentional dissociation using music and video. Jones L, Karageorghis CI, Ekkekakis P. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2014 Oct;36(5):528-41

Medication: The Most Powerful Tool Everyone Fears Don’t Be Afraid Lots of Evidence- Stimulants 70-80% effective Addiction William Dodson- RSD- Rejection Sensitive Dysphoria - Guanfacine Paul Wender- Some Medication work in Some people at Some Dose Some of the Time.

MICHAEL PHELPS OFF RITALIN

At age 9, Michael was put on Ritalin, a stimulant used to treat hyperactivity. His mother thinks it helped a little. He seemed to be able to focus longer, he could get through homework without moving around so much. She said he was still a middling student. It might have raised some C’s to B’s, she said. But if a homework assignment had to be at least four sentences, she said, He’d just do four sentences. After two years, Michael asked to get off the meds. He had to go to the school nurse’s office to take a pill at lunch, she said, and felt stigmatized.Just out of the blue, he said to me: ‘I don’t want to do this anymore, Mom.

After consulting with the Dr., Michael stopped medication. In the meantime, Michael the swimmer had appeared. By 10, he was ranked nationally in his age group. Ms. Phelps watched the boy who couldn’t sit still at school sit for four hours at a meet waiting to swim his five minutes’ worth of races. At age 12 Michael needed an algebra tutor, and was so antsy in school that his mother suggested the teacher sit him at a table in the back. And yet he willingly got up at 6:30 daily for 90minute morning practices and swam 2 to 3 hours every afternoon.

The Healing Power of Connection

George Vaillant -

40 yr study - Long term health - LOVE

Vivek Murthy- Loneliness Greatest Risk to Health UK-

Minister of Loneliness-

ADHD- often ostracized- very alone Tips- Family Meals, Pets, now Zooms, Practice Gratitude Learn to Ask for Help

The Elephant in the Classroom: Promoting Equity in School Systems Tommy Chang, Ed.D. CEO, The New Teacher Center Overview Teaching and learning is human work. Every educator deserves to be a part of an enabling environment that creates the conditions where they thrive, and teaching is grounded in the full context of students' social, emotional, and intellectual lives. The path to designing rigorous, equity-centered learning experiences for students must be anchored in high-quality professional learning — i.e., instructional coaching — that examines the outsized impact of identity. How does a teacher’s identity shape instructional decision-making? What’s the significance of identity mapping students and self? How can we cultivate classrooms rooted in joy and genius if our perception of academic identities create deficit-based lenses and limiting beliefs? This session will preview some of the challenging self-reflection work coaches can guide educators through towards designing relationship-rich, assets-oriented, academically rigorous learning environments where students feel they belong. We’ll explore one possible tool to examine issues of identity, diversity, beliefs, and values on classroom design and decision-making. And we’ll discuss moving to transformative SEL — a term that refers to applying the SEL framework toward the goals of creating equitable settings and systems and promoting justice-oriented school — and the critical role of how identity contributes to positive academic, social, and emotional outcomes. References Bocala, C. & Holman, R. (2021). Coaching for equity demands deeper dialogue. Educational Leadership, 78:6, 66-71. City, E., Elmore, R., Fiarman, S., & Teitel, L. (2009). Instructional Rounds in Education: A Network Approach to Improving Teaching and Learning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. Elmore, R. (2008). Improving the Instructional Core. http://teacher.justinwells.net/ Downloads/improving_the_instructional_core_elmore_2008.pdf Jagers, R., Rivas-Drake, D., & Williams, B. (2019). Transformative social and emotional

learning (sel): toward SEL in service of educational equity and excellence, Educational Psychologist, 54:3, 162-184, DOI: 10.1080/00461520.2019.1623032 Jagers, R., Skoog-Hoffman, A., Barthelus, Bl., & Schlund, J. (2021). Transformative Social and Emotional Learning: In Pursuit of Educational Equity and Excellence. Retrieved from https://www.aft.org/ae/summer2021/jagers_skooghoffman_Barthelus_schlund Kraft, M.A., Blazar, D., Hogan, D. (2018). The effect of teaching coaching on instruction and achievement: A meta-analysis of the causal evidence. Review of Educational Research, 88(4), 547-588. Laidley, D., Bambino, D., McIntyre, D., Quate, S., & Quinn, J. (2001, December 1). The Paseo or Circles of Identity. National School Reform Faculty. https://www.nsrfharmony.org/ Muhammed, G. (2020). Cultivating Genius: An Equity Framework for Culturally and Historically Responsive Literacy. New York: Scholastic, Inc.

2023 Annual Executive Function Conference

Anchoring Equity: Coaching for Identity, tSEL, and the Design of Rigorous Student-Centered Learning Experiences Tommy Chang, Ed.D. CEO, New Teacher Center Copyright © 2022 New Teacher Center. All Rights Reserved.

Our learning journey > Unpacking The Elephant in the (Class)room and anchors for equity > Looking at instructional coaching as a lever for equity > Exploring the im pact of educator identity on designing equity-centered learning > W orking toward classroom cultures of joy and genius > Interconnecting transform ative SEL and academ ics to actualize equity

How do we build selfunderstanding, motivation, and flexible thinking so that we promote engagement and reduced stress in school? 3

NTC helps build resilient and enabling school environments through professional learning — so that every teacher and student can grow, thrive, and shape their futures 4

EXPAND How We Get There

The Challenge The Solution NTC works to disrupt the Commitments & Implications predictability of educational American education systems and structures are designed to produce inequitable outcomes.

inequities for systemically underserved students by accelerating educator effectiveness.

Professional Learning and Coaching for Induction Mentors

Professional Learning and Coaching for Instructional Coaches

The Goal We believe that every student, frompreschool through high

I.E ., T E A C H E R IN D U C T IO N

Embrace

I.E ., IN S T R U C T IO N A L C O A C H IN G

school, deserves an excellent and equitable education that empowers themto reach their full potential in classrooms, communities, and beyond.

Learn from your students about how and where they learn–and from whom On-demand, Self-paced Professional Learning for Educators

Expand

I.E ., D IR E C T - T O - E D U C A T O R

Professional Learning Cultures for Human-Centered Systems Change I.E ., P R O F E S S IO N A L L E A R N IN G S Y S T E M S

Co-Design

Responsive Professional Learning for Capacity Building and Enabling Conditions I.E ., A D A P T IV E C O A C H IN G / C O N S U L T IN G

Together with educators and partners, we help build resilient and enabling school environments

through professional learning —cocreating the conditions so every teacher and student can grow, thrive, and shape their futures.

New Teacher

Center

New Teacher Center

“

Every system is perfectly designed to get the results it gets.” —Attributed to W . Edwards Dem ing, Am erican engineer and statistician

New Teacher Center

We are putting beautiful plants – our students, educators, resources, materials, etc. – into soil that is not nutrient-dense and cannot sustain a healthy ecosystem

New Teacher

Center

I am Tommy Chang.

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amet, consectetur adipiscing elit.

I Am Poem By Tommy Chang, New Teacher Center, Chief Executive Officer I am an im m ig rant… Like others w ho cam e forced or by choice, w e arrived. To build a nation, unified. B ut assim ilation w as the only w ay, m y culture, language, held inside. S o I can be "A m erican," in pursuit of m y new stride. I am an A sian-A m erican… . S tanding on the shoulders of academ ics and activists w ho stood their ground. Fighting for political self-determ ination and an anti-racist, socially-just agenda, yet to be found. I am an ed ucato r… Like others I strive. To create a future for young people so they can thrive. B ecause our country's prom ise, bound to soar. Lies w ithin the youth w e adore. New Teacher Center

C ollective responsibility, our creed. N urturing their dream s, w e succeed. 10

Anchors for equity

New Teacher Center

EMBRACE Embrace teaching and learning as a dynamic relational human exchange New Teacher Center

EXPAND Expand the concept of educator and community in schools New Teacher Center

CO-DESIGN Co-design systems to sustain equity New Teacher Center

Embrace teaching and learning as a dynamic relational human exchange

Expand the concept of educator and community in schools

Co-design systems to sustain equity

Commitments & Implications

Commit to knowing yourself, your students, and your content

Learn from your students about how and where they learn — and from whom

Create the time and space for building an equity practice

Discover and leverage learners’ unique and diverse assets and ways of learning

Reexamine your ideas of who the stakeholders are in your ecosystem

Identify ways and places to sustain and grow change

EM BRACE

Commitments & Implications

Commit to knowing yourself, your students, and your content

New Teacher Center

> 6 federal studies > 20+ years > National reach > 270,000 teachers

(annually)

What we know works > Grounding in relationships > Grounding anchor practices in high-leverage tools > Utilization of standards & continuum tools > Maintaining anchors (foundational training, forum s, in-field coaching)

What we know must shift > Integration of transform ative SEL, equity, and academ ic rigor > W ork toward students understanding, developm ent and connection to identities > Supporting teachers knowledge of self and its im pact on instructional practice > Centering students’ identities and lived experiences via asset-based teaching > W ork across the school and district ecosystem for coherence and alignm ent

It starts with us. Knowing ourselves is critical because it shapes everything we do. 21

I am Tommy Chang.

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Paseo Protocol

Identity markers Able-bodiedness

Occupation

Age Education

Physical Appearance Race

Gender

Religion

Geographical Location

Sexuality

Im m igration Status Language

Socio Econom ic Status Other

Paseo Protocol Educator

Angeleno Tom m y

Asian Am erican Person of Color Im m igrant

Who are we as educators — as people — and how do our experiences shape us and show up in our practice?

Take two (2) minutes to reflect and fill in your identity markers. Consider: Which of these identity markers feels most important to me? Which of these identity markers do others notice or assume about me? 27 Copyright © 2022 New Teacher Center. All Rights Reserved.

Pause and reflect Think of a time when one of the elements of your identity definitely worked to your advantage, either in your educational experience or in other areas of your life. Think of a time when one of the elements of your identity appeared to hold you back, either in your educational experience or in other areas of your life.

Unpacking our academic identity

Our story as a learner We all sit in different spaces about how we know our academic ability Learning environment

Messages received

Thing that stuck

I.e., public school, private school, home school, etc.

I.e., narrative about academic competencies

I.e., assessment data indicates capabilities

I am Tommy Chang.

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My story as a learner The way I sit in different spaces in response to how I know my academic ability Content over Application

English Only

Learning environment

Messages received

High stakes testing: One opportunity to show mastery Thing that stuck

Paseo Protocol Talkative Content over Application

Tom m y

Take two (2) minutes to reflect and fill in your academic identity markers. Consider: Look from different subject areas (i.e., math vs. literacy) Think about your narrative and the external narrative 35 Copyright © 2022 New Teacher Center. All Rights Reserved.

How do these things impact the decisions we make and our relationships with the students we teach?

Do we have perceptions about a student who doesn’t match up with our academic identity?

Student

Teaching and learning should be about promoting a classroom culture of genius and joy. Not theoretical or aspirational, it’s research-based: The science of learning and development proves all learning is social and emotional, and prioritizing joy and strengths-framing cultivates confidence, happiness and a growth mindset 41 Copyright © 2022 New Teacher Center. All Rights Reserved.

EM BRACE

Commitments & Implications

Discover and leverage learners’ unique and diverse assets and ways of learning New Teacher Center

Centering the humanity of our students in teaching and learning What equity looks and feels like: Classrooms where students experience transformative SEL practices and rigorous academics 43 Copyright © 2022 New Teacher Center. All Rights Reserved.

Transformative SEL: Five Constructs* Identity Multidimensional, interrelated, and

Agency

Belonging

Collaborative Problem Solving

Curiosity

Perceived and actual capacity to

Sense of connectedness

Acknowledges and helps realize

Surface and curate information about

evolving way

effect change

needed to co-

collective rights

oneself, others, and

students/teachers

through purposeful

construct

and responsibilities

the world

view themselves

action

equitable, thriving

of full citizenship

communities

across contexts

Graphic repurposed from Minnesota Department of Education Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL)

ENHANCES

Equity and excellence

Self-worth

ENHANCES

Hope and selfdirection

ENHANCES

Self-reflection, self-respect

Self-development, social analysis

* From Collaborative for Academic,

Teachers can’t create what they haven’t experienced Professional learning (via coaching) must: Craft tSEL-embedded learning experiences for teachers to enable them to do the same for students 45 Copyright © 2022 New Teacher Center. All Rights Reserved.

I am Tommy Chang.

Lo rem ip su m d o lo r

Lorem ipsum dolor sit

amet, consectetur adipiscing elit.

Transformative SEL: Five Constructs* Identity Multidimensional, interrelated, and

Agency

Belonging

Collaborative Problem Solving

Curiosity

Perceived and actual capacity to

Sense of connectedness

Acknowledges and helps realize

Surface and curate information about

evolving way

effect change

needed to co-

collective rights

oneself, others, and

students/teachers

through purposeful

construct

and responsibilities

the world

view themselves

action

equitable, thriving

of full citizenship

communities

across contexts

Graphic repurposed from Minnesota Department of Education Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL)

ENHANCES

Equity and excellence

ENHANCES

Self-worth

ENHANCES

Hope and selfdirection

ENHANCES

Self-reflection, self-respect

Self-development, social analysis

* From Collaborative for Academic,

Instruction that honors and makes connections to students’ lived experiences and identities and scaffolds learning to build an understanding of others’ lived experiences 48 Copyright © 2022 New Teacher Center. All Rights Reserved.

Create the critical conditions that nurture teacher health and wellbeing in the face of increasing complexity and challenges

Instructional Core

> Is content on grade level?

> How will I engage students?

> Standard/Task

> How can I

Alignment?

leverage student-

> What level of understanding do I have of the content?

specific strengths?

> What is the

> What strategies will I use to deliver

relevance of the

instruction?

content to students?

Instructional core woven with Transformative SEL

Identity

Agency

Self-Awareness

Belonging

Self-Managem ent

SEL & Equity Curiosity

Social Awareness

Responsible Decision-Making

Collaborative Problem Solving Relationship Skills

“

Every system is perfectly designed to get the results it gets.” —Attributed to W . Edwards Dem ing, Am erican engineer and statistician

New Teacher Center

Thank you.

New Teacher Center

Acknowledgements

Table of Contents

The Elephant in the (Class)room was developed and designed by New Teacher Center. The principal authors were Atyani Howard, Chief Program Officer, and Dave Abel, Senior Advisor. Chris Roddy, Vice President of Marketing and Communications, and Tracy Laughlin, Director of Communications, provided key feedback on the content, language, and structure.

The Elephant in the (Class)room

A New Vision for Teaching and Learning — Anchors for Equity

Embrace teaching and learning as a dynamic relational human exchange

Commit to knowing yourself, your students, and your content

Discover and leverage learners’ unique and diverse assets and ways of learning

Expand the concept of educator and community in schools

Learn from your students about how and where they learn — and from whom

Reexamine your ideas of who the stakeholders are in your ecosystem

Co-design systems to sustain equity

Create the time and space for building an equity practice

Identify ways and places to sustain and grow change

Learn More and Take Action

Relevant Research

This work would not have evolved as it did without the support and guidance from NTC’s Equity Commission. We are grateful to this group for spending a year alongside us pushing our thinking and helping us reimagine a new design for American public education. Equity Commissioners included: David Adams, Vernae Bezear, Dr. Dawn Brooks-DeCosta, Anne Childers, Dr. Nancy Dome, Sharif El-Mekki, Brandon Frame, Lisa Fulton, Laleña Garcia, Danica Goyens-Ward, Lindsay Kruse, Veronica Lane, Magaly Lavadenz, Shannon Leonard, Cary Matsuoka, Alejandra Meza, Dr. Gholdy Muhammad, Dr. Carola Oliva-Olson, Norka Padilla, Karen Pittman, Lisa Quay, Dr. Tanji Reed Marshall, Zanthee Schwarzmann, and Dr. Aida Walqui. We are grateful to the NTC board of directors and current and former NTC staff who provided input and feedback: Allison Aliaga, Stephanie Garcia Fields, Chiara Grabill, Jeffrey Homan, Tavon Lawrence, Irene Liefshitz, Nicole Knight-Justice, Kenny Kraus, Lisa Peloquin, Sabrina Plassman, Alicia Perez, Keisha Rattray, Krysten Wendell, and Erika Wilkins. We are also grateful to contributors, including: Karen Pittman and Katherine Plog Martinez of Knowledge to Power Catalysts, Bonnie Williamson-Zerwic, Hiker, Room 3, and Megan Newell. We are grateful to our philanthropic partners for their support of this project.

New Teacher Center | The Elephant in the (Class)room

Introduction

“

Every system is perfectly designed to get the results it gets.” Attributed to W. Edwards Deming, American engineer and statistician

We need only take a broad glance at the history of education1 in America to see the truth of this statement. Even the past few years, given an unprecedented opportunity by a nationwide pandemic to rethink school, saw a gravitational pull to return to the educational system as it was before. Instead of helping us root out inequities, the effects of the pandemic reinforced and exacerbated them. And it’s no wonder: American education systems and structures are designed to produce inequitable outcomes. It’s the elephant in the (class) room — the problem we don’t want to discuss because the truth is uncomfortable and challenging to change. 1

New Teacher Center | The Elephant in the (Class)room

We aren’t the first to name the elephant. However, it is not a commonly-enough held belief among educators at every level of the system. Nor is this truth widely understood by the American public. If we start with a shared willingness to acknowledge the elephant and engage in building a collective understanding of our history of systemic inequity, together we can successfully articulate a new purpose and design for American education that centers humanity, justice, and self-actualization for everyone and communities as a whole. We can create a sustainable, high-quality educational space that attracts and retains diverse educators and improves experiences and outcomes for all students.

For further details of how American education has been designed for the benefits of a few, please see this timeline: http://www.theequitycollaborative.com/wp-content/ uploads/2017/09/Education-Timeline-Handout.pdf

Introduction

THE PROCESS

How did we get here? To support NTC in “walking our talk” to fulfill the mission, in 2021 we launched a 23-member National Equity Commission and Student Advisory. The Commission membership was curated to include a broad range of backgrounds and expertise: systems leaders, teachers, students, and experts whose work supports students with learning differences, BIPOC students, multilingual learners, students experiencing poverty, and immigrant students, as well as representatives from the social work and behavioral science sectors. The Commission’s hypothesis is that by centering teaching in the humanity2 of educators, students, their families, and communities, we can begin to dismantle the long-standing inequitable systems and design new ones that support teachers and students of diverse backgrounds to thrive.

New Teacher Center | The Elephant in the (Class)room

With the support of the Commission, we’ve examined this hypothesis through the lens of NTC’s mission: to disrupt the predictability of educational inequities for systemically underserved students by accelerating educator effectiveness.

• What supports do educators need to balance the art and science of teaching with the goals of students and their families?

• Who are we as educators, as people, and how do our experiences shape us and show up in our practice? How do we stay curious, do deep introspection, and support others? How do we grow from where we are to where we aspire to be?

• What are we ultimately trying to achieve as educators, working in partnership with students, families, and communities? How can we protect and prioritize these goals in the structures and systems of schools?

• Who are we teaching? Do we know the full richness of our students’ stories? • How can we honor the humanity of our students, their families, and their

communities in instructional design and the culture of schools?

This document represents a proposed path forward to address these questions in a way that will design new systems based on a foundation of equity3 and humanity.

When we reference humanity in this context, we are drawing on the work of education scholar Carla Shalaby and others when they reference all learners as human beings, with human beings’ unalienable rights to be seen and treated as a full human being, free from threats to identity and harm of any kind, and retaining the right to self-determination.

We define equity as the absence of disparities in the long-term academic and social trajectories (and in its key social determinants) systemically associated with social advantage\disadvantage. It’s worth distinguishing between equity and equality in education. Equality in education would mean that all students and educators would have the same access and amount of resources (e.g., per-pupil spending, access to advanced coursework, professional development opportunities) regardless of their needs or assets. While we don’t intend to diminish the impact of inequality in education, equity in this context addresses the root of the problem because it attends to the needs and strengths of both students and educators.

Introduction

“

The development of the Equity Commission felt and looked different. The process was incredibly inclusive — we thought not only about who the research and/or policy experts in our field are but also challenged ourselves to expand our definition of the word ‘expert.’ With the expansion of that definition, we recognized that teachers, students, and school leaders should be seated at the table because they are the experts ‘on the ground.’” Keisha Rattray, Former NTC Director of Program Strategy and Delivery

Finally acknowledging the elephant in the (class)room is profoundly liberating — because it allows us to envision the room without it. Then we can begin to imagine a new era for the design of American schools, one that centers equity, humanity, justice, and self-actualization, for everyone, in the context of their communities. And we must do so knowing schools are in a race for resources and talent, navigating a highly charged climate that distracts educators away from addressing root causes. We are not looking for cure-all products and solutions, or initiatives that elevate equity in name only. Rather, we seek to address questions such as: • How do we invest in approaches that prioritize the humanity of educators and students and ensure this investment is as wellresourced as efforts to promote learning standards, curriculum and assessment, and research? • How can our notion of accountability go beyond measures and systems to be inclusive of our individual and collective responsibility to each other? • How do we provide public education that is unequivocally focused on equity, where equity

New Teacher Center | The Elephant in the (Class)room

is viewed as a practice, not a destination; a generative dynamic of the learning community, not a planning document buzzword? It is no longer tenable to treat teaching and learning as a transactional exchange of content knowledge and skills. We must embrace the notion that educators are facilitators of learning experiences in which students develop personal and intellectual autonomy and agency. Teaching and learning are dynamic interactions among humans. This mindset involves taking a radically different orientation from how we’ve been trained to think of school, and creating a fundamentally different dynamic of control and power to center a learning community. What we are proposing goes well beyond the technocratic solutions of the Education Reform movement. We’ve seen that playing on the edges does not lead to sustained impact, better quality, or changed experiences. We need a clear vision to bring about the underlying promise of education to every student, specifically those currently underserved. And we believe that the change we need to see will come from within and be sustained when school communities transform and reinvent themselves — not by reactive necessity, but by conscious design.

Introduction

A NEW VISION FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

Anchors for Equity If we begin by acknowledging and addressing the elephant, change is within our grasp. A new vision for teaching and learning is anchored in three powerful and highly integrated shifts that can help reshape the culture of schools and systems. For each shift, we’ve included some related commitments and implications to operationalize these shifts into practice. Note that these commitments and implications are not a final list — as we learn more from the field and from each other, we will update them. We recognize that many of us have been exposed previously to frameworks and approaches geared towards improving outcomes for students. We intend to describe these design anchors at a high level and offer concrete narratives to make the design anchors and the accompanying shifts in hearts and mindsets come to life. In the interest of the latter, we have included an appendix of diverse profiles in practice (available at newteachercenter.org/ elephant) that exemplify specific aspects of these anchors, how they integrate and build on each other, and where there is still room for growth.

New Teacher Center | The Elephant in the (Class)room

Introduction

EMBRACE

Embrace teaching and learning as a dynamic relational human exchange

EMBRACE

Embrace teaching and learning as a dynamic relational human exchange Let’s say it again: Equitable education can never result from a transactional exchange of content knowledge and skills. Powerful student- and equity-centered teaching and learning involves a reciprocating interplay of heart and mind. When educators seek to understand and honor their students’ stories, they maximize their assets — the strengths of who they are. They invest in authentic relational and trust-building practices. They examine their approaches to content, instructional practice, and assessment. They commit to a human-centered, holistic, and dynamic approach that engages the whole teacher and the whole learner. We also need to shift our priority focus from academic content and skills to an understanding of the integrated and interwoven social, emotional, and academic aspects of learning. We must create classrooms that champion multiple ways of learning and balance the quantitative with the qualitative. Likewise, we must balance knowing where students are in terms of meeting academic expectations with the “art” of prioritizing a holistic perspective of who our students are as full human beings.

Embrace | Introduction Embrace | Introduction

EMBRACE COMMITMENTS & IMPLICATIONS

Commit to knowing yourself, your students, and your content

1 Every adult needs to consider how their own culture and identity influence the power dynamics in their interactions and the richness of what they have to offer. Similarly, when educators come to deeply know their students, and create learning experiences that tap into their students’ strengths, interests, contexts, and cultures, instruction focused on rich academic content takes root at the intersection of knowing self and knowing others.

New Teacher Center | The Elephant in the (Class)room

Embrace | Commitments & Implications

EMBRACE COMMITMENTS & IMPLICATIONS

2 Everyone in the system is enriched when we leverage every student’s community, cultural, and linguistic capital, when we commit to understanding their experiences and stories, validate their competencies, and recognize and name their challenges.

Discover and leverage learners’ unique and diverse assets and ways of learning

Learner-centered, assets-based instruction creates a growth mindset in students by connecting to their existing skills and knowledge, making learners feel seen for what they know and known for who they are, and building confidence and a sense of agency. This educational vision sees that there is no such thing as an “average learner” and aims to understand and meet the needs of students who learn and think differently — because in this vision, every student learns and thinks differently.

New Teacher Center | The Elephant in the (Class)room

Embrace | Commitments & Implications

An additional implication and subsequent commitment for this anchor relates to professional learning for educators.

If we expect teachers to create classrooms that champion multiple ways of learning, then our professional learning should also honor that adults represent all kinds of different learners, too (different cultures, identities, ways of learning and thinking). Our professional learning should model what we want teachers to provide for students — accommodating, motivating spaces in which the diverse needs of every learner are honored and understood.

New Teacher Center | The Elephant in the (Class)room

“

Changing the way we think of ‘educator’ can also change the knowledge that is valued or what counts as ‘education’. For instance, welcoming Indigenous knowledge into classrooms, curriculum, and learning materials.” Veronica Lane, NTC Equity Commissioner / Chief Data Officer, Office of the Assistant Secretary - Indian Affairs

Embrace | Commitments & Implications

EXPAND

Expand the concept of educator and community in schools

EXPAND

Expand the concept of educator and community in schools All the adults in the building know and interact with students in some important way on a daily basis. Their investment, knowledge, and assets can contribute to a dynamic school community working together toward shared goals. We need also to think of deep partnerships with students, families, caregivers, guardians, community leaders, Native nations, and other stakeholders as key to achieving our aims. This means investing in family and community engagement, nurturing a much broader notion of the school community and communities of learners, and situating education systems in service to their surrounding neighborhoods in meaningful ways.

Expand | Introduction

EXPAND COMMITMENTS & IMPLICATIONS

Learn from your students about how and where they learn — and from whom

1 One way to operationalize this design anchor is to talk to students about learning — and who and where they learn from. We tend to think of learning as being something limited to the four walls of the classroom, but students also learn important content and skills from extracurricular activities such as sports and band. They learn from others in the community, from their families and peers, and from online communities. Learning happens in many environments, and the path to discovering the full landscape of rich learning environments is through connecting with students.

New Teacher Center | The Elephant in the (Class)room

Expand | Commitments & Implications

EXPAND COMMITMENTS & IMPLICATIONS

2 The flip side of the preceding implication involves thinking about the school and the adults in the school building as part of a larger ecosystem that is serving the students and the community.

Reexamine your ideas of who the stakeholders are in your ecosystem

As we begin to understand the full scope of where our students are learning, we must re-examine the roles of those adults who work in the education system but may not be traditionally thought of as educators. They can include non-teaching staff such as school aides, cafeteria workers, bus drivers, coaches, nurses, and school psychologists. We must also expand our thinking about stakeholders outside the school to include small business owners, local elected officials, local advocacy/ social service groups, and other systems that serve the community.

New Teacher Center | The Elephant in the (Class)room

Expand | Commitments & Implications

“

Broadening the definition of who an educator is and where student learning takes place pushes the profession to ... change the deficit assumptions, beliefs, and narratives that many people hold about young people, and about the different types of educators that exist inside and outside of the school ecosystem; challenge what knowledge is valued.” Lisa Quay, NTC Equity Commissioner / Executive Director, Student Experience Research Network

Expand | Commitments & Implications

CO-DESIGN

Co-design systems to sustain equity

CO-DESIGN

Co-design systems to sustain equity Given the current design of systems and our collective tendencies to gravitate towards what we know, this anchor is perhaps one of the most important. If we are starting from acknowledging the elephant in the (class)room — that the current system is flawed and doing what it is designed to do — then the current system must be redesigned in collaboration with those most impacted by the system. Stated explicitly, this anchor requires a shift in focus from prioritizing how things have always been done to prioritizing the outcomes the stakeholders in your system want and need. Equity means everyone gets what they need to thrive. Building thriving schools requires a deep knowledge of the communities in which they are situated and including students and families in the design process. It may also be necessary that we rethink what we mean by a system. A system need not be an entire school or a district or a state agency. A system is a grade-level team, an individual classroom, or even small-group instruction. These smaller systems can integrate our deep knowledge of the communities in which they are situated, and include students and families in the design process. When we ensure that everyone is involved in co-designing systems, everyone gets what they need to thrive. And that’s true equity. To be clear, we are advocating for a level of understanding and sharing of power that is rarely observed. It requires elevating opportunities to tap the power of learning, knowing, and caring about one another in order to create a rich and vibrant ecosystem for impactful student- and equity-centered teaching and learning.

New Teacher Center | The Elephant in the (Class)room

Co-Design | Introduction

CO-DESIGN COMMITMENTS & IMPLICATIONS

Create the time and space for building an equity practice

1 Operationalizing impactful student– and equity-centered teaching and learning is only possible with deep introspection. It’s a process, not a product. It is ongoing and iterative. It can be messy, uncomfortable, difficult, and inconclusive. To achieve it, we need to let the work dictate the schedule, not the other way around. From professional learning to policy to classroom practice, we must build new habits of mind, create places and spaces for collaboration, and internalize continuous reflection to guide and honor the learning journey of educators and the young people they serve.

New Teacher Center | The Elephant in the (Class)room

Co-Design | Commitments & Implications

CO-DESIGN COMMITMENTS & IMPLICATIONS

2 Another adaptive implication of this design anchor involves approaching your system with the same asset orientation you are using in your approach to your learners.

Identify ways and places to sustain and grow change

As you begin to engage in building an equity practice, you may uncover current practices and bright spots that you want to expand and elevate. You will want to learn from those already working towards change, their mindsets, the concrete steps they’ve taken. In some cases, you may need to sustain the work at a lab site; in others, the work will already be well situated for expansion.

New Teacher Center | The Elephant in the (Class)room

Co-Design | Commitments & Implications

“

NEXT STEPS

Learn More and Take Action Educating human beings is incredibly complex work, and centering humanity in our education systems begins with us. Transformative work happens in and by community. We are excited to invite and team up with stakeholders and changemakers invested in co-crafting a new vision and approach for public education. If “every system is perfectly designed to get the results it gets,” we can design education systems that are equitable, high-quality, and that center human experience. Together, we can support the development of young minds and hearts to be the next generation of leadership this country needs and deserves. Acknowledging the elephant in the (class)room and addressing it in a

New Teacher Center | The Elephant in the (Class)room

meaningful and sustainable way takes a lot of work. To be sustainable and not episodic, we need to share best practices and learn from each other. We may discover that addressing the elephant in the (class)room is not only necessary but deeply rewarding. Let’s shine a light on the people and places where equity design anchors are in place, enabling students, educators, and systems to thrive.

We assume education was about young people learning stuff, but we have to name the fact that it was not designed for that, it was designed for stratified preparation for society. The ideological underpinnings are crucial. We have to be willing to name it. We have to get people to name what they believe.” Dr. Tanji Reed Marshall, NTC Equity Commissioner / Director of P-12 Practice, The Education Trust

Please visit our website at newteachercenter.org/elephant for resources and to follow our journey.

Learn More and Take Action

Relevant Research Bryk, A., Gomez, L., Grunow, A., and LeMahieu, P. (2015). Learning to improve: How America’s schools can get better at getting better. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Publishing. Darling-Hammond, L., Flook, L., Cook-Harvey, C., Barron, B., & Osher, D. (2019). Implications for educational practice of the science of learning and development. Applied Developmental Science 24(2), 97-140. Darling-Hammond, L., Cantor, P., Hernández, L. E., Schachner, A., Plasencia, S., Theokas, C., and Tijerina, E. (2021). Design principles for schools: Putting the science of learning and development into action. Available at: https://k12. designprinciples.org/ Farrington, C. A., Roderick, M., Allensworth, E., Nagaoka, J., Keyes, T. S., Johnson, D. W., & Beechum, N. O. (2012). Teaching adolescents to become learners. The role of noncognitive factors in shaping school performance: A critical literature review. Available at: https://consortium.uchicago.edu/publications/teachingadolescents-become-learners-role-noncognitive-factors-shaping-school Hammond, Z. (2015). Culturally responsive teaching & the brain. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Hammond, Z. (2021). Liberatory education: Integrating the science of learning and culturally responsive practice. American Educator, 45(2), 4-11. Love, B. L. (2019). We want to do more than survive: Abolitionist teaching and the pursuit of educational freedom. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.

Muhammad, G. (2020). Cultivating genius: An equity framework for culturally and historically responsive literacy. New York, NY: Scholastic Inc. Nagaoka, J., Farrington, C. A., Ehrlich, S. B., & Heath, R. D. (2015). Foundations for young adult success: A developmental framework. Available at: https://consortium. uchicago.edu/publications/foundations-young-adult-success-developmentalframework Nasir, N., Rosebery, A., Warren, B., & Lee, C. (2005). Learning as a cultural process. In R. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 489-504). Osher, D., Cantor, P., Berg, J., Steyer, L., & Rose, T. (2020). Drivers of human development: How relationships and context shape learning and development, Applied Developmental Science, 24(1), 6-36. Shalaby, C. (2017). Troublemakers: Lessons in freedom from young children at school. New York, NY: The New Press. Stafford-Brizard, K. B. (2016) Building blocks for learning: A framework for comprehensive student development. New York, NY: Turnaround for Children. Trent, M., Dooley, D. G., & Dougé, J. (2019). The impact of racism on child and adolescent health. Pediatrics, 144(2). Wacker, C., & Olson, L. (2019). Teacher mindsets: How educators’ perspectives shape student success. Washington, DC: FutureEd, Georgetown University.

Milligan, K., Zerda, J., & Kania, J. (2022). The relational work of systems change. Stanford Social Innovation Review. Available at: https://ssir.org/articles/entry/ the_relational_work_of_systems_change#

New Teacher Center | The Elephant in the (Class)room

Relevant Research

New Teacher Center

1205 Pacific Avenue Suite 301 Santa Cruz, CA 95060

newteachercenter.org/elephant elephant@newteachercenter.org (831) 600-2200

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Educator Panel Executive Function Across the Grades: Success Stories from Administrators and Teachers Polly Metz, MPS, M.A.Ed. Special Education Teacher and Instructional Leader, Wilton Public Schools, CT Lynn Carpenter, M.S.Ed., M.A. Director of the Center for Professional Development and Engagement at Churchill School & Center, NY; Reading Specialist Ebonia Williams, M.A. 4th Grade General Education Teacher, Willow Elementary School, Lansing, MI Kevin Mackey, M.A, M.Ed Intervention Specialist, St. Ignatius School, OH Overview How can we help students to engage in the learning process when they feel overwhelmed by frustration, stress, and anxiety? This panel includes teachers and administrators from around the country whose innovative school programs span general and special education classrooms across the grades and content areas. These experts will discuss the approaches they have used to promote executive function strategy instruction and social-emotional learning in their classrooms. Speakers on this panel will highlight the importance of creating classrooms and schools where executive function strategies are taught explicitly and systematically so that all students can access their strengths in order to succeed in school and in life. Each speaker will respond briefly to the following questions:

- What steps have you taken to promote students’ self-understanding and use of executive function strategies in your school?

- How can we spread EF strategies across our schools and create a culture of strategy use that involves all students, teachers, administrators, and parents? - What approaches would you suggest for other teachers and/or administrators who want to introduce explicit EF instruction. References Dweck, C. S. (2008). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York, NY: The Random House. Kaufman, C. (2010). Executive function in the classroom: Practical strategies for improving performance and enhancing skills for all students. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Pub. Co. Meltzer, L.J. (Ed). (2018) (2nd Ed.) Executive Function in Education: From Theory to Practice. New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L.J. (2018) Creating strategic classrooms and schools: Embedding executive function strategies in the curriculum. In Meltzer, L.J. (Ed). (2018) (2nd Ed.) Executive Function in Education: From theory to practice. New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L.J. (2014). Teaching executive function processes: Promoting metacognition, strategy use, and effort. In Goldstein, S. & Naglieri, J.(Eds.) Executive Functioning Handbook. New York: Springer, 445-474. Meltzer, L. (2010). Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom (What works for special needs learners series). New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L.J., Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., & Stacey, W. (2015). Executive function and peer mentoring: Fostering metacognitive awareness, effort, and academic success. In Harris, K., & Meltzer, L. (Eds.) The Power of Peers in the Classroom: Enhancing Learning and Social Skills. New York: Guilford Press, 1-32. Meltzer, L.J. Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., Stacey, W., Ross, E., & Snow, E. (2015). SMARTS Executive Function and Mentoring Curriculum, www.smarts-ef.org.

Chapter 2

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture That Fosters Strategy Use, Motivation, and Resilience Lynn Meltzer and Surina Basho

The students loved the strategies, and they all felt that they benefited from them. Students felt empowered, and I saw their skills become more internalized as they independently created their own organizational and memory strategies to study for their social studies and science tests. —Fifth-grade teacher

hildren become strategic learners when the schools they attend teach strategies explicitly and systematically, and require them to approach their classwork and homework strategically. A culture of strategy use in every classroom and across entire school systems ensures that students actively apply executive function strategies to all tasks. Within these types of classrooms, students experience themselves as important and valuable members of a community where they learn strategies from one another. When school systems and families foster the same values and emphasis on learning strategies, students’ persistence, resilience, and academic success are promoted. Each child becomes part of an integrated classroom system, or a “child-in-classroom” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Doll, Zucker, & Brehm, 2004). This chapter provides an overview of the key principles that are important for creating “strategic classrooms” and a classroomwide focus on executive function processes. We expand on the reasons why strategies that address executive function processes should be taught as part of the classroom curriculum. We then focus on how to create strategic classrooms by using key principles and approaches. Within this section, we also take a closer look at peer tutoring and peer mentoring in the classroom as ways of increasing students’ motivation and engagement. Next, we 28

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

discuss what specific executive function strategies can be embedded into content areas such as writing, reading, and math. We also provide a calendar that outlines strategy instruction focused on executive function processes across the school year. Finally, we discuss selected strategies that can be used to teach executive function processes within the context of writing, studying, and test taking.

Why Should Instruction in Executive Function Strategies Be Integrated into the Classroom Curriculum? When you go to class, even if you don’t get the way the teacher’s teaching, you might use strategies to turn it around and understand it your way, so you don’t feel as dumb. Some kids, if they don’t know that, they’re just going to assume that they’re dumb. They just might skip and not come to the class. —Joe, 11th grader

As Joe’s comments indicate, many students internalize their struggle with schoolwork as “I’m not smart enough,” “I feel dumb,” or “I’m just lazy.” Classroom teachers can empower students to take control of the learning process and to go beyond the “not smart” or “stupid” label by helping them to understand how they learn and how to apply strategies. In order to achieve this goal, teachers must ensure that strategies are systematic, consistent, and embedded in the classroom curriculum (Deshler et al., 2001; Hattie, Biggs, & Purdie, 1996). In other words, a “culture of strategy use” must be created in their classrooms (see Figure 2.1). Over the past two decades, research has consistently indicated the importance of strategy instruction for enhancing students’ conceptual understanding, their transfer and creative use of knowledge, and their ability to reflect on their own learning processes (Brown, 1997; Deshler, Schumaker, & Lenz, 1984; Pressley & Woloshyn, 1995). Studies have also shown that successful learners use effective strategies to process information (Brown & Campione, 1986; Harris & Gra-

Teach students how to learn

Help students to understand their learning profiles

Increase self-confidence and encourage independence

WHY TEACH EXECUTIVE FUNCTION STRATEGIES?

Empower students to take control over their learning

Promote motivation, focused effort, and hard work

FIGURE 2.1. Why teach strategies that address executive function processes?

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

ham, 1992; Meltzer, 1993; Palincsar, Winn, David, Snyder, & Stevens, 1993; Pressley, Goodchild, Fleet, Zajchowski, & Evans, 1989). In fact, findings suggest that explicit instruction plays a critical role in helping all students to use metacognitive strategies to learn more easily (Deshler et al., 2001; Ellis, 1997; Harris & Graham, 1996; Graham & Harris, 2003; Meltzer et al., 2004a; Swanson, 1999; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). Executive function strategies help students to go beyond the content that is being taught, so that learning is process-based rather than only outcome-based (Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007). Students need to learn how to set goals, plan, and prioritize; how to organize materials and information; how to remember and mentally recall previously learned information; how to “juggle” information in their minds; how to shift approaches in learning and problem-solving situations; and how to monitor themselves and check their work. All these executive function processes can be taught at all grade levels and applied to all content areas. For example, a strategy for writing a social studies report in the fourth grade can also be used for writing term papers in high school and college. In other words, although the content changes across the grades, the process or how of learning remains consistent across grade levels and content areas (Meltzer et al., 2006).

How Can Executive Function Strategies Be Taught in the Classroom? Homework and tests are easier if you use more strategies. They help you see what types of things you need to work on a lot and what things you don’t. —Leslier, ninth grader

As students develop an understanding of their strengths and weaknesses, as well as the demands of each learning situation, they realize the importance of executive function processes for academic success. When they use strategies that address the core executive function processes, they also become independent learners and flexible thinkers, and can more easily bypass their weaknesses while using their strengths to learn efficiently.

General Principles Research on the implementation of strategy instruction has mostly focused on evaluations of students with learning disabilities in one-on-one and small remedial groups, rather than in general education classrooms (see Swanson & Hoskyn, 1998, for a review). Relatively few models exist for integrating strategy instruction systematically into the classroom environment. However, some classroom-based strategy instruction models and programs have emerged, such as the Kansas intervention model (Deshler, Ellis, & Lenz, 1996; Deshler & Schumaker, 1988), the

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

Benchmark model (Gaskins & Pressley, 2007; Pressley & Woloshyn, 1995), the SRSD model (Graham & Harris, 2003; Reid, 1996), the Drive to Thrive program (Meltzer et al., 2004c, 2007b; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007; see Chapter 1), and the SMARTS (Success, Motivation, Awareness, Resilience, Talents, & Strategies) mentoring program (Gray, 2007; Gray, Meltzer, & Upton, 2008; Meltzer, 2007). Although each of these approaches includes a broad range of strategies and systems, a number of them address executive function processes. Several general principles for effective strategy instruction have been revealed through the use of these models/programs and are listed in Table 2.1. More specific principles, important for creating a culture of strategy use in the classroom, are derived from our Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD) findings, as well as the meta-analysis of Swanson (1999). These principles include the following: •• Direct and explicit explanations of key concepts and vocabulary should be provided, so that students can access the information. •• The steps involved in learning specific strategies should be modeled. •• “Think-alouds” can be used to show students how to think about or approach a problem. •• Information should be broken down into manageable chunks or steps. •• Background information should be discussed to scaffold new concepts, so that all students have the same level of understanding. •• The goal of strategy use should be clear to both the teacher and the students (e.g., students should understand and apply at least one memory strategy independently on a test). •• Teachers should assess whether the goals are being met on a regular basis (e.g., track the number of times students spontaneously use a strategy in class). •• Teachers should assess whether students are using strategies effectively on a regular basis. TABLE 2.1. Principles of Effective Strategy Instruction •• Strategy instruction should be directly linked with the curriculum. •• Strategies should be taught in a structured, systematic way, using scaffolding and modeling. •• Metacognitive awareness should be taught explicitly so that students develop an understanding of their profiles of strengths and weaknesses. •• Students’ motivation and self-understanding should be addressed, to ensure that they generalize their use of strategies. •• Strategy instruction should address students’ individual learning styles, motivation, and willingness to work hard—all critical for building the cycle of academic success. •• Hard work and effort should be encouraged and rewarded, as students initially need to work extremely hard to learn and use new strategies. Determination, persistence, and resilience are important, so that they do not feel overwhelmed by this initial effort. •• Time should be provided for practicing and applying strategies. •• Opportunities should be provided for students to extend and generalize strategies to a range of different tasks.

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

Day-to-Day Practice When introducing a new strategy to students, it is essential to be systematic and to follow the general day-to-day practice guidelines outlined in Table 2.2. To ensure that students understand what, when, and how to use appropriate strategies, each teacher needs to create a classroom environment that is goal-oriented, fosters metacognition, and provides daily opportunities for students to use strategies to maximize their potential. The suggestions given in the next few pages provide a more detailed guide for teachers.

Set Goals for the Year, Month, Week, and Day It is important for teachers to define explicit and measurable goals for strategy instruction. We recommend that teachers create overall goals for the year, as well as monthly, weekly, and daily goals. Setting goals provides a focus for instructional efforts and a framework within which to work. Consider these examples: •• Goal for the year: To ensure that each student in the class ends the year with at least five strategies he or she uses consistently. This should include one strategy from each of the five core executive function areas (i.e., planning, organizing, remembering, shifting, and self-checking). •• Goal for the month: To teach one organizational strategy each week. •• Goal for the week: To integrate a shifting strategy into the lesson plan. •• Goal for the day: To name and model specific strategies a few times over the course of the day. One way for teachers to monitor whether they are meeting their goals in teaching executive function strategies is to use the Measure of Teacher Practice (MTP) questionnaire (Meltzer et al., 2007b). This questionnaire helps teachers reflect on and assess the extent to which they are teaching these strategies in the different academic areas. Figure 2.2 shows the application of the MTP to writing.

TABLE 2.2. Teaching Executive Function Strategies: General Guidelines for Day-to-Day Practice 1. Ensure that students understand what each strategy is. 2. Ensure that students understand what the strategy is used for. 3. Help students understand when to use the strategy. 4. Help students understand how to use the strategy. 5. Model the strategy for students. 6. Ask students to try using a specific strategy, either as a whole class, in pairs, or in small groups. 7. Have students reflect on how well the strategy worked for them as learners.

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

Measure of Teacher Practice (MTP) Teacher:

Date:

Grade:

Please rate the extent to which you teach strategies systemarlcally when you teach writing. Please rate yourself on a 1–3 scale (1 = Seldom taught, 2 = Sometimes taught, 3 = Systematically taught). Planning Break down instruction and assignments into manageable steps.

Provide scaffolding for initiating writing assignments.

Give explicit instruction about organization, relative to genre.

Provide graphic organizers, maps, and webs for teaching organization of ideas.

Provide procedure checklists to prioritize important steps for the writing process.

Offer explicit instruction regarding key elements of writing.

Use mnemonics/crazy phrases to help students remember and juggle key steps in writing.

Encourage the use of strategies to help students to juggle information mentally.

Provide instruction for varied vocabulary use and transition phrases.

Teach shifting strategies for multiple outcomes, audiences, and genres.

Use teacher- and student-made checklists for editing work.

Provide class time and direct instruction for revision of written work.

Organizing

Prioritizing

Remembering/Juggling information mentally

Shifting

Self-checking

Please rate whether or not you include the following in your classroom instruction (0 = No, 1 = Yes). Grading of written assignment includes credit for strategy use.

Visual reminders of strategy use are posted in the classroom.

Time is allocated for discussion of strategy use among students.

Time is allocated for students to reflect on personal strategy use.

Strategy use is personalized to students’ academic needs and learning styles.

FIGURE 2.2. The Measure of Teacher Practice (MTP) in the writing area.

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

Establish a Starting Point for Tracking Progress At the start of the school year, teachers will want to know each student’s level of metacognitive awareness and strategy knowledge. A barometer reading can be taken of how much students know about strategies and what they think of themselves as learners. Teachers can develop their own questionnaires or can use the MetaCOG instruments discussed in Chapter 1 (Meltzer et al., 2001; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007; Miller et al., 2001). As described there, the ME asks students to rate how hard they work and how well they do in selected academic areas, such as reading, writing, math, homework, studying for tests, and long-term projects. On the STRATUS, students are required to reflect on and to rate their use of strategies in the key executive function processes. Once teachers know where students are starting from, it is easier to evaluate and track the students’ progress over time and then adjust the baseline to their learning needs. Teachers can also rate their students’ effort and strategy use on the TPSE (again, see Chapter 1) and can compare their own ratings with their students’ self-ratings on the ME. Establishing a baseline for understanding students’ use of executive function strategies allows teachers to plan instruction more easily. This also helps teachers to determine the consistencies and inconsistencies between their own perceptions and those of their students. As Chapter 1 has shown (see Figure 1.5 there), students and their teachers often have very different perceptions of the students’ performance.

Allow Adequate Time for Strategy Instruction in the Classroom It takes time to teach students what executive function strategies are, why we use them, and what different types of strategies exist. As a result, it may feel as though strategy instruction takes too much time to implement in the classroom, compared to focusing only on the content. However, once the foundation has been laid for strategy instruction, less and less time is needed to integrate strategies into the curriculum. Furthermore, time is saved for teachers as students become more efficient, more accurate, and more effective. Consistency over time, as well as effort on both teachers’ and students’ parts, will ensure that strategy use becomes automatic. The approaches described below provide practical, easy-to-implement systems for making strategy use count in the classroom.

Foster Metacognition in Students Teachers can make strategy use a required part of their curriculum by grading students on the processes and strategies they have used to reach their goals, in addition to the end product. The suggestions listed below provide practical, easyto-implement systems for fostering metacognitive thinking in students and only involve a minimal amount of extra work for teachers.

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

Strategy Reflection Sheets

Teachers can require students to use strategy reflection sheets for selected assignments, so that they gradually become accustomed to reflecting about how they learn and documenting their approaches informally (see the examples in Figures 2.3, 2.4a, and 2.4b). Each homework assignment or test should include a strategy reflection sheet at the end, for students to record the strategies they have used to complete assignments or to study for tests. When teachers count students’ strategy use as part of the grade, the students begin to value the reflection process. It should be noted that teaching students to complete these strategy reflection sheets takes a little time, because it requires students to become metacognitive learners by thinking about how they think and learn. As is evident from Figure 2.3, strategy reflection sheets can use a multiplechoice format, so that students do not have to rely on their expressive language skills to explain their thinking. Alternatively, students can be required to explain their thinking in more detail, using the open-ended format of the examples shown in Figures 2.4a and 2.4b. Strategy Notebooks

All students can develop personalized notebooks in which they jot down the strategies that work best for them. These notebooks provide students with a place where they can easily store and refer to their favorite strategies, so that practice is made easier.

Drive to Thrive Strategy Reflection Sheet Check off the strategies you used to study for this test. Flash cards/Strategy cards

Two-column notes

Triple Note Tote (BrainCogs)

Mapping/webbing

Acronyms

Discuss with a parent/friend

Crazy Phrases (BrainCogs)

STAR strategy

Other

FIGURE 2.3. Strategy reflection sheet with multiple-choice format to scaffold and teach strategy use.

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

FIGURE 2.4a. A sixth grader’s strategy reflection sheet to assess strategy use for studying and taking tests.

FIGURE 2.4b. A fifth grader’s strategy reflection sheet to assess strategy use for homework.

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

Charts and Graphs of Student Performance

To motivate students to use strategies, teachers can help students track their progress and strategy use by charting or graphing their performance on homework, tests, projects, and writing assignments. Personalized Error Checklists

Students can also keep personalized checklists on their desks as reminders of the importance of checking strategies. These lists can include steps to check off before turning in a test, before finishing writing an essay, and before completing a math problem. Other Techniques for Encouraging Students’ Self-Reflections

Teachers can help students to access previous memories of success by asking leading questions, such as “Do you remember how easy the last vocabulary test was when you used a particular strategy? Why don’t you try that again?” or “Do you remember the last time you made an outline before writing your essay? Wasn’t it much easier to write when your ideas were organized?” All these classroom techniques encourage students to reflect on how well each of the strategies has worked for them, and to review the strategies that best match their individual profiles of strengths and weaknesses.

Create a Strategic Classroom Environment Students learn best when they gain knowledge through exploration, active learning, and visual imagery (Marzano, 2003). They need an opportunity to work through the process of experimenting and assessing the effectiveness of each strategy. They also need time in the classroom to learn and apply different executive function strategies. The following classroom-based systems help students to become metacognitive learners. Strategy-of-the-Week Display Boards

Weekly classroom displays can be created to represent effective strategies used by students. At the start of each week, teachers can introduce a new strategy on the display board and can refer to this strategy throughout the lessons. A Strategy Wall

One wall in the classroom can be dedicated to examples of students’ use of executive function strategies. The key here is to make the strategies stand out in the

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

FIGURE 2.5. Example of a strategy wall in a fifth-grade classroom.

classroom, so that the students have daily visual reminders of effective strategies (see Figure 2.5). Strategy-Sharing Discussions

Teachers can create daily or weekly discussion times where students share their favorite personalized strategies from that week’s classwork and homework. During these strategy-sharing discussions, students can teach other students their own strategies, and this process fosters metacognition and self-reflection. Teachers can also provide numerous examples of ways to apply strategies to everyday life (e.g., mnemonics for remembering a grocery list, crazy phrases for remembering the correct sequence for the months of the year, cartoons for remembering difficult vocabulary).

Practice, Practice, and More Practice! Strategy Practice Labs

Practice labs offer a chance for students to apply the different strategies they have been taught. With practice, the use of many strategies will become automatic, and students will also begin to recognize the efficacy of specific strategies for selected tasks. For example, one class period per week can be designated as strategy lab time, and students can experiment with a learning strategy that is useful for the content material.

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

Modeling Strategy Use Throughout the School Day and across Subject Areas

Once students are able to assess which strategies work for them, they need to practice using the strategies with homework, classwork, and tests. For instance, teachers can create opportunities for students to use the vocabulary related to strategies by requiring that students: •• Discuss with each other how they can use specific strategies. •• Organize folders for different subjects. •• Practice making strategy notecards for new vocabulary. •• Practice using acronyms to remember important dates and events in history.

Make Strategy Use Count As suggested earlier, strategy use should be included in the grading system across content areas. In other words, a small percentage of the grade should be assigned for students’ use of selected strategies, and the remainder can focus on accuracy as well as content knowledge. Homework

Homework assignments can include strategy reflection sheets or notecards, where students record the executive function strategies they use when they complete their reading, writing, or math homework, or when they study. For instance, instead of only writing down vocabulary words and their definitions, students could be required to select the five most difficult words and to create a memory strategy such as a Triple Note Tote card (see later discussion). In addition to using strategy reflection sheets or cards, students can be required to prepare a presentation about their favorite homework strategy. A grade can be assigned for how well each student explains the strategy and demonstrates how it works. For example, fifth graders who were involved in our Drive to Thrive study described their uses of strategies as follows: •• “I have a checklist for what I need to bring home with me.” •• “I use Triple Note Tote to learn vocabulary and the colonies for social studies.” •• “For social studies, I use crazy phrases before the test.” •• “I use ANN E. BOA from BrainCogs.” •• “I use webbing for the MCAS [Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System] open response.”

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

Effort Grades

An effort grade can be assigned to indicate how frequently students use strategies to prepare and study for their tests. This can also serve as a tracking system for teachers to document whether students’ approaches to studying for tests change and improve over time. Test Preparation and Test-Taking Strategies

Strategies used to study and complete tests should receive additional credit. Students should be required to use strategies to answer selected questions on tests, and part of the grade should be assigned for their use of strategies.

Getting “Buy-In” from Students One of the most important underpinnings of successful strategy instruction is to get “buy-in” from students, so that they feel invested in using appropriate strategies. A powerful approach is to show students how specific strategies can improve their performance. For instance, within the first week of school, students can be given a challenging test that requires the use of working memory strategies to do well. After the test, students can be taught a number of different memory strategies (e.g., the crazy phrases, acronyms, and cartoon strategies from BrainCogs). Students can be required to practice and use the strategies in class. When the teacher feels that students understand the memory strategies and can apply them, then the same test can be given again. After the teacher has scored the second test, students can review their scores on both tests, to compare their performance with and without the use of the memory strategies. Students will then have evidence of how strategies can improve their performance in school and on tests. There are likely to be some students who feel they do not need strategies to help them in school because they already do well. It is important to help them understand that tasks will become more complex and challenging in high school and college, and that executive function strategies are essential for their continued academic success. All students—including high achievers, low achievers, and students with diagnosed learning and attention problems—need to learn strategies, particularly in the earlier grades, so that they can prepare for the fast pace and heavy organizational demands of academic work in the higher grades.

Strategy Group, Pair, Share Strategy instruction should be provided in whole groups, small groups, and pairs. Just as teachers group students carefully for content area instruction, they also need to group students carefully for strategy instruction. Work on differentiated instruction (Tomlinson, 1999; Tomlinson, Brimijoin, & Narvaez, 2008) has shown

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

that grouping students should be a dynamic process that depends on students’ (1) content knowledge, (2) expertise, and (3) strategy preferences. In other words, students can be grouped together flexibly to learn a specific skill or strategy. These groups can be formed and disbanded for a variety of purposes. For instance, a student who is a second-language learner could be paired with a student who is a fluent speaker when the class practices using a specific strategy. The second-language learner then receives one-on-one support when practicing the strategy.

The Power of Peer Tutoring and Peer Mentoring Peer mentoring and peer tutoring are powerful ways of teaching strategies and have significantly more positive effects on students’ academic achievement, selfesteem, social competency, and peer relationships than teacher instruction alone (Mastropieri et al., 2001; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2000). Furthermore, structured peer-tutoring programs have been shown to be extremely effective for students with and without learning difficulties (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Burish, 2000). BrainCogs Squad is one example of an effective peer-tutoring system that is designed to facilitate strategy instruction in groups of students. It has been used effectively with middle school and high school students as part of ResearchILD’s Drive to Thrive and SMARTS programs (Meltzer et al., 2007b). A BrainCogs Squad consists of approximately five to six students who are selected by the teacher to be peer tutors and are trained to navigate the BrainCogs software, apply the learning strategies, work with their peers, and assist teachers in using BrainCogs. BrainCogs is a multimedia system for teaching 13 strategies in the five key executive function areas (ResearchILD & FableVision, 2003) (see Figures 2.6a and 2.6b). The BrainCogs Squad peer-tutoring system helps to create a bottom-up approach for teaching strategies that increases students’ “buy-in,” as well as their willingness to make the effort needed to use strategies in their classwork and homework. Each BrainCogs Squad peer tutor meets with five other students once a week for 1 hour to teach, review, and apply the selected strategy of the week. The 13 strategies are taught by the teacher and the BrainCogs Squad captains over the course of 13–26 weeks, depending on whether or not specific strategies need to be reviewed and practiced. Over these 13 weeks, the “buzz” created by the BrainCogs Squad in the class motivates students to learn and apply executive function strategies to their schoolwork, as the following comments by fifth graders in a Drive to Thrive classroom indicate: “I like BrainCogs Squad because . . . “The people that are teaching you may be your friends, and I think it’s pretty cool.” “It’s very helpful for studying.” “I understood the strategies better when my friend explained them to me.” “I could memorize something easily, using crazy phrases and cartoons.”

FIGURE 2.6b. Thirteen strategies in five executive function areas can be effectively taught using a peer-tutoring model embedded in a strategic classroom culture. From ResearchILD and FableVision (2003). Copyright 2003 by ResearchILD and FableVision. Reprinted by permission of ResearchILD.

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

“When friends are teaching, it is way more laid back.” “You can learn new things about organizing things.” Similarly, the BrainCogs Squad captains who provide the peer tutoring feel empowered, as reflected in these comments: “I like being a BrainCogs Squad peer tutor because . . . ” “I love all of it! Running the program is a lot of fun.” “I like being able to teach others.” “I like getting to help other people.” “Things get taught in a language kids can understand.” “It makes it easier because they’re your friends, so you know how to work with them.” The BrainCogs Squad captains help to spark effort, motivation, and persistence among both themselves and their classmates. The peer-tutoring model increases student engagement, which in turn influences student motivation and achievement of classroom goals (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Furthermore, the BrainCogs Squad program turns the teaching and learning of strategies over to the students themselves. As a result, the students feel more invested in using these strategies and are willing to put forth more effort into learning, applying, and reviewing strategies. BrainCogs Squad has been an extremely successful component of the Drive to Thrive classrooms, and our research findings have demonstrated the sustainability of a classroom program that includes a peer-tutoring component focused on teaching executive function strategies (Meltzer et al., 2007a; Meltzer et al., 2010; Noeder, 2007).

Model Lesson Plans for Creating Strategic Classrooms For teachers who plan their school year with a focus on creating a Drive to Thrive culture in their classrooms, it may be helpful to follow the broad time frame and series of lesson plans in Table 2.3. As this table shows, teachers can focus on each of the five executive function areas for approximately 2 months at a time. Teachers are encouraged to use this table as a guide and to teach these executive function processes flexibly on a continuing basis. A variety of techniques can be used, including software programs such as BrainCogs and Essay Express (ResearchILD & FableVision, 2005), which provide systematic and explicit presentations of strategies addressing the core executive function processes. In addition, teachers can scaffold the strategies and can require students to apply them to a range of tasks spanning nonacademic and academic areas. For instance, one idea is to have students plan and present a “strategy fair” at the end of the year, where they can creatively share with other classes what they have learned about executive function strategies.

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

TABLE 2.3. Timeline for Teaching Executive Function Strategies over the Course of One School Year September to mid-October Overview: Laying the foundation for strategy instruction •• Barometer reading: Establish where your students are in their understanding of strategies and metacognition (e.g. use the ME and STRATUS from the MetaCOG, as well as reflection sheets). •• Create buy-in: Give your students a challenging test at the beginning of the first week. A week later, after you have introduced and modeled a memory strategy, give students the same test and require them to use strategies to complete the test. Have them compare their “before” and “after” scores. •• Introduce strategy language and define the following concepts and terms: Strategies; executive function processes used in the classroom (e.g., organizing, prioritizing, memorizing, checking, shifting); metacognition; self-reflection. •• Model strategies: Explicitly model a few strategies for the students, to help them understand what they are. •• Establish a strategic classroom: This includes setting up strategy notebooks, a strategy board at the front of the classroom, a strategy wall, strategy reflection sheet routines, strategy-sharing discussions, and a BrainCogs Squad. •• Student reflection: Ask students to reflect on what they have learned. For instance, what terms did they have difficulty learning? Are there concepts they did not understand? What can they do to understand the concepts/terms better? Students should be asked to reflect on their learning consistently, to promote metacognition. Mid-October to end of November Overview: Memory strategies •• Barometer reading: Assess where your students are in their understanding of executive function strategies and metacognition (e.g., give them a test on the concepts and terms, and/or use reflection sheets). •• Introduce and define memory strategies with an emphasis on working memory strategies: Introduce crazy phrases, acronyms, and cartoons from the BrainCogs software, and/or use the memory strategies from Chapter 5. •• Model memory strategies: Explicitly model what, when, and how strategies can be used for retrieving information and mentally “juggling” details. Model for students how to be metacognitive learners by demonstrating (e.g., in a think-aloud) how to approach a problem and apply a strategy. •• Active student learning: Give students time in the classroom to learn the memory strategies and to apply them. Let them individually (or in dyads and groups) work through the process of exploring, experimenting, and assessing the effectiveness of each strategy. •• Reinforce memory strategies: Embed general and working memory strategies into lesson plans; use practice labs; require evidence of strategy use on homework/tests; have the BrainCogs Squad review and apply the selected strategy of the week with other students. •• Student reflection: Ask students to reflect on what they have learned. For instance, what memory strategy worked the best for them and why? For what kinds of problems could they use memory strategies? •• Challenge students: After your students have mastered the different strategies, challenge them to come up with their own strategies. That is, make them think critically about what works best for themselves as learners. Have the students share their original strategies with other students. Beginning of December to mid-February Overview: Organizing strategies •• Barometer reading: Assess where your students are in their understanding and use of general and working memory strategies (e.g., give them a test on the different types of memory strategies they learned and when/how to use them, and/or use reflection sheets). If you find that the students need more instruction and practice time with the strategies, then do not move on. Once you feel they understand the concepts and can apply them, then move forward. (cont.)

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

TABLE 2.3. (cont.) •• Introduce and define organization strategies: For example, you can introduce strategy cards, Triple Note Tote, and mapping/webbing from the BrainCogs software, and/or use the organizing strategies from Chapter 4. •• Model organizing strategies: Explicitly model what, when, and how organizing strategies are used. Also model for students how to be metacognitive learners by demonstrating (e.g., in a think-aloud) how to approach a problem and apply a strategy. •• Active student learning: Give students time in the classroom to learn the organizing strategies and to apply them. Let them individually (or in dyads and groups) work through the process of exploring, experimenting, and assessing the effectiveness of each strategy. •• Reinforce organizing strategies: Embed organizing strategies into lesson plans (e.g., Triple Note Tote can be used for taking notes in class); use practice labs; require evidence of strategy use on homework/tests; have the BrainCogs Squad review and apply the selected strategy of the week with other students. •• Student reflection: Ask students to reflect on what they have learned. For instance, what organizing strategy worked the best for them and why? For what kinds of problems could they use organizing strategies? •• Challenge students: After your students have mastered the different strategies, challenge them to come up with their own strategies. That is, make them think critically about what works best for themselves as learners. Challenge the students to teach their strategy to other students or to the class. Then have a discussion about what worked and what didn’t. Mid-February to beginning of April Overview: Prioritizing strategies •• Barometer reading: Assess where your students are in their understanding and use of organizing strategies (e.g., give them a test on the different types of organizing strategies they learned and when/ how to use them, and/or use reflection sheets). If you find that the students need more instruction and practice time with the strategies, then give them more time before moving on. •• Introduce and define prioritizing strategies: For example, you can introduce 1-2-3 Blastoff!, Red Flag, and ANN E. BOA from the BrainCogs software, and/or use the prioritizing strategies from Chapter 3. •• Model prioritizing strategies: Explicitly model what, when, and how prioritizing strategies are used. Also model for students how to be a metacognitive learner by demonstrating (e.g., in a think-aloud) how to approach a problem and apply a strategy. •• Active student learning: Give students time in the classroom to learn the prioritizing strategies and to apply them. Let them individually (or in dyads and groups) work through the process of exploring, experimenting, and assessing the effectiveness of each strategy. •• Reinforce prioritizing strategies: Embed prioritizing strategies into lesson plans; use practice labs; require evidence of prioritizing strategy use on homework and tests; have the BrainCogs Squad review and apply the selected strategy of the week with other students. •• Student reflection: Ask students to reflect on what they have learned. For instance, what prioritizing strategy worked the best for them and why? For what kinds of problems could they use prioritizing strategies? •• Challenge students: After your students have mastered the different strategies, challenge them to come up with their own strategies. That is, make them think critically about what works best for themselves as learners. Challenge the students to teach their strategy to other students or to the class. Then have a discussion about what worked and what didn’t. Beginning of April to mid-May Overview: Shifting and checking routines •• Barometer reading: Assess where your students are in their understanding and use of prioritizing strategies (e.g., give them a test on the different types of prioritizing strategies they learned and when/ how to use them, and/or use reflection sheets). If you find that the students need more instruction and practice time with the strategies, then give them more time before moving on. •• Introduce and define shifting and checking strategies: For example, you can introduce shifty words, shifty images, personal checklists, and RE-view from the BrainCogs software, and/or use the shifting and checking strategies from Chapters 6 and 7. (cont.)

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

TABLE 2.3. (cont.) •• Model shifting and checking strategies: Explicitly model what, when, and how shifting and checking strategies are used. Also model for students how to be a metacognitive learner by demonstrating (e.g., in a think-aloud) how to approach a problem and apply a strategy. •• Active student learning: Give students time in the classroom to learn the shifting and checking strategies and to apply them. Let them individually (or in dyads and groups) work through the process of exploring, experimenting, and assessing the effectiveness of each strategy. •• Reinforce shifting and checking strategies: Embed shifting and checking strategies into lesson plans; use practice labs; require evidence of shifting and/or checking strategy use on homework and tests; have the BrainCogs Squad review and apply the selected strategy of the week with other students. •• Student reflection: Ask students to reflect on what they have learned. For instance, what shifting or checking strategy worked the best for them and why? For what kinds of problems could they use shifting and checking strategies? •• Challenge students: After your students have mastered the different strategies, challenge them to come up with their own strategies. That is, make them think critically about what works best for themselves as learners. Challenge the students to teach their strategy to other students or to the class. Then have a discussion about what worked and what didn’t. Mid-May to June Overview: Review of all strategies •• Barometer reading: Assess where your students are in their understanding and use of all the strategies (e.g., give them a test on the different types of strategies they learned and when/how to use them, and/ or use reflection sheets). If you find that the students need more instruction and practice time with certain strategies, then provide classwide instruction as well as BrainCogs Squad peer instruction. •• Strategy fair: Your students can create a “strategy fair” where they display their favorite strategies and demonstrate their use to other classes in their school. This provides an incentive for the students to review the strategies they have learned over the past year. •• Student reflection: Ask students to reflect on what they have learned about strategies during the school year. As a class, you can discuss how to continue to use strategies the following school year, so that your students hold onto what they have learned.

What Executive Function Strategies Should Be Embedded in the Curriculum across Subject and Content Areas? I learned very specific strategies that allowed me to succeed in school and in life today like multicolumn notes. These were a lifesaver for me. My notes would look scattered on a page. With this system, I made a hierarchy of information and had it structured around itself and I could relate it to things. . . . So if I had a history test I could think back to that note page and it all fitted into place—as opposed to remembering a liquefied gobble of notes that I had picked up here and there along the way. —Brandon, college graduate

Reading comprehension, writing, math problem solving, summarizing, note taking, long-term projects, studying, and test taking all require students to integrate and organize multiple subprocesses simultaneously and to shift approaches on an ongoing basis. Success in all these academic areas is dependent on students’ ability to make use of executive function processes in the five core areas. When strategies are embedded in the teaching of reading, writing, math, and content area material, it is possible to address these key executive function processes, as shown in Figure 2.7 and Table 2.4.

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

Reading comprehension

Test taking

Written language

Goal setting Planning/prioritizing Organizing Memorizing Shifting flexibly Self-monitoring

Studying

Math problem solving

Summarizing and note taking

Long-term projects

FIGURE 2.7. Core executive function processes that affect academic performance.

In the section below, we summarize a few of the strategies that can be used to teach writing, the basis for most academic work from the early grades into college. Because our 21st-century schools now emphasize strong writing skills as a requirement for academic success, we discuss strategies that can be incorporated into daily writing instruction as well as note taking, studying, and test taking. Teachers can use this discussion as guidance for strategy instruction in other academic areas (e.g., math, social studies, science). When these strategies are successfully incorporated into instruction, they increase the likelihood of future strategy use and academic success (Graham & Harris, 2003; Harris & Graham, 1996; Harris, Graham, & Mason, 2003; Meltzer et al., 2007b; Reid & Lienemann, 2006; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1985; Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997).

Writing I used BOTEC right now when I was doing my English test. I described it—Brainstorm, Organization, Thesis, Elaborate, Conclusion . . .—you know. Then I just attacked the thesis and examples first, and the rest just came. —Levon, 11th grader

Not only are writing skills heavily emphasized in today’s schools, but standardsbased tests, including the SAT, now incorporate a required writing section. As a result of this shift, students from late elementary school onward are frequently required to complete lengthy writing assignments, long-term projects, and essay tests that rely on executive function processes. Writing can be an overwhelming process for many students, because it requires the coordination and integration of a broad range of cognitive processes and skills, including memory, planning, generating text, and editing/revising their work (Flower et al., 1990; Flower, Wallace,

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

TABLE 2.4. Embedding Executive Function Processes and Strategies across Curriculum Areas Curriculum area

Executive function processes involved

Reading comprehension

Planning Prioritizing

Organizing Organizing Shifting Written language

Planning

Prioritizing Organizing Self-checking

Shifting Studying and test taking

Planning Organizing Shifting

Memorizing

Self-checking

Strategies •• Use monthly calendars to plan and break down the reading of longer texts. •• Have students use active reading strategies that ask them to look for and mark specific aspects of the text (characters, setting, themes, etc.). •• Require students to use Post-it notes to summarize each chapter of a novel. •• Have students use story organizers to summarize stories for book reports. •• Have students predict different endings to a story. •• Require students to plan long-term writing assignments by using monthly and weekly calendars and setting short-term “due dates” for themselves. •• Have students use graphic organizers for brainstorming, prioritizing, and organizing ideas. •• Provide templates or specific guidelines for writing thesis statements, introductions, body paragraphs, and conclusions. •• Help students develop personalized editing checklists based on previous assignments. Provide a specific rubric for students to check their work. •• Emphasize how to shift from the main ideas to supporting details when writing. •• Have students plan their study schedule for upcoming tests. •• Have students take notes from the textbook in a question– answer or Triple Note Tote format for later use as a study tool. •• Teach students to rephrase topic sentences as questions, and to use context clues to understand ambiguities and to interpret questions. •• When requiring students to take notes and to study history or biology, teach them to develop their own acronyms or crazy phrases to help them to retrieve and manipulate the information. •• Allow students to bring personalized checklists to tests, to remind them to check for their own common errors.

Norris, & Burnett, 1994). Many students also struggle to organize their ideas for writing, and they need the writing process to be broken down explicitly with organizers and templates that match both the goals of the assignment and their learning styles (Graham & Harris, 2003; Harris & Graham, 1996). They benefit when they are systematically taught strategies that address executive function processes (Bruning & Horn, 2000; MacArthur, Graham, & Fitzgerald, 2006; Ransdell & Levy, 1996; Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997). Writing templates and graphic organizers need to be explicitly structured in such a way that students can translate their ideas into paragraph form. These graphic organizers can be used successfully for different content areas and genres

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

of writing, including book reports, persuasive essays, descriptive paragraphs, news articles, summaries, reflections, and narratives (Schunk & Swartz, 1993). Graphic organizers taught in middle school to help students plan and prioritize their ideas for essay writing can be extrapolated to more complex reports and papers at the high school and college levels (see Chapter 1). Rubrics like the one in Figure 2.8, from the Drive to Thrive program, can help teachers and students to analyze the writing process and embed executive function strategies in their teaching. For instance, the Figure 2.8 rubric can be used by teachers to explain, teach, and grade the writing process. In turn, students can use this type of rubric to provide structure when they are required to write a paper or complete an essay question on a test. Students often struggle to break down the writing process into manageable components, and they benefit from strategies that help them to analyze, structure, and remember the steps involved. Strategies that provide such structure help students to plan, organize, prioritize, and check their work, so that writing a paper does not feel as overwhelming. BOTEC, a strategy from Essay Express (ResearchILD & FableVision, 2005), helps students to approach the writing process systematically through Brainstorming, Organizing, generating a Topic sentence (or Thesis), providing supportive Evidence (of Elaborating), and generating a Conclusion. Figure 2.9 illustrates a template for one part of the BOTEC strategy (marshaling evidence). When students experience success as a result of using a strategy such as BOTEC, they are more willing to apply the strategy to more complex writing assignments and projects. As part of their writing assignments, students can also be required to complete and submit strategy reflection sheets. Strategy reflection sheets that incorporate structured questions and a multiple-choice format remind students of the range of strategies they can apply in producing and editing their written work (see Figure 2.10). When students understand the range of appropriate strategies, they can then be required to complete open-ended strategy reflection sheets (see Figure 2.11), which give them opportunities to use strategies creatively. Also, when they are given credit for using these strategies, they are more likely to make the effort needed to continue this process.

Note Taking, Studying, and Taking Tests Summarizing, note taking, and studying are extremely challenging for students with learning difficulties, because all these tasks require the coordination and integration of multiple subskills and processes. On timed tasks, these students experience even more difficulty, and their performance often does not match their intellectual ability. Strategies that help students to streamline and structure a large volume of information can make a significant difference in their performance. Strategies for organizing, prioritizing, and memorizing information are extremely important,

Drive to Thrive: Writing Rubric Executive Function Processes Below Average Needs Improvement Planning 1 point 2 points Little or no evidence A planning sheet is of planning. included, but it is incomplete.

Organizing 1 point Student does not include a rough draft.

Shifting

1 point Student shows no changes from the rough draft to the final draft.

Prioritizing 1 point Essay includes no transition words to show sequence, contrast, or relative importance of ideas.

Checking

1 point Student does not submit a checklist with the writing project.

2 points Student includes a partially completed rough draft that does not follow an organizational plan. 2 points Only slight evidence of improvement is seen between the rough and final drafts.

2 points Essay includes only transition words, such as “and,” “also,” and “but.”

2 points Student checks for a few mistakes but not for others.

Exemplary Earned Proficient Performance Points 4 points 3 points Student includes an Student includes completely filled-out outline or graphic outline or graphic organizer that is organizer, and final partially filled out. Planner is somewhat essay reflects its use. related to final essay. 4 points 3 points Student includes a Student includes rough draft that is a rough draft that well organized and roughly follows follows the planning his/her outline or tool. graphic organizer. 4 points 3 points The student takes Student makes at a different point least two changes beyond spelling and of view in the final draft, or makes at punctuation in the least three major final draft. improvements between the rough draft and the final draft. 4 points 3 points Essay includes more Essay includes two than two transition more sophisticated transition words that words to connect ideas or paragraphs. indicate sequence, importance, or contrast, such as “however,” “on the other hand,” “another example,” etc. 4 points 3 points Student submits Student checks off checklist indicating the checklist to indicate that he/she that he/she has checked most of the checked for each item on the list. items on the list. Student’s writing reflects no errors that are listed on the checklist. Score:

FIGURE 2.9. A ninth grader in the SMARTS program uses the BOTEC strategy to organize evidence for a project presentation about reducing the homework load in school. The template is from ResearchILD and FableVision (2005). Copyright 2005 by ResearchILD and FableVision. Reprinted by permission of ResearchILD.

Strategy Reflection Sheet What strategies did you use for this writing assignment? BOTEC

Personalized checklist

Mapping and webbing

Sentence starters

Graphic organizer

Introduction template

Linear outline

Other

FIGURE 2.10. Strategy reflection sheet for writing: Structured questions that scaffold the writing process.

Strategy Reflection Sheet What strategies did you use for this writing assignment? © ResearchILD 2004

FIGURE 2.11. Strategy reflection sheet for writing: Open-ended questions.

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

as these reduce the load on working memory and improve efficiency as well as accuracy. In this section, we briefly summarize a few strategies that are particularly useful for a wide range of academic tasks; Chapters 3–7 describe specific strategies for each of the five executive function areas in greater detail. Graphic organizers and three-column note-taking systems help students to organize and memorize information simultaneously. One example is the Triple Note Tote strategy (from BrainCogs; ResearchILD & FableVision, 2003), which can be used for taking notes, summarizing, and memorizing information in content areas such as key terms or new vocabulary. In all cases, the major concept is written in the first column, important details in the second column, and a paired visual–verbal strategy for remembering the information in the third column (see Figures 2.12a and 2.12b). Students also benefit from memory strategies such as mnemonics and crazy phrases for organizing information, reducing the memory load, and retrieving information for tests or projects. For example, when students are required to study the states and their capitals for a test, crazy phrases and personalized diagrams help them to chunk the information for easier recall (see Chapter 5 for more specific examples). Finally, personalized error checklists help students to edit and correct their written work during homework and tests. Once students analyze their most common errors, they can develop a checklist and an acronym to help them to remember the items on the list, so they can check their work independently. Although general checklists work for many students, personalized checklists help students to be aware of and search for their own most common errors (Dunlap & Dunlap, 1989). One student may consistently make spelling errors but may have no difficulty with organization; another may have the opposite profile. Figure 2.13 illustrates a personalized checking strategy developed by a fifth grader who used a crazy phrase and acronym to remember his most frequent errors and the details he needed to check. Personalized checklists like this one are useful for all students, whether or not they have difficulty completing their homework accurately, make careless errors on tests, have difficulty with the mechanics of writing, or struggle to remember the steps in a math problem.

Conclusion When schools build an executive function culture across classrooms, they empower students to learn how to learn and how to solve problems flexibly—processes that are critically important for success in the global world we now live in. When schools and families foster the same emphasis on learning strategies, persistence and a strong work ethic are promoted, and these should lead to academic and life success. As students learn effective approaches to their work, their motivation, selfconfidence, and resilience also increase.

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

Triple Note Tote and Cartoon:

FIGURE 2.13. A fifth grader’s personalized checklist for writing. The checklist itself is from ResearchILD and FableVision (2003). Copyright 2003 by ResearchILD and FableVision. Reprinted by permission of ResearchILD.

Copyright © 2010 The Guilford Press. All rights reserved under International Copyright Convention. No part of this text may be reproduced, transmitted, downloaded, or stored in or introduced into any information storage or retrieval system, in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereinafter invented, without the written permission of The Guilford Press. Guilford Publications, 72 Spring Street, New York, NY 10012, 212-431-9800. www.guilford.com/p/meltzer2

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Beyond Bribes and Threats: Challenging the Conventional Wisdom About Discipline and Motivation Alfie Kohn, M.A. Author and Lecturer Overview The most basic choice for educators, psychologists, and other professionals is whether to do things to students or to work with them. The category of "doing to" includes punishments and rewards, euphemistically referred to as "consequences" and "positive reinforcement." These tactics are aimed at manipulating behavior and eliciting compliance. In the long run, they are not only ineffective but actually destructive to children's interest in learning, their concern for others, and their capacity to take responsibility for their own actions. This is particularly true for students with disabilities and other challenges, yet such controlling tactics are most widely used on this population. Alfie Kohn will invite us to rethink attempts to "motivate" students as well as the tendency to focus on their behavior. He'll argue that not all versions of self-regulation are equally healthy and that supporting autonomy and community should take precedence over a traditional emphasis on discipline. Specifically, that means we (1) do more asking than telling, supporting kids' autonomy by seeking their input; (2) transform schools into caring communities where students are encouraged to cooperate rather than compete and develop a sense of belonging; and (3) work with students to create a curriculum that they experience as meaningful and engaging. Most of all, Kohn will suggest that we look for ways not only to tweak our methods but to rethink our goals, the idea being that our daily interactions with kids are guided by long-term hopes for the kind of people they will become. References Alfie Kohn, Punished by Rewards (Houghton Mifflin, 1993/2018) Alfie Kohn, Beyond Discipline: From Compliance to Community (ASCD, 1996/2006)

Alfie Kohn, Unconditional Parenting: Moving from Rewards and Punishment to Love and Reason (Atria, 2005) Alfie Kohn, "Autism and Behaviorism" (blog post, 2020) Ross Greene, Lost at School (Scribner, 2008) Marilyn Watson, Learning to Trust: Attachment Theory and Classroom Management, 2d ed. (Oxford University Press, 2019) Herbert Lovett, Learning to Listen: Positive Approaches and People with Difficult Behavior (Paul H. Brookes, 1996) Resources -

https://www.alfiekohn.org

https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/

https://www.icdl.com/

https://www.broadreachtraining.com/

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Why Lots of Love (or Motivation) Isn’t Enough - Alfie Kohn

Why Lots of Love (or Motivation) Isn’t Enough |

April 23, 2016

Why Lots of Love (or Motivation) Isn’t Enough By Alfie Kohn I get a kick out of spotting invisible threads that connect disparate theories and lines of research. Sometimes I’ll even notice a pattern (after the fact) in my own essays about different topics — which can be gratifying until I realize that the common denominator is embarrassingly simple. One observation I’ve offered in various contexts is that “how much” tends to matter less than “what kind.” That’s something I’ve written about in four very different domains. My only defense against the reply “Well, duh. Who says otherwise?” is: “No one says otherwise, but most of us tend to act as if it weren’t true.” Let me explain. 1. Motivation. After I published a thick book about the damaging effects of rewards, I realized that a lot of the research I had cited could be summarized in a few straightforward sentences: Without really thinking about it, we tend to assume there’s something called “motivation” – a single entity of which someone can have a lot or a little. When we deal with people who have less power than we do, we’re often tempted to offer them rewards for acting the way we want because we figure this will increase their level of motivation to do so. If we ignore the moral implications of treating others this way, rewarding them might be justified in practical terms. . . . that is, if the underlying model of motivation were accurate. Unfortunately, it isn’t. In reality, there are qualitatively different kinds of motivation, and the kind is more important than the amount. What matters is whether one is intrinsically motivated to engage in an activity (which means one finds it valuable or satisfying in its own right) or extrinsically motivated (which means that doing it produces a result outside of the task, such as a reward). Even impressive levels of extrinsic motivation don’t bode well for meaningful goals. In fact, as scores of studies have shown, rewards tend to reduce people’s intrinsic motivation. You get a prize for reading a book (or for being helpful) and you tend to find reading (or helpfulness) itself less appealing in the future. Thus, what matters isn’t how motivated someone is, but how someone is motivated. The common but mistaken assumption that motivation comes in only one flavor helps to explain why rewards remain popular despite all the harm they do. Many teachers, I find, are familiar with the modifiers “intrinsic” and “extrinsic,” yet they continue to talk about “how motivated” a student is or how to “motivate” kids in general. By overlooking the critical difference between types of motivation, they contribute to a serious problem. Only extrinsic motivation can be increased from the outside, so that’s what schools focus on (with grades, points, awards, praise, and the like) — often at the expense of children’s interest in learning. 2. Love. Let’s consider a very different example of the same general principle. Many of us who are parents take comfort from the idea that what kids really need — maybe all they need — is our love. The implication is that love is a substance we can supply in greater or lesser quantities — greater, of course, being preferable. https://www.alfiekohn.org/blogs/lots-of-love/?print=print

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But again, this assumption turns out to be fatally simplistic since there are actually different ways of loving a child, and these ways aren’t equally desirable. The psychoanalyst Alice Miller observed that it’s possible to love a child “passionately – but not in the way he needs to be loved.” If she’s right, the relevant question isn’t just whether, or even how much, we love our kids. It also matters how we love them. Once that’s understood, we could pretty quickly come up with a list of different types of parental love along with opinions about which are better. I tend to focus on the distinction between loving kids for what they do and loving them for who they are. The first kind is conditional, which means children must earn our acceptance — by acting in ways we deem appropriate or performing up to our standards. The second kind of love is unconditional: It doesn’t hinge on how they act, whether they’re successful or well-behaved or anything else. And it’s the latter, according to a growing body of research, that children really need — from their parents and even from their teachers. Unfortunately, it’s also the opposite of what most parenting and classroom management resources are selling. Positive reinforcement for good behavior, just like “time out” for bad behavior, exemplifies conditional acceptance. 3. Self-esteem. Conservatives have been sneering at what they call the “self-esteem movement” for decades, but considerable research confirms that how people regard themselves is indeed a powerful predictor of various psychological outcomes — and that higher selfesteem is better than lower. Over the last few years, however, a number of psychologists have shown that what matters about self-esteem isn’t just how much of it one has but how stable it is. If your confidence in yourself is fragile, the result may be anger or depression. And even if your self-esteem is generally high, you may struggle with self-doubt or become defensive if that positive view isn’t sufficiently secure. The crucial determinant of stability, in turn, seems to be unconditionality. A solid core of belief in yourself, an abiding sense that you’re competent and worthwhile — even when you screw up or fall short — creates a more reliable (and healthier) form of self-esteem. Conversely, if you think well of yourself only to the extent that you’re successful or attractive or appreciated by others — if you regard self-esteem as something that’s perpetually in doubt — then you’re in for trouble, psychologically speaking. Low self-esteem (“I don’t feel very good about myself”) is bad enough; self-esteem that’s contingent (“I feel good about myself only when…”) is even more worrisome.1 It’s a neat parallel: The level of esteem one has for oneself, just like the amount of love children receive from their parents, doesn’t tell the whole story. Actually, it’s more than a parallel because these lines intersect. Being accepted unconditionally is what allows children to accept themselves unconditionally. Or to put it the other way around, conditional acceptance predicts conditional self-acceptance — and poorer psychological health. 4. Internalization. Many people with an interest in child development — even if they’re aware of the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation — like to say that kids should be helped to internalize good values or behaviors. But how exactly does that process play out? On the one hand, kids may swallow whole (or “introject”) an adult’s rule or standard so that it seems to control them from the inside: They do what they’ve been told because they’ll feel guilty if they don’t. On the other hand, internalization can happen more authentically, so the behavior has been fully integrated into their value structure. It feels chosen.2 In short, internalization can take place in very different ways. Which means, once again, that what counts isn’t just whether (or the extent to which) kids are doing it, but how. When adults control children, they end up promoting an introjected style that often results in learning that’s rigid, superficial, and ultimately less successful. Many older students have very effectively internalized a compulsion to do well in school. On the outside they look like admirably dedicated students, but they may have mortgaged their present lives to the future: noses to the grindstone, perseverant to a fault, stressed to the max. High school is just preparation for college, college is just an occasion for collecting

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credentials for whatever comes next. Such students may be skilled test-takers and grade grubbers and gratification delayers, but they’re often motivated by a perpetual need to feel better about themselves rather than by anything resembling curiosity. True, these students no longer require carrots or sticks. They don’t need discipline because they’re self-disciplined. . . in a way that’s disturbing. Their motivation is internal, but it sure as hell isn’t intrinsic. And that key distinction would go unnoticed if we had just asked whether they had internalized certain values (or reached a certain level of executive functioning or self-regulation) rather than inquired about the nature of that internalization, executive functioning, or self-regulation. * If we know better, why do so many of us act as if things like love, motivation, self-esteem, and internalization come in only one variety? Might we focus on how much of “it” someone has because of our culture’s preoccupation with quantification and data?3 Or is it just that we’ve never been invited to consider the practical ramifications of the fact that none of these concepts is actually unitary?

NOTES 1. For an extended discussion of this point and the supporting research, see chapter 6 (“The Attack on Self-Esteem”) of my book The Myth of the Spoiled Child. 2. I rely here on the theory and research of Edward Deci, Richard Ryan, and their many colleagues and former students. For a list of publications on this topic, look here. 3. In all four examples I’ve offered here, my argument is that it’s not enough to ask “How much?” because the more meaningful question is “What kind?” But some practices may be inherently problematic, such that even the latter question takes too much for granted. In such cases, the more pertinent question is “Should we be doing this at all?” One example that comes to mind is homework. To say “It’s not enough to reduce the amount; we need better homework” may be a step in the right direction, but it’s still unsatisfactory if there’s something problematic about the whole idea of making students work a second shift when they get home from school.

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Panel: Executive Function and Social-Emotional Learning: The Keys to Resilience Julie Dunstan, Ph.D. Bermuda Registered Psychologist; Founding Director of reFLEXions (c/o The Reading Clinic) Shelly Levy, M.S., M.Ed. Director of Professional Development & Training and Educational Specialist, ResearchILD Susannah Cole, M.Ed. Executive Function Coach, Consultant and Speaker; Managing Director of reFLEXions Joan Steinberg, M.Ed. Director of Educational Therapy and Educational Specialist, ResearchILD Joanna Christodoulou, Ed.D. Associate Professor, Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders at the MGH Institute of Health Professions; Adjunct Lecturer on Education, Harvard Graduate School of Education (HGSE); Research Affiliate at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. SMARTS Instructional Designer and Professional Development Trainer, ResearchILD Leah Benjamin, Psy.D. Licensed Clinical Psychologist, The Concord Center

Overview Executive function strategies are powerful tools for promoting effort, persistence, and resilience in students with learning, attention, and social-emotional difficulties. When students struggle in school, they often believe that their teachers view them as “dumb” or “lazy”. Furthermore, when they feel overwhelmed by the academic and social demands of school, they often give up and develop negative beliefs about their abilities. Executive function strategies, in combination with social-emotional support, can have a dramatic impact on their performance. In this panel, each speaker will discuss the importance of ensuring that students have opportunities to understand their strengths and challenges, to self-advocate, and to succeed academically and socially. Each panelist will respond briefly to the following question:

How do we build self-understanding, motivation, and flexible thinking so that we promote engagement and reduce stress in school? Overview Al Dahhan, N. Z., Halverson, K., Peek, C. P., Wilmot, D., D'Mello, A., Romeo, R. R., Meegoda, O., Imhof, A., Wade, K., Sridhar, A., Falke, E., Centanni, T. M., Gabrieli, J. D. E., & Christodoulou, J. A. (2022). Dissociating executive function and ADHD influences on reading ability in children with dyslexia. Cortex; a journal devoted to the study of the nervous system and behavior, 153, 126–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2022.03.025 Dunstan, J. & Cole, S. (2021). Flexible Mindsets in schools: Channelling brain power for Critical Thinking, Complex Problem-Solving and Creativity. London, UK: Routledge. Lebowitz, E. R., & Omer, H. (2013). Treating childhood and adolescent anxiety: A guide for caregivers. John Wiley & Sons. Stein, J. A. (2010). Emotional self-regulation: A critical component of executive function. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom (pp. 175–201), Guilford Press.

Teaching Executive Functioning Processes: Promoting Metacognition, Strategy Use, and Effort

Lynn Meltzer Mike’s performance has been unpredictable all year! He has many creative ideas and he participates actively in classes. However, he is usually late with written papers and projects and he does not seem to care about his homework. His test grades fluctuate from the 90s to the 60s. His other teachers have told me that they think he is lazy. I think that Mike may have a problem. (8th grade teacher)

Students’ success in the digital age is increasingly linked with their ability to take responsibility for their own learning by organizing and integrating a rapidly changing body of information that is available in textbooks and online. From the early grades, they are expected to work independently to complete numerous multistep projects and writing assignments, all tasks that rely on cognitive flexibility and the ability to shift rapidly between different processes. Students’ academic performance therefore depends on the ease with which they plan their time, organize and prioritize materials and information, separate main ideas from details, think flexibly, memorize and mentally manipulate information, and monitor their own progress. As a result, it is essential that all students develop an awareness of how they think and how they learn and that they master strategies that address these executive function processes. For the purposes of this chapter, “executive function” is used as an umbrella term that is broader than metacognition and incorporates a range of interrelated processes responsible for goal-directed behavior (Anderson, 2002; Gioia,

L. Meltzer (*) Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD), and Harvard Graduate School of Education, Lexington, MA 02421, USA e-mail: lmeltzer@ildlex.org

Isquith, Guy, & Kenworthy, 2001). More specifically, this chapter builds on many of the theoretical models of executive function that have been refined since the seminal work of Flavell on goal-oriented problem-solving (Flavell, Friedrichs, & Hoyt, 1970) and the research on metacognition and self-regulation (Barkley, 1997; Brown & Campione, 1983, 1986; Denckla, 1996, 2007; Gioia, Isquith, Guy, Kenworthy, & Barton, 2002). The approach in this chapter is anchored in Eslinger’s (1996) analyses of multiple definitions and his conclusions that executive function refers to a range of cognitive processes that are controlled by the prefrontal cortex and comprise: • Metacognitive knowledge about tasks and strategies • Flexible use of strategies • Attention and memory systems that guide these processes, e.g., working memory • Self-regulatory processes such as planning and self-monitoring This chapter includes a discussion of a theoretical paradigm for understanding and teaching students strategies that address executive function processes (Meltzer, 2007, 2010). There is an emphasis on the central importance of six executive function processes: goal-setting, cognitive flexibility/shifting, organizing, prioritizing, accessing working memory, and self-monitoring.

S. Goldstein and J.A. Naglieri (eds.), Handbook of Executive Functioning, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-8106-5_25, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014

Reprinted with permission

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The major principles of intervention and treatment are addressed with a focus on the interactions among executive function processes, self-awareness, effort, and persistence. Selected strategies are discussed for addressing the key executive function processes as part of a systematic teaching approach (see Meltzer, 2010, for specific classroom teaching techniques). It should be noted that it is beyond the scope of this chapter to include a description of inhibition, selective attention, and activation, all important executive function processes that are addressed in recent neuroscientific research (Anderson, Rani Jacobs, & Anderson, 2008; Bernstein & Waber, 2007; Diamond, 2006).

Table 25.1 Executive function processes and their impact on academic performance Executive function process Goal-setting

Shifting/cognitive flexibility Prioritizing

Organizing

Using working memory

Executive Function Processes and Academic Performance Self-monitoring When I have to write a paper, I sit down at my computer but my mind feels like a bottle of soda that’s been all shaken up. I try to write but I can’t figure how to get my mind unstuck so I can begin. After trying for an hour I have often written only a few sentences and I give up. (Michael, 8th grade)

Students with executive function weaknesses often struggle with academic tasks that involve the coordination and integration of different subskills such as initiating writing assignments, summarizing information, taking notes, planning, executing and completing projects in a timely manner, studying, and submitting work on time (Meltzer, 2010; Meltzer & Basho, 2010; see Table 25.1). These students often have difficulty organizing and prioritizing information and they struggle to shift flexibly to alternate approaches so that they overfocus on details while ignoring the major themes. Furthermore, working memory and self-monitoring processes may also be weak, making it difficult for students to mentally juggle information, self-monitor, or self–check. As a result, information can often become “clogged” and students become “stuck,” so that they struggle to produce academically (see Fig. 25.1). As is reflected in Fig. 25.1, the paradigm that has guided our work on executive function is based on the

Definition Identifying short-term and long-term goals Figuring out a purpose and end-point Switching easily between approaches Looking again, in a brand new way Ordering based on relative importance Figuring out what is most important Arranging information systematically Sorting information Remembering “so that it sticks like glue” Juggling information mentally Cementing information in the brain Shifting to a checking mindset and back RE-viewing in a different way

analogy of a “clogged funnel” (Meltzer, 2004, 2007, 2010; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007). Because these students cannot shift flexibly among alternative approaches to unclog the funnel, their written work, study skills, and test performance are compromised, and their academic grades do not reflect their strong intellectual ability. Consequently, they may have difficulty showing what they know in the classroom and other settings. These deficits become increasingly apparent during middle and high school when the volume and complexity of the workload increase and performance is more dependent on executive function strategies (see Table 25.1). During this time, there is also a mismatch between students’ skills and the demands of the curriculum, so that they struggle to perform at the level of their potential. This can be extremely frustrating and can affect students’ self-confidence and longterm performance.

Teaching Executive Functioning Processes...

Executive Function Strategies, Self-Understanding, and Effort: The Underpinnings of Academic Success My success is due to the strategies I learned as well as my self-understanding and the confidence I developed after I used the strategies and got higher grades. (Sean, 11th grader)

Academic success for all students, and particularly for students with learning and attention difficulties, is connected with their motivation, academic self-concept, and self-efficacy (Brunstein, Schultheiss, & Grässmann, 1998; Helliwell, 2003; Kasser & Ryan, 1996; Meltzer, Reddy, Sales, et al. 2004; Pajares & Schunk, 2001; Sheldon & Elliot, 1999). These cognitive and motivational processes are linked cyclically with students’ use of executive function strategies as well as their effort and persistence (Meltzer, Katzir, Miller, Reddy, & Roditi, 2004; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007) (see Fig. 25.2). Strategies that address executive function processes therefore provide a starting point for improving academic performance (see Fig. 25.2). When students use executive function strategies, they become more efficient and they begin to improve academically. Academic success, in

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turn, boosts self-confidence and self-efficacy so that students’ effort is targeted strategically towards specific goals. A cycle of success is promoted when students focus their effort on using executive function strategies in the context of their academic work (Meltzer, 2010; Meltzer, Katzir, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Pollica, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Sales, et al., 2004). To build their motivation, persistence, and work ethic, students need to understand their profiles of strengths and weaknesses, which strategies work well for them, as well as why, where, when, and how to apply specific strategies. This understanding, referred to as metacognition, or the ability to think about their own thinking and learning, underlies students’ use of executive function processes. More specifically, metacognition, as defined originally by Flavell (1979) and Brown, Bransford, Ferrara, and Campione (1983), refers to each student’s understanding and beliefs about HOW she/he learns as well as the strategies that can or should be used to accomplish specific tasks. Students’ metacognitive awareness therefore includes their knowledge and understanding of their own learning profiles as well as their knowledge of the specific strategies that match their strengths and weaknesses and help them to master different tasks. For example, students like Chace (see Fig. 25.3) are aware of their struggle to plan, organize, prioritize, and manage their time, and they are often frustrated that their academic performance does not match their strong intellectual potential. Therefore, students’ understanding of their strengths and weaknesses, as well as their motivation and beliefs, influences their selection of specific strategies and how long they are willing to persist with tasks. This metacognitive awareness usually increases their willingness to make the effort needed to master the strategies needed for the many academic tasks that they face in school on a daily basis. Sustaining this effort is also connected with students’ interests in particular subjects. Specifically, interest-based motivation in learning frequently influences the types of strategies students use as well as their academic performance (Renninger, Hidi, & Krapp, 2004; Yun Dai & Sternberg, 2004). Unfortunately,

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L. Meltzer

Fig. 25.2 Academic success cycle. Adapted from: Meltzer, LJ., Reddy, R., Pollica, L., & Roditi, R. (2004). Copyright 2004 by the International Academy for Research in Learning Disabilities. Reprinted by permission

students’ interest in school often decreases in middle and high school when the curriculum content constrains students’ ability to engage their interests and explore new challenges (Gardner, 1983; Renninger et al., 2004). As a result, many bright and talented students, especially those with learning and attention difficulties, may “give up” so that they no longer make the extraordinary effort needed to master these strategies. Consequently, they become less productive in the higher grades. For all these students, executive function strategies can provide a lifeline to academic success as they learn to set goals and to shift flexibly from the major themes to the details and back again (Meltzer & Basho, 2010). In fact, success is usually attainable when students use executive function strategies to target realistic goals, they focus their effort on reaching these goals, and they self-regulate their cognitive, attention, and emotional processes appropriately (see Fig. 25.4). Furthermore, as is evident from Fig. 25.4, these processes usually build persistence, resilience, and academic success (Meltzer, 2010: Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, & Basho, 2011; Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, Stacey and Ross, 2011).

Informal, Process-Oriented Assessment of Executive Function My teacher probably thinks I am one taco short of a combo plate, if you know what I mean. (Jamie, 8th grader) Jamie is a very bright student who is a puzzle to me. He does well on quizzes and short tests but he often does not hand in his homework. His performance is inconsistent and his grades are up and down. (8th grade teacher)

Educators are often puzzled by students like Jamie whose performance oscillates between high grades on quizzes to low grades on multistep tasks such as written papers, essays, math problem-solving, or long-term projects. When teachers understand the role of executive function processes, they can reframe their understanding so that they focus on their students’ strengths and academic potential and no longer view these students as “unmotivated,” “lazy,” or “not trying hard enough.” Informal assessment methods can help teachers to understand students’ use of executive function processes

Teaching Executive Functioning Processes...

Fig. 25.3 Chace, an exceptionally bright eighth grader, depicts his daily battle to stay organized and focused because of his executive function difficulties. From

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Fig. 25.4 Academic success paradigm. From Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, and Basho (2011)

and pinpoint why and how particular students may be struggling. Teachers can then introduce specific instructional approaches, assess students’ progress, and modify instruction. The continuous cycle linking assessment and teaching allows teachers to adjust their instructional methods to the changing needs of their students. In fact, many of these principles are incorporated into

the response-to-intervention (RtI) approach that is now being more widely used in US schools to improve early identification of reading and learning difficulties (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1991; Kame’enui, 2007). Currently, there is a dearth of measures that help teachers and other professionals to understand students’ use of executive function strategies. One of

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450 Table 25.2 Metacognitive awareness survey system (MetaCOG) STUDENT questionnaires ME—Motivation and effort survey STRATUS—Strategy use survey MAQ—Metacognitive awareness questionnaire TEACHER questionnaires TPSE—Teacher perceptions of student effort TIQ—Teacher information questionnaire 5-point rating for all surveys

the most reliable and widely used questionnaire systems is the Behavior Rating Inventory for Executive Function (BRIEF) (Gioia et al., 2001, 2002). The BRIEF includes 86 items and comprises a parent questionnaire, a teacher questionnaire, and a self-rating form for students from 11 years into adulthood. The items assess behaviors associated with the core executive function processes, e.g., “Forgets to hand in homework, even when completed; Gets caught up in details and misses the big picture; Becomes overwhelmed by large assignments; Underestimates the time needed to finish tasks.” Another criterion-referenced assessment system that compares students’, teachers’, and parents’ perceptions of students’ metacognitive awareness and strategy use is the Metacognitive Awareness System or MetaCOG (Meltzer, 2010; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007; Meltzer, Reddy, Pollica, et al., 2004; Miller, Meltzer, KatzirCohen, & Houser, 2001). The MetaCOG, for use with 9–18 year-olds, comprises five rating scales that allow educators to compare their own judgments with their students’ self-ratings of their effort, strategy use, and academic performance. These strategy ratings focus on academic areas that depend on executive function processes and include written language, homework, studying, and taking tests (see Table 25.2; Meltzer, KatzirCohen, Miller, & Roditi, 2001; Miller et al., 2001). Systems such as the MetaCOG can be used for a variety of purposes over the course of the year: (a) to understand students’ views of their own effort, use of strategies, and academic performance; (b) to help educators and clinicians to compare their own judgments with their students’ self-perceptions; (c) to develop a system for

teaching strategies to help students plan, organize, prioritize, shift flexibly, memorize, and check their work; and (d) to track students’ understanding and implementation of these strategies over time. The three student surveys assess students’ self-ratings of their motivation and effort as well as their strategy use in key academic areas (see details below). Completion of the MetaCOG surveys helps students to build a self-understanding about their learning profiles. This self-awareness is the foundation for building students’ metacognitive awareness and their use of executive function strategies.

MetaCOG Student Surveys 1. Motivation and Effort Survey (ME). The ME consists of 38 items that assess students’ selfratings of their effort and performance on different academic tasks that depend on executive function processes (alpha = .91) (Meltzer, Reddy, Sales, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Sayer, Sales, Theokas, & Roditi, 2002). Students rate themselves on a 1–5 scale (from never to always) in terms of how hard they work and how well they do in selected academic areas such as reading, writing, math, homework, studying for tests, and long-term projects (e.g., I spend as much time as I need to get my work done; I finish my work even when it is boring; I do schoolwork before other things that are more fun). Students are also asked to describe themselves as learners. 2. Strategy Use Survey (STRATUS). The STRATUS consists of 40 items that assess students’ self-reported strategy use in reading, writing, spelling, math, studying, and testtaking (alpha = .945). Items focus on students’ perceptions of their use of strategies for planning, organizing, memorizing, shifting, and self-checking (e.g., When I have to remember new things in school, I make up acronyms to help me; Before I write, I plan out my ideas in some way that works for me [outline, list, map]; When I do math, I ask if my answers make sense].

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3. Metacognitive Awareness Questionnaire (MAQ). The MAQ consists of 18 items that assess students’ understanding of strategies and how they can apply strategies to their schoolwork (e.g., When you begin something new, do you try to connect it to something you already know?; When you begin something new, do you try to think about how long it will take and make sure you have enough time?).

MetaCOG Teacher Surveys 1. Teacher Perceptions of Student Effort (TPSE). The TPSE is the teacher version of the ME and consists of 38 items that assess teachers’ ratings of students’ effort in different academic domains (alpha = .980; Meltzer, Katzir, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Pollica, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Sales, et al., 2004). Teachers rate students’ effort and performance in reading, writing, math, homework, tests, and longterm projects, all academic tasks that rely on executive function processes (e.g., He spends as much time as needed to get his work done; She does not give up even when the work is difficult). Teachers also rate students’ overall strategy use and academic performance in response to the question: “If you had to assign a grade for this student’s overall academic performance, what would this be?”

Table 25.3 MetaCOG sample items: students’ vs. teachers’ ratings of their motivation and effort on academic tasks that involve executive function processes ME-students TPSE-teachers • Doing well in school is • Doing well in school important to me is important to this student • I spend as much time as I • S/he is a hard worker need to get my work done • I keep working even when • S/he doesn’t give up the work is difficult even when work is difficult I work hard on Please judge how hard this student works • Homework • Homework • Long-term projects • Long-term projects • Studying for tests • Studying for tests • Other activities (sports, • Other activities (sports, music, art, hobbies) music, art, hobbies) Note: The ME and TPSE each comprise 36 items using a 1–5 rating scale

Table 25.4 MetaCOG sample items: students’ vs. teachers’ ratings of their performance on academic tasks that involve executive function processes ME-students Please judge how well you do on • Organization • Long-term projects • Making a plan before starting work • Using strategies in my schoolwork • Checking my work

MetaCOG Parent Surveys 1. Parent Perceptions of Student Effort (PPSE). The PPSE consists of 38 items that assess parents’ ratings of students’ behaviors when working hard and the effort they apply in different academic domains that require the use of executive function processes. Items are identical to those used on the student self-report survey (ME) and the teacher survey (TPSE). As was discussed above, student, teacher, and parent reports can be directly compared to determine overall consistency in their ratings of many of the core components of executive function processes across different settings (Tables 25.3 and 25.4).

• • •

Homework Tests Long-term projects

TPSE-teachers Please judge how well this student does on • Organization • Long-term projects • Making a plan before starting work • Using strategies in his/her schoolwork • Checking his/her work • Homework • Tests • Long-term projects

Students’ perceptions of their own effort and strategy use are often very different from their parents’ and teachers’ perceptions, as has been shown in a number of studies (Meltzer, Katzir, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Pollica, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Sales, et al., 2004; Stone & May, 2002). For example, Fig. 25.5 shows the selfratings of John, a fifth grader, who rates himself as a strong, hardworking student with the goal of “getting a second masters degree and making the

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world a better place.” When asked how his parents would describe him, his response reflects his view that his parents would emphasize the importance of working hard in school. In contrast, John’s teacher’s comments are very different and reflect her perception that John has difficulty sustaining his attention. In fact, she comments that John’s academic performance would be much stronger if he could focus more easily in class. In other words, survey systems that raise teachers’ awareness and understanding of their students’ effort, strategy use, and possible difficulty with executive function processes can help them to understand why and how these students may be struggling. These systems can also help teachers to implement and monitor the effectiveness of specific instructional strategies, as will be detailed in the remainder of this chapter.

Intervention Strategies That Address Executive Function Processes The strategies I learned from my tutor changed my life. When I was failing in tenth grade, I became the class clown because my teachers told me I was lazy and nobody taught me how to use strategies

for remembering, organizing, and checking my work. (Max, 12th grader)

Students need to learn when to use which strategies and in what contexts. They also need to recognize that not all strategies work for all tasks and all content areas. In other words, strategies need to fit well with the student’s learning style as well as the task content and the context. For example, students study differently for a math test that emphasizes procedural knowledge, as compared with a Spanish test, which emphasizes memorization of vocabulary. When students recognize the purpose and benefits of using strategies for multistep tasks, they are more willing to personalize strategies so that they can apply these to different academic tasks across content areas and across the grades (see Table 25.5). Intervention research has shown that explicit and highly structured metacognitive instruction benefits all students and is essential for the academic progress of students with learning and attention difficulties (Deshler, Ellis, & Lenz, 1996; Deshler & Schumaker, 1988; Meltzer, Katzir, et al., 2004; Paris, 1986; Pearson & Dole, 1987; Rosenshine, 1997; Swanson, 2001; Swanson & Hoskyn, 1998, 2001). Comparisons of different

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Table 25.5 Executive function processes and academic performance Goal-setting • Identifying short-term and long-term academic goals • Planning and allocating time to the many steps involved in meeting these goals (e.g., completing daily homework, studying for tests systematically) Shifting flexibly/cognitive flexibility • Shifting flexibly from the major themes to the relevant details when reading, writing, or studying • Using outlines such as graphic organizers or linear outlines to get “unstuck” and to focus on the major concepts when writing papers or completing projects • Shifting between operations or between words and numbers for math computation or word problems Organizing • Organizing concepts using strategies (e.g., summarizing key ideas using strategy cards, graphic organizers, or Triple Note Tote) rather than rereading the text over and over • Organizing materials such as class notes, textbooks, study guides • Organizing work space to reduce distractions and clutter Prioritizing • Prioritizing by allocating more time and effort to lengthy papers, major projects or studying • Figuring out which details are critical and which details can be ignored when reading, taking notes, or writing essays • Estimating how much time to spend on reading and research vs. writing for papers, projects Accessing working memory • Chunking information to memorize and mentally manipulate it for multi-step tasks e.g., mental computation, note-taking • Studying strategically to connect concepts so that critical information is retained over time • Accessing critically important details for solving complex math problems • Remembering key concepts while taking notes during classes • Remembering to bring necessary books and materials from school to home and back again Self-monitoring • Using personalized error checklists to correct errors when writing papers, taking tests, or doing homework Adapted, Meltzer (2010). Copyright 2010, The Guilford Press. Reprinted by permission

interventions highlight several important principles of this instruction: • Strategy instruction should be embedded in the curriculum (Deshler et al., 1996; Ellis, 1993, 1994).

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• Strategies should be taught explicitly and systematically, using scaffolding and modeling, while providing time for practice. • Students’ motivation and self-understanding should be addressed to ensure generalized use of strategies (Deshler & Shumaker, 1986; Deshler, Warner, Schumaker, & Alley, 1983; Meltzer, 1996; Meltzer, Roditi, Houser, & Perlman, 1998; Paris & Winograd, 1990; Pressley, Goodchild, Fleet, Zajchowski, & Evans, 1989). Systematic and consistent strategy instruction should address the core executive function processes (see Table 25.5). The following sections focus on specific strategies for addressing each of these executive function processes, namely, goal-setting, cognitive flexibility/shifting, organizing and prioritizing, accessing working memory, and self-monitoring/ self-checking.

Goal-Setting Goal-setting refers to the ability to set specific, realistic objectives that can be achieved within a defined period of time. Goal-setting also involves the selection of goal-relevant activities, effective and efficient strategy use, focused effort, as well as persistence. Goal-setting and planning help students to understand the task objectives, visualize the steps involved in accomplishing the task, and organize the time and resources needed to complete the task. When students set their own goals, they show greater commitment and are more motivated to attain these goals (Schunk, 2001; Winne, 1996, 2001; Zimmerman, 2000; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). Goal-setting also enhances selfefficacy, achievement, and motivation (Schunk, 2001). Krishnan, Feller, and Orkin (2010) emphasize that goal-setting requires students to: • Understand their learning strengths and weaknesses as well as their learning profiles • Understand the “big picture” and envision the end point of a task • Value the task • Recognize that goals need to be attainable Students who are able to set goals and to shift from “the top of the mountain to the bottom and back” (Meltzer, 2007) are usually more successful

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with the complex tasks that are typical of our 21st century schools. In contrast, students with poor self-understanding of their learning profiles often fail to set short-term and long-term goals. This lack of direction often compromises their academic performance (Krishnan et al., 2010; Stone & Conca, 1993; Swanson, 1989; Torgesen, 1977).

Teaching Goal-Setting and Planning Strategies Beginning in the early grades, students can be taught effective goal-setting and planning strategies. Teachers and parents can model the planning process by making daily schedules, using calendars, and setting agendas. Younger students can be taught strategies for planning their homework, long-term projects, study time, and activities. These strategies are even more important in the middle and high school grades. In these higher grades, students are required to understand the goals of their assignments and to plan their study time, as well as their approach to long-term projects and papers. Time management is also critically important, as students are required to juggle multiple deadlines for different ongoing assignments and projects. They often underestimate the amount of work involved in major projects and open-ended tasks, and they need strategies for breaking down tasks into manageable parts. Time management strategies also help students to build goal-oriented schedules by planning their homework and study time after school when there is less structure. Weekly and monthly calendars help to impose structure and build selfmonitoring strategies so that students can track deadlines for long-term projects and can pace themselves to complete their assignments. These goal-setting and time management strategies are critical for promoting independent learning (Hughes, Ruhl, Schumaker, & Deshler, 2002; Krishnan et al., 2010; Sah & Borland, 1989).

Cognitive Flexibility/Shifting Cognitive flexibility, or the ability to think flexibly and to shift approaches, is a critically impor-

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tant executive function process that is often challenging for students, and is especially difficult for students with learning and attention difficulties (Meltzer, 1993; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007; Meltzer & Montague, 2001; Meltzer, Solomon, Fenton, & Levine, 1989). The ability to adapt to unfamiliar or unexpected situations, to shift mindsets and problem-solving approaches, and to integrate different representations, develops across the lifespan and varies across individuals (Brown, 1997; Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c; Deák, 2008; Dweck, 2008; Elliot & Dweck, 2005). In fact, developmental changes from childhood into adulthood influence children’s ability to manage the cognitive complexity of academic tasks and to process different components simultaneously (Andrews & Halford, 2002; Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b; Zelazo & Müller, 2002). Typically, students in the early elementary grades have a more limited understanding of the importance of using a range of different approaches than do middle and high school students. As students advance into the higher grades, their ability to learn new concepts is often connected to their willingness to abandon previously successful approaches and to shift flexibly to alternative methods (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b). Across all the academic domains, students’ motivation, interest, passion, and emotional mindsets also influence their willingness to try using different approaches and to shift flexibly from one approach to another, rather than continuing to rely on the same approach to tasks (Alexander, 1998; Paris, Lipson, & Wixson, 1983; Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008). Motivation, topic knowledge, and strategy use interconnect to produce improvements in content areas such as history or science (Alexander, 1998). For example, as students learn more about a topic (e.g., the Iraq War), they may be more willing to make the effort to use a three-column note-taking strategy to separate main ideas and details; in turn, flexible strategy use increases students’ interest in completing the many different steps involved in creating an outline and then writing a long paper (e.g., a paper about the Iraq War). In this regard, Zelazo and colleagues have differentiated between purely cognitive or “cold” tasks that

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have no emotional content (e.g., math computation) and tasks that are affected by the student’s social and emotional mindset or what they term “hot” tasks (e.g., remembering information about the Iraq war by linking it with a personal experience such as the memory of a friend or relative who was wounded fighting in Iraq) (Zelazo & Müller, 2002; Zelazo, Müller, Frye, & Marcovitch, 2003). They emphasize that students’ cognitive flexibility is frequently linked to their success on “hot” and “cold” tasks. Overall, this ability to shift approaches and to synthesize information in novel ways is essential for effective reading, writing, math problemsolving, note-taking, studying, and test-taking. Accurate and efficient reading decoding requires students to flexibly coordinate the letter-sound relationships with the meanings of printed words (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c). In other words, students need to recognize the importance of what Gaskins (2008) refers to as “crisscrossing the landscape” in order to select decoding approaches that fit the text. Reading comprehension requires students to process the meaning of text, flexibly access their background knowledge, recognize the purpose or goal of reading (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c), and monitor their own comprehension (Block & Pressley, 2002; Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995). When reading text that incorporates complex or figurative language, students must shift between the concrete and the abstract, between the literal and the symbolic, and between the major themes and relevant details. Furthermore, reading for meaning taxes students’ ability to flexibly manage many different types of linguistic information at the word level, sentence level, and paragraph level (Brown & Deavers, 1999; Goswami, Ziegler, Dalton, & Schneider, 2001, 2003). Similarly, when writing, students must shift between their own perspective and that of the reader and between the important concepts and supporting information. In the math domain, students’ understanding of concepts, computational procedures, and word problems depends on their cognitive flexibility. Students are required to shift from the words and sentences in math problems to the numbers, operations, algorithms, and equations

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needed to solve the problems (Roditi & Steinberg, 2007). They also need to learn how and when to shift problem-solving schemas so their final calculations are accurate and logical (Montague & Jitendra, 2006). In content area subjects, including science and history, students are required to differentiate main ideas from details in their textbooks. Students’ understanding of the material in these textbooks depends on their use of context clues to shift flexibly among the different possible meanings in the words and phrases. Similarly, learning a foreign language requires a significant amount of flexible thinking, as students are challenged to shift back and forth between their native language and the language they are learning. Finally, studying and test-taking require students to shift among multiple topics or problem types as they are often presented with information that is formatted differently from the way in which they learned or studied. For students who struggle to shift flexibly between perspectives and to process multiple representations easily, academic tasks often become progressively more challenging as they advance beyond the first few grades in school. Furthermore, these students experience mounting difficulty as the curriculum demands increase in complexity and require them to interpret information in more than one way, change their approach when needed, and choose a new strategy when the first one is not working (Westman & Kamoo, 1990).

Strategies for Improving Cognitive Flexibility As was discussed above, students need a variety of opportunities to shift mindsets, to think flexibly, and to use their knowledge in a number of different ways (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993; Dweck, 2008). Therefore, it is important to embed strategies for teaching cognitive flexibility into different facets of daily life and to create classrooms where students are given opportunities to solve problems from different perspectives across the grades and content areas. This ability to approach situations and tasks flexibly helps students to shift more easily from the “big picture” to the details in social and academic settings.

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A variety of instructional approaches can be used to promote flexible thinking across different settings and content areas. First, when teaching emphasizes problem-solving and critical thinking, students are required to think flexibly about ways in which their solutions could lead to different possible outcomes (Sternberg, 2005). Secondly, when teaching encourages peer discussion and collaborative learning, students are exposed to multiple viewpoints (Yuill, 2007; Yuill & Bradwell, 1998). Students can therefore be challenged to approach problems from the perspectives of their peers. Strategies for shifting flexibly can also be embedded into daily activities at home and in school. Activities with jokes, riddles, word categories, and number puzzles can help students to practice using flexible approaches to language interpretation and number manipulation. The efficacy of using jokes to teach flexible thinking to students in the early grades has been demonstrated in an interesting series of studies (Yuill, 2007; Yuill & Bradwell, 1998). They found that an explicit focus on the ambiguous language in jokes generalized to reading comprehension as students were required to think about and analyze language in different ways. In the area of reading comprehension, selected strategies can be used to teach students to shift flexibly between and among major themes and relevant details based on the goals and content requirements of the reading tasks (Meltzer & Bagnato, 2010; see Table 25.6). As one example, students’ interpretations of text can be improved by presenting different scenarios that teach them to analyze language and to shift among different interpretations. When they come across words or sentences that do not make sense to them, they can be taught to stop reading and to ask themselves the following questions: • Does the word have more than one meaning? • Can the word be used as both a noun and a verb? • Can I emphasize a different syllable in the word to give it a different meaning? • Can I emphasize different parts of the sentence to change its meaning?

L. Meltzer Table 25.6 Flexible thinking strategies for reading comprehension Reading comprehension Shifting between Strategies for differentiating main “big ideas” and ideas vs. important details vs. less supporting details relevant details. Critical for summarizing and studying Strategies for identifying multiple-meaning words using context clues, noun-verb clues and syllable accents to shift flexibly among the different possible meanings Three-column notes (e.g., Triple Note Tote) which requires shifting from main ideas or core concepts to supportive details From Meltzer and Bagnato (2010). Copyright 2010 by The Guilford Press. Reprinted by permission

• Does the passage contain any figurative language, such as metaphors or expressions that may be confusing? Similar shifting strategies can be used to improve written language. Three-column notetaking systems and graphic organizers which make explicit connections between the main ideas and supporting details, often help writers to shift more fluidly between the two. Students record the major themes, core concepts, or key questions in the first column, the relevant details in the second column, and a memory strategy in the third column. The last column can also include a picture to help students memorize the information. A range of templates and graphic organizers can also be used for helping students to shift flexibly between the main ideas and the supporting details (see Table 25.7). Flexible thinking can also be promoted by teaching students to incorporate a counterargument when they summarize text. Introductory or concluding statements that challenge an argument, but are weighted more heavily in the direction of the writer’s opinion, also encourage flexible thinking. In the area of math, students often get stuck trying to solve math problems in one way, when there may be an easier or more efficient way to find a solution. Similarly, students may have learned a particular format for math problem-

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Table 25.7 Flexible thinking strategies for written language Written language Shifting between “big ideas” and supporting details Shifting from the top to the bottom of the mountain and back again

Graphic organizers for sorting main ideas vs. supportive details Templates for focusing on major themes or thesis statements, relevant details and conclusions Models for shifting from the main ideas to supporting details Personalized checklists for differentiating between relevant and irrelevant details

solving while in class, but they may have trouble recognizing similar problems when these are presented differently on tests. Furthermore, while students can often solve problems of the same type that are grouped together for homework practice, they may have difficulty shifting among multiple problem types in test situations. Cognitive flexibility can be enhanced when students recognize that specific problems require them to shift from one operation (e.g., addition) to a different operation (e.g., subtraction) (see Table 25.8 for strategies). Similarly, they can ask themselves specific questions: • Do I know more than one way to solve the problem? • Does this look similar to anything I have seen before? • Is this problem the same or different from the problem before this? Studying for tests and quizzes requires flexible thinking on many different levels. Students need to extract information from a variety of sources, including textbooks, homework assignments, and class notes (see Table 25.9). Memorizing the specific details and integrating them with the larger concepts also requires cognitive flexibility. Students also need to study differently for different kinds of test formats, even within the same subject area. For example, for a multiple-choice test in history, students need to focus on details and facts. For an essay question, students need to shift away from the facts and details to the topic

457 Table 25.8 Flexible thinking strategies for math Math problem-solving Shifting from the math concepts to computational details & back

Generate math language for each operation (i.e., difference, less, take away = subtraction) Shift from the language embedded in word problems to computational details and back again Focus on the meaning of math problems vs. the operations and calculations Within operations (e.g., long division), shift from division to subtraction, etc. Estimate the answers to word problems (big picture) and compare their solutions with their estimates Ask themselves: “Does this make sense?” by comparing their final calculations with their estimates

Table 25.9 Flexible thinking strategies for studying and test-taking Summarizing, note-taking, long-term projects Shifting from Using concept maps to focus on the concepts to major concepts or “big picture” by details & back visualizing themselves standing at the “top of the mountain” and then shifting to the bottom of the mountain for the details Shifting due Triple Note Tote strategy or strategy dates cards for use in each chapter/unit to shift from main ideas to details and back again to create a study plan for tests Monthly and weekly calendars to shift between short-term homework due immediately vs. long-term projects From Meltzer and Bagnato (2010). Copyright 2010 by The Guilford Press. Reprinted by permission

or major concepts and to “tell the story” embedded in the content rather than simply cramming hundreds of factual details. Finally, students need to learn the importance of using different study

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strategies in different subject areas. For example, reviewing the major ideas in the class textbook will help students to prepare for a history test, whereas it is often more beneficial to review classwork and past homework assignments for math. Thus, students need to be flexible in the study strategies they select for tests and quizzes.

Organizing and Prioritizing The way my mind works with that liquefied gobble of dots, my notes would look scattered on a page. One of the most useful strategies I learned was multi-column notes. With this system, I learned to make a hierarchy of notes and have it structure around itself and relate to things. This structure helped me to study and to write long papers (Brandon, college graduate).

Organization, or the ability to systematize and sort information, is an executive function process that underlies most academic and life tasks. Students need to learn strategies for systematically organizing their time, their materials, and also their ideas. They also need to learn how to apply these strategies to their writing, notetaking, studying, and test preparation. These executive function strategies assume greater importance in late elementary school when students are presented with an increasingly large volume of detailed information that they are required to organize for effective learning. How well they learn and remember this information depends on how effectively they use strategies for organizing and prioritizing the concepts and details so that working memory is less cluttered (Hughes, 1996). While many students successfully participate in class lessons and accurately complete structured homework assignments, they may have more difficulty with independent, open-ended tasks. Reading and note-taking tasks, studying for tests, and completing writing assignments all require students to impose their own structure on the information. When organizational strategies are taught systematically in the context of these school assignments, students are more likely to generalize these strategies and to succeed academically (Krishnan et al., 2010).

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Success, in turn, increases students’ motivation to use these strategies independently and to generalize across different contexts (Meltzer, 1996, 2010; Swanson, 1999).

Teaching Organizing and Prioritizing Strategies Strategies for organizing and prioritizing information underlie efficient reading comprehension. Strategies such as templates, thinking maps, and graphic organizers provide a structured format for helping students to read for meaning, extract major themes, and relate new with known information (Kim, Vaughn, Wanzek, & Shangjin, 2004; Mayer, 1984). Graphic organizers are also effective for improving students’ reading comprehension across a wide range of subject areas including language arts, science, and social studies (Bos & Anders, 1992; Bulgren, Schumaker, & Deschler, 1988; Ritchie & Volkl, 2000). Most importantly, these organizational strategies can be taught across multiple grade levels from elementary school through high school (Krishnan & Feller, 2010; Ritchie & Volkl, 2000; Scanlon, Duran, Reyes, & Gallego, 1992; Horton, Lovitt, & Bergerud, 1990). Similarly, reading comprehension and written language can be improved using two- or threecolumn note-taking systems instead of the traditional, linear format. The structure imposed by a three-column note-taking system guides students to ask themselves active questions about the text they are reading. This format also encourages students to find the main ideas, “chunk” information into manageable parts, predict test questions, and develop strategies for memorizing the information (see Fig. 25.6). As is evident from Fig. 25.6, the Triple Note Tote strategy (BrainCogs, ResearchILD & FableVision, 2003) helps students to organize information by differentiating the major concepts and details. The student records the main idea or a key question in the first column, summarizes the important details in the second column, and records a memory strategy in the third column. In our 21st-century schools, written language is heavily emphasized and standards-based tests, including the SAT, now incorporate a required

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Fig. 25.6 The triple-note-tote strategy: a system for organizing, prioritizing, and memorizing information (BrainCogs, ResearchILD & FableVision, 2003)

writing section. As a result of this change, students from late elementary school onwards are given lengthy writing assignments, long-term projects, and essay tests that rely on executive function processes. For many students, writing can be an overwhelming process because it requires the coordination of numerous cognitive and executive function processes including organization, planning, memorizing, generating language, and editing (Flower et al., 1990; Flower, Wallace, Norris, & Burnett, 1994). Many students struggle to organize their ideas for writing, and they need the writing process to be broken down explicitly with organizers and templates that match both the goals of the assignment and their learning profiles (Graham & Harris, 2003; Harris & Graham, 1996). These strategies help students to break down writing tasks into manageable parts so they can monitor their own performance (Bruning & Horn, 2000). For example, the BOTEC strategy (Essay Express, ResearchILD & FableVision, 2005) uses a mnemonic and visual image to jog students’ memory about the steps in the writing process

when they are completing homework, studying, or taking tests (see Fig. 25.7). In other words, they are required to Brainstorm, Organize their thoughts, generate a Topic sentence or Thesis statement, Elaborate by providing Evidence, and draw a Conclusion. Figure 25.7 illustrates a template for using the BOTEC strategy to organize and prioritize ideas during the writing process. Similar organizational strategies are also critically important for note-taking. This is a complex process that requires students to focus on multiple processes simultaneously including listening, organizing, and prioritizing the information while they write down the critical ideas (Kiewra et al., 1991). Many students read their textbooks and articles without taking notes, or they take notes in a random, scattered way that does not reduce the information load. Other students have difficulty deciding which information should be recorded and they struggle to separate the key concepts from the supporting details (Hughes, 1991; Hughes & Suritsky, 1994; Suritsky, 1992). Students’ academic performance generally improves when they use the organizational strate-

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Fig. 25.7 The BOTEC strategy for generating written language (Essay Express, ResearchILD and FableVision, 2005)

gies discussed above for taking notes, studying, or completing tests (Boyle, 1996, 2001; Boyle & Weishaar, 1999; Katamaya & Robinson, 2000; Lazarus, 1991). Organization and planning improve when students are required to complete strategy reflection sheets that incorporate structured questions and a multiple-choice format. These strategy reflection sheets promote metacognitive awareness, encourage students to use strategies systematically, and remind them to check and edit their work (see Fig. 25.8a, b). When students are given credit by their teachers for using these strategies, they are more likely to make the effort needed to continue this process. For example, when grades for homework and tests include points for completing these strategy reflection sheets, teachers promote these habits of mind. In other words, metacognitive awareness and effective strategy use are promoted when teachers make strategy use count in the classroom.

Accessing Working Memory Working memory refers to the ability to store information for short time periods while simultaneously manipulating the information mentally,

(e.g., holding the main themes in mind while sorting through the details, or calculating a math problem mentally). Working memory is a critically important process that helps students to focus, direct their mental effort, and ignore distractions in order to accomplish tasks (de Fockert, Rees, Frith, & Lavoie, 2001; Swanson, 1999; Tannock, 2008). In fact, Baddeley (2006), Swanson & Sáez (2003) have proposed that working memory often functions as the central executive that directs all other cognitive processes, including the student’s ability to inhibit impulses, shift attention, and direct effort to the task. Working memory, therefore, plays a critical role in listening comprehension, reading comprehension, oral communication, written expression, and math problem-solving, as well as efficient and accurate long-term learning (Swanson & Sáez, 2003). From fourth grade onwards, academic tasks rely increasingly on these working memory processes. Consequently, strategic students are generally more successful with tasks that require them to focus on multiple processes simultaneously such as following directions, responding to oral questions, and completing multistep instructions (Kincaid & Trautman, 2010). Reading comprehension and written language are also heavily

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Fig. 25.8 (a) Strategy reflection sheet for writing: structured questions that scaffold the writing process. (b) Strategy reflection sheet for writing: open-ended questions

dependent on working memory. In these areas, students need to remember and manipulate multiple details such as spelling and punctuation while simultaneously focusing on remembering the main ideas, organizing ideas in their minds while they read, prioritizing important information, and figuring out which details to ignore. Young students may also need to think about handwriting and accurate letter formation, skills that may not yet be automatic for them. Similarly, summarizing, taking notes, and studying for tests all require students to focus on multiple processes simultaneously and to remember key ideas, formulate notes while listening, and identify major themes while writing (Kincaid & Trautman, 2010). Memorizing information in the classroom is heavily dependent on students’ ability to focus and sustain their attention in order to make connections, retain information, and retrieve relevant details (Tannock, 2008). In fact, attention and

memory are so strongly linked that the two processes are often viewed as part of the same executive process (Swanson & Sáez, 2003; see chapters in this volume). To remember, retain, and retrieve information, students benefit from learning strategies for sustaining their attention, attaching meaning to information, chunking information to reduce the memory load, as well as rehearsal and review (Kincaid & Trautman, 2010). When students are able to make meaningful associations, they are more successful with transfer of information into long-term memory and later retrieval (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1998).

Teaching Working Memory Strategies Working memory strategies are interconnected with strategies for organizing and prioritizing complex information by reducing the memory load. Mnemonics comprise one of the most effective methods for chunking information and retaining

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important details so that information can be mentally manipulated in working memory (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1991, 1998; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 2000). Mnemonics help students to connect new information to what they already know and to make meaningful connections to seemingly unconnected information (Carney, Levin, & Levin, 1993). Different types of mnemonics improve retention of information and enhance working memory, in particular, keywords, pegwords, acronyms, acrostics, and visuals (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1991, 1998; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 2000). For example, when students are required to remember the states and their capitals by region, crazy phrases help them to organize, sequence, and chunk the information so that there are fewer details to memorize. Some students prefer to use visual strategies, such as personalized diagrams, cartoons, graphic organizers, and templates (Kincaid & Trautman, 2010). Mnemonics are often embedded within these organizers to further enhance their effectiveness. Chants, rhymes, and songs are effective for those who rely on verbal or auditory strategies to memorize. Students need time to practice and rehearse their memory strategies (Harris, Graham, Mason, & Friedlander, 2008). As students learn and practice memory strategies that are modeled by adults, it is important to encourage students to create their own memory strategies that match their individual learning styles (see Kincaid & Trautman, 2010, for more details and specific memory strategies in different academic areas). Given the heavy learning memory load imposed in our 21st-century information-driven schools, and the emphasis on working memory and mental manipulation, it is particularly important to teach memory strategies explicitly to improve students’ ability to retain and retrieve facts, processes, and concepts. As is emphasized by Kincaid and Trautman (2010), educators need to help students to learn how to prioritize and select information to be memorized to reduce the load on working memory. Most importantly, students need to be given sufficient time to process and practice memory strategies, and to develop their own personalized strategies for remembering challenging information.

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Self-Monitoring and Self-Checking Self-monitoring refers to the ways in which learners manage their cognitive and metacognitive processes to track their own performance and outcomes (Zimmerman, 1998, 2000; Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 1997; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). When students self-monitor, they review their progress towards their goals, evaluate the outcomes, and redirect their efforts when needed. The ability to self-monitor depends on students’ metacognitive awareness as well as their flexibility in shifting back and forth from the end product of their efforts to the goals of the tasks. Therefore, students’ use of self-monitoring strategies depends on their ability to recognize when, how, and why to use specific strategies, to evaluate and revise their strategy use, and to continually adjust their use of strategies based on the task demands (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). Many students, especially students with learning and attention problems, have difficulty reflecting, monitoring their own learning, and evaluating the connections between their effort, strategy use, and performance. As they focus their effort on reading, writing, math problem-solving, and content learning, they may struggle to monitor their attention and performance and may have difficulty shifting among a range of problem-solving approaches or strategies that are available to them (Klingner, Vaughn, & Boardman, 2007; Montague, 2003). Students therefore need systematic, structured, and scaffolded instruction in using self-monitoring strategies flexibly so that they can become independent learners who do not need the assistance of others to complete reading, writing, math, or related tasks successfully (Graham & Harris, 2003; Reid & Lienemann, 2006).

Teaching Self-Monitoring and Checking Strategies Numerous studies have shown that teaching selfmonitoring strategies systematically to students can improve their performance significantly (Graham & Harris, 2003; Harris & Graham, 1996; Reid, 1996; Reid & Harris, 1993; Shimabukuro, Prater, Jenkins, & Edelen-Smith, 1999). Explicit, structured teaching encourages students to slow down and to allocate the necessary time to spiral back and

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463 Table 25.10 Guide for making revisions to a five paragraph essay Yes or No? Action steps Add 1–2 sentences that summarize your viewpoint or main idea Is the essay organized Divide essay into into paragraphs? introduction, 3 body paragraphs and conclusion Is there an Write a paragraph that introduction? introduces your topic and includes a thesis Does each body Add a sentence that paragraph have a topic introduces the topic of sentence? each paragraph Does the essay contain Add more quotes, facts sufficient supporting or specific examples to details? body paragraphs Is there a conclusion? Add a paragraph that summarizes your opinion or main idea Does the essay flow Use transition words to well and read link sentences and smoothly? paragraphs Does the essay contain Replace common words colorful and interesting with ones that are more vocabulary? vivid and unique Question Is there a thesis statement?

Fig. 25.9 STOPS: a personalized editing checklist for upper elementary and middle school students. Reprinted with permission

forth so that they can check the task demands and their own output (Meltzer, Sales-Pollica, & Barzillai, 2007; Reid & Lienemann, 2006). In the writing domain, self-monitoring strategies are essential as students need to shift mindsets from that of the “writer” to that of the “editor” so that they can identify their own errors. A “one size fits all” generic editing checklist is often not effective, as different students make different types of errors in their writing (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). While one student may consistently make spelling errors but have no difficulty with organization, another may have the opposite profile. By developing personalized checklists and acronyms for checking particular types of assignments, students know what to check for and make fewer errors (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). For example, the acronym “STOPS” was developed by a sixth grader to help check his writing for errors he commonly made (see Fig. 25.9). This acronym reminded him to check his written work for Sentence structure, Tenses (i.e., not using present, past, and future tenses in one paper), Organization of ideas, Punctuation, and Spelling. Self-monitoring and checking are often easier if students edit their work using a different

colored pen, read their written work aloud, or if they write the original draft on a computer, print it out, and edit a hard copy. For example, for persuasive writing, students often benefit from explicit instruction to monitor their inclusion of the basic structural components of writing, such as topic sentences, supporting details, and paragraph endings (Graham, 1990). Students often realize that their writing is weak but they do not know how to revise their writing to improve the content, structure, and organization. Even when they are given a rubric which outlines the expectations for the assignment, they may have difficulty determining whether their writing meets the criteria. They benefit from a guided process for analyzing several of their writing samples to determine their most common mistakes and using this process to develop personalized editing checklists (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). They also need general systems that help them to improve (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). Table 25.10 provides

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Fig. 25.10 Self-checking strategy for tests. From Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, and Basho, 2011. Reprinted with permission

one possible essay revision guide to help students evaluate their writing with respect to content, structure, and organization as well as ideas for editing and correcting their work (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). In the math area, when students are given a word problem to solve, they benefit from comprehensive instructional routines such as Montague’s “Solve It!” (Montague, Warger, & Morgan, 2000). This teaches them strategies for estimating the answer, computing, and checking to verify the solution. Students also need to be taught self-regulation strategies such as asking themselves questions as they go through the steps of problem-solving as well as monitoring their own performance systematically (Meltzer & Montague, 2001; Montague, 2003; Montague et al., 2000). Explicit and systematic instruction therefore helps students to access, apply, and regulate their use of strategies. Finally, self-monitoring and checking strategies for tests are critically important. Students benefit from developing personalized strategies and checklists for editing their work before handing in their tests. Most students, and especially students with learning and attention difficulties,

need explicit instruction focused on how to check their work and what errors to check for. Figure 25.10 illustrates a general strategy for checking tests that incorporates a visual image for those who more easily remember visual information as well as a “crazy phrase” for those students who more easily remember verbal information. Students can use this strategy as a model for developing a personalized checking strategy. Personalized self-checking cards and mnemonics to remember the core ideas are most beneficial when students embrace these as their own (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010) Overall, effective self-monitoring requires students to reflect on their progress towards a goal, to select strategies that work, and to alter strategies that are not working (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). The overall quality of students’ academic work improves when they are able to recognize the value of reviewing their work and shifting mindsets so that they know what to look for and how to shift flexibly from the major themes to the details (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010; Meltzer & Basho, 2010). As will be discussed in the next section, students’ motivation and emotional mindsets frequently affect their willingness

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to make the often superhuman effort needed to stop, reflect, check, and correct multiple drafts of their work, processes that are critically important for long-term academic and life success.

Emotional Self-Regulation Students’ attention and their ability to engage actively in the learning process are associated with their ability to regulate their emotions in and outside the classroom (Brooks, 1991; Stein, 2010; Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2004). The effects of emotion on the learning process range along a continuum. Specifically, extreme emotional reactions (e.g., anxiety, anger) often disrupt students’ attention and ability to stay on task as well as their ability to learn and remember new information (Goldberg, 2001; Stein, 2010). In contrast, moderate emotional arousal has a positive influence on students’ attention and executive function processes including working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibition (Gross, 2007; Stein, 2010). More specifically, the relationship between anxiety and performance is characterized by an inverted U-shaped curve, e.g., test performance is often poor when students either are not anxious and have consequently not studied or are excessively anxious which interferes with attention, working memory, and overall performance (Goleman, 1995). Similarly, negative moods disrupt attention, concentration, memory, and processing speed. In the classroom, students’ self-understanding as well as their ability to regulate their emotions are important processes underlying efficient learning. As students develop strategies for regulating their emotional responses in the classroom, they more easily attend to instructions, sustain their effort, and curb their frustrations in response to difficult tasks (Stein, 2010). They also learn how to collaborate with peers and to adjust their behavior to fit the classroom’s “culture” and routines. When students regulate their emotions, they can more easily focus attention on the academic content rather than their feelings. More specifically, they can use self-talk to encourage themselves when anxious, ask for help when

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needed, and express their feelings in socially acceptable ways (Stein, 2010). As is discussed by Stein (2010), a proactive approach to addressing students’ emotional regulation in the classroom involves three critical components: 1. Understanding each student’s learning profile and emotional vulnerabilities 2. Understanding what kinds of triggers may upset each student 3. Developing individualized prevention and intervention plans for vulnerable students. Prevention approaches for teachers and parents focus on helping students to avoid frustration and get started by providing structure, breaking down tasks into smaller steps, giving alternative assignments or test formats if needed, or providing flexible due dates (Stein, 2010). In addition, these students benefit from being told ahead about upcoming changes, transitions, challenges, or requests for participation in classes. Intervention approaches focus on avoiding judgment, anger, or blame, providing a supportive; collaborative perspective; and offering choices to students (e.g., safe place to reduce stress, quiet room for taking tests; see Stein, 2010, for more details). Self-regulatory strategies such as these are particularly important for students with attention problems and nonverbal learning disabilities. These students depend on structured approaches and routines that help to reduce their emotional distractibility and impulsivity so that they can sustain their motivation and manage the many simultaneous demands of the classroom (Stein & Krishnan, 2007).

The Drive to Thrive and SMARTS Programs: Strengthening Executive Function Strategies with Peer Mentoring The Drive to Thrive and SMARTS programs create a school and classroom culture where there is a shared understanding of the importance of building students’ emotional self-regulation and executive function strategies, while promoting their effort, persistence, and self-understanding (Meltzer, Katzir, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy,

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Sales, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Pollica, et al., 2004; Meltzer, 2010; Meltzer, Sales-Pollica, et al., 2007; Meltzer, Noeder, et al., 2007; Noeder, 2007). Classwork and homework consistently focus on the how of learning rather than only the final product. Students begin to value the process of learning as they are taught to shift flexibly during problem-solving and other academic tasks. As a result of using executive function strategies, students’ grades gradually improve and they begin to view themselves as capable learners. Over time, there is an increase in students’ willingness to use executive function strategies in different content areas. The Drive to Thrive and SMARTS programs focus on building a cycle of academic success in all students through teacher training supplemented by a peer tutoring and peer mentoring system. Teachers are trained to create a culture of strategy use in their classrooms and to promote metacognitive awareness and strategy use in their students by embedding executive function strategies in their curriculum and daily teaching practices. The following principles guide the program (Meltzer & Basho, 2010; Meltzer, Katzir, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Pollica, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Sales, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Sales-Pollica, et al., 2007): • Teachers understand and acknowledge the interactions among effort, strategy use, academic self-concept, and classroom performance as well as the cycle that builds persistence, resilience, and long-term academic success. • Teachers foster metacognitive awareness and strategic mindsets in their students. • Teachers acknowledge that effort is domain specific and that students may sometimes work hard in one content area (e.g., math) and not another (e.g., language arts). • Teachers acknowledge the importance of peer mentoring and peer tutoring and they build time and resources into the school day for the purposes of implementing a program such as SMARTS (see below). • Teachers acknowledge that peer mentoring and peer tutoring provide a powerful forum for helping students to understand their learning profiles, to develop metacognitive aware-

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ness, and to recognize the important roles of executive function strategies as well as effort and persistence. • Students view themselves as part of a community of learners who can help one another through peer mentoring and peer tutoring (see below). Emotional self-regulation is also strengthened as part of this program. • Students understand that executive function strategies and focused effort are important for academic success. • Students recognize that persistence and determination are critical for fostering academic and life success. One example of a school-based peer mentoring program is the recently developed SMARTS program (Gray, Meltzer, & Upton, 2008; Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, & Basho, 2011; Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, Stacey, & Boss, 2011). SMARTS is an acronym for Success, Motivation, Awareness, Resilience, Talents, and Strategies and each of these strands is a core component of the program. The SMARTS program focuses on promoting resilience and academic success by teaching executive function strategies and building metacognitive awareness and persistence in all students, and particularly in students with learning difficulties. Teachers are trained to implement the SMARTS curriculum which comprises three major components: the executive function strand, the motivation strand, and the self-concept strand. Thirteen strategies in the core executive function areas are taught over the course of the school year with an emphasis on: • Increasing students’ metacognitive awareness, self-understanding, and academic selfconcepts • Increasing students’ effort and persistence in school as well as their motivation to engage in the learning process and to improve their academic performance • Improving students’ understanding and use of executive function strategies in six broad areas: goal-setting, organizing, prioritizing, using working memory, shifting flexibly, self-monitoring • Promoting students’ mentorship and leadership skills through peer mentoring

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In addition, mentor-mentee pairs work together to learn and practice these executive function strategies, with mentors coaching their mentees and helping to build their self-confidence. To reinforce learning and application of these strategies, the SMARTS curriculum culminates in a project that focuses on improving students’ engagement, motivation, strategy use, and effort (Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, Stacey, et al., 2011). Findings from our recent SMARTS intervention studies with middle and high school students have highlighted the importance of strengthening students’ self-understanding, cognitive flexibility, and awareness of the importance of shifting strategies (Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, & Basho, 2011; Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, Stacey, et al., 2011). Specifically, in one of our school-based studies, SMARTS students with higher cognitive flexibility scores were more goal-oriented, more persistent, and made greater effort in school (Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, & Basho, 2011; Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, Stacey, et al., 2011). These more flexible students also used more strategies in their schoolwork and were more organized. Classroom teachers rated these students as having stronger academic performance and as checking their work more frequently (Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, & Basho, 2011; Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, Stacey, et al., 2011). The social connections provided by peer mentoring increased students’ engagement in the learning process as well as their goal orientation and motivation. Overall, students’ cognitive flexibility, academic selfconcepts, and goal orientation interacted to influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. These findings have relevance for teachers and emphasize the importance of increasing students’ self-understanding, knowledge of executive function strategies, and academic self-concepts. Together, these initiate a positive cycle in which students work harder, focus their effort, and use strategies effectively, resulting in improved academic performance (Meltzer & Basho, 2010; Meltzer, Sales-Pollica, et al., 2007). Stronger academic performance helps students to feel more engaged and therefore more invested in

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making the effort to use strategies in their classwork, homework, and long-term projects, the foundations of academic and life success.

Conclusion Technology has had a significant impact on the pace of the classroom curriculum and there is greater emphasis on teaching students to problem-solve flexibly and to organize, prioritize, and self-monitor. As a result, executive function processes have assumed increasing importance over the past decade and need to be taught systematically. When teachers and parents build an executive function culture in their classrooms and their homes, they empower students to learn how to learn. When schools and families foster effort, persistence, and executive function strategies, students develop self-confidence, resilience, and a strong work ethic, the gateways to academic and life success in the twenty-first century. Acknowledgments A special thanks to a number of colleagues, staff, and interns for their excellent suggestions and help with the technical details involved in the preparation of this chapter, in particular: Abigail DeMille, Sage Bagnato, Laura Pollica, Ranjini Reddy, Julie Sayer, Anna Lavelle, Lauren Depolo, and Thelma Segal.

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Concurrent Presentations

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From Frenzied to Focused: Time Management and Organization Strategies for School and Home Michael Greschler, M.Ed. SMARTS Director, ResearchILD Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. SMARTS@Home Curriculum Developer and SMARTS Trainer, ResearchILD LD Specialist and Homeschool Consultant, Learnabilities

Overview Executive function (EF) processes are crucial for successful organization of materials and management of time at home and at school; without strategies, students succumb to frenzy and are unable to focus productively. When in the grip of powerful emotions, it becomes challenging—if not impossible—to utilize effective EF processes. Messy backpacks, or long periods of unproductive work, have an emotional overload component that should be addressed as part of supporting students’ needs. Explicit instruction in areas like time management and organization can empower students to develop the self-understanding to know how to work productively. When EF supports address demands consistently across home and school, students are more likely to see the value of the time and effort spent on strategy use, decreasing emotional overload and increasing the ability to persist in the face of challenge. In this workshop, we will explore the impact of powerful emotions on the use of executive function strategies as well as the challenges and opportunities of navigating the demands of organization and time management at home and at school. We will share practical strategies to engage in organization and time management in a way that can diffuse negative emotions, engage students, and be applied in academic and household contexts. Participants will learn strategies from the SMARTS Executive Function school-based and home programs and review techniques for using time management and organization in a variety of contexts, thereby promoting students’ focus and reducing frenzy.

References Brain state model. Conscious Discipline, 3 July 2021, consciousdiscipline.com/methodology/brain-state-model/. Branstetter, R. From Lizard Brain to Wizard Brain: Teaching (and learning) emotional regulation.” ADDitude, 8 July 2022. www.additudemag.com/lizard-brain-emotional-dysregulation-adhd/. Krishnan, K., & Feller, M. (2010) Organizing: The heart of efficient and successful learning. In Meltzer, L. (Ed.). Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom. New York: Guilford Press. Lieberman, Charlotte. Why you procrastinate (It has nothing to do with self-control). The New York Times, 25 Mar. 2019. www.nytimes.com/2019/03/25/smarter-living/why-you-procrastinate-it-has-nothing-to-do-with-s elf-control.html. Meltzer, L.J. (Ed) (2018). Executive function in education: From theory to practice (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L.J. (2015). Teaching executive function processes: Promoting metacognition, strategy use and effort. In Goldstein, S. & Naglieri, S. (Eds.) Handbook of executive functioning (445-475). New York: Springer. Meltzer, L., Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., & Stacey, W. (2015). Executive function and peer mentoring: Fostering metacognitive awareness, effort, and academic success. In Harris, K. & Meltzer, L.J. (Eds.) The power of peers: Enhancing learning, development, & social skills. New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L.J., Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., Stacey, W., Ross, E., & Snow, E. (2015). SMARTS Executive Function and Mentoring Program, www.smarts-ef.org. Meuwissen, A., & Zelazo, P.D. “Hot and cool executive function: Foundations for learning and healthy development.” Zero to Three, Library Sciences for Children Journal Club, Nov. 2014. lscjournalclub.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/hot-and-cool-executive-function.pdf. Stein, J. (2010). Emotional self-regulation: A critical component of executive function. In Meltzer, L. (Ed.). Promoting executive function in the classroom. New York: Guilford Press. Zelazo, P.D. Executive function skills: They can be hot or cool. Understood, 5 Oct. 2023. www.understood.org/en/articles/executive-functions-they-can-be-hot-or-cool.

Books for Kids Berenstain, S. (1983). The berenstain bears and the messy room (J. Berenstain, Illus.). Random House Books for Young Readers. Cleary, B.P. (2015). A second, a minute, a week with days in it: A book about time (B. Gable, Illus.). Millbrook Press. Cook, J. (2015). I can't find my whatchamacallit (M.H. Hyde, Illus.). National Center for Youth Issues. Hutchins, H. (2007). A second is a hiccup: A child’s book of time (K.M. Denton, Illus.). Arthur A. Levine Books. Mayer, M. (2000). Just a mess (M. Mayer, Illus.). Random House Books for Young Readers. Shannon, D. (2011). Too many toys (J. Trainor, Narr.). [Audiobook]. Weston Woods Studios. Webinars and Videos CGP Grey (2020). Spaceship you. YouTube. https://youtu.be/snAhsXyO3Ck?si=PNNty0SFVTvazhW2 Greschler, M. & Levy, S. (2019) Executive function and organization. ResearchILD. [Webinar]. YouTube. https://tinyurl.com/r5jrj4py ResearchILD (2023). Organizing your materials using cat-egories. SMARTS@Home Unit 5 Overview Video. YouTube. https://tinyurl.com/57khdp69 ResearchILD (2023). Understanding time. SMARTS@HOME Unit 6 Overview. YouTube. https://tinyurl.com/ye24ehud Learn more about SMARTS@Home or, for additional information about SMARTS, visit http://www.smarts-ef.org or join us on Facebook.

From Frenzied to Focused: Time Management and Organization Strategies for School and Home Michael Greschler, M.Ed. SMARTS Director ResearchILD Educational Specialist

Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. SMARTS Consultant Learnabilities LD Specialist

Agenda • The frenzied child • Frenzy vs. focus in the brain • Strategies for time management • Strategies for organizing materials • The focused child • Tips for school and home

The frenzied child

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

Finley the Frenzied One day, Finley's fourthgrade teacher assigned a chapter book to read by the end of the quarter. Finley was excited about the book because of a love of insects (and no one had the heart to tell Finley that Charlotte wasn't really a bug).

Finley the Frenzied

Finley's parent, Frankie, saw the teacher's email about the reading assignment and had a mini panic attack. How would Finley get this project done in ten weeks???

Finley the Frenzied

For the first three weeks, Finley forgot to bring the book home. So... Frankie went to the library and got a second copy.

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

Finley the Frenzied Finley read three chapters the next week! Both Finley and Frankie were so proud...

…but then Finley lost the library book somewhere between the neighbor's house and soccer practice. So... Frankie paid the fine and bought another copy of the book online.

Finley the Frenzied What was I supposed to do?

Week five, Finley read another chapter but then forgot about the assignment while trying to beat the next level of the video game that was recently loaded on Finley's phone.

Finley the Frenzied

Frankie had been very busy with work but remembered to ask Finley about the project on week seven. Uh oh! Just four of the 22 chapters had been read!

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

Finley the Frenzied Now both Finley and Frankie were frenzied!

Executive function: Frenzy vs. focus in the brain

Executive Function • EF processes help us pursue our goals. • We use them to navigate the range of challenges that make up our day, from academic challenges to emotional challenges and beyond.

Organizing: Categorizing and sorting information

Goal Setting: Working towards desired outcomes

Self-checking: Recognizing one’s most common mistakes

Remembering/ Accessing working memory: Juggling information in the brain

Shifting flexibly: Looking again in a brand-new way

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

Metacognition • Self-understanding is an essential component to our ability to use EF appropriately. • Recognizing our strengths and challenges, reflecting on past performance, and making plans for the future all rely on metacognition.

• EF doesn’t happen in a vacuum! • When a student is struggling to engage EF, their self-understanding, self-concept, and effort all suffer. • When we teach EF strategies, we engage these essential components as well.

Metacognition

Executive Function Strategies SelfConcept

Motivation /Effort

The Clogged Funnel • When students get ‘stuck’, they are unable to access the EF strategies they need. • Students with a clogged funnel often feel powerful, negative emotions, which makes the struggle even worse.

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

Wizard brain vs. Lizard brain When we look at the impact of powerful emotions on executive function, we need to look at what’s going in the brain. There are two system at play…

Wizard brain vs. Lizard brain The Wizard Brain is: • Governed by the prefrontal cortex (aka the ‘executive of the brain) • Cool and rational • Asks questions like “What can I learn from this?” or “What steps should I try out here?”

Wizard brain vs. Lizard brain The Lizard Brain is: • Governed by the limbic system (aka the ‘middle level’ of the brain) • Hot and emotional • Asks questions like “Can I trust this? Or “Am I safe?”

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

Hot EF vs. Cool EF

Hot EF • Activated in situations that are highly motivating and emotional • The stakes feel high! • Hot EF is involved in emotional regulation and decisions to approach/avoid what is meaningful to the student

Cool EF • Activated in situations that are not as emotional • The stakes feel low • Cool EF is needed for many typical academic tasks (e.g., manipulating numbers, reading comprehension or staying on task and focused) hot-and-cool-executive-function.pdf (lscjournalclub.org)

Wizard brain vs. Lizard brain Each one has it’s time and place…

Wizard brain vs. Lizard brain But sometimes, the wrong one is activated at the wrong moment…

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

Wizard brain vs. Lizard brain We aren’t powering up the part of the brain we need to solve our problem, so the result is… CLOGGED FUNNEL!

Wizard brain vs. Lizard brain The emotional impact only makes things worse…

What is wrong with me?

I am freaking out!

I can’t do this.

Why am I so sweaty?

Wizard brain vs. Lizard brain Students who have experienced trauma have a stronger … “Failure” doesn’t feel good!

Essay writing Group projects

Turning in homework on time

Participating in class Public speaking

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

Wizard brain vs. Lizard brain These challenges can exist in the home as well…

Cleaning your room

Arguing with your parents/guardians

Disagreeing with your siblings

Sharing your space

Dealing with disruption

Wizard brain vs. Lizard brain How do we help? We need to power up the wizard brain!

Wizard brain vs. Lizard brain EF strategy instruction engages the wizard brain!

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

Wizard brain vs. Lizard brain A word of warning… respect the lizard brain and do not force it! • In lizard brain mode, kids have goals that may not be aligned with the EF strategies you are teaching. • When feeling overwhelmed, it is not easy to shift. The focus may need to be on defusing negative emotions. • Use reflection questions and metacognitive exercises before going straight to EF strategies.

Now let’s look at how we can use strategies for organization and time management to overcome and learn from moments of frenzy and strengthen their ability to persist in the face of challenges.

Strategies for time management

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

The challenge of time management • Why do kids, especially, have trouble with time management and shift into Lizard Brain mode? • Kids…

• Are not born understanding the passage of time • May not be able to effectively use time tools • May rely too much on memory for knowing what “to do” • May not grasp the importance of deadlines and “being on time” • See time management as an “adulting” skill

Our use of time tools and strategies is often invisible to kids!

Time management at home and at school Time demands at home:

Time demands at school:

• Morning routines • Being on time for the bus • Homework/projects • Balancing vacations/breaks, family commitments, activities, schoolwork, and maybe work • Evening routines

• School arrival • Classwork/groupwork • Timed tests • Transitions between classes and activities • Long-term projects • Being on time for the bus

Time management at home and at school Time supports/tools at home:

Time supports/tools at school:

• Room clocks • Household calendars • Alarm clocks • Kitchen timers • Adult announcements and time keeping

• Classroom wall clocks • Bulletin board calendars • Daily schedules • Activity timers • Adult announcements and time keeping

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

Time management at home and at school Similarities between home and school: • Use of time tools (clocks, timers, etc.) • Mixture of both short-term and longterm time demands • Reliance on adult announcements and time keeping

Time management and feeling frenzied • How can time management cause kids to get frenzied? • Kids…

• Get involved in what they are doing— especially if they like it • May be shocked with adults make timebased announcements (“Kids, time to go to the doctor!”) • May have difficulty transitioning to a new activity • Feel frustrated and overwhelmed when they feel not in control

Awareness of time Some children (and adults) have significant difficulties with awareness of time. They have difficulty sensing how much time is passing and how long things will take. They may even resist keeping track of time.

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

Awareness of time Sometimes our sense of time doesn't match the actual measured time. This leads to “time troubles” that can make us feel frenzied!

"Time flies" When we are doing an activity we enjoy, we can feel like “time flies”!

"Time drag-ons" When we are doing an activity that we don’t enjoy, we can feel “time drag-on”!

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

"Time troubles" When we must complete a task, we may end up with spare time...

or we may feel rushed!

Kids and time management • How do we support development of independence and strengthen the Wizard Brain? • Help kids develop a sense of time • Teach time management strategies explicitly • Know where each child is in terms of awareness of time, use of time tools and strategies, and comfort with transitions (cognitive flexibility!) • Scaffold use of time tools and strategies to promote autonomy

Time management strategies 1. Using time tools to measure time 2. Estimating time 3. Planning the “have-to’s” before the “want-to’s” and “hope-to’s

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

Strategy #1: Measuring Time

We can help children avoid “time troubles” by teaching them how to use time tools. We can model our use of time tools to show kids that using time tools is an “adult superpower” that they can learn now.

Strategy #2: Estimating Time We can also help children learn how to estimate time by… • Playing the “minute game” • Guessing how long tasks will take and checking with timers • Using time metaphors!

Time Metaphors A burp is a second! A minute is drinking a glass of water. A half-hour is a TV episode. Three hours is a football game.

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

UNDERSTANDING TIME For older students… the three components of understanding the sweep of time: 1.

Knowledge of time

2. Knowledge of the task 3. Estimation ability

Strategy #3: Have-to’s, Want-to’s, Hope-to’s Have-to’s: • Activities you have to do (and if you don’t, there may be consequences)

Want-to’s: • Activities you want to do that have a set times (like a movie or sports game)

Hope-to’s: • Activities you want to do that do not have a set time (like checking social media)

The key to successful time management is knowing the difference between have-to’s and want to’s and hope-to’s and prioritizing how we schedule them!

PRIORITIZING TIME How to Prioritize Time To-Do List for Saturday Have-to’s

10:30 Leave for soccer practice 1:30-4:30 Work on science project

Want-to’s

4:30-6:30 Watch football game 7:00 Go to friend’s b-day party

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

PRIORITIZING TIME Including Hope-to’s To-Do List for Saturday 10:30-12:00 Soccer practice

Have-to’s

1:30-3:30 Work on science project Hope-to’s 5:00-7:00 Watch football game

Want-to’s

7:00 Go to friend’s b-day party

PRIORITIZING TIME What if something gets in the way? To-Do List for Saturday 10:30-12:00: Soccer practice 1:30-3:30: Work on science project 3:30-4:30: Upload YouTube video

Hey, we are going to a 2:00 movie. Want to come with us?

4:30-6:30: Watch football game 7:00: Go to friend’s birthday party

PRIORITIZING TIME Before

Time is Flexible

After

To-Do List for Saturday

10:30-12:00 Soccer practice

1:30-3:30 Work on science project

12:30-1:30 Work on science project

3:30-4:30 Upload YouTube video

2:00- 4:00 Movie with friends

4:30-6:30 Watch football game

4:00-5:00 Work on science project

7:00 Go to friend’s b-day party

5:00-7:00 Watch football game 7:00 Go to friend’s b-day party

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

PRIORITIZING TIME Keep it Balanced! Want-to’s and Hope-to’s…

Have-to’s…

To-Do List for Saturday

To-Do List for Sunday

10:30-12:30 Watch TV

10:30 Chores

1:00-2:00 Watch Youtube

2:00-4:30 Study for History Test

2:00-4:00 Go for a bike ride

4:30-6:30 Homework

4:30-6:30 Play video games

7:00 English Paper

6:30 Pizza at a friend’s house 7:30 Movie with friends

Yikes!

PRIORITIZING TIME Have-to’s

Want-to’s

Hope-to’s

PRIORITIZING TIME

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

Activities to build time management Master the Units! 1. Help your student brainstorm the units, or “building blocks of time” (e.g., seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, etc.), and write each one on an index card. 2. Have your student put the index cards in order from smallest to largest and then explore the relationship between them (e.g., “How many days in a week?” “How many seconds in a year?”).

Activities to build time management Play a Game! 1. Have your student record time one morning from the point of waking up until being ready for school/homeschool. 2. Then discuss how long the tasks took, if it was difficult to get everything done, and why. See if your student can identify delays in the morning routine and discuss possible solutions if your student rushes in the morning (i.e., setting out clothes the night before). 3. Even if the morning is not rushed, offer your student choices of strategies to try to make it more streamlined. 4. Then time the morning routine over several days and try to beat the best time while still getting everything done!

Activities to build time management Document Time! 1. Post a list of activities and tasks your student regularly does in some visible location. 2. As your student does each activity or task, record an estimate of the time it will take (using time metaphors) and the actual time it takes to do it. 3. After a few weeks or so, calculate an average of the times, so that your student can begin to plan an appropriate amount of time to do each activity/task.

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

Activities to build time management Challenge… Tackle a Big Project! 1. Give your student a larger school or home improvement project to plan. 2. Ask your student to break down the project into smaller steps and estimate (using time metaphors), how long each step will take. 3. Then have your student add all the times together to propose an overall amount of time for the project.

Reflection on time management

Organization from home to school and back

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

The challenge of organizing materials • Why do kids, especially, have trouble with organization and shift into Lizard Brain mode? • Kids…

• Do not understand the 'big picture' of organizational systems • May not be able to maintain organization independently • Believe that if "they can find it" the system is working • See organization as an “adulting” task, one is often imposed on them from above

Our use of organizational tools and strategies is often invisible to kids!

Organization is a dirty word for many students…

Since organization is something forced on kids by adults, it often has a negative emotional connotation... Students may dig in and resist engaging. I like it this way...

I swear I can find it!

Get out of my space

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

Organization at home and at school Demands at home:

Demands at school:

• Keep room clean • Clean up after self in the kitchen and other family areas • Be responsible for toys, sports equipment, etc. • Complete chores • Bring items home

• Store and retrieve school supplies • Keep locker/cubby/desk clean • Clean up after activities/between classes • Use shared resources responsibly

Organization at home and at school Supports/tools at home:

Supports/tools at school:

• Storage systems/ areas (dresser, bookshelf, fridge) • Adult reminders and support • Modeling from adults, siblings, etc. • Possible allowance or rewards for doing chores

• Use of folders, notebooks, binders (both physical and digital) • Adult reminders and support • Modeling from adults and peers • Designated clean-out times

Time management at home and at school Similarities between home and school: • Access to organizational supplies • Modeling from adults and peers • Reliance on adult reminders and support

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

We need our students to be able to… • Understand why organization at home and at school is helpful • Apply strategies to organizing their belongings • Reflect and adapt their organizational strategies as they get older

Strategies for organizing materials

Strategies for Organizing Students need to be able to... 1. Identify strategies for organizing materials. 2. Apply these strategies to organizing their desk, closet, or drawer.

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

Identifying Categories All organizational systems are built from categories, so the first step is helping students understand what a category is!

Identifying Categories

The 4 C's The 4 C's is a step by step strategy that can be used to organize materials, at home or at school. Using the 4 C's, you can explicitly model how organization happens!

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

The 4 C's Students can use the 4 C's to create and maintain organizational systems at home, school, anywhere! Have them take a picture or draw their system so they have a model for the future.

Workspaces Organization is a great way to tackle the negative emotions that often are expressed in procrastination.

Focus and distraction

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

Activities to Boost Organization Play a Game! Do a “relay race” where you have to work in teams to identify where objects are stored. Identify areas that need to be organized using the 4C’s strategy.

Activities to Boost Organization Surprise surprise! Surprise your students by making a mess when they are not there (not a space that is personal to one student). Challenge them the 4C’s strategy to reorganize the room as effectively and efficiently as possible.

Activities to Boost Organization CHALLENGE: Tell a story! Have your students tell or write a story about a character who uses the 4C’s strategy to become organized. Be sure they include how each part of the 4C’s strategy leads to the character’s success.

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

Reflection on organization

The focused child

Finley the Focused One day, Finley's fourth-grade teacher assigned a chapter book to read by the end of the quarter. Finley was excited about the book because of a love of insects and was totally fine learning that Charlotte was an arachnid.

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

Finley the Focused Finley's parent, Frankie, saw the teacher's email about the reading assignment and immediately reached out to the teacher. Together, they created a schedule to complete three chapters the first two weeks and two chapters each week for the rest of the quarter.

Finley the Focused The teacher gave Frankie a second copy of the book for home and questions for each chapter so that Frankie could talk to Finley about the book.

Finley the Focused Frankie worked with Finley to post a schedule for what to read each night (the have-to’s) and decided on an effective location to read and a place to store the book consistently.

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

Finley the Focused Every week, when the reading was done, Focused Finley could work on beating that next video game level (the hope-to’s) while a non-frenzied Frankie watched on with a smile!

Tips for school and home

1. Communicate! What teachers can do:

What teachers and families can do:

• Bridge to Home letters

• Set goals together

• EF newsletters • EF surveys, reflection sheets,

strategy notebooks/portfolios

• EF parent training sessions • Parent/teacher conferences • Report card grades/comments © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.SMARTS-EF.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

• Decide roles and responsibilities • Access other resources as

needed

• Celebrate successes • Notify of stumbling blocks • Check in frequently • Modify the plan together

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

2. Involve Students! • Help students set their own goals • Make sure students’ voices are

included in decision making (with support)

• Learn from students • Ask students to reflect on their EF

strategy use

• Celebrate successes together! © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.SMARTS-EF.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

3. Learn from the Lizard • Respect the Lizard Brain and acknowledge that shifting to that mode is a normal way to deal with stress/danger. • Reframe the Lizard Brain response and grow from the experience. Ask, “What can we do differently next time?” • Teach EF strategies for time management and organization to strengthen the Wizard Brain and allow that Lizard Brain to rest peacefully! © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.SMARTS-EF.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

SMARTS@HOME!

Announcing…

An at-home SMARTS curriculum for parents to do with their children, based on the SMARTS curriculum being used in schools. It contains six units, four lessons each, to help children build a foundation of strategies in executive function at home. © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.SMARTS-EF.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

Questions, comments, concerns?

•Michael Greschler, M.Ed. mgreschler@researchild.org •Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. drscirri@gmail.com www.smarts-ef.org

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts-ef.org; www.researchild.org

What is executive function? Executive function is like the conductor of the brain orchestra, managing what we say and do. EF processes include the following: • • • • •

Organizing and Prioritizing Goal setting Shifting flexibly (cognitive flexibility) Accessing working memory Self-monitoring

When do children use executive function? Every task we do involves executive function processes, but some tasks place greater demands on executive function than others. At home, we must be aware of the demands we place on children: how we make requests, the types of tasks required, and the settings where those tasks are completed.

What does it look like when children struggle with executive function? When children have difficulties with executive function, we see behaviors like losing track of belongings, incomplete tasks and assignments, procrastination, inability to change methods or see another’s perspective, giving up, and making poor choices. When children struggle with executive function, they do not have the strategies they need to accomplish the task at hand. There is too much information entering their brains at the same time, and their mental “funnels” get clogged.

How can we help children who struggle with executive function? Our job is to make sure that children have the strategies they need to unclog their funnels. We can’t assume that children will figure out the strategies they need on their own. Instead, we need to explicitly teach executive function strategies to our children. We can do this by modeling strategy use for our children and showing them what success looks like; letting them practice independently; and then helping them to reflect on what worked, what didn’t work, and what they should do next time.

What is metacognition? There are three key parts of metacognition: • • •

Self-understanding— understanding our unique strengths and challenges Reflection—thinking about what we know about ourselves and what strategies can help us to learn Self-regulation—monitoring and adjusting our behaviors (including learning)

Together, these important processes help children engage in activities that build on their strengths, choose appropriate challenges, and identify strategies that are likely to work for them.

When do children use metacognition? We may ask children to demonstrate metacognition directly through reflective activities (i.e., making an About Me poster) or discussions about why a behavior occurred. More often, however, metacognition is a behind-the-scenes process that is the basis for our choices, our inner self-talk, and our abilities to be successful and productive.

What does it look like when children struggle with metacognition? Children who struggle with metacognition often find themselves stuck doing a task in an ineffective way, unable to recognize both the lack of success and a better method. For example, a child who struggles with reading may choose to read notes over and over to study for a test. The child may not be aware that such a strategy is less than ideal, may not know of different ways to study, and may simply continue with that method because that’s what the child always did or that’s what the child’s peers are doing.

How can we help children who struggle with metacognition? We can help children develop the habit of “thinking about thinking” by teaching them to pay attention to aspects of themselves like their strengths and challenges, their behaviors, and their use of strategies (and whether they work or not!). As children develop metacognition, they no longer need to rely on adults to suggest strategies. Children begin to reflect and make connections regarding what works and what doesn’t. They are better able to monitor their own behaviors, including academics, and they can make more effective and efficient choices regarding strategy use--all leading to more independence and self-confidence!

What is SMARTS @ Home? “We love SMARTS @ Home! My son is so much better at setting goals and learned that the easy answer isn’t always the best answer.” –Parent of a 4th grade student Does your child lose papers or pencils, have trouble getting started or finishing an assignment, or get “stuck” doing a problem when one method doesn’t work? When faced with one of these challenges, does your child simply give up, waiting for you to swoop in and “do it for them?” Many children struggle with executive function related tasks, and parents and guardians are often on the front line of these struggles. How can you help? The SMARTS Approach Children need to be explicitly taught strategies, and the home presents unique opportunities to help their children develop the strategies they need. By following our research based instructional model, SMARTS @ Home provides explicit instruction in strategy use, opportunities to develop greater self-understanding, and boosts students’ self-esteem and ability to persevere when challenged. WHAT IS SMARTS @ HOME? SMARTS @ HOME is an organized collection of activities designed to help families support students in their development of executive function strategies outside of school. Working directly with an adult, children build self-awareness and come to understand the purpose and benefits of using strategies to overcome challenges. They will begin to set goals, develop a method for organizing materials, and build a foundation for time management and self-regulation of behaviors. SMARTS @ Home contains six units that are specifically designed for homeschool or afterschool use by families. Unit 1 – How do I think about my thinking? Unit 2 – How can I use strategies to help me? Unit 3 – How can I think flexibly? Unit 4 – I CANDO my goals Unit 5 – Organizing your materials (The 4C’s Strategy) Unit 6 – Developing an understanding of time HOW ARE THE LESSONS STRUCTURED? Everything you need for each lesson is included, complete with a script, interactive activities, printable handouts, and more! The lessons can be adapted, allowing you to adjust the level of challenge and providing students with choices on how to complete the activities. In addition, each unit comes with a Bridge Letter that can be shared with the any other adults providing support as well as extension ideas to help connect the strategies to other areas of life. Learn more SMARTS @ Home is the newest program from ResearchILD. Learn more here! Copyright © 2023 ResearchILD. All rights reserved. No unauthorized use or copying. See Terms of Use. www.smarts-ef.org

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Executive Function and Social Emotional Learning: Strategies for Perspective Taking & Self-Awareness Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Director of Professional Development & Training and Educational Specialist, ResearchILD Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. SMARTS Instructional Designer and Professional Development Trainer, ResearchILD Overview What is the relationship between social emotional learning and executive function? How can we help students develop self-awareness, the ability to shift flexibly, and identify and manage their emotions? Join us to learn how to implement executive function strategies in order to support our students with managing emotions, social interactions, and their approach to problem solving. When students make the connection between understanding how their emotions affect their learning, they are more open to developing executive function strategies to support competencies in social emotional learning. In this session attendees will learn how to implement specific executive functions strategies that will help students develop and strengthen their metacognitive awareness. We will cover strategies for developing perspective taking, self-understanding, and self-management. When students begin to understand who they are as learners, they are able to implement various executive function strategies to support successful social, emotional and academic learning. Attendees will learn to teach executive function strategies in a way that addresses engagement and motivation, empowering students to be more independent and successful. References Jones, S., Bailey, R., & Kahn, J. (2019). The science and practice of social and emotional learning: Implications for state policymaking. State Education Standard, 19(1), 18-24. Elias, Maurice (2000). Emotionally Intelligent Parenting: How to Raise a Self-Disciplined, Responsible, Socially Skilled Child. London: Coronet Books. Layard, R., Clark, A. E., Cornaglia, F., Powdthavee, N., & Vernoit, J. (2014). What predicts a successful life? A life-course model of well-being. Economic journal (London, England), 124(580), F720–F738. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12170

McRae, K., & Gross, J. J. (2020). Emotion regulation. Emotion, 20(1), 1-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/emo0000703 Meltzer, L.J. (Ed) (2018). Executive function in education: From theory to practice (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L.J. (2015). Teaching executive function processes: Promoting metacognition, strategy use and effort. In Goldstein, S. & Naglieri, S. (Eds.) Handbook of executive functioning (445-475). New York: Springer. Meltzer, L.J., Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., Stacey, W., Ross, E., & Snow, E. (2015). SMARTS Executive Function and Mentoring Program. www.smarts-ef.org. Meltzer, L., Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., & Stacey, W. (2015). Executive function and peer mentoring: Fostering metacognitive awareness, effort, and academic success. In Harris, K. & Meltzer, L.J. (Eds.) The power of peers: Enhancing learning, development, & social skills. New York: Guilford Press. Pert, C. B. (2003). Molecules of emotion: Why you feel the way you feel. Scribner. Pert, C. B. (2007). Everything you need to know to feel good. Hay House. Sofer, Oren Jay. (2018) Say What You Mean: A Mindful Approach to Non-Violent Communication. Shambhala Publications, Inc. Stein, J. A. (2010). Emotional self-regulation: A critical component of executive function. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom (pp. 175–201), Guilford Press. Willard, C., & Rechtschaffen, D. J. (2022). Alphabreaths: The abcs of mindful breathing. Sounds True. Zambo, D., & Brem, S.K. (2004). Emotion and cognition in students who struggle to read: New insights and ideas. Reading Psychology, 25:3, 189-204. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702710490489881 Zelazo, P.D., Blair, C.B., and Willoughby, M.T. (2016). Executive Function: Implications for Education (NCER 2017-2000) Washington, DC: National Center for Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. This report is available on the Institute website at http://ies.ed.gov/.

Resources CASEL Framework 12 Ways to Help Students Identify their Emotions Go Noodle – “Go with the Flow” Snack Attack Video Learning Works for Kids – Games Mindful Schools Mindful.org Say What you Mean Mindful Communication Resources A Parents' Guide to Disney-Pixar's Inside Out (Paul Ekman) Count, Breathe, Relax - Sesame Street The SEL-EF Connection Our Self Determination Model

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION & MENTORING PROGRAM

Executive Function and Social-Emotional Learning: Strategies for Perspective Taking & Self Awareness Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Director of Professional Development & Training Researchild

Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. SMARTS Instructional Design Professional Development & Parent Programming Researchild

AGENDA

• • • •

Social Emotional Learning and Executive Function Metacognition: Know Yourself Emotions and Learning Strategies to Boost SEL and EF • Manage My Mood • Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations • I'm Wearing Your Shoes

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION & MENTORING PROGRAM

SEL AND EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

EF SEL

CONNECTING EF AND SEL (WHY) London School of Economics report:

"...the most powerful childhood predictor of adult lifesatisfaction is the child's emotional health, followed by the child's conduct. The least powerful predictor is the child's intellectual development.” Layard, R., Clark, A. E., Cornaglia, F., Powdthavee, N., & Vernoit, J. (2014). What predicts a successful life? A life-course model of well-being. Economic journal (London, England), 124(580), F720–F738. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12170

CASEL FRAMEWORK

What is the CASEL Framework? CASEL. Retrieved from https://casel.org/fundamentals-ofsel/what-is-the-casel-framework/

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION PARADIGM

Selfchecking: Recognizing and one’s most common mistakes

Organizing/ prioritizing: Categorizing and sorting information

Remembering /Accessing working memory: Juggling information in the brain

Goal Setting: Setting realistic aspirations

Shifting flexibly: Looking again, in a brand-new way

RESEARCH AND THEORY

RESEARCH AND THEORY " In order to achieve the SEL competency of “SelfAwareness,” you need to be able to self-assess, focus, reflect on goals, and more. In order to achieve “Self-Management,” you need to be able to initiate a task, follow multiple steps, monitor performance, organize actions and thoughts, and so on... "

Sulla, Nancy PhD, SEL-EF Connection, 2019 https://www.idecorp.com/the-sel-efconnection/ © RESEARCHILD, 2023 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

RESEARCH AND THEORY

Sulla, Nancy PhD, SEL-EF Connection, 2019 https://www.idecorp.com/the-selef-connection/ © RESEARCHILD, 2023 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

CONNECTING EF AND SEL (WHY) "It will be increasingly important to consider not only the ways in which improvements in EF may lead to improvements in academic ability, but also the extent to which improvements in EF can contribute to the growth of personal responsibility and social-emotional competence that are also highly relevant to the mission of elementary and secondary education." Zelazo, P.D., Blair, C.B., and Willoughby, M.T. (2016). Source: https://ies.ed.gov/ncer/pubs/20172000/

RISE OF SEL IN THE CLASSROOM

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

RISE OF EF AND SEL SINCE COVID

CONNECTING EF AND SEL (WHY)

Teaching EF strategies boosts emotional regulation and helps students meet the EF demands of learning.

CONNECTING EF AND SEL (HOW) EF and SEL initiatives have to be systematically and explicitly taught. EF and SEL initiatives have to be relevant to students' lives and connected to their context. EF and SEL lessons have to activate knowledge and offer modeling, independent practice, and reflection.

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

METACOGNITION: KNOW YOURSELF

Metacognition

EF SEL

CASEL FRAMEWORK 1.2 What is Metacognition?

Self-Awareness

What is the CASEL Framework? CASEL. (2021, October 11). Retrieved from https://casel.org/fundamentals-of-sel/what-is-the-casel-framework/ © RESEARCHILD, 2023 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

Self-Awareness The abilities to understand one's own emotions, thoughts, and values and how they influence behavior. This includes capacities to recognize one's strengths and limitations with a well-grounded sense of confidence and purpose.

What Is the CASEL Framework? - CASEL © RESEARCHILD, 2023 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

WHAT IS METACOGNITION?

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

WHAT IS METACOGNITION?

WHAT IS METACOGNITION? WHAT

are my strengths/ challenges

WHY/ WHEN

Metacognition

HOW

does a strategy help me learn/perform best?

does this strategy work best?

WHAT IS METACOGNITION? Learning Objectives:  Identify strategies you use in your everyday life  Define metacognition  Identify three levels of self-awareness • What are our strengths and challenges? • How are our strengths developed? • When do we develop our strengths?

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

WHAT IS METACOGNITION? Amanda Gorman Strengths

Challenges

1. Presentation Skills

1. Auditory Processing

2. Storytelling

2. Articulation

3. Use of language

3. Expressing herself

Lesson 1.1

WHAT IS METACOGNITION? What would Amanda Gorman say were the keys to her success? Facility with language and words Perseverance Creativity, ability to tell a story Mentors along the way Supportive mom and family

Lesson 1.1

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

WHAT IS METACOGNITION? Try it out! Understanding what I read Math Writing Remember things for tests Organizing my time Organizing my belongings Art Science History

Music Working Hard Checking my work Note-taking from what I read Note-taking from a lecture Paying attention in class Learning new strategies Getting homework done Studying for tests Athletics/sports Technology (computers) © RESEARCHILD, 2023 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

WHAT IS METACOGNITION?

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

WHAT IS METACOGNITION?

WHAT IS METACOGNITION? Metacognitive Wrap-Up Write your own definition of metacognition. Draw a picture of what metacognition looks like to you.

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

EXTENSION

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION & MENTORING PROGRAM

EMOTIONS AND LEARNING

Metacognition

Managing Emotions SEL

EF Strategies

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

WHAT IS THE DEFINITION OF EMOTION? “An emotion occurs when there are certain biological, certain experiential, and certain cognitive states which all occur simultaneously.” – John D. Mayer, Prof. of Psychology, Univ. of New Hampshire “Emotions help keep us on the right track by making sure that we are led by more than cognition.” – Maurice Elias, Prof. of Education, Rutgers University “Emotions are the glue that holds the cells of the organism together.” – Candace Pert, Prof., Georgetown University Medical Center

WHAT IS THE DEFINITION OF EMOTION? Emotions can be defined as... "...time-limited, situationally bound, and valenced (positive or negative) states."

McRae, K., & Gross, J. J. (2020). Emotion regulation. Emotion, 20(1), 1-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/emo0000703 © RESEARCHILD, 2023 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

HOW MANY EMOTIONS ARE THERE? 6 basic emotions Emotions can be powerful and easily recognized (see Pixar's Inside Out)

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

HOW MANY EMOTIONS ARE THERE? 27+ Complex emotions Emotions can be complicated and hard to define (are you feeling vigilant or anticipatory?)

Thoughts

Bodily Sensation

Emotions © RESEARCHILD, 2023 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Thoughts

Bodily Sensation

Emotions

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

Slow breathing: 1-2-3 Breathe  Breathe in for 3  Hold for 3  Breathe out for 3  Repeat 2 more times

Thoughts

Bodily Sensation

Emotions

Thoughts

Bodily Sensation

Emotions

Mindfulness is being present here and now, paying

attention to our thoughts, bodily sensations, emotions, and external environment with kindness, nonjudgment, and curiosity.

Mindfulness is an umbrella term for the practice of

paying attention on purpose with kindness, which can be done in a formal manner (such as bringing awareness to the body in meditation) or in an applied manner (such as being engaged, open, and curious while in conversation). Thoughts -mindfulschools.org Bodily Sensation

Emotions

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

EMOTIONS ARE UNIVERSAL “Emotions change how we see the world and how we interpret the actions of others. We do not seek to challenge why we are feeling a particular emotion; instead, we seek to confirm it.” -Paul Ekman

What does learning feel like?

https://www.nytimes.com/games/wordle/index.html

These positive/negative emotions can help you learn more efficiently. That felt great! I should do that again.

That felt awful! I should not do that again.

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

Sometimes students can be overwhelmed by emotions.

Emotions have a strong impact on our students (and ourselves). Navigating the emotional roller coaster of learning requires emotional regulation.

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

There are 3 main components of emotional regulation • Labelling emotions • Identifying the cause • Reappraising

How can we teach students strategies to boost their emotional regulation abilities? This is one of the core motivations behind the rise in Social Emotional Learning (SEL) programs over the past few years.

Key Takeaways • Emotions are powerful! • They can vary in terms of intensity, cause, and duration, but they have a universal component. • They shape the way we understand each other and ourselves. • Our emotions, thoughts, and bodily sensations are interconnected and influence each other.

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

Manage My Mood

CASEL FRAMEWORK 7.4 Manage My Mood

Self-Management

What is the CASEL Framework? CASEL. Retrieved from https://casel.org/fundamentals-of-sel/what-is-the-casel-framework/ © RESEARCHILD, 2023 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Which sheep do you identify most with right now? What emotion would you assign to that feeling? © RESEARCHILD, 2023 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

Self-Management The abilities to manage one’s emotions, thoughts, and behaviors effectively in different situations and to achieve goals and aspirations. This includes capacities to delay gratification, manage stress, and feel motivation & agency to accomplish personal/collective goals. What Is the CASEL Framework? - CASEL © RESEARCHILD, 2023 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Mood I’mManage WearingMy Your Shoes

Learning Objectives  Identify different emotions  Understand that all emotions are normal, including negative ones  Explore how self-awareness of emotions may allow you to stay focused and be flexible when expectations change

Lesson 7.4

Mood I’mManage WearingMy Your Shoes Module 1

Metacognitive Activator

Lesson 7.1

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

Mood I’mManage WearingMy Your Shoes

What Am I Feeling? Match the faces to the emotions! Give an example of what might make a person feel each emotion.

Lesson 7.4

I’m Wearing Your Shoes

Mood I’mManage WearingMy Your Shoes

Lesson 7.4

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

Mood I’mManage WearingMy Your Shoes

Lesson 7.4

Mood I’mManage WearingMy Your Shoes

Lesson 7.4

Mood I’mManage WearingMy Your Shoes Module 2

Guided Instruction

Lesson 7.4

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

I’m Wearing Your Shoes

Mood I’mManage WearingMy Your Shoes

How is Elena Feeling? What helped Elena manage or change her emotions?

Lesson 7.4

Mood I’mManage WearingMy Your Shoes Module 3

Independent Practice

Lesson 7.4

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

Mood I’mManage WearingMy Your Shoes

Now we are going to think about our own emotions! Choose one emotion from the list. Describe two situations that made you felt that way and one way you cope with it.

Lesson 7.4

Mood I’mManage WearingMy Your Shoes

Mood I’mManage WearingMy Your Shoes Module 4

Metacognitive Wrap-up

Lesson 7.4

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

Mood I’mManage WearingMy Your Shoes

I’m Wearing Your Shoes

Let’s Reflect!

MOOD CHECKERS/CHECK-IN CHARTS

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

BRAIN BREAK

FOR OLDER STUDENTS

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

Learningworksforkids.com

Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations

Metacognition

Flexible Thinking

Managing Emotions SEL

EF Strategies

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

CASEL FRAMEWORK 3.1 Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations

Relationship skills What is the CASEL Framework? CASEL. Retrieved from https://casel.org/fundamentals-of-sel/what-is-the-casel-framework/ © RESEARCHILD, 2023 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

https://www.centervention.com/perspective-taking-activity/ © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

What's the right temperature?

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

Should students have cell phones in school?

Relationship Skills The abilities to establish and maintain healthy and supportive relationships and to effectively navigate settings with diverse individual groups. This includes the capacities to communicate clearly, listen actively, cooperate, work collaboratively to problem solve and negotiate conflict constructively, navigate settings with different social and cultural demands and opportunities, provide leadership, and seek or offer help when needed. What Is the CASEL Framework? - CASEL

Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations

Learning Objectives  Define cognitive flexibility  Understand how to shift between multiple perspectives

Lesson 3.1

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

BEING FLEXIBLE & SHIFTING EXPECTATIONS Cognitive

1. Solving problems 2. Thinking critically 3. Connecting ideas 4. Synthesizing information

Flexibility

1. Bending 2. Twisting 3. Thinking about things differently 4. Changing approaches when needed © RESEARCHILD, 2023 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY

Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations

Let's practice shifting word meanings! Try to come up with two different meanings for your word and draw or act them out.

Lesson 3.1

BEING FLEXIBLE & SHIFTING EXPECTATIONS

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

BEING FLEXIBLE & SHIFTING EXPECTATIONS

Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations

What do you think Carson is thinking when it begins to rain? What does Jill think?

Lesson 3.1

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations

The Soccer Game

Lesson 3.1

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations

Why did the same event lead to such different feelings? Why did each character act differently? How does thinking about two different perspectives demonstrate cognitive flexibility? Lesson 3.1

Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations

Now it’s your turn to try! Write an ending of Carson’s and Jill’s stories from each of their perspectives.

Lesson 3.1

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

I’m Wearing Your Shoes

I’m wearing your shoes

Metacognition

Flexible Thinking

Perspective Taking EF

Managing Emotions SEL

EF Strategies

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

CASEL FRAMEWORK 3.2 I'm Wearing Your Shoes

Social Awareness

Social Awareness The abilities to understand one’s own emotions, thoughts, and values and how they influence behavior across contexts. This includes capacities to recognize one’s strengths and limitations with a well grounded sense of confidence and purpose.

What Is the CASEL Framework? - CASEL © RESEARCHILD, 2023 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

I’m Wearing Your Shoes

Why is perspective taking such an important life skill?

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

I’m Wearing Your Shoes

Students who improve their perspective taking are better able to:  Interpret the needs and wants (motivation) of others  Demonstrate consideration and empathy toward others  Interpret assignments at school (especially reading and writing assignments) by understanding the perspective of the characters studied or the person who will be reading their writing  Think critically about social situations and relationships and engage in personal problem solving

I’m Wearing Your Shoes

Learning Objectives  Recognize the literal and metaphoric meaning of the phrase “I’m wearing your shoes”  Understand the concept of perspective taking  Think about how they can use flexible thinking to help them resolve conflicts as well as avoid future conflicts

Lesson 3.2

I’m Wearing Your Shoes

What does it mean to ‘take’ someone else’s perspective? When we take someone else’s perspective, we try to see things from their point of view.

Lesson 3.2

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

I’m Wearing Your Shoes

“Oops! I Misunderstood”

Lesson 3.2

•

How can wearing each other’s shoes help Talia and Jared solve their problem?

•

How did flexible thinking help them?

I’m Wearing Your Shoes

I’m Wearing Your Shoes "Oops I Misunderstood" Questions

1. What was something that Jared did not understand about Talia's situation? 2. What was something that Talia did not understand about Jared's situation? 3. What is something that Jared could have done to help Talia better understand his needs? 4. What is something that Talia could have done to help Jared better understand her needs?

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

I’m Wearing Your Shoes

“Oops! I Misunderstood” How can you use flexible thinking to solve similar conflicts in your own life?

Lesson 3.2

I’m Wearing Your Shoes

My Partner’s Shoe 1. Trace your partner’s shoe, then interview them. 2. Get ready to share and see if we can guess!

Lesson 3.2

I’m Wearing Your Shoes

Did you learn anything new about any of your classmates? Did you find that you had things in common that you didn't know about before? How might this information help you better understand one another?

Lesson 3.2

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

I’m Wearing Your Shoes

Perspective-taking is important when solving problems with friends. What are some examples of conflicts you have had in the past?

Lesson 3.2

I’m Wearing Your Shoes

What could I have done differently? How could shifting flexibly and perspective-taking have helped solve the conflict? How can we use this knowledge to stop conflicts before they start?

Lesson 3.2

I’m Wearing Your Shoes

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

Self Awareness

Metacognition

Flexible Thinking

Perspective Taking EF

Managing Emotions SEL

EF Strategies

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION & MENTORING PROGRAM

WRAPPING UP

“In the process of learning, affective and cognitive streams flow together...” -Katrina de Hirsch

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

KEY TAKEAWAYS • Emotions are powerful! • They shape the way we understand each other and ourselves. • Teaching EF strategies boosts emotional regulation and helps students meet the EF demands of learning. • EF and SEL initiatives have to be systematic, explicit, relevant, and connected to students' lives. • EF and SEL lessons have to activate knowledge and offer modeling, independent practice, and reflection.

Thank you!

Questions, comments, or concerns? Shelly Levy slevy@researchild.org

Jessica Chiusolo jchiusolo@researchild.org www.researchild.org www.smarts-ef.org © RESEARCHILD, 2023 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Jessica Chiusolo, M.Ed. © ResearchILD, 2023 www.smarts‐ef.org; www.researchild.org

Chapter 6

Shifting and Flexible Problem Solving The Anchors for Academic Success

Lynn Meltzer and Jennifer Sage Bagnato

Middle school has been especially challenging for Leo. When he’s doing his homework, he seems to understand the concepts and information presented in his science textbook. However, he can’t seem to apply this information on tests and extend it to new scenarios. I try to help him in math, but he gets frustrated when I show him an approach that is different from the way he was taught in school. He gets stuck doing things over and over again the same way, so that homework drags on the entire night, and he gets too little sleep. Even after he works so hard, his grades are still lower than those of his friends, and Leo now tells us that his friends are much smarter than he is. —Parent of a sixth grader Sally’s performance in school is like a seesaw. She is a very hard worker and is diligent with her homework. When taking notes, she spends hours writing down every detail. However, she sometimes has difficulty with broad concepts and struggles to find the main ideas in her English literature and social studies assignments. When writing essays, she frequently includes quotes and specific examples that don’t relate to her thesis. Sally does well on multiple-choice tests and fill-in-the-blank quizzes. I do not understand why she has so much difficulty with short-answer and essay tests, and I wish I knew how to help Sally so that her grades were more representative of the time and effort she spends studying. —11th-grade teacher

ognitive flexibility, or the ability to think without rigidity and to shift mindsets easily, is a critically important executive function process that is often especially challenging for students like Sally, Leo, and others with learning and attention difficulties (Meltzer, 1993; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007; Meltzer & Montague, 2001; Meltzer, Solomon, Fenton, & Levine, 1989). Its component processes—which include the ability to adapt to unfamiliar or unexpected situations, to combine concepts 140

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creatively, and to integrate different representations—develop across the lifespan and vary among students (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c; Deák, 2008). Many academic tasks from early elementary school into high school require students to shift flexibly between perspectives and to synthesize information in novel ways (see Chapters 1 and 2). Nevertheless, time is usually not built into the curriculum for teaching students the importance of approaching problem solving and academic tasks flexibly, so they can shift easily “from the top of the mountain to the bottom” as they focus alternately on the major themes and the relevant details (see Figure 1.1 in Chapter 1). In this chapter, we discuss the reasons why cognitive flexibility is so important across the grades, and in all academic domains. We also provide an overview of specific strategies that teachers can implement in their classrooms to help students approach complex problems in a flexible manner, integrate multiple representations of knowledge, and apply learned skills to novel situations. Some of the suggestions discussed in this chapter, like some of those in other chapters, have been evaluated as part of our school-based Gateways to Success and Drive to Thrive studies (Meltzer et al., 2004a, 2004b, 2004c). Others are based on considerable clinical research (Meltzer et al., 2007b) or on best practice. Teachers could use these strategies as guides in devising their own approaches for helping students to develop flexible mindsets in the different content areas.

Why Is Cognitive Flexibility So Important across Grades and Academic Domains? Children’s ability to think flexibly changes with development and age (Brown, 1997; Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b). Typically, students in the early elementary grades have a more limited understanding of the importance of using different approaches to their work in different situations than do middle and high school students. In fact, recent research has shown that cognitive-developmental changes from childhood into adulthood influence children’s ability to manage the cognitive complexity of academic tasks and to process many different elements simultaneously (Andrews & Halford, 2002; Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b; Zelazo & Müller, 2002). As children enter school, cognitive flexibility plays an increasingly important role in the development of more advanced language and literacy skills (Cartwright, 2002, 2008a, 2008b; Homer & Hayward, 2008). Furthermore, the acquisition of numeracy skills is increasingly linked with students’ ability to process multiple representations flexibly and easily. Acquisition of new concepts is also connected to students’ willingness to abandon previously successful approaches in favor of alternative methods when necessary (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b). This ability to shift approaches and to synthesize information in novel ways is essential for effective reading, writing, math problem solving, note taking, studying, and test taking.

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In the reading domain, investigators have recently emphasized the importance of reading flexibility, or readers’ ability to adapt their reading skills to the demands and purpose of the material (Adams, 1990; Fry, 1978; Cartwright, 2002; Gaskins, 2008; Wagner & Sternberg, 1987). This emphasis on the role of cognitive flexibility in reading decoding, fluency, and comprehension reflects the multidimensional nature of reading (Berninger, Abbott, Thomson, & Raskind, 2001; Berninger & Nagy, 2008; Gaskins, 2008, Gaskins, Satlow, & Pressley, 2007; Pressley, 2006). As reading tasks become more challenging and domain-specific, students need to coordinate multiple subskills, processes, and sources of information. They form mental representations that they need to access flexibly in order to remember, organize, prioritize, and comprehend the information (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008). Accurate and efficient reading decoding requires students to shift flexibly among four different approaches: letter–sound decoding, use of sight word vocabulary, reliance on context clues, and use of analogies (Ehri, 1991; Gaskins, 2008). In other words, they need to recognize the importance of what Gaskins (2008) refers to as “crisscrossing the landscape,” in order to select decoding approaches that fit the text. Specifically, students need to coordinate the letter–sound relationships with the meanings of printed words (Cartwright, 2002, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c). When studies have focused on teaching students to shift flexibly as part of the decoding process, findings have shown improved reading decoding and comprehension in beginning readers, intermediate readers, and adults (Cartwright, 2002, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c). Other studies have shown the efficacy of teaching students different approaches to decoding and fostering flexibility in decoding (Lovett, Lacerenza, & Borden, 2000). Such flexibility helps students coordinate and shift between word-level features on the one hand, and vocabulary knowledge and background knowledge on the other. This flexibility allows students to draw inferences that extend beyond the information given, and thus it facilitates reading comprehension (Adams, 1990; Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c). Reading comprehension requires students to process the meaning of text, flexibly access their background knowledge, recognize the purpose or goal of reading (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c), and monitor their own comprehension (Block & Pressley, 2002; Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995). Reading for meaning taxes students’ ability to manage linguistic information at the word, sentence, and paragraph levels (Brown & Deavers, 1999; Goswami, Ziegler, Dalton, & Schneider, 2001, 2003). In the well-known series of books about Amelia Bedelia, for example, young readers need to use a flexible approach to language in order to understand the multiple meanings of the language embedded in the text and the humor in the stories. This flexibility helps readers to understand why Amelia Bedelia’s employers are surprised when they come home to find a chicken dressed in clothes after they ask her to “Dress the chicken,” and a drawing of their curtains and light bulbs on the front lawn after they ask her to “Draw the drapes when the sun comes in . . . and put the lights out” (Parish, 1963, pp. 47, 48, 59).

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Written language, like reading comprehension, requires students to shift— in this case, between the topic sentences on the one hand, and the supporting details on the other. As students learn to shift approaches flexibly, they are able to interpret information in more than one way, change approaches when needed, and choose a new strategy when the first one is not working (Westman & Kamoo, 1990). There is still a need for longitudinal studies that focus on the impact of cognitive flexibility on the writing process, as there has been very little research in this area. In the math domain, students’ understanding of concepts, of computational procedures, and of word problems is associated with cognitive flexibility from the earliest grades, when one-to-one correspondence rules are taught. Students need to shift from the words and sentences in math problems to the numbers, operations, algorithms, and equations needed to solve the problems (Roditi & Steinberg, 2007). Students also need to learn how and when to shift from one problem-solving strategy or schema to another, so that their final calculations are accurate and logical (Montague & Jitendra, 2006). In fact, recent math curricula that have been based on the National Council of Teachers of Math (2000) report focus on teaching students to switch sets while they connect, communicate, and discuss multiple representations of the same word problems. Students with learning disabilities often struggle to shift flexibly between the numbers and the math questions they are solving (Bull & Scerif, 2001; Roditi, 1993; Roditi & Steinberg, 2007). Therefore, these students need explicit and ongoing instruction in shifting when they approach their math work. In content area subjects, including science and history, students are required to read texts where many words or phrases have multiple meanings; students’ understanding of these words or phrases depends on their flexible use of context clues. Similarly, learning a foreign language requires a significant amount of flexible thinking, as students are challenged to shift back and forth between their native language and the language they are learning. Students continuously need to apply their knowledge of semantics, syntax, and vocabulary in order to translate text or conversation in the foreign language into their native language and vice versa. Spiro and colleagues have stressed the role of flexibility in the acquisition and representation of content area knowledge (Spiro, 2004; Spiro, Feltovich, Jacobson, & Coulson, 1992). Specifically, they have shown that knowledge needs to be flexibly structured and accessed in order to build expertise in different academic domains. Cognitive flexibility and other higher-level thinking skills therefore need to be explicitly taught within specific content domains or disciplines (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008). In fact, in studies of the links between cognitive flexibility and performance in science and history, students across the grades (elementary into high school) have been taught to shift flexibly among texts and to recognize similarities and differences in themes, in order to understand the main ideas or “big picture” (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008; Wolfe & Goldman, 2005).

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Finally, note taking, studying, and taking tests require students to shift back and forth between various subtopics or problem types, which are often phrased differently from the ways in which students have learned or studied the information. In these different academic domains, students with learning difficulties need to learn systematic strategies for interpreting the vocabulary and linguistic structure in multiple ways, so that they feel comfortable taking risks and thinking “outside the box” when they interpret information. Across all these academic domains, students’ motivation, interest, and passion influence their willingness to make the effort to try different approaches and to shift flexibly from one approach to another, rather than continuing to use the same approach to tasks (Alexander, 1998; Paris, Lipson, & Wixson, 1983; Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008). Alexander (1998) emphasizes that intrinsic motivation, topic knowledge, and strategy use interact to produce improvements in domain learning (e.g., history or science). For example, as students learn more about a topic (such as the Vietnam War), they find it easier to use strategies flexibly; in turn, flexible strategy use increases students’ interest in completing the many different steps involved in writing a paper about the Vietnam War. In this regard, Zelazo and colleagues have differentiated between purely cognitive or “cold” tasks that have no emotional content (e.g., math computation) and tasks that are affected by a student’s social and emotional mindset, or what they term “hot” tasks (e.g., remembering information in a social studies text by linking it with a personal experience) (Zelazo & Müller, 2002; Zelazo, Müller, Frye, & Marcovitch, 2003). They propose that success on both types of tasks depends on each individual’s cognitive flexibility.

How Should We Teach Students to Think Flexibly and to Shift Mindsets? As discussed above, classroom instruction needs to include opportunities for students to use their acquired knowledge flexibly (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993). Similarly, students’ cognitive flexibility improves when they are given opportunities to solve problems from a variety of different perspectives (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). Therefore, it is important to embed strategies for teaching cognitive flexibility into different facets of the curriculum, and to create classrooms and school cultures where students are taught strategies that encourage flexible thinking across the grades and content areas. In the classroom setting, cognitive flexibility underlies good teaching as well as successful learning (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c; Massey, 2008). As Massey (2008) emphasizes, “flexible instruction does not mean anything goes” (p. 305). Instead, such instruction provides explicit models of a repertoire of specific strategies, as well as explanations of how and when to use these strategies (Snow, Griffin, & Burns, 2005).

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A broad range of instructional methods can be used to promote flexible thinking across the content areas. Instruction can focus explicitly on problem solving and critical thinking, and can require students to think flexibly about how the solutions they propose could lead to different outcomes under different circumstances (Sternberg, 2005). Instruction can also encourage peer discussion and collaborative learning in order to expose students to many different viewpoints (Yuill, 2007; Yuill & Bradwell, 1998). While working with their peers, students can be challenged to approach problems from the perspectives of their classmates, which may vary significantly from their own. An integrated approach to learning encourages students to make connections between different content areas and also challenges them to think flexibly about the topics. For example, in history, when students are taught about the westward migration in the United States during the 1850s, each student could be required to write a journal from the perspective of a pioneer. In geography or science, students could analyze the topographical features of the area and choose a safe passage through the Sierra Nevada. This integrated approach not only deepens students’ understanding of the time period, but also encourages them to shift mindsets by assuming a number of different perspectives. The following guide can be used as an organizational framework for embedding shifting strategies in the curriculum (see Chapter 2 for details): 1. Introduce and define the concept of shifting strategies. 2. Model shifting strategies and explain what, when, and how to do this. 3. Provide opportunities for active student learning. 4. Reinforce shifting strategies by embedding opportunities for doing this into the curriculum. 5. Reflect on students’ use of specific strategies. 6. Challenge students and extend flexible strategy use to other academic areas and tasks. To help students develop metacognitive awareness and understand how to shift flexibly in their interpretation of language and approaches to reading, writing, and math, one of the easiest and most enjoyable activities is to implement “5-minute warm-ups” at the beginning of lessons. These activities encourage students to recognize that many different answers can often be generated for the same question (see Table 6.1 for examples). Furthermore, activities with jokes, riddles, word categories, and number puzzles can help students to practice using flexible approaches to language interpretation and number manipulation. Tasks that incorporate jokes and riddles “differentiate between what is said and what is meant, between two different meanings of the same surface form, between joking and literal interpretations of text, and between formal and semantic characteristics of words” (Yuill, Kerawalla, Pearce, Luckin, & Harris, 2008, p. 339). The efficacy of using jokes to teach flexible thinking to students in the early grades has

146 SCAFFOLDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION PROCESSES TABLE 6.1. Warm-Up Activities That Promote Flexible Interpretation of Language and Flexible Approaches to Reading, Writing, and Math •• Present ambiguous words and sentences to students in the form of riddles or jokes. This is an enjoyable way of helping students to use context clues to analyze words with multiple meanings. This activity should be linked directly and explicitly with reading comprehension tasks. •• Encourage students to identify different ways they can use specific objects such as a brick, a cardboard box, or an apple. This encourages them to shift approaches rather than getting “stuck” in one approach, and helps them to understand that objects as well as words can have different meanings and functions. •• Ask students to categorize weekly vocabulary or spelling words in a number of different ways (e.g., by part of speech, meaning, vowel patterns). •• Ask students to identify several different ways in which selected multimeaning words can be used (e.g., “cut paper” “cut the line,” “cut class.” •• Encourage students to write a short story from the perspective of an object, such as a penny or a lost sock. This teaches perspective taking and helps students to shift approaches. •• Ask students to create different endings for books they have read. This process encourages students to recognize that stories can end in many different ways. •• Play word and math logic games, such as Boggle, Magic Squares, and Sudoku, to help students to manipulate words and numbers in different ways and to think flexibly about words and math operations.

been shown in an interesting series of studies (Yuill, 2007; Yuill & Bradwell, 1998). Children ages 7–9 years were paired with peers to discuss ambiguities in jokes; they used a joke software program (Joke City) for three 30-hour sessions. Significant gains in reading comprehension were found in these children, in comparison with the control group children, who continued with their daily literacy classes. In other words, an explicit focus on the ambiguous language in jokes generalized to reading comprehension as students were required to think about and analyze language in different ways. Jokes and riddles help students to recognize that ambiguities in language affect meaning, and that looking for context clues is an important reading strategy that improves reading comprehension (see Figure 6.1). Ambiguous sentences, riddles, and multimeaning words can be presented in humorous ways to teach students how to shift flexibly among meanings by using context clues, shifting from noun to verb use, and shifting syllables in words. As Yuill et al. (1998) point out, peer

Think about and illustrate two different meanings for the following: •• Eye drops off the shelf. •• Enraged cow injures farmer with axe. •• Kids make nutritious snacks. •• Hospitals are sued by seven foot doctors. •• Include your friends when baking cookies.

FIGURE 6.1. Examples of using humor to promote flexible interpretation of multimeaning words.

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discussion of jokes promotes cognitive flexibility, as joking is a social activity that occurs among peers. Similarly, peer discussions of ambiguous language promotes metacognitive awareness that transfers to reading and writing tasks (Yuill et al., 2008). Students can therefore collaborate with peers to illustrate or verbally explain selected riddles or jokes. They can also work with peers to analyze sentence structure and to identify pronouns, adjectives, and placements of commas or hyphens that change the meanings of words and phrases. Discussing these different meanings often helps students to recognize the importance of thinking flexibly when they complete their homework or study for tests. Activities like these provide opportunities to incorporate cognitive flexibility instruction into classwork and homework through the use of enjoyable and inherently motivating tasks. These activities should be linked explicitly and directly with reading comprehension tasks. Therefore, teachers can present reading tasks that require students to recognize shifts in sentence meanings based on the use of selected words as nouns or verbs. Students can be required to discuss these shifts explicitly. In this way, students can use engaging material to build their metacognitive and metalinguistic awareness. It is important to recognize that students often show marked variability in their cognitive flexibility, and that students may be flexible on some tasks but not on others. For instance, some students may be flexible in their approach to structured verbal or nonverbal reasoning tasks, yet may be inflexible in academic situations that demand the integrated use of a broad range of skills and strategies. Similarly, students may actively use learning strategies on tasks with which they are familiar, but may not access strategies on other tasks that they perceive as too difficult or that require the simultaneous mobilization of multiple processes and strategies. They may also rely inappropriately on strategies that were previously helpful, but are inadequate for dealing with the increased complexity of new tasks. Teachers can differentiate instruction more easily after administering the MetaCOG surveys (see Chapter 1 for a detailed discussion of MetaCOG) to assess all students’ motivation, effort, strategy use, and understanding of their own learning profiles. Students’ motivation and emotional mindsets (e.g., fatigue, anxiety, social awareness) influence their willingness to make the extra effort needed to use strategies for thinking and learning flexibly. In fact, as discussed in detail in Chapter 8, students’ emotional mindsets often serve as “on–off switches” for effective strategy use and learning, particularly their willingness to try new or different approaches. Table 6.2 provides suggestions for teaching students to develop metacognitive mindsets—to shift flexibly “from the top of the mountain to the bottom and back again” (see Chapter 1), and to shift between the main ideas and details in different content areas and domains. These broad ideas are expanded and elaborated in the following section, which focuses on what strategies teachers should use to promote students’ abilities to think flexibly and to shift approaches as needed.

148 SCAFFOLDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION PROCESSES TABLE 6.2. Teaching Students to Develop Metacognitive Mindsets and Strategies for Shifting Flexibly in Selected Content Areas Oral language Shifting between multiple word meanings •• Teach students to recognize and analyze ambiguities in words and sentences, and to shift between different meanings. •• Require students to identify multiple-meaning words by using context clues, noun–verb clues, and syllable accents, and to shift flexibly among the different possible meanings (see the M & M strategy, Figures 6/4–6.5 and Table 6.3). •• Explicitly link these activities with reading comprehension and writing, so that students will generalize and extend the strategies they learn to the different content areas. Reading decoding and spelling Shifting between different word analysis and blending approaches for decoding and spelling •• Teach students to recognize which words can be analyzed by using phonics and which words depend on sight vocabulary. •• Provide sentence-reading tasks where students need to shift between phonics and sight words. Require students to verbalize the difference, so that they develop a metacognitive approach to decoding and spelling. •• Teach students to access their knowledge of prefixes and suffixes and related words in spelling—for example, music/musical (c at the end, not k or ck); jumped (ed, not t, because of past tense). Note: Students sometimes rely exclusively on phonics if they are not taught how and when to shift strategies. Reading comprehension Shifting between “big ideas” and supporting details •• Teach students to differentiate among main ideas, important details, and less relevant details. This is an important skill for summarizing and studying. •• Require students to identify multiple-meaning words, as above. •• Teach students to use three-column notes (e.g., Triple Note Tote), to ensure that they shift from the main ideas or core concepts to the supportive details (see Chapter 2). Written language Shifting between “big ideas” and supporting details. Shifting “from the top to the bottom of the mountain and back again” (see Chapters 1 and 2) •• Provide students with graphic organizers for sorting main ideas vs. supportive details. •• Provide templates that help students focus on major themes or thesis statements, relevant details, and conclusions. •• Provide models for shifting from the main ideas to supporting details. •• Help students to develop personalized checklists that help them differentiate between relevant and irrelevant details. Studying and test taking Shifting and organizing Shifting and self-checking •• Have students create specific study plans for tests in different subject areas and with different formats (e.g., essay vs. multiple-choice). •• Have students use a question–answer or three-column format (e.g., Triple Note Tote) for studying for tests. •• Have students shift from writing to editing, using personalized checklists of their common errors on tests. (cont.)

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TABLE 6.2. (cont.) Summarizing, note taking, long-term projects Shifting and prioritizing Shifting and organizing •• Teach the “big picture” versus the details by using concept maps and reminding students to visualize themselves standing at the “top of the mountain” and then shifting to the “bottom of the mountain” for the details. •• Teach students to extract the main themes when taking notes and to paraphrase the information in their own words. •• Require students to use the Triple Note Tote strategy or strategy cards throughout each chapter/unit (see Chapter 2). These require students to shift from the main ideas to the details and back again, so that they have a study plan for tests. •• Require students to shift between short-term homework due immediately and long-term projects by using monthly and weekly calendars and setting short-term “due dates” for phases of the long-term work. Math Problem Solving Shifting and prioritizing •• Require students to generate math language for each operation (e.g., difference, less, take away = subtraction). •• Teach students to shift from the language embedded in word problems to the computational details and back again. •• Teach students to focus on the meaning of the math problem versus the operations and calculation details by reminding students to visualize themselves standing at the “top of the mountain” and then shifting to the “bottom of the mountain” for the details. •• Within operations (e.g., long division) teach students to shift from division to subtraction (and the like). •• Require students to estimate the answers to word problems (“big picture”) and to compare their solutions with their estimates. Teach students to ask themselves, “ Does it make sense?”, by comparing their final calculations with their estimates.

What Strategies Should We Teach to Promote Students’ Cognitive Flexibility? Specific strategies for fostering flexible thinking and set shifting are often embedded in classroom instruction, but may not be explicitly taught. Students are often unaware of the goals of the lessons or activities, and metacognitive awareness is not actively promoted. The following suggestions and strategies should be used as guides for explicitly helping students to develop flexible mindsets and approaches to the different content areas.

Shifting and Flexible Thinking in Reading As discussed above, reading tasks require students to apply and combine different strategies on the basis of the specific goals, text structures, and content requirements of the different tasks (Brown et al., 1983). When reading novels, for example, students are required to shift between the concrete and the abstract, between the literal and the symbolic, and between the major themes and relevant details. Similarly, students regularly encounter ambiguous language when they read poetry,

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and texts in content areas such as biology or history which also require them to think flexibly about the meanings of specific words, phrases, and sentences. There are three major categories of ambiguous language (Spector, 1997): •• Multiple-meaning words. These include homographs and homophones, such as pair versus pear and weight versus wait. Changing the accent of a word may also vary the meaning of words, as in the example of PROduce versus proDUCE. •• Multiple-meaning phrases. Ambiguous phrases are often idioms, such as “eats like a bird,” “break a leg,” “follow your heart”, and “off the wall.” •• Multiple-meaning sentences. To interpret ambiguous sentences, readers must use syntactic information and context clues embedded in the text to infer the correct meaning. For oral language, listeners may also analyze verbal cues (e.g., stress and intonation) and nonverbal cues (e.g., gestures and body language) to understand the intended meanings of the sentences. They also need to identify which specific parts of sentences can be interpreted in two different ways. Examples include “Jane has grown another foot” and “He grimaced when Ralph took his picture.” Students need to learn how to recognize and analyze multimeaning words, phrases, and sentences, and how to use context clues to shift back and forth between the main ideas and the details. As discussed above, many approaches can be used. For example, riddles, multimeaning words, and ambiguous sentences can be presented in humorous ways to teach students how to shift flexibly among meanings by using context clues, shifting from noun to verb use, or shifting accents or syllables in words. Teachers can present students with jokes or riddles such as those shown in Figures 6.2 and 6.3, and can require students to do the following: •• Read the jokes or riddles. •• Identify the literal and figurative meanings of the words. •• Underline the part of the joke with multiple meanings.

•• What did the ocean say to the shore? Nothing, it just waved. •• What did the calculator say to the student? You can count on me. •• What do you get when you eat crackers in bed? A crumby night’s sleep. •• Why shouldn’t you step on a watch? Because it’s a waste of time.

FIGURE 6.2. Examples of using riddles to promote flexible interpretation of multimeaning words.

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FIGURE 6.3. Teaching cognitive flexibility by illustrating words or phrases in which multiple meanings are associated with verb or noun usage.

•• Illustrate the two or more different meanings by hand or on a computer. •• Discuss the multiple meanings with peer partners. Strategies like the multiple-meaning strategy (M & M strategy) can also help students to unlock the meaning of ambiguous language. To use the M & M strategy, students are encouraged to follow the steps outlined in Figure 6.4. As discussed in detail in Chapter 5, students need memory anchors to remember sequences of steps. Crazy phrases that link the steps in a sequence can often help students to recall the order in which they need to analyze the material. For example, to remember the steps involved in the M & M strategy, students could be presented with one of the following crazy phrases: “Mighty Pandas Crave Large Oreos” (see Figure 6.5), “Mean Possums Crush Lollipops Ominously,” or “Mischie-

Multiple-meaning word—Check each unfamiliar or confusing word in the sentence and ask: •• Could this word have more than one meaning? •• Could it be used as both a verb and a noun? •• Can I change the accent or stress of the word? Possible meanings—List all the possible meanings of the word. Context clues—Circle and analyze context clues in the sentences. Logical meaning—Underline the most logical meaning. Cross out meanings that don’t make sense. Own words: Restate the sentence in your own words. Crazy phrase: “Mighty Pandas Crave Large Oreos.”

FIGURE 6.4. The multiple-meaning strategy (M & M strategy).

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FIGURE 6.5. Use of a crazy phrase to recall the M & M Strategy for shifting flexibly among multiple word meanings.

vous Penguins Collect Lopsided Oranges.” Once they have practiced using the M& M strategy, students should be encouraged to make up their own crazy phrases. Table 6.3 demonstrates how students might use the M & M strategy to comprehend the following ambiguous sentence: “The hiker looked at the scale carefully.” While ambiguous language challenges students to think flexibly at the word and sentence levels, students are also required to shift mindsets when reading paragraphs in textbooks and chapters in novels. To comprehend fiction, for example, it is important that readers shift mindsets to think like the characters in a book. Consider the following excerpt from page 1 of The Ballad of Lucy Whipple, by Karen Cushman (1996): It was a hot day in late August, and nothing was moving in the heat but the flies, when our wagon pulled out of the woods and stopped at the edge of the ravine.

TABLE 6.3. Using the M & M Strategy to Comprehend Ambiguous Language Ambiguity

Possible meanings

Context clues

Logical meaning

Own words

The hiker looked at the scale carefully.

•• Machine for weighing •• Plate on fish or reptiles •• Proportion on a map •• To climb up •• Series of musical tones

•• hiker —suggests that the scale is something one might need in the wilderness •• the —suggests that scale is a noun •• carefully —suggests that the scale is important to the hiker; it might be hard to see

•• Machine for weighing •• Plate on fish or reptiles •• Proportion on a map •• To climb up •• Series of musical tones

•• The hiker looked at the proportion on the map carefully.

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When this passage is interpreted from a contemporary perspective, readers might assume that “our wagon” refers to a station wagon (i.e., a car). However, if the readers are able to shift mindsets and leave behind the time and place in which they live in favor of those in the book (California in 1848), it is more likely that they will activate their background knowledge about this time period and visualize a wooden, horse-drawn wagon. Similarly, in order for readers to understand and analyze a character’s actions, they must discard their personal goals/values and temporarily adopt those of the main character. Use of a Venn diagram helps students to make this shift. This approach makes explicit the differences between the readers and the main character, and students need to think about the similarities and differences when they draw the Venn. To help readers change mindsets, students can be encouraged to refer to the Venn diagram before each reading session. Figure 6.6 is an example of a structured and scaffolded Venn diagram that focuses on the setting.

Shifting and Flexible Thinking in Written Language Persuasive and analytical writing requires students to develop an argument or thesis, which is supported by specific evidence and examples. To facilitate planning and organization, writers are often required to complete a linear graphic organizer that outlines their main idea and supporting details. For some students, this is an effective approach. However, for those who have difficulty with flexible thinking, it may be challenging for them to shift fluidly between their main ideas and supporting details. Consequently, they may choose examples (such as quotes or facts) that either lend little support to the main idea or are entirely unrelated. Use of a graphic organizer that makes explicit connections between the main idea and supporting details may help writers to shift more fluidly between the two (see Appen-

My Setting

Time Year: Current events: Popular activities: Place: Where I live: What it is like:

Character‛s Setting Time Year: Current events: Popular activities: Place: Where he/she lives: What it is like:

FIGURE 6.6. Structured Venn diagram to help students think flexibly about a story’s setting.

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dix 11). This graphic organizer can be used as a prewriting strategy for organizing paragraphs or essays. It encourages students to provide specific examples, and it also helps to ensure that the details support the argument and promote the main idea. Another method for promoting flexible thinking when writing is to teach students to develop counterarguments to their theses or main ideas. Introducing a counterargument is an effective technique for an introduction or conclusion to a persuasive essay. Developing an introductory or concluding statement that challenges an argument, but is weighted more heavily in the direction of the writer’s opinion, encourages a student to think deeply and flexibly about the topic at hand. Note taking is another area of written language that requires students to think flexibly. When taking notes during a class lecture, students are required to listen actively to the information, transfer it into their own words, and record important information in note form. Similarly, effective note taking while reading requires students to read the information and paraphrase it in words that are meaningful and familiar to them. However, the act of paraphrasing is extremely challenging for many students, especially those who have difficulty thinking flexibly. As a result, these students frequently resort to copying the exact words that appear in the text; this not only compromises their understanding, but also reduces the likelihood that they will retain the information over time. Thus it is essential to provide students with explicit instruction focused on ways of paraphrasing information for note taking. The following four-step process for teaching paraphrasing is effective (Vener, 2002): 1. Find the words you want to change. 2. Use a thesaurus to find appropriate synonyms for these words. 3. Replace the original words with the synonyms. 4. Rearrange the sentence so that it makes sense, without changing its original meaning. Teachers should also explain to students that their notes need to be legible and should contain accurate information, but that they do not have to use perfect spelling and grammar or to write in complete sentences. Instead, students can use bullets or numbers to take notes and can develop personalized systems of abbreviations for common words.

Shifting and Flexible Thinking in Math In math, shifting is essential for efficient and accurate calculations and analyses of word problems. Students often need to shift flexibly between operations (e.g., long division involves shifting from division to multiplication to subtraction). Students

Shifting and Flexible Problem Solving

155

are also often taught to predict the answers and generate estimates before solving problems. In other words, they need to shift flexibly between the initial “ballpark figure” or estimate and the actual answer. Moreover, when solving word problems, students often need to shift fluidly between numbers and words. For example, they need to know that the key phrase all together indicates addition, whereas the phrase less than calls for subtraction. When asked to “explain their work,” students need to work in the opposite direction and convert their numerical computations into written language. One way to promote flexible thinking in math is to expose students to multiple representations of mathematical concepts and procedures (Roditi & Steinberg, 2007). Many teachers already use multiple representations when teaching fractions, decimals, and percents, all of which can be expressed by using numbers, words, and visual or concrete manipulatives that illustrate part-to-whole relationships. To help students think flexibly about the concepts they are learning, this type of instruction can be extended to many more mathematical constructs. Positive and negative numbers, for example, can be illustrated by using a traditional number line or the analogy of temperature on a thermometer. Similarly, asking students to convert numbers into graphs, tables, and charts helps them to shift from the smaller details to the larger patterns and trends. When learning new concepts or skills, students are frequently required to practice problems presented in a particular format in class or for homework. To promote mastery of mathematical skills, this format is often highly structured and repetitive. For tests or quizzes, teachers often change the format to evaluate their students’ level of comprehension, in addition to their ability to apply these skills. Teachers may also group together different types of problems that students have previously practiced only in isolation. On these tasks, students often have difficulty shifting mindsets and recognizing familiar problems that are presented in a different format. They also struggle to differentiate between mixed problem types (see Figure 6.7).

Example 1: Calculation Homework: What is 20 percent of 80? Test: 16 is what percent of 80? Example 2: Word Problem Homework: John earns the following scores on his English tests: 82, 90, 76, and 87. What is his average test score for the semester? Test: Rachel’s average test score for the semester in history class is an 89. She earned the following scores on three of the tests: 92, 88, and 81. What score must she have earned on the fourth test?

FIGURE 6.7. Examples of math problems with different formats.

156 SCAFFOLDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION PROCESSES •• Is this problem the same as or different from the one I did before? •• If it is different, what is different about it? For example, does it require a different operation or a different algorithm? •• What specific steps do I need to follow in order to solve this problem?

FIGURE 6.8. Suggestions for helping students to shift among problem types.

To address situations such as those in Figure 6.7, it is important to teach students how to shift flexibly from one problem type to another or one format to another. When completing a page of multiple problem types for homework or on a test, for example, students can be encouraged to stop and ask themselves the specific questions presented in Figure 6.8. These questions help them identify the similarities and differences between the problem they are currently working on and the previous problems in that set. These guided questions are intended to help students not to get “stuck” in one approach, but to shift flexibly in order to recognize the differences between problems. Students can then recognize that a different approach or operation may be needed and can generate a more accurate plan of action.

Shifting and Flexible Thinking for Studying and Taking Tests As discussed above, preparing for tests and quizzes is a process that requires flexible thinking on many different levels. Students need to be able to extract information from a variety of sources, including textbooks, homework assignments, and class notes. Memorizing the specific details and integrating them with the larger concepts also require cognitive flexibility. Students with executive function difficulties often experience an overload of information, so that they do not know where to begin; as a result, they often feel as if their minds are like “clogged funnels” (see Figure 1.2 in Chapter 1). Because they do not shift approaches flexibly and cannot sift and sort the information, they cannot unclog their funnels easily. Consequently, their writing, study skills, and test performance are often compromised, and their academic grades often do not reflect their true intellectual ability. Many students tend to use the same study techniques for all subject areas. Although it may be effective to focus on the textbook to prepare for a history test, this may be less helpful in math, where it is often more beneficial to review earlier classwork and homework assignments. Students need to be taught that different subject areas require different study techniques, and that they need to be flexible in their preparation for tests and quizzes. Helping students to develop a systematic study plan for each subject area, such as the one in Figure 6.9, is one way to

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Math Make a flash card for each different type of problem. Each card should include these details: •• Name of problem •• How to recognize it •• Steps to solve it •• Example •• Strategy for remembering the information Make a practice test with examples of each type of problem. Check work carefully. Redo the problems that were challenging or incorrect.

English Write a one- or two-sentence summary of each chapter in the novel. Identify important examples and quotes from each chapter. Review the notes from class. Try to predict the essay question. Create an outline for a response.

FIGURE 6.9. Examples of personalized study plans for math and English.

help students recognize this. Students should develop individualized study plans reflecting the study strategies that have proved to be most effective for them. Even within the same subject area, students should also be taught to study differently for tests with different formats. For a multiple-choice format test in history, students are often tested on detailed, factual information. For an essay test in history, however, students need to be taught how to shift away from the facts and details to the topics or major concepts. They need to be able to “tell the story” embedded in the content, rather than simply cramming hundreds of facts/details and then forgetting these immediately after the test. For short-answer and essay tests, students are required to select the most relevant factual information and to connect these details to a larger theme. One effective study strategy for such tests is to review the textbook, class notes, and homework assignments, and them to make strategy notecards with important people, dates, places, and events on one side, and the corresponding descriptions on the other. Students should also write down their personalized strategies for remembering key terms and for shifting from the major concepts to the relevant details, such as a crazy phrases, acronyms, or cartoons (see Chapters 2 and 5 for more details). In fact, it is beneficial for students to create three-column notes, where they record the main idea in one column, the supporting details in a second column, and their memory strategies in the last column. The Triple Note Tote strategy from BrainCogs (ResearchILD & FableVision, 2003) can be used in this way for

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SCAFFOLDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION PROCESSES

taking notes, outlining, studying, and self-quizzing (see Chapters 2, 4, and 5 for more information).

Helping Leo and Sally to Think More Flexibly As demonstrated by the descriptions of Leo and Sally at the beginning of this chapter, students’ difficulties in thinking flexibly can affect their learning and academic performance in a variety of ways. Therefore, it is important to select the techniques used to promote flexible thinking carefully, in order to match students’ individual learning profiles and address their academic needs. Table 6.4 provides a few suggestions for helping Leo and Sally think more flexibly and for addressing their respective areas of difficulty: in math and science (Leo) and in language arts (Sally).

TABLE 6.4. Suggestions for Helping Leo and Sally to Think Flexibly Difficulty

Recommendations Leo

Applying familiar information to new problems or situations presented on science and math quizzes and tests

•• For novel problems, teach Leo to ask himself what is the same and what is different or new about this problem versus problems he has completed previously for homework. He should then use this information to create a plan of action.

Shifting approaches when solving math problems

•• Use multiple representations of information (e.g., algorithms, graphs, diagrams) to teach math concepts and skills. Make the connections between the different representations explicit and clear.

•• Create a study plan for tests and quizzes, which includes having Leo practice applying the skills and information that he knows to new situations. Develop Leo’s metacognitive awareness by providing explicit examples that emphasize cognitive flexibility. Provide opportunities for modeling, guided practice, and independent practice.

•• Develop Leo’s metacognitive awareness by providing opportunities for him to reflect on his strategy use. Leo could be given extra credit for completing strategy reflection sheets for his homework or tests. Sally Identifying the main ideas while reading and note-taking

•• Teach Sally how to change subheadings into questions (see Chapters 4 and 5) to extract the main ideas from each section of her textbook. Encourage her to write down the answer on a Post-it Note that is stuck directly to the book, or to use a three-column note-taking format (see Chapters 4 and 5). •• For note taking, Sally can paraphrase information and use a personalized system of abbreviations.

Shifting flexibly between the main idea (or thesis) and details in written language

•• Before writing essays, Sally can use the STAR strategy (see Chapters 1 and 5) or the graphic organizer in Appendix 12, to ensure that the details and quotes she includes in her essay support her main idea. •• When she studies for essay and short-answer tests, Sally can predict what the questions might be and make a draft or outline of her answers.

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Conclusion Cognitive flexibility, or the ability to think flexibly and to shift mindsets, is one of the least understood executive function processes. There is a need for many more studies that systematically evaluate the links between cognitive flexibility and performance in the different academic domains. It is important that teachers build time into the daily curriculum for teaching students to develop metacognitive mindsets and to think strategically about their work. Students need to learn why and how they can approach all academic tasks flexibly, so they can shift easily “from the top of the mountain to the bottom,” as they focus alternately on the major themes and the relevant details (see Figure 1.1 in Chapter 1). In doing so, they learn to prioritize, to sift and sort information, and to “unclog the funnel” (see Figure 1.2 in Chapter 1) so that they can be productive and successful in school and in life.

Guilford Publications 72 Spring Street New York, NY 10012 212-431-9800 800-365-7006 www.guilford.com

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Overcoming Math Anxiety with Executive Function Strategies Joan Steinberg, M.Ed. Director of Educational Therapy and Educational Specialist, ResearchILD Overview As STEM careers become ever-more prevalent, the many students who struggle with math, as well as those who suffer from math anxiety, find it difficult to compete. Recent research on math anxiety, or “math phobia”, has revealed statistics indicating that at least 17% of students experience high levels of math anxiety. A cycle is often created where struggles with math lead to math anxiety, which then leads to avoidance and further struggles. Math anxiety can interfere with executive function processes that are important to successful calculation and problem-solving; weaknesses in these EF processes can also contribute to math anxiety. This session will explore these cycles and will make recommendations for reducing math anxiety through improved executive function processes and a more supportive classroom culture. References Boaler, J., and Dweck, C. (2016) Mathematical Mindsets: Unleashing Students' Potential through Creative Math, Inspiring Messages, and Innovative Teaching. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; a Wiley Brand. Bull, R. and Lee, K. “Executive Functioning and Mathematics Achievement.” Child Development Perspectives. Volume 8, Number 1, 2014, p. 36-41 Burma, Marcay, and Mary Ann Schroeder. Math in Bloom: Multiplication/Division: An Alternate Math Curriculum Enhanced by Bloom’s Taxonomy. Linguisystems, Inc., 1989. Cragg, L. and Gilmore, C. “Skills underlying mathematics: The role of executive function in the development of mathematics proficiency.” Trends in Neuroscience and Education 3 (2014) 63-68. Dawson, P. and Guare, R. (2012). Coaching Students with Executive Skills Deficits. New York. Guilford Press Dweck, C. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York, NY: Ballentine Books.

Ehibudu, Ernest, et al. “Effectiveness of Cognitive Restructuring in the Management of Mathophobia Among Secondary School Students in Khana L.G.A. of Rivers State, Nigeria .” European Scientific Journal, vol. 13, no. 32, Nov. 2017, pp. 260–270., doi:10.19044/esj.2017. Ehmke, Rachel, and Child Mind Institute. “How to Help Kids With Math Anxiety.” Child Mind Institute, childmind.org/article/help-kids-with-math-anxiety/. Fuchs, L.S. and Fuchs, D. (2007). Mathematical problem solving. In D. Birch and M. Mazzacco, Eds. Why is math so hard for some children? The nature and origins of mathematical difficulties and disabilities. (P. 397-414). Baltimore: Brookes. “How to Help Your Students Overcome Math Anxiety.” Blog.schoolspecialty.com, Schoolyard, 3 July 2017, blog.schoolspecialty.com/help-students-overcome-math-anxiety/ Klingberg, Torkel. (2013). The Learning Brain: Memory and Brain Development in Children. New York. Oxford University Press. Krasa, N. and Shunkwiler, S. (2009). Number Sense and Number Nonsense: Understanding the Challenges of Learning Math. Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks Publishing Co. Meltzer, L. (2010). Promoting executive function in the classroom. K.R. Harris & S. Graham (Eds.). New York, NY: The Guildford Press Meltzer, L. (2014). Teaching executive functioning processes: Promoting metacognition, strategy use, and effort. In S. Goldstein & J. Naglieri (Eds.), Handbook in Executive Function (445-473). New York, NY: Springer Science and Business Media. Nisbet, Jordan. “Overcoming Math Anxiety: 12 Evidence-Based Tips That Work.” Prodigy Math Blog, 17 Sept. 2019, www.prodigygame.com/blog/math-anxiety/. Pizzie, R. G., Raman, N., & Kraemer, D. J. M. (in press, 2020) Math anxiety and executive function:Neural influences of task switching on arithmetic processing. Cognitive, Affective and Behavioral Neuroscience. Preprint available online: https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/knc9f Rubenstein, Orly. “Why Do People Get so Anxious about Math? - Orly Rubinsten.” YouTube, YouTube, 27 Mar. 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=7snnRaC4t5c. Steinberg, J. and Roditi, B. (2018). The strategic math classroom: How executive function affects math learning. in Meltzer (Ed). Executive Function in Education, 2nd Edition. NY: Guilford Press. Sokolowski H and Ansari D (2017) Who Is Afraid of Math? What Is Math Anxiety? And What Can You Do About It?. Front. Young Minds. 5:57. doi: 10.3389/frym.2017.00057

Star, J. “It Pays to Compare! Using Comparison to Help Build Students’ Flexibility in Mathematics.” The Center for Comprehensive School Reform and Improvement. www.centerforcsri.org. April 2008. Steedly, K., Dragoo, K., Arefeh, S., & Luck, S. (2012, August 12). Effective mathematics instruction in Evidence for Education (III) I. Retrieved February 4, 2013, from National Dissemination Center for Children With Disabilities website: www. nichcy.org/research/ee/math Tobias, S. (1995). Overcoming math anxiety. W.W. Norton. Warshauer, H.K. (2014) – Productive struggle in middle school math classrooms. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education. 17(4), Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10857-014-9286-3#page-2

Resources Low-bar, High-ceiling Tasks: 1. Meyer, Dan. Math in Three Acts. http://threeacts.mrmeyer.com 2. Fletcher, Graham (Three Act Math and other things) https://gfletchy.com/ 3. Bourassa, Mary, Which one Doesn’t Belong (www.wodb.ca) 4. Desmos and activities through Desmos for high school students (teacher.desmos.com) 5. Numberless word problems: Bushhart, Brian, Teaching to the Beat of a Different Drummer. https://bstockus.wordpress.com/numberless-word-problems/

Apps for tablets/phones 1. Pet Bingo- App for Ipad- untimed game for learning math facts and for computation in general. http://www.duckduckmoose.com/educational-iphone-itouch-apps-for-kids/pet-bingo/ 2. Slice Fractions- NCTM App- fraction concepts, mostly visual and conceptual rather than numbers. Appropriate for primary through middle. https://ululab.com/slice-fractions/ 3. Mathevolve- APP for basic math facts- Space theme. Adjustable time https://www.commonsensemedia.org/app-reviews/math-evolve-a-fun-math-game 4. Set Pro HD- Card game, SET as an app for tablets. 5. Towers of Hanoi for tablets- there are many. One example is Tap Towers- all foster logical thinking and strategy use. 6. Unblock Me- App for tablets- build perseverance. Can adjust levels of difficulty. 7. Math Doodles- Parent’s Choice Award- aims to make math fun. Lots of ability to customize the look of the puzzles. http://www.carstensstudios.com/mathdoodles/mathdoodles.htm

OVERCOMING MATH ANXIETY WITH EXECUTIVE FUNCTION STRATEGIES

Joan Steinberg, M.Ed.

jsteinberg@researchild.org

What is math anxiety / mathophobia?

• “ a state of … panic, helplessness, paralysis, and mental disorganization arising among some people when they are required to solve a mathematical problem.” (Ernest-Ehibudu, et.al., Nigeria

)

• A feeling of tension and anxiety that interferes with the manipulation of numbers and the solving of mathematical problems in a wide variety of ordinary life and academic situations. (Jordan Nisbet at Prodigy)

Penny Circle Problem Dan Meyers: Math in Three Acts Act 1

http://threeacts.mrmeyer.com/pennycircle/ © RESEARCHILD, 2020 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

What does math anxiety look like? Physiological Symptoms • • • • • •

Trembling Clammy hands Increased heart rate / rapid breathing Upset stomach Lightheadedness Hard to think clearly

What does math anxiety look like? Emotional reactions • Panic • Anger • Tears Negative self-talk • I can’t do math – I’m stupid • I’ll never be good at math

https://www.instagram.com/drsefadundar/

Functional MRI Results Sokolowski and Ansari, 2017 Researchers asked a group of 7- to 9-year-old children with and without math anxiety to do some math problems while they were in a device called a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The areas of the brain that were activated differed depending on the students’ level of math anxiety. • Areas of the brain that deal with working memory and mathematical processing were less activated • The Amygdala- area, is a small almond-shaped structure in the lower middle part of the brain important for experiencing and processing emotions, including fear and anxiety, was more activated © RESEARCHILD, 2020 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

https://kids.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/frym.2017.00057# ref5a

What are the effects of math anxiety? Avoidance • Skipping class • Not completing homework • Taking fewer elective math classes, remedial courses, or no math at all Low Achievement • Receive lower math grades than low-anxiety peers

https://www.prodigygame.com/blog/math-anxiety/ © RESEARCHILD, 2020 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

How prevalent is math anxiety? • In the US – about 93% of adult Americans experience some level of math anxiety – about 17% experience high math anxiety From Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment as reported in Nisbet, 2019

Math Anxiety Questionnaire 1

. Do you cringe when you have to go to math class?

2. Do you get uneasy about going to the board in a math class? 3 . Do you understand math now, but worry that it will get really difficu 4. Do you tend to zone out in math class? 5 . Do you fear math tests more than any other kind? Ellen Freedman as reported by Nisbet, 2019 © RESEARCHILD, 2020 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Math Anxiety Questionnaire 6. Do you know how to study for math tests? 7 . Do you understand math in class, but forget it all when you get hom 8. Are you afraid to ask questions in math class? 9. Are you worried about being called on in math class? 10. Are you afraid you won’t be able to keep up with the rest of the cla

Ellen Freedman as reported by Nisbet, 2019 © RESEARCHILD, 2020 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

What triggers your math anxiety? • Increased demand on working memory and executive function processes in general (Pizzie et. Al). • Fear of making mistakes- there is often only one right answer. • Parents’ negative comments about their own experiences with math. • Teachers’ attitude toward math or comments about their own negative math experiences (Prodigy). • Teaching strategies that do not match the students learning style. • The fact that students are told most important careers involve excelling in math, and that success in math is rare (Ehmke). © RESEARCHILD, 2020 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Which executive function processes are especially impacted by math anxiety?

Working memory Flexible thinking / Shifting

Working Memory Short Term Memory

Working Memory

The temporary storage of information in memory

The ability to hold and manipulate this information

Digit span

Digits backward

Two Types of Working Memory

JiJi and ST Math

Working memory is fragile

A few seconds duration Easily disrupted Then the memory is gone

What we have learned… Working memory capacity increases throughout childhood and into the teen years. At any given age, there is enormous individual variation in working memory. Torkel Klingberg, MD, Ph.D. The Learning Brain

Working memory stressors Multi-digit multiplication Long division Operations with fractions Word problems!

Compounding Factors • Slow processing speed makes it more likely that thoughts will decay. • Numbers that sound alike (13 and 30) or look alike (6 and 9) may blur in memory. • Word problems that front-load the numbers and save the question for last are difficult to remember

What Can Teachers Do? • Present information in multiple modalities • Combining modalities strengthens working memory and enhances transfer

Push for basic facts mastery in elementary school

Once students understand the concept, teach memory strategies for facts and procedures • Rhymes, stories, crazy phrases • Visual representations • Visual-kinesthetic strategies

Verbal Strategies “Sounds like”: Chicks, chicks, dirty chicks! (6 x 6 = 36) I ate and I ate (8 x 8) ‘til I fell on the floor. Couldn’t get up ‘til I was 64!

Visual-Kinesthetic 7x7 Made out of lines Bend them around To get 49. 6 + 6 or 2x6 = the egg carton fact! Or the “dozen fact.”

Make it multisensory Visual

Kinesthetic

4*6 I’m hatching baby chicks If I keep them off the floor I’ll have 24

Cotton balls for chicks Construction paper beaks Have students make them and arrange in an array

Strategy cards- fact on one side, array of chicks on the reverse.

From Math In Bloom – oldie but goodie!

Technology Computer Software

Ipad Apps Math Evolve Pet Bingo

Reflex Math www.reflexmath.com

Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve from Torkel Klingberg, MD, Ph.D, The Learning Brain

Require students to show their work. Explain why this is important Offer Options: white board/markers- take a picture

Make it count!

Flexible Thinking - Shifting

Shifting and Flexible Thinking in Math Shift flexibly between operations Shift from one strategy to another Shift from the ‘big picture’ estimate to the details Shift from details to larger trends (graphs, tables, and charts) © RESEARCHILD, 2020 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Shift from the language in word problems to the numbers, operations, algorithms, and equations needed to solve them. Translate into a mathematical statement: “a is five less than b” Many students incorrectly wrote: a = 5 - b

Shifting and Flexible Thinking in Math “Being flexible means knowing a variety of ways to solve problems and

being able to apply these methods adaptively on a wide range of problems.” Jon R. Star, Ph.D. Assistant Professor Harvard Graduate School of Education

Inflexible math students may… Use inefficient strategies. Misread operation signs. Insist on incorrect procedures. Get stuck and give up

Why is Flexibility Important? Flexible knowledge supports transfer! “Students who know more than one method for solving a particular

class of problems are likely to be more successful when faced with unfamiliar problems; if they forget one method, they have alternative strategies that they can fall back on.” Jon R. Star, Ph.D. Assistant Professor Harvard Graduate School of Education

What Can Teachers Do? Use multiple representations to model concepts • Multiple Representations Promote Flexible Thinking • Virtual Manipulatives (Smart Board) • Explore Learning.com (Gizmos)

Multiple Ways to Represent Fractions

Many ways to represent integers

Schedule time for Strategy Sharing

Make Strategy Boards

Encourage an Expectation of Success • • • •

Low Bar, High Ceiling tasks Twist at a time Homework Jump Start Mild, Medium, Spicy

Low bar, high ceiling tasks

Graham Fletcher- 3-Act Math: The Whopper Jar

https://gfletchy.com/the-whopper-jar/ © RESEARCHILD, 2020 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Low bar, high ceiling task: Which One Doesn’t Belong

Which One Doesn’t‘ Belong, Mary Bourassa. www.wodb.ca © RESEARCHILD, 2020 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Compare and Contrast “There is evidence that students who see worked examples side by side, with prompts to compare and contrast the examples, become better problem solvers and develop greater flexibility than students who see the examples listed one at a time (RittleJohnson & Star, 2007).” Jon R. Star, Ph.D. Harvard Graduate School of Education

Apps for Flexible Thinking

Towers of Hanoi

TanZen

Unblock Me

Strategies to reduce math anxiety • Foster a growth mindset (Carol Dweck, etc) • Build “struggle muscle” • Use cognitive restructuring (Ernest-Ehibudu) reframing negative thoughts “All of my students were caught in a downward spiral of "I'm not good at this and it's not worth trying." To help them I had to reverse that. "This stuff isn't intuitive to me so I have to work a bit harder than some people so I can be good with it.“ (Lane Walker, NCTM participant and math teacher) © RESEARCHILD, 2020 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Strategies to reduce math anxiety • Stop using timed tests/drills- allow enough wait time • Allow students to use reference sheets for tests • Allow students to earn points back

Strategies to reduce math anxiety

• Let students draw, write or walk before taking a test • Stay in the student’s ZPD

Zone of Proximal Development The distance between the individual’s actual and potential development level Level of challenge

potential developmental level

Scaffolding occurs through the support of the ‘more knowing other’

nt me lop ve e d al im ox actual developmental level pr f o ne Zo Level of competence

Source: Vygotsky, 1978 © RESEARCHILD, 2020 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Strategies to reduce math anxiety • Have students work together to solve problems • Provide strategies for organizing math information through strategy notebooks and math problem solving templates

1-2-3 Penny Problem “Drop an Anchor” 1. List everything you know about the problem Circles Radius Diameters 2. What math do you know that may be related? Area formula Area = π(r)2 3. What information would be helpful to have? Diameter of the big circle Area of a penny

“Triple Note Tote” (SMARTS Strategy) Circles Term

Definition

Diameter

The distance across the circle 2x the radius

Radius

The distance from the center of a circle to a point on the circle ½ the diameter

Area

the area of the region enclosed by the circle

Circumference

distance around the circle

Diagram/Formula

The "Math Anxiety Bill of Rights" is printed in the book "Overcoming Math Anxiety" by Sheila Tobias, published by W.W. Norton and Company, and is available at bookstores © RESEARCHILD, 2020 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711 and online through amazon.com

Summing up

Rubenstein, Orly. “Why Do People Get so Anxious about Math? - Orly Rubinsten.” YouTube, YouTube, 27 Mar. 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=7snnRaC4t5c.

12 The Strategic Math Classroom How Executive Function Impacts Math Learning JOAN STEINBERG BETHANY N. RODITI

n an educational era that emphasizes problem solving and meaningful instruction, there has been a significant increase in the number of tasks that require students to initiate, plan, remember, organize, prioritize, shift, and check their work. These executive function (EF) processes are important for effective learning in the math classroom, and they do not come naturally to many math students who struggle with learning and attention difficulties (Agostino, Johnson, & PascualLeone, 2010; Bull & Scerif, 2001; Cragg & Gillmore, 2015; Fuchs et al., 2005; Geary, 2004; Mazzocco & Myers, 2003; Meltzer et al., 2006; Yeniad, Malda, Mesman, van IJzendoorn, & Pieper, 2013). EF difficulties manifest themselves in various ways. Some students may have difficulty coming to class prepared, completing and passing in homework, and taking organized notes. Others struggle to remember facts and procedures, study efficiently, and perform well on tests. Further, many of these students often lack math skills and strategies as well as the motivation and confidence needed for success in the mathematics classroom. Providing students with systematic and strategic instruction, and teaching them how to utilize accommodations effectively in 300

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the classroom, are essential to enabling them to succeed in math and to become less anxious and more confident math learners. In this chapter, we discuss the impact of executive function and dysfunction in the mathematics classroom, with a particular focus on students with learning differences and attention problems.

TRENDS IN MATH TEACHING Throughout the decades, theoreticians and educators have engaged in an ongoing debate about how to best teach math. The pendulum shifts back and forth from teaching by rote to teaching meaningful problem solving. Since not all math students learn in the same way, an approach that works for one subset of students does not work for all students. Teaching styles have changed to address the new math curriculum trends, but these new approaches do not necessarily accommodate specific learning styles. There are students who benefit from learning by rote and gradually, over time, they begin to understand the meaning behind the formulas. Others learn best with an emphasis on meaningful problem solving, but they require explicit teaching and strategy instruction instead of a purely constructivist model, as they cannot independently generate the structures, templates, and self-regulation strategies they need to learn effectively in the math classroom (Gersten et al., 2009; Miller & Mercer, 1997; Montague, Warger, & Morgan, 2000). A number of studies have shown that curricula and methods of instruction can have a significant impact on the math performance of students with learning disabilities and attention problems (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2007, Gersten et al., 2009; Lewis, 2014; Strickland, & Maccini, 2012). During the 1960s and 1970s, when math curricula reflected a rote instructional paradigm, teachers provided math rules, algorithms, and step-by-step procedures using direct instruction. They often stood up in front of the class, lecturing and writing the steps for math problem solving on the board. They assigned worksheets for homework and, the following day, reviewed the homework with the class, problem by problem. Teachers collected homework, graded it, and wrote comments on each student’s paper. The teachers developed their own tests that mimicked the skills and strategies that they taught directly in class. In these traditional math classrooms, the teachers acted as the “executives,” providing math instruction in a structured, systematic way within highly organized classroom environments. Therefore, it is not surprising that students were not identified as having executive function difficulties at that time. In 2000, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) composed new national standards for the mathematics curriculum that

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embodied a blend of rote and meaningful instructional approaches in math (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000). Students were expected to be “reasonably computationally fluent” (Russell, 2000), and, at the same time, they were expected to learn how to apply these computational skills to solve higher-level mathematical problems. The Common Core Standards Initiative, launched in 2009, has continued this trend in math teaching. Since then, students often enter math classrooms that utilize a constructivist paradigm of instruction and rely on cooperative learning groups. In addition to focusing on meaningful problem solving, students are asked to discover theorems, make and prove conjectures, and figure out solutions to complex problems without the direct instruction of rules, formulas, and step-by-step approaches. This methodology, when supported by guided instruction and thoughtful teacher prompts, can be extremely effective for many math students. However, observations based on teaching and clinical experience confirm that students can become overwhelmed and anxious because they do not learn well in such an open-ended manner; rather they learn best via direct strategy math instruction (Al-Makahleh, 2011; Jayanthi, Gersten, & Baker, 2008). Currently, within this constructivist paradigm, students who struggle with executive function processes are more vulnerable than others to experiencing difficulty in discovering their own mathematical conjectures as well as remembering and internalizing all the steps necessary for meaningful problem solving. These students have difficulty organizing knowledge for themselves because they need scaffolds and templates to help them learn how to learn. If they struggle for too long in the math classroom, they begin to develop “learned helplessness” (Diener & Dweck, 1978) and no longer have the motivation to engage in learning mathematics. That is, they no longer have what Moran and Gardner describe as the “will” or “skill” to go up the “hill” (Moran & Gardner, Chapter 2, this volume). For many of our students, constructivist approaches to instruction can exacerbate math anxiety and may not promote the development of a “growth mindset” (Dweck, 2006; Allen, 2016). Therefore, a major challenge facing math teachers today is how to help math students adopt a “can-do” attitude. Teachers can instill confidence by creating an open structure for meaningful problem solving and, at the same time, providing the systematic strategies and scaffolds necessary for those who struggle with EF processes in the math classroom.

MEANINGFUL MATH PROBLEM SOLVING Historically, math problem solving involves a four-step approach (Pólya, 1957):

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• Understanding the problem • Organizing a plan • Operationalizing the plan • Reflecting on the product and the process In the 1950s, the mathematician George Pólya articulated a system that incorporates metacognition with multisensory approaches and strategies for math problem solving. The challenge for the teacher is how to make these problem-solving steps explicit for students who have difficulty with the metacognitive processes that are critical for effective math problem solving (Gersten et al., 2009; Kaufman & von Aster, 2012; Meltzer et al., 2006; Montague et al., 2000). These students need to be taught the underlying concepts and structures of math problems (Xin, Jitendra, & Deatline-Buchman, 2005), and they need explicit “road maps” for the process of solving word problems from the initial conceptualization to the solution. Math word problems are particularly difficult for students with executive function weaknesses. When students are presented with word problems to solve, they must first read and understand what the problem is asking. They then have to make a plan and select a strategy, such as a list, table, or chart, to help them organize and solve the problem. They must also translate the words into meaningful numbers and operations, determine the relevant information, hold words and numbers in working memory, control their impulsivity and self-monitor for accuracy and feasibility, and shift to a different strategy if they discover errors. After solving word problems, teachers often require them to communicate their answers and the process they have used for problem solving and to reflect on whether or not their solutions make sense. Students with weaknesses in EF processes, math-learning difficulties, and/or attention problems often struggle with the input, organization, and output of new knowledge and skills. Much of their success in these areas is dependent on how the information is presented and how they are asked to show what they know when learning complex quantitative concepts and solving higher-level math problems. Many of these students benefit from direct, explicit math instruction on how to solve problems using rules, schemas, and strategies (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2005; Gersten et al., 2009; Hanover Research, 2014; Meltzer et al., 2006; Montague et al., 2000; Xin et al., 2005).

MATH STRATEGIES THAT ADDRESS EF The executive processes of remembering, organizing, prioritizing, shifting, and checking are all essential to higher-level math success (Meltzer

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et al., 2006). The following sections discuss these processes as they apply to teaching and learning mathematics. Though several studies have cited the effectiveness of strategy and schema-based instruction in mathematics (Gersten, 2009; Kaufman & von Aster, 2012; Burns, 2007; Harris & Graham, 1992; Montague et al., 2000; Xin et al., 2005), teachers face the challenge of developing ways to translate theory into practice in their math classrooms. Math strategies can be taught explicitly as students follow various pathways of math problem solving from beginning to end. Incorporating math strategies, scaffolds, and schemas into the problem-solving process utilizes a step-by-step approach, employs a metacognitive approach, and requires systematic documentation. This direct strategy instruction along with documentation helps students with EF weaknesses to apply strategies with teacher modeling and assistance, to internalize strategies gradually and ultimately to use strategies independently. Though teachers can provide a menu of multisensory strategies to the entire math class, they may have to make accommodations for students with executive function weaknesses. These students may need individual assistance in choosing the strategies that match their learning styles and that address specific types of math problems. Further, they need direct instruction to learn how to record the strategies in a usable form in their math strategy notebooks (Roditi & Steinberg, 2006).

REMEMBERING STRATEGIES Several studies have linked math performance with executive function skills, in particular with working memory weaknesses (Agostino et al., 2010; Bull & Scerif, 2001; Geary, 1990; Miyake et al., 2000). Students with weak working memories have difficulty remembering and manipulating math facts and procedures while they are solving higher-level math problems. Many students also experience math difficulties because they cannot easily store and retrieve arithmetic facts from long-term memory (Garnett & Fleischner, 1983; Geary, Harrison, & Hoard, 2000; Gersten et al., 2009; Jordan & Montani, 1997; Ostad, 1997). Remembering strategies are important for automatic recall of math facts, and it is important to select strategies that match each student’s learning profile. Some students benefit from learning a verbal strategy, and others rely on visual or hands-on strategies. For students with weaknesses, it is important both to practice the strategy and to record it in their math strategy notebooks. Students can use these notebooks to record personalized math strategies in order to remember key math facts, procedures, and problem-solving methods (Roditi & Steinberg, 2006).

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Memory strategies are especially critical for students with EF difficulties, who tend to become overwhelmed by numerous details and who have difficulty memorizing the order of operations, formulas, rules, and the overall steps in the problem-solving process. Checklists, acronyms, and templates are examples of memory strategies that are particularly helpful for bypassing their learning and attention problems. Examples of multisensory memory strategies are described below.

Verbal Strategies Verbal strategies, while helpful to all students, are essential for students with EF weaknesses, who often do not know where to begin in terms of solving math problems. Providing students with acronyms or verbal strategies such as RAPS helps them know where to start and to remember the important steps for problem solving that can make a major difference in their performance and result in success (see Figure 12.1).

Visual Strategies Combining visual strategies with verbal strategies can enhance conceptual understanding, attention, and memory. Further, when students record a personalized strategy in a math strategy notebook and are encouraged to refer to their notebooks when they are doing homework or even taking tests, the strategy is reinforced visually, can be used for future reference, and helps them bypass long-term memory problems. One visual model for remembering multiplication facts is the Name Date

R ead and Rephrase

A rt

P lan and Predict

S olve

FIGURE 12.1. Acronym: Road map for math problem solving.

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“stoplight strategy” (Schroeder & Washington, 1989). In Figure 12.2, a picture of a stoplight is used for the 3 times table. The red light conveys the facts 3 × 1 = 3, 3 × 2 = 6, 3 × 3 = 9. Students are told that these facts are for younger children, who are “stopped” from doing particular activities and have more limits than older children. The yellow light facts, 3 × 4 = 12, 3 × 5 = 15, and 3 × 6 = 18, are the “teen facts.” Teenagers have more permission than younger children but are still encouraged to slow down. Finally, the “green facts,” 3 × 7 = 21, 3 × 8 = 24, and 3 × 9 = 27, are for adults in their 20s who have a green light and rely on their own judgment. In a graphical way, students learn to group the red facts, yellow facts, and green facts and can reduce the burden on their long-term memory by linking the fact to prerequisite knowledge relating to life experience in the form of a story and color.

Hands-On Strategies Many students benefit from strategies that are hands-on as well as visual and verbal. One strategy for remembering 7 × 7 = 49 is both visual and hands-on (see Figure 12.3). Students bend pipe cleaners, changing the two 7’s into a 4 and a 9, rather than drawing the numbers or arrays in their notebooks (Schroeder & Washington, 1989). In summary, multisensory memory strategies—verbal, visual, and hands-on—can help students with executive function difficulties and

FIGURE 12.2. Stoplight—Visual remembering strategy for 3× table.

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FIGURE 12.3. Hands-on remembering strategy using pipe cleaners.

can be easily incorporated into the math classroom (Rosenshine, 2012; Hott, Isbell, & Montani, 2014). One critical component is for students to document the specific strategies that they find useful in a math strategy notebook. By doing so, they compensate for weaknesses in working memory, long-term memory, and automatic retrieval, processes that are essential when solving math problems. Over time, students develop and internalize their own strategies, which become their habits of problem solving through guided practice, repetition, and consistent strategy use.

ORGANIZING STRATEGIES Students who struggle with executive function processes often become so overwhelmed that they cannot organize the important information necessary to solve math problems. These students with weak organizational skills, math learning disabilities, and/or attention problems need road maps, direct strategy instruction, and guided practice to ensure effective strategy use (Gersten et al., 2009; Miller & Mercer, 1997; Swanson, 2001). They need direct strategy instruction to help them learn how to differentiate relevant and irrelevant information so that they can organize the information, enabling them to initiate the problem-solving process. They often do not know how to begin to solve a math problem, resulting in impulsive and inaccurate attempts that may mislead teachers

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and parents into thinking that students lack motivation to learn. It is not that they choose not to pay attention to learning, but that they cannot learn in the way the information is presented; thus, their output is minimal. When they embark on their problem-solving journey to find a solution to math problems, they need road maps to plan and organize their route. The math strategy notebook becomes a critical tool that assists them with organizing key information and reminds them of usable math strategies that can assist in the problem-solving process.

Using Lists, Charts, and Tables Vocabulary lists, charts, and tables recorded in a math strategy notebook assist students to analyze the language of math problems and to organize the problem-solving process. Verbal cues in the strategy notebook help them understand what a problem is asking (see Table 12.1). Once the information is organized in this way, they can begin to shift from words to numbers, from planning to problem solving.

Three-Column Note Taking The math application of Triple Note Tote, a method of three-column note taking, is an extremely helpful organizing strategy (Meltzer, Stacey, Kurkul, Greschler, & Snow, 2014). Because students with executive function weaknesses often have difficulty distinguishing relevant from irrelevant information, they feel barraged with massive amounts of detail in which they cannot find usable information (Krishanan & Feller, 2010). Three-column note taking is a powerful organizational tool if students are taught how to create the template, how to embed their own words into the definitions and rules, and how to use it as a study tool. Students may benefit from recording details about the use of a given strategy in their strategy notebooks. Below are examples (see Figures 12.4 and 12.5).

TABLE 12.1. Translating Words into Mathematical Operations Addition

Subtraction

Multiplication

Division

All together

Take away

Each has

Total

Less than

The group

Dealing cards

In all

Lost

All together

Each one has?

Got more

How much left?

Getting bigger

Getting smaller

Sum

Difference

Product

Quotient

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FIGURE 12.4. Triple Note Tote: fraction, decimal, percent.

COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY STRATEGIES Problem solving requires students to shift their thinking from one numerical representation to another and, at the same time, retain the meaning of the numbers as they relate to the specific problem. Thus, students must shift flexibly from words to numbers, specifically from letters, words, and sentences in word problems to numbers, operations, algorithms, and equations. Math students with EF weaknesses that negatively affect inhibition and working memory find it difficult to shift Term

Definition

Diameter

The distance across the circle 2x the radius

Radius

The distance from the center of a circle to a point on the circle ½ the diameter

Area

The area of the region enclosed by the circle

Circumference

The distance around the circle

Diagram/Formula

FIGURE 12.5. Triple Note Tote: geometry.

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sets flexibly and to preserve the meaning of the number representations as they problem-solve (Bull & Scerif, 2001; Meltzer, 2014, Miyake et al., 2000). Math instruction needs to ensure that students can switch sets while they construct, connect, decipher, and communicate their multiple representations of mathematical ideas (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000). They need to learn when and how to shift from one problem-solving strategy to another to find accurate and meaningful solutions. If one approach does not lead to a meaningful solution, then shifting to another approach is warranted, a shift that is often very difficult for those who think more rigidly. Shifting strategies can emphasize real-life experiences, math talk, drawing pictures and diagrams, math-based schemas, and other representations. Below are some examples.

Shifting Representations Students begin their study of integers by establishing connections with known concepts. Some students, particularly those living in colder climates, connect to their knowledge of winter temperatures as “below zero.” Others use the analogy of money, with earned money represented by positive numbers and spent or lost money represented by negative numbers. Students well versed in sports may envision a football field, where one gains and loses yards. Some students with math learning disabilities and EF difficulties benefit from thinking about one analogy and using it consistently in order to sustain focus on the relevant concept while they engage in the problem-solving process. In addition to real-life models, many students with math difficulties benefit from the opportunity to use multiple representations to model integers. For example, some may use the traditional number line for adding and subtracting integers, others respond better to a vertical number line, some rely on rules with examples, and still others may want to use number chips to calculate with integers (see Figure 12.6). Choosing a model and sticking with it is one way that students can connect meaning to number and begin to approach math problems with a plan and a strategy. By thinking about how rational numbers relate to their experience, such as sharing brownies or chocolate bars, the concept of rational numbers comes alive. Students with weak EF need to refer to these real-life models more frequently than their peers, and they also need strategy sheets in their math strategy notebooks that describe the stepby-step processes for computing with fractions and other rational numbers.

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FIGURE 12.6. Multiple representations of addition of integers.

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PRIORITIZING STRATEGIES Many students with math learning disabilities have difficulty prioritizing and selecting the appropriate strategies for problem solving, especially those students who struggle with executive function processes (Meltzer, 2014; Steele, 2004). They become overwhelmed and often do not know where to begin. They are confused by the sequence of steps they need to follow in the problem-solving process and by the symbolism linked to solving the math problem. Since these students are often not systematic, step-by-step approaches that include visual templates and schemas that link to the mathematical concept are very effective and easy to incorporate into the classroom. Figure 12.7 is a template for graphing a linear equation. Since students often do not know what information is important and where to begin when they are presented with an algebraic equation to graph, they benefit from templates or a routine of steps to follow (Xin et al., 2005). For example, templates help students organize the steps involved in understanding and graphing the algebraic equation for a straight line, that is, y = mx + b. The fi rst step is to identify the type of figure they are graphing. They can then match the presented equation with the line or the y = mx + b template. The second step is to fi nd the m or the slope, the b or the y-intercept, and identify the point (0, b) to graph. By using the template, students can remember the routine, prioritize the information, and follow the procedural steps necessary to graph the line. The structure gives them a map to follow.

TEMPLATE or SCHEMA

Slope Intercept

Y= mx + b Y= -3x + 2 m= b=

(o,b) = (0, ___) Graph

Slope Formula

m = y2 - y 1

__________

x 2 - x1

FIGURE 12.7. Template for graphing a linear equation.

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Drop an Anchor Students who struggle to prioritize information benefit from math instruction that focuses on one major concept and set of procedures that can be applied to variations of the problem. For example, the linear equation template described above can be applied to any basic linear equation; then, teachers can provide scaffolds to increase the difficulty of problems systematically. The key to initiating the task of graphing a linear equation is first to “Drop an Anchor.” Drop an Anchor is a prioritizing strategy that helps students to know what to do first when faced with complex problems. Students “anchor” themselves by recalling known concepts and schemas that relate to the given problem—in this case, the linear equation template. After the students read the problem, they can anchor themselves first by identifying the type of problem, then select and use the particular schema that represents its mathematics. The next step is to shift from the schema to the mathematical equation that represents the problem, then solve it, and check the answer. Drop an Anchor is a particularly useful strategy for many types of word problems, which are often confusing for students. A common type of problem, introduced in elementary school but continued through algebra, can be anchored using the formula Distance = Rate*Time (d = rt), along with a template, in this case a grid. Here is one example of this kind of problem: Word Problem: At 9 a.m., Anna began a journey to Orlando from her house traveling at 40 mph. At 10 a.m. Malcolm, her brother, started traveling from the same point at 60 mph in the same direction as Anna. At what time will Malcolm pass Anna? (See Figure 12.8 on p. 314).

Red-Flag Strategy This is a strategy for prioritizing on a test to avoid spending too long on a difficult question. Students mark the hard question with a question mark or “red flag” and return to the red-flag questions after they have completed the rest of the test (Research Institute of Learning and Development & FableVision, 2005).

SELF-REGULATION AND CHECKING STRATEGIES In studies that have focused on children’s mathematical skills in relation to executive function students’ difficulties with inhibition and working memory often result in problems for them with shifting, monitoring, and evaluating strategies for a given task (Bull & Scerif, 2001; Meltzer,

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1. List everything you know about the problem a. Malcolm leaves one hour after Anna- travels 1 less hour b. Malcolm‛s rate is 60. Anna‛s is 40 2. What math do you know that may be related? a. Anchor with formula: D=rt or Rate * Time =distance 3. What information would be helpful to have? a. Equations for Malcolm and Anna Rate Template

Time

= Distance

Malcolm

t-1

60(t-1)

Anna

40t

Since the distances are equal, the equa�on 60(t-1) = 40t models this problem. Solve for t to ﬁnd the �me.

FIGURE 12.8. Drop an Anchor example.

2010; Miyake et al., 2000). In order to learn mathematics and perform well on math tests, students need to attend, self-monitor, self-reflect, and self-regulate, and these actions are often compromised when there is a concomitant math learning disability and/or attention problem (GrossTsur, Manor, & Shalev, 1996). Therefore, math strategy instruction that focuses on checking is critical. Although many of these students are eligible for the accommodation of extended time on tests, they often do not know how to make efficient use of that time, and they lack the strategies first to identify and then to self-correct their errors. Checking strategies help focus their attention strategically to self-monitor and self-correct their errors. For these students, this level of reflecting back does not come easily. They need to check their answer to see if it makes sense, but they also have to reexamine their process in a systematic way. Below is an example of a checking strategy that helps students with difficulties. Direct strategy instruction regarding how to check their work can enhance their math performance, resulting in success and increased motivation, which lead to more positive engagement, effort, and persistence (Montague, 2007).

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Top Three Hits In preparation for teaching a checking strategy, teachers must help students search for their individual patterns of test errors. Once the teacher helps students identify their most common errors, they can create a checklist or chart of typical errors together. Students then have to learn how to correct these errors. Teachers can have peers check each other’s work to identify error patterns or they can ask special education teachers to assist. Once the most common errors have been identified, a checklist of the main three error types can be created. Students are advised to write their Top Three Hits, the three errors that they typically make, on the top of their test before they begin taking it (see Figure 12.9). This action often helps them catch themselves before they are about to make a typical error.

Test-Taker to Test-Checker Many students benefit from differentiating the process of test taking from the process of checking for errors. Students are encouraged initially to take the test with one color of pen or pencil. When they have completed their first attempt at taking the test, they are taught to switch pens or pencils and start the test all over again but, this time, thinking about checking for their typical errors. Some students actually write their Top Three Hits, or typical errors, on the top of the test page before they begin the checking process. They resume reviewing the test, searching for the error types that they typically make. By switching pens, they

FIGURE 12.9. Top Three Hits strategy.

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are symbolically making a cognitive shift from test taker to test checker, often resulting in more accurate solutions and higher grades that better reflect their mathematical knowledge. Teachers can offer credit for using the strategy. By making it “count,” there is more incentive for students to value and to integrate the use of this strategy into their everyday work. At the end of a session where students are working independently, it is important for the teacher to gather the students and encourage them to self-reflect. How did you go about solving the problem? What resources did you use? What made the struggle easier for you? How do you feel about the outcome? Self-reflection and self-monitoring are important aspects of EF that help students develop metacognitive awareness, and along with it, the ability to problem-solve independently. In summary, the executive function processes, including memorizing, organization, prioritizing, shifting, and self-checking, are key elements in a student’s ability to acquire knowledge of math concepts and processes (Meltzer et al., 2006). Often, educators assume that students can learn these processes on their own. However, students, particularly those with attention and learning difficulties, need direct strategy instruction in order to learn these processes well enough to succeed in the math classroom. An awareness of the impact of executive function on math learning can help teachers realize the benefit of teaching students strategically, in order to increase their chances of accessing the math curriculum. Many students who have not had the opportunity to learn these strategies experience continual frustration that results in math anxiety.

THE IMPACT OF ANXIETY ON MATH LEARNING Students of all ages who struggle with math often suffer from math anxiety or math trauma after years of failure and embarrassment in the math classroom (Boaler, 2016; Boaler & Dweck, 2016). Just the anticipation of math is extremely difficult for them. Math anxiety or math trauma can interfere with some aspects of executive function, such as initiating tasks, remembering, organizing, prioritizing, shifting flexibly, and checking. There is a cyclical relationship between working memory and anxiety, meaning that anxiety itself limits working memory capacity, and a deficit in working memory tends to create anxiety around tasks, like math, that tap working memory (Ashcraft & Kirk, 2001). In addition, math instruction that relies on group problem solving as opposed to teacher-directed strategy instruction, can exacerbate math anxiety. Many students, especially those whose learning styles do not match current conceptually based teaching methods, report feeling anxious about math. They tend to feel overwhelmed and anxious when they are

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required to complete homework as they do not know where to start, do not have a plan, and cannot prioritize and organize their work. Another factor contributing to math anxiety is instruction that is not within a student’s zone of proximal development, which is the distance between the student’s actual and potential developmental level (Vygotsky, 1978; see Figure 12.10). Instruction that is beyond this zone can be inaccessible for a student and can create stress as the student struggles to connect new knowledge with previously learned information. Math anxiety, like generalized anxiety, can appear in the classroom under different guises. For example, some students with math anxiety look like they are daydreaming in class, as they tend to shut down during math class. Others ask for frequent bathroom breaks during math, and others appear to be “not trying” when, in fact, their apparent lack of effort is due to anxiety. It is important to partner with the student to look beneath the presenting behavior in order to decide what is actually causing it (Tobias, 1993; Davidson & Levitov, 2000). Several classroom strategies can help students overcome math anxiety. Classroom teachers can help students with math anxiety by pairing students with “allies” who are kind and willing to help. Providing consistent classroom routines in math class can help students feel secure. Structuring some classes as “math labs,” where different students can be assigned to different “stations” depending on their learning styles or their levels of competence, allays anxiety because instruction can be

FIGURE 12.10. Zone of proximal development.

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focused within a student’s zone of proximal development. Summarizing class discussions with notes and steps that the students can have in their strategy notebooks will give them concrete tools to use when doing work independently. Newer inquiry-based math tasks designed to have a low bar and a high ceiling may help students build confidence and have a more positive attitude toward math. There are several kinds of low bar, high ceiling tasks. Many of these types of tasks present a novel problem, often in a video format, and ask students for their observations (What do you notice?) and then their questions (What do you wonder?). Putting students in the role of question creator rather than question answerer takes the pressure off the student to arrive at the one correct answer, and, instead, encourages curiosity. One set of materials that encourages curiosity is Dan Meyer’s “Three-Act Math” (http://blog.mrmeyer.com/2011/the-three-acts-of-amathematical-story). Meyer uses the analogy of a play to first present a dilemma to students (Act 1), after which he asks them to come up with a question related to the video, and then to arrive at estimates for the answer. Students are then tasked with determining what information they would need to solve the problem. He provides the necessary information in Act II. Students work collaboratively to solve the problem, and then the “answer” is revealed creatively in an ACT III video. Another model of a low-bar, high-ceiling task, also created by Meyer, relies on developing the students’ curiosity about math by removing much of the content on a workbook page and then asking students to come up with relevant questions, and to use math to model the situation. Many of the strategies that have been introduced in this chapter can also help students avoid math anxiety by helping students prioritize and by providing scaffolds and structure. With “road maps” for problem solving, students can build confidence and lessen anxiety as they work through problems in a step-by-step manner. As they become more comfortable with the problem-solving process, they will no longer need the road map and will begin to internalize the information in a more conceptual way. Beginning with a road map helps address math anxiety and build a routine. Students who tend to be anxious also benefit from a “homework jump start” provided at the end of the school day, so that they can do a few math problems as “guided practice” and have models to follow to complete the rest of the homework as “independent practice.” For students who have diagnosed learning disabilities, attention deficit disorders, and/or anxiety disorders, specific accommodations may help. These include extended time for tests, which may enable students to relax in the knowledge that they will have sufficient time to finish the test, even if they cannot solve problems quickly. In addition, some

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students benefit from completing work in a separate, quiet space, such as in the learning center, instead of in the larger classroom. Other students are allowed to use their strategy notebooks or a reference sheet to help them during the test, which puts less pressure on their working memory. All students, and particularly those who experience math anxiety, need to be encouraged to engage in “productive struggle” or to tackle challenging math problems. Knowing that mistakes are acceptable and working hard through productive struggle is how one learns to move forward to the next level of difficulty. Recent research-based math teaching methods support the value of productive struggle as students more independently build math reasoning by working independently to solve problems (Hiebert & Grows, 2007; Kapur, 2014; Warshauer, 2014). First, teachers need to build a safe math classroom, where students encourage each other, and where mistakes are seen as learning opportunities rather than reasons for criticism. Further, teachers can encourage students to develop their ability to work through challenging math problems in several ways. Students need to feel that difficult problem solving typically takes a lot of time and that uncomfortable feelings are expected when trying to solve a novel or difficult math problem. To encourage students to feel more comfortable with the struggle, the teacher can introduce the students to a playful call and response chant, “No Struggle—No Progress!” Students can be encouraged to think about building their “struggle muscle” through practice, in just the way that they build biceps and triceps. To ensure success, teachers may need to adjust the level of difficulty in the problem for various groups of students. They can remind students about their prerequisite knowledge as well as strategies that have worked for them in similar situations, and refer them to their binders and reference sheets for reminders.

THE STRATEGIC MATH CLASSROOM: CASTING A SAFETY NET FOR STUDENTS WITH WEAK EF Creating a strategic math classroom that incorporates systematic math strategy instruction is beneficial for all students, but it is critical for students with weak executive function, math learning disabilities, attention problems, and math anxiety. These students need teachers who understand how EF affects their learning and who provide strategy-based schemas, templates, checklists, scaffolds, and accommodations to help them learn how to learn math in the classroom. Often students with executive function weaknesses have very strong quantitative abilities that go unrecognized because they may not perform well on tests due to their problems in planning, remembering, organizing, shifting, prioritizing, and checking. They do not necessarily need a rote approach to

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math instruction, but they do need step-by-step approaches for meaningful math problem solving. Math strategy notebooks that are set up in an organized way can be the centerpiece of math strategy instruction (Roditi & Steinberg, 2006, 2007).These notebooks can include sample strategies and schemas, Triple Note Totes, strategy cards, checklists, and templates. Teachers can encourage a strategic mind-set in the classroom in several other ways. Modeling how to take notes in a math strategy notebook is an important first step. Structuring time for students to write down particular rules in their math strategy notebooks is essential. Grading their notebooks to make sure they are using specific strategies helps students value the importance of these strategies. Classroom discourse among students is helpful for encouraging them to value and share strategies that work for them. Strategies they create for themselves generate a “buzz” about strategies in the classroom. When students assimilate strategies into their repertoire, they enthusiastically share them with their peers. Strategy shares can be captured by the teacher on strategyof-the-week bulletin boards. For example, a visually pleasing bulletin board can be created that incorporates multiple strategies for learning a particular math content area. Figure 12.11 shows five different strategies for learning about positive and negative numbers.

FIGURE 12.11. Strategy Board example.

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Strategy labs can be formed in flexible groupings to help students with weak EF learn a particular set of strategies. Some teachers have set up their own websites where they introduce strategies to help students with homework assignments and conduct strategy chats, or online strategy shares. The familiar accommodations often made for students with attention problems also apply to those students with EF weaknesses (i.e., preferential seating, extended time, and discrete ways to help them refocus their behavior).

CONCLUSION In today’s math classrooms, teachers are challenged to meet the diverse needs of their math students. It is important to recognize that purely constructivist approaches do not often meet the needs of all math students, and in particular, those with executive function difficulties. That does not mean that the rigor of the math class needs to be compromised; but rather, for certain students, a more direct, strategic instructional approach is required. Furthermore, many students who are not taught to their learning style can experience high levels of stress and anxiety, and this can interfere with their ability to learn math. Modifying the teaching approach to match the needs of the students can allay anxiety and foster confidence. Teaching strategies directly, utilizing math-based schemas, and providing accommodations in a highly structured but engaging way can provide the scaffolds that students with weak EF, math learning disabilities, and attention problems need in order to learn mathematics. By doing so, math teachers can facilitate successes that will change their students’ self-perceptions. Math students with EF difficulties need no longer perceive themselves as “dumb” or incapable of learning math, but can be empowered with a can-do attitude. Providing direct strategy instruction in terms of not only WHAT math skills and concepts are taught, but also HOW math is taught to match diverse learning profiles is the ultimate challenge in today’s strategic math classrooms. REFERENCES Agostino, A., Johnson, J., & Pascual-Leone, J. (2010). Executive functions underlying multiplicative reasoning: Problem type matters. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 105(4), 286–305. Allen, K. (2016, April). Healing math trauma: What to do when math hurts. Paper presented at the National Council for Teachers of Mathematics Annual Conference, San Francisco, CA. Al-Makahleh, A. A. (2011). The effect of direct instruction strategy on math

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achievement of primary 4th and 5th grade students with learning difficulties. International Education Studies, 4(4), 199–205. Ashcraft, M., & Kirk, E. (2001). The relationships among working memory, math anxiety, and performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 130(2), 224–237. Boaler, J. (2016, April). Mathematical mindsets: How to inspire all students with open math. Paper presented at the National Council for Teachers of Mathematics Annual Conference, San Francisco, CA. Boaler, J., & Dweck, C. (2016). Mathematical mindsets: Unleashing student potential. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Bull, R., & Scerif, G. (2001). Executive functioning as a predictor of children’s mathematics ability: Inhibition, switching, and working memory. Developmental Neuropsychology, 19, 273–293. Burns, M. (2007). Nine ways to catch kids up. Educational Leadership, 65(3), 16–21. Cragg, L., & Gilmore, C. (2014). Skills underlying mathematics: The role of executive function in the development of mathematics proficiency. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 3(2), 63–68. Davidson, R., & Levitov, E. (2000). Overcoming math anxiety. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Diener, C. I., & Dweck, C. S. (1978). An analysis of learned helplessness: Continuous changes in performance, strategy, and achievement cognitions following failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36(5), 451–462. Dweck, C. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York: Ballentine Books. Fuchs, L. S., Compton, D. L., Fuchs, D., Paulsen, K., Bryant, J. D., & Hamlett, C. L. (2005). The prevention, identification, and cognitive determinants of math difficulty. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(3), 493–513. Fuchs, L. S., & Fuchs, D. (2005). Enhancing mathematical problem solving for students with disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 39(1), 45–57. Fuchs, L. S., & Fuchs, D. (2007). Mathematical problem solving. In D. Birch & M. Mazzacco (Eds.), Why is math so hard for some children?: The nature and origins of mathematical difficulties and disabilities (pp. 397–414). Baltimore: Brookes. Garnett, K., & Fleischner, J. E. (1983). Automatization and basic fact performance of normal and learning disabled children. Learning Disability Quarterly, 6, 223–230. Geary, D. C. (1990). A componential analysis of an early learning deficit in mathematics. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 49, 363–383. Geary, D. C. (2004). Mathematics and learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37, 4–15. Geary, D. C., Harrison, C. O., & Hoard, M. K. (2000). Numerical and arithmetical cognition: A longitudinal study of process and concept deficits in children with learning disability. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 77, 236–263. Gersten, R. M. (2009). Assisting students struggling with mathematics:

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Response to intervention (RtI) for elementary and middle schools. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. Available at http://ies.ed.gov/ ncee/wwc/pdf/practice_guides/rti_math_pg_042109.pdf. Gersten, R. M., Chard, D., Jayanthi, M., Baker, S., Morphy, P., & Flojo, J. (2009). Meta-analysis of mathematics intervention for students with learning disabilities: A technical report. Los Alamitos, CA: Instructional Research Group. Gross-Tsur, V., Manor, O., & Shalev, R. S. (1996). Developmental dyscalculia: Prevalence and demographic features. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 38(1), 25–33. Hanover Research/District Administration Practice. (2014, August). Best practices in math intervention. Retrieved from www.mbaea. o rg /doc u m e nt s / f il elib rar y / n u m e ra c y / Be st _ Pra c tic e s _ in _ M ath_ Intervention_53D80FEED7650.pdf. Harris, K. R., & Graham, S. (1992). Helping young writers master the craft: Strategy instruction and self-regulation in the writing process. Cambridge, MA: Brookline. Hiebert, J., & Grouws, D. A. (2007). The effects of classroom mathematics teaching on students’ learning. In F. K. Lester, Jr. (Ed.), Second handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning (pp. 371–404). Charlotte, NC: Information Age. Hott, B., Isbell, L., & Montani, T. (2014). Strategies and interventions to support students with mathematics disabilities. Available at www.council-forlearning-disabilities.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Math_ Disabilities_ Support.pdf. Janyanthi, M., Gersten, R., & Baker, S. (2008). Mathematics instruction for students with learning disabilities or difficulty learning mathematics: A guide for teachers. Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research Corporation, Center on Instruction. Jordan, N. C., & Montani, T. O. (1997) Cognitive arithmetic and problem solving: A comparison of children with specific and general mathematics difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30(6), 624–634. Kapur, M. (2014). Productive failure in learning math. Cognitive Science, 38(5), 1008–1022. Kaufman, L., & von Aster, M. (2012). The diagnosis and management of dyscalculia. Deutsches Arzteblatt International, 109(45), 767–778. Krishnan, K., & Feller, M. (2010) . Organizing: The heart of efficient and successful learning. In L. Meltzer, Promoting executive function in the classroom. New York: Guilford Press. Lewis, K. E. (2014). Difference not deficit: Re-conceptualizing mathematical learning disabilities. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 45(3), 351–396. Mazzocco, M., & Myers, G. (2003). Complexities in identifying and defining mathematics learning disability in the primary school age years. Annals of Dyslexia, 53, 218–253. Meltzer, L. (Ed.). (2010). Promoting executive function in the classroom. New York: Guilford Press.

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Meltzer, L. (2014). Teaching executive functioning processes: Promoting metacognition, strategy use, and effort. In S. Goldstein & J. Naglieri (Eds.), Handbook in executive function (pp. 445–473). New York: Springer. Meltzer, L., Roditi, B., Steinberg, J., Biddle, K. R., Taber, S., Caron, K. B., et al. (2006). Strategies for success: Classroom teaching techniques for students with learning differences (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: PRO-ED. Meltzer, L., Stacey, W., Kurkul, K., Greschler, M., & Snow, E. (2014). SMARTS Executive Function and Mentoring Program. Retrieved from http://smartsef.org. Miller, S. P., & Mercer, C. D. (1997). Educational aspects of mathematical disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30(1), 47–56. Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex frontal lobe tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100. Montague, M. (2007). Self-regulation and mathematics instruction. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 22(1), 75–83. Montague, M., Warger, C., & Morgan, T. (2000). Solve it!: Strategy instruction to improve mathematical problem solving. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 15(2), 110–116. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and standards of mathematics 2000. Reston, VA: Author. Ostad, S.A. (1997). Developmental differences in addition strategies: A comparison of mathematically disabled and mathematically normal children. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 345–357. Pólya, G. (1957). How to solve it. New York: Doubleday. Research Institute for Learning and Development & FableVision. (2005). Braincogs. Watertown, MA: FableVision. Roditi, B., & Steinberg, J. (2006). Math strategy instruction: Assessment for strategic teaching. In L. Meltzer, B. Roditi, J. Steinberg, K. Biddle, S. Taber, K. Caron, et al. (Eds.), Strategies for success (2nd ed., pp. 95–128) Austin, TX: PRO-ED. Roditi, B., & Steinberg, J. (2007). The strategic math classroom: Executive function processes and mathematics learning. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Executive function in education (pp. 237–260). New York: Guilford Press. Rosenshine, B. (2012, Spring). Principles of instruction: Research-based strategies that all teachers should know. American Educator, pp. 12–19. Russell, S. J. (2000). Developing computational fluency with whole numbers in the elementary grades. New England Math Journal, 32(2), 40–54. Schroeder, M. A., & Washington, M. (1989). Math in bloom. East Moline, IL: Linguisystems. (Individual copies available) Steele, M. (2004). A review of literature on mathematics instruction for elementary students with learning disabilities. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 24, 37–60. Strickland, T. K., & Maccini, P. (2012). The effects of the concrete–representational–abstract–integration strategy on the ability of students with

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learning disabilities to multiply linear expressions within area problems. Remedial and Special Education, 34(3), 142–153. Swanson, H. L. (2001). Searching for the best model of instructing students with learning disabilities. Focus on Exceptional Children, 34(2), 1–16. Tobias, S. (1993). Overcoming math anxiety. New York: Norton. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Warshauer, H. K. (2014), Productive struggle in middle school math classrooms. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 17(4). Available at http://link. springer.com/article/10.1007/s10857-014-9286-3#page-2. Xin, Y. P., Jitendra, A. K., & Deatline-Buchman, A. (2005). Effects of mathematical word problem-solving instruction in middle school students with learning problems. Journal of Special Education, 39(3), 181–191. Yeniad, N., Malda, M., Mesman, J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Pieper, S. (2013). Shifting ability predicts math and reading performance in children: A meta-analytical study. Learning and Individual Differences, 23, 1–9. Available at from www.researchgate.net/publication/259199316_ Shifting_ ability_predicts_math_ and_reading_performance_in_children_ A_ meta-analytical_study.

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Resilient Preschools: Opening the Window for Learning in Early Childhood Julie Dunstan, Ph.D. Bermuda Registered Psychologist; Founding Director of reFLEXions (c/o The Reading Clinic) Susannah Cole, M.Ed. Executive Function Coach, Consultant and Speaker; Managing Director of reFLEXions Stephanie Guthman, Ph.D Psychologist, reFLEXions

Overview Given the challenges our children face, schools are increasingly serving as the foundation for fostering resilience in early childhood. Social and Emotional strategies are critical for equipping learners with the tools to work adaptively through the adversity, trauma, threats, challenges and chronic stress that lie in their pathway towards purposeful self-direction. Many early childhood educators are unsure of their role in addressing emotional concerns and where the line is between teacher and counselor. Flexible mindsets are the dynamic and ongoing interactions between self-awareness, adaptive strategy use and perseverance that empower learners to evolve and become self-directed. This session illustrates how components of flexible mindsets can be applied to address social and emotional learning in early childhood, thereby opening the window for learning. We start with the impact of adverse childhood experiences and chronic stress on the brain and learning. The key question we answer is "What can we do to build resilience in early childhood?" Participants will learn about the intentional use of self for building trusting relationships with children. Some concrete strategies will also be presented that can assist young children with becoming aware of and regulating their emotions. Ultimately, a resilient preschool sets children up to be emotionally ready to take charge of their learning and brave the challenges that lie ahead.

References Ablon, J. S., & Pollastri, A. R. (2018). The school discipline fix: Changing behavior using the collaborative problem solving approach. W. W. Norton & Company. Bierman, K. L., & Torres, M. (2016). Promoting the development of executive functions through early education and prevention programs. In J. A. Griffin, P. McCardle, & L. S. Freund (Eds.), Executive function in preschool-age children: Integrating measurement, neurodevelopment, and translational research (pp. 299-326). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association. Bloom, S. L. (1997). Creating sanctuary: Toward the evolution of sane societies. New York, NY: Routledge. Brackett, M. (2019). Permission to Feel. London, UK: Quercus Publishing. Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University. (2011). Building the brain’s “air traffic control” system: How early experiences shape the development of executive function (Working Paper No. 11). Cambridge, MA: Author. Cole, S. (2022). Curiosity: A key driver of a Flexible Mindset: Encouraging students to delve deeper in thinking. Teachers Matter Magazine (55), 16-17. Diamond, A. (2016). Why improving and assessing executive functions early in life is critical. In J. A. Griffin, P. McCardle, & L. S. Freund (Eds.), Executive function in preschool-age children: Integrating measurement, neurodevelopment, and translational research (pp. 11–44). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Dunstan, J. & Cole, S. (2021). Flexible Mindsets in schools: Channelling brain power for Critical Thinking, Complex Problem-Solving and Creativity. London, UK: Routledge. Dweck, C. S. (2017). From needs to goals and representations: Foundations for a unified theory of motivation, personality, and development. Psychological Review, 124(6), 689–719. Meltzer, L., Dunstan-Brewer, J. & Krishnan, K. (2018). Learning differences and executive function: Understandings and misunderstandings. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Executive function in education: From theory to practice (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press (pp. 109-141).

Van der Kolk, Bessel A. (2014) The body keeps the score: brain, mind, and body in the healing of trauma. New York, New York: Viking. White, R. E., Prager, E. O., Schaefer, C., Kross, E., Duckworth, A. L., & Carlson, S. M. (2017). The “Batman Effect”: Improving perseverance in young children. Child Development, 88(5), 1563-1571. doi:10.1111/cdev.12695 Zelazo, P. D., & Carlson, S. M. (2012). Hot and cool executive function in childhood and adolescence: Development and plasticity. Child Development Perspectives, 6, 354–360.

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38th Annual Executive Function Conference SUSANNAH COLE DR. STEPHANIE GUTHM AN DR. JULIE DUNSTAN

Resilient Preschools: Opening the Window for Learning in Early Childhood Your seeds will bring harvest even when you don’t see it coming. Be faithful to the vision

WHO ARE WE?

• Multiple Disciplines, Multiple Perspectives • Created in response to the changing needs of learners in a complex world • MISSION: To build Flexible Mindsets that equip learners with the tools they need to respond resiliently & adaptively to adversity & uncertainty

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The dynamic and ongoing interaction between self-awareness, adaptive strategy use and perseverance that empowers learners to evolve and become self-directed

A Flexible Mindset 4

the goal of flexible mindsets: self-directed learning

Self-directed Learning

TODAY’S EXPLORATION

I. What are the impacts of Anxiety & ACEs on learning?

II. How can we, as individuals, Shift the Narrative?

III. How can schools become Resilient?

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Was our Brain designed to Think?

Effects Of The Learning Environment On The Brain 1 WORRY FRUSTRATION FEELING WRONG

2 AMYGDALA FLOODS FIGHT FLIGHT FREEZE

3 PREFRONTAL CORTEX HIJACKED UNABLE TO THINK & LEARN

Impacts of chronic stress

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Research Tells us that ACEs can impact… Brain Development Toxic Stress Pruning networks Architecture

Reaching Life Goals Social Relationships Academic Achievement Work productivity

Behaviours/Choices

Substance Misuse High Risk situations

Health Outcomes

Obesity, heart disease, cancer, diabetes, depression, suicide 10

Center for the Developing Child Harvard § ACEs include • Physical abuse • Emotional abuse • Neglect • Caregiver mental illness • Household violence § Impact of ACEs can be mitigated

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TRIAD OF FLEXIBLE MINDSETS STRATEGIES for OPENING THE WINDOW

Statistics on Teachers 73%

Frequent job-related Stress (35% other working adults) - RAND 2022

43%

Sleep 6 hrs or less nightly - National Education Association

59%

Burnout (44% other working adults) - RAND 2022

55%

Ready to leave the profession - National Education Association

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TRIAD OF FLEXIBLE MINDSETS STRATEGIES for OPENING THE WINDOW

TODAY’S EXPLORATION

II. How can we, as individuals, Shift the Narrative?

Shifting the Narrative

From “What’s wrong with you?” • Blame • Shame • Punishment

To “What happened to you?” • Understanding • Nurturing • Healing

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Shifting the Narrative – Intentional use of Self From behavioural methods to responses grounded in our own self-awareness

1. Foundations For Intentional Use of Self

SELF-CARE

SELF-AWARENESS

SELF-REGULATION

RELATIONSHIP SKILLS & ATTUNEMENT

Self Care

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KNOWING: Self-Awareness

▹ Our own cultural attitudes, values, fears & beliefs about children

▹ How these affect our actions ▹ How our previous life experiences can influence current behaviors ▹ Our beliefs about trauma & painbased behavior

CAN YOU:

Self-Awareness

• name your actions/behaviours?

• label the emotions you are feeling? • identify the triggers that cause you to shift to negative emotions?

• describe the emotional patterns you experience most often?

• name your deepest fears or triggers?

Ability to consciously focus attention

Self-Regulation

Awareness of our own physical & emotional state

Skills to manage our own emotions & behavior

Ability to draw on memory & experience to adapt effectively in the present

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Relationship Skills & Attunement

• Listen to & engage the child • “Tune in” to what the child is saying & feeling • Be aware of their own feelings • Respond to the child • Be attuned to how the child is experiencing adults

TODAY’S EXPLORATION III. How can schools become Resilient?

TRIAD OF FLEXIBLE MINDSETS STRATEGIES for OPENING THE WINDOW

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EF Processes:The Pirates of Pondering

8 STORIES

STRUCTURED IMAGINARY PLAY

SUPPORTING ACTIVITIES

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Thinking Flexibly is A learner’s dexterity in shifting perspectives and changing course THINKING FLEXIBLY HELPS US: • Imagine how to use or see things in a new way • Think of different ways to solve a problem

Navigational Guide UNIT #6 – THINKING FLEXIBLY

THINKING FLEXIBLY HELPS US: • Imagine how to use things in a new way • Think of different ways to solve a problem

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Mistakes, Mishaps & Misunderstandings

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WHAT ELSE COULD WE TRY?

Flexible Mindsets in Early Childhood: An anecdote about a preschooler

TRIAD OF FLEXIBLE MINDSETS STRATEGIES for OPENING THE WINDOW

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Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) …the mindsets, skills, attitudes & feelings that help students succeed in school, career, and life. SEL focuses on students’ fundamental needs for motivation, social connectedness, and self-regulation as prerequisites for learning.

SEL Competencies (CASEL) • • • • •

Self-Awareness Self-Management Social Awareness Relationship Skills Responsible Decision-Making

SEL Developmental Tasks • Interact & manage emotional arousal • Initiate prosocial interactions • Stay connected with adults • Understand basic emotions • Follow social rules

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SEL Competencies associated with: School Climate, Attendance & Disciplinary Events GPA, Test Scores & Graduation Rates Job Performance & Satisfaction health and well-being later in life 43

American School Counselor Association: Mindset Standards

M 1.

Belief in developing the whole self

M 2.

Sense of acceptance, respect, support & inclusion

M 3.

Positive attitude toward work & learning

M 4.

Self-confidence

M 5.

Belief in using abilities to their fullest

M 6.

Valuing lifelong learning

A resilient mindset is… the product of equipping learners with the necessary tools to work adaptively through the adversity, trauma, threats, challenges & chronic stress that lie in their pathway towards purposeful self-direction

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3C’s for Changemakers UNIT 1: Discovering Myself and Others: Social & Emotional Learning UNIT 2: Understanding our World: Geopolitics & Social Justice UNIT 3: Building a Better Future: Scientific Curiosity & Climate Change 46

Early Habits

Books about Feelings 1. How did the children feel when the rain & thunder started? 2. What are some of the things that make us feel scared? 3. What are some things that can make us feel less afraid? 4. Who are some of the people who help us feel safe?

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Games about Feelings: Memory

The Mood-o-meter Game

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Strategy Rings

Fixed Mindset Messages

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Components of Resilient Schools Needs assessment to tailor interventions Foundational training in core competencies Ongoing coaching & mentoring Programme evaluation: continuous assessment & post-data collection Professional learning & coaching community Report outcomes & recommendations in a clear, understandable manner 56

Targeted Needs Assessments 1. Trusting Relationships 2. Responding to Challenging Behaviours 3. Taking Risks for Learning 4. Choice & Flexibility 5. Purpose-driven Intentions 57

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1. Trusting Relationships

Our school provides a sense of belonging for each child

The adults at my school listen to students' ideas

My students know they can count on me

2. Responding to Challenging Behaviours •

Adults in our school are good models of positive interactions

•

We aim to treat others fairly and equitably, rather than equally.

•

Our system culture includes blame and shame

•

Our school team uses effective strategies for dealing with the unexpected 59

3.Taking Risks for Learning •

All students are comfortable asking questions in class

•

When my students are upset, we have effective tools to help them calm their feelings

•

Our students are never at risk of feeling embarrassed in class

•

Our students persevere when their work is challenging

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4.Choices & Flexibility •

We co-create curriculum content and classroom structure

•

Teachers are encouraged to be creative & take risks in selecting learning goals, instructional strategies and performance assessments

•

We actively teach students ways to respond when something unexpected happens

•

We actively teach students how to see things from another person's point of view 61

5.Purpose-Driven Intentions •

If someone asks our students, they can explain at least one learning goal they are working on

•

Our students have a strong understanding of the power of "yet“

•

We have a culture of self-reflection that

includes collaboration, peer coaching & action research 62

Needs Assessment Results RSI Staff Survey Responses - XX School 4. 0 3. 8 3. 6

3.49

3. 4

3.44

3.37

3.48

3.36

3. 2 3. 0 2. 8 2. 6 2. 4 2. 2 2. 0

Tru stin g Rel atio ns hi ps

Resp on di ng to Cha l en gi ng Beha vi ou sr

Taki ng Ri sks for Le arni ng

Cho ice and Fl exi bi li ty

Purpo se a nd Inten ti on al it y

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Happiness can always be found, even in the darkest of times, if only one remembers to turn on the light. - ALBUS DUM BLEDORE

FOR MORE INFORMATION

DR. STEPHANIE GUTHMAN stephanie@flexiblemindsets.com

SUSANNAH COLE susannah@flexiblemindsets.com

DR. JULIE DUNSTAN

julie@flexiblemindsets.com

Subscribe to our newsletter www.flexiblemindsets.com

CHAPTER

2 What is the mechanism for Flexible Mindsets? Productive Puzzling and curiosity

The thrust of the Flexible Mindsets initiative is to empower people to direct their own learning. Self-directed learners actively focus mental energy on their goals and apply their learning to new and meaningful contexts, even when challenged. To take charge of their own learning, they must be driven by curiosity, a desire to grow and the love of learning. This ability to learn how to learn can be deliberately and consciously grown through direct engagement in active learning. In this chapter, we will introduce the active learning concept of Productive Puzzling: the key mechanism we use to engage learners along the journey of Flexible Mindsets. In the next section of this book, Chapters 3 through 5 will highlight the implications of fxed mentalities and demonstrate how Flexible Mindsets can open the window for learning and provide tools for learning how to learn. Socrates, an ancient Greek philosopher, believed that disciplined practice of thoughtful questioning enabled students to examine ideas logically and to determine the validity of those ideas. Charles Darwin, who illuminated the theory of evolution by natural selection, identifed the central role of ‘perplexed refection’ in science and learning. The Flexible Mindsets model builds upon these historical thinkers and newer ideas by incorporating recent work in mathematics education on the role of Productive Struggle (Warshauer 2015). In mathematics, Productive Struggle occurs in settings where it is safe to take risks, where students can share their struggle and where wrong answers are not seen as failures but rather opportunities to explore, grow and learn. By extension, Productive Puzzling is being engrossed in a perplexing problem that is within your grasp but requires thinking, grappling and reasoning. It is the springboard for Critical Thinking, Complex Problem-Solving and Creativity. Curiosity is both the foundation of and partner to Productive Puzzling. To be curious is to be inquisitive about the environment, an event, an object, a process or a concept. Curiosity drives our desire to investigate and to learn. It is what happens when we encounter something unusual, novel or unexpected and it is marked by questions such as I wonder what would happen if . . . ? How does this work? What could this be 24

DOI: 10.4324/9781003204817-3

Productive Puzzling and curiosity

used for? Productive Puzzling, by defnition, must involve a dimension of feeling perplexed, leading us to ask, Does this make sense? What else could we try? What are the possibilities? In this chapter, we will: n n n

explain why curiosity is important for deeper thinking and learning; provide straightforward information about what happens in the brain when we are curious; and introduce the fve conditions that are necessary for Productive Puzzling.

Why is curiosity so important for deeper thinking and learning? Eating in a diner one day, I overheard a conversation between four college students. There was a ‘machine’ next to their table and one student said, “What’s that?” The four friends then engaged in a collaborative process of examining parts of the object and discussing what each piece actually did. One student inferred that the titles listed along each row were songs from “the 70’s – a long time ago.” Eventually, the group concluded that you put coins in the slot, press a button that corresponds to a particular song and then that song is played by the device. They were satisfed with their answer and moved on to other topics of conversation. I thought to myself: I wonder what would have happened, if, when they frst asked the question, I had leaned across and said, “It’s a juke box.” Curiosity is just as important as IQ in determining how well students do in school and beyond. When curious, learners persevere, study and remember more. They read at a more meaningful level and attain higher grades (Silvia 2008). Curious students not only ask more questions and deeper questions, but they are also more active in seeking the answers. Without curiosity, would artist Kareem Abdul Jabbar have had success in such a wide variety of endeavours, from athleticism to flm to authorship to global cultural advocacy? Would mathematician Grace Topper have been a pioneer in the feld of technology and earned the National Medal of Technology and the Presidential Medal of Freedom? Would explorer Mae Jemison have evolved from a Peace Corps medical ofcer to become the frst female African American astronaut, a founder of a nonproft, an author and a science ambassador? By motivating people to learn for its own sake, curiosity ensures that people will develop a broad set of knowledge, skills and experiences. When interested, students persist longer at learning tasks, spend more time studying, read more 25

Flexible Mindsets

deeply, remember more of what they read and get better grades in their classes (Silvia 2008). People seem to understand that curiosity enhances their motivation and performance. When faced with a boring task, people will use strategies to make it more interesting, such as working with a friend or making the task more complex (Sansone & Thoman 2005). Curiosity is the motivation for active learning.

What happens in the brain when we puzzle? Trying new things has an adaptive function that has been critical for human evolution. Unfamiliar things often signal something dangerous or harmful. What we learn from new experiences can help us to respond efectively to unexpected circumstances and to counterbalance feelings of uncertainty and anxiety (Kashdan 2004). The brain is wired for the survival functions of surveillance and alert. Curiosity is a response that activates the brain’s arousal network. If the system detects something unusual, it can sound an alarm that is heard brain wide and this is when intrinsic alertness transforms into phasic alertness (Peterson & Posner 2012). Anything that is novel, unusual, unpredictable or distinctive puts our brains on alert and therefore our brains are wired to pay closer attention to them (Medina 2008). In a recent research study, participants rated how curious they were to learn the answers to more than 100 trivia questions. The researchers then used fMRI scans to see what was happening in the brain when participants felt especially curious about the answer to a question (Gruber, Gelman & Ranganath 2014). The results revealed that curiosity prepares the brain for learning by acting like a vortex. The resulting void causes us to seek out stimulation. Thus curiosity puts the brain in a state that allows it to learn and retain new information. The implication of this is that if a teacher can arouse students’ curiosity, they will be more engaged in learning. Another key fnding from this research study is that curiosity can make learning a more rewarding experience for students. Researchers found that when curiosity had been sparked, there was increased brain activity in the hippocampus, which is involved in creating memories as well as the circuitry related to reward and pleasure. When these circuits are aroused, dopamine – the ‘feel good’ chemical in our brain – is released. So, piquing students’ curiosity can help them remember lessons and make their learning experiences pleasurable. Educators have long recognised that students learn better when new material is linked to prior knowledge. Existing knowledge, concepts and systems are easier to process than novel material. Activating this base makes it easier to grapple with more difcult cognitive work. There is no thinking without knowing (Willingham 2009). There is no meaningful learning without active engagement. Based on evolutionary theories, scientists can now better explain how our brains are wired to pay attention to information connected to existing memories (Medina 2008). Our 10,000-year old brains were not designed for the world we live in today. They were built when we walked or ran many miles a day. This is 26

Productive Puzzling and curiosity

why our brains crave exercise and we get a brain boost when we get up and move. Our brains are designed to process visual information quickly and can pay attention for about ten minutes. This adaptive function is rooted in evolution. Humans who failed to instantaneously attend to threatening situations did not live long enough to pass on their genes. Thus, we are programmed to use our previous experiences to accurately remember threatening situations and to direct where we pay attention. Thinking, on the other hand, is slow and efortful and our brains are not built for it. It is not efcient and reliable to think. Thinking is hard work so it is not surprising that people have to really motivate themselves to engage in it. Thinking was not evolutionarily helpful (see Figure 2.1). Stop and think and you might end up . . . Wow!

THAT GUY’S IN A HURRY. OH LOOK, THERE’S A TIGER. I WONDER...

Figure 2.1 The evolutionary value of NOT thinking So much of our brain’s real estate is taken up by activities related to seeing and moving. Our brains are not wired to think in the ways that are demanded of us in traditional classroom settings. They are naturally curious and designed to scan the environment, explore and alert us to threats. We are powerful and natural explorers (Medina 2008). Educational practices are not aligned with what we now know about brain development. We are expecting students to exert mental efort for several hours during the school day and then go home and do hours of homework, leaving no time for processing, refecting, integrating and connecting. When made to perform on traditional school-based tasks, our brains are being asked to do things that run contrary to their evolutionary purpose. Since thinking is such hard work, and does not provide rewards that stimulate dopamine release, children rarely experience joy in academic learning. If we want students to be motivated to engage in thinking, we need to convince them that their mental work will be worth it. One efective way to do this is to use curiosity to engage learners in exploration, invention and improvisation. We all weigh the potential pleasure of solving a problem against the mental efort required. If the challenge is too difcult or too easy, our brains disengage from the process. If the recipe is perfectly balanced, we are tapping into curiosity and ensuring that students enjoy thinking and learning (Willingham 2009). 27

Flexible Mindsets

The potential to pique curiosity lies in experiences that are emotionally laden and meaningful (Medina 2008). Incongruity is particularly efective for engaging our brains. If you want learners to become engaged and ask questions, present something that is unexpected, odd, absurd, juxtaposed or humorous.

Guidelines for piquing curiosity 1 Consider that content and delivery matter A group of students attends a feld trip to the science museum, specifcally to watch the IMAX flm celebrating the 50th anniversary of Apollo 11. This documentary flm uses original footage to describe the 1969 Apollo 11 mission, the frst spacefight in which men walked on the Moon. Ciana is an explorer by nature: she loves science, especially astronomy, and has a precise replica of the solar system on the ceiling of her bedroom. Esther, on the other hand, is an artist: she writes beautiful poetry and loves epic shows such as Star Trek: Discovery. The factual style and technical information in Apollo 11 fuse naturally with Ciana’s preexisting scientifc knowledge and her head is buzzing with new questions and ideas about future possibilities. Esther has an entirely diferent experience. She comprehends very little about basic concepts such as gravity and acceleration and can’t access most of the material. The dry style of presentation does nothing to grab her attention and her imagination is stifed. There are aspects of thinking we enjoy because we get a sense of pleasure from fnding solutions (solving problems). There are also lots of things that require thinking that we would never choose to do and many others that would simply bore us. While the type of content matters – we are more curious about things that interest us – the delivery of the content is what matters most when it comes to piquing curiosity. When content is presented through a medium we enjoy, is connected to a story or includes an element of surprise, even the most boring topic can spur our curiosity (Willingham 2009).

2 Remember inspiration can’t be forced Salvador Dali, a 20th-century surrealist painter, used to sit in a chair with keys in his hand along with an upside down plate on the foor and let his mind wander until he fell asleep. His hand would release the keys as soon as he slipped into a deeper state of sleep and the sound of the keys clinking on a metal plate would wake him up. This little amount of rest is just enough to awaken creativity. In this state, his mind brought together distant ideas in a new way. He believed that this process led to some of his best ideas.

Productive Puzzling and curiosity

Somewhere deep within each of us is an afnity, something that, when we are in the midst of it, engages us to the point that we don’t even notice what is happening around us. The outside world just disappears. When we are engrossed in an afnity, time moves so quickly that we are unaware that it has passed. All the energy and brain power that we use does not even feel like hard work (Silvia 2006). Inspiration fows from the thinking that we do when our brains are in the difuse mode. Using the metaphor of a brain as a fashlight, the difuse mode casts a broad, scattered light whereas the focused mode is concentrated light (Oakley & Sejnowski 2018). Our brains enter the difuse mode during moments when we are not explicitly thinking, such as when listening to music, exercising, taking a walk, mind-wandering and sleeping (Gkiokas 2018). In contrast to mindfulness which focuses the brain, mind-wandering allows the brain to be more creative (Zomorodi 2017). Purposeful learning occurs when we shift fexibly between focused thinking and meandering. So, when we need to destress, we meditate; when we want inspiration, we daydream.

3 Make it comprehensible There are two types of evaluations that learners make when faced with a challenge (Silvia 2005; 2008). One assessment is the level of novelty: the degree to which something is new, unexpected, surprising or intriguing. Decades of research show that new and unexpected events can pique our curiosity (Berlyne 1960). Secondly, we judge whether or not a challenge is comprehensible. We think about our skills, knowledge and resources to deal with an event (Lazarus 1991). If we perceive a goal as incomprehensible, we give up. In the case of curiosity, we are responding to an unexpected situation. If we perceive an event as both new and as comprehensible, curiosity is activated (Silvia 2008). Perceiving something as being comprehensible is the bridge between feeling curious and feeling bored or discouraged. Feeling lost and confused shuts down our learning. Novelty, coupled with the seeds of comprehension, sparks learning.

4 Build in time off-task (to space out) We often see boredom as a negative state and something to be avoided. Boredom is actually the place we all need to visit as an intermediary between busywork and inspiration. Boredom is a state of mind that happens when we take away distractions such as cell phones, video games and television. It is not enough to simply remove distractions. True boredom happens when we have ‘nothing to do’ and no one is demanding anything of us. Boredom alerts us that we are no longer pursuing purposeful goals. The current goal is no longer satisfactory, attractive or meaningful (Elpidorou 2014). This leaves us feeling restless, agitated and uncomfortable (Zomorodi 2017) and we crave escape. In order to avoid feeling trapped in an unfulflling state, we begin searching for something to stimulate us, something that

Flexible Mindsets

is not readily available in our immediate surroundings. Boredom is both a warning and a push (Elpidorou 2014). The push of boredom allows us to ‘space out’. Our thoughts don’t stop just because there is nothing to do with those thoughts. It may appear that the brain is shutting down; it is actually digging into a vast trove of memories, imagining future possibilities, dissecting our interactions with other people and refecting on who we are. “It feels like we’re wasting time when we wait for the longest red light in the world to turn green, but the brain is putting ideas and events into perspective” (Zomorodi 2017, p. 21). Boredom is necessary.

5 Let it be. Don’t give the answer When babies learn to sit up and crawl, they cannot yet walk. Would we carry all babies everywhere with us, rather than watch them repeatedly try to stand up and fall over? How heavy would they get before we decided they were too heavy to carry around? Would it then be too late for them to learn how to walk? Make it comfortable for learners to stop and think. Adults who want to help often do things for a child which can feed into ‘I can’t’ self-perceptions. Try to wait before jumping in, even if it feels uncomfortable. It takes lots of practice to learn to fnd the perfectly balanced moment to intervene: after allowing time for experiencing challenge, but before a child has become discouraged. Some traditional approaches to education involve three steps in learning: watching a model, being assisted and then doing it on your own. These approaches are efective for a range of learning experiences. What they don’t do is spark curiosity. They are too predictable and we already know what’s going to happen. Developmentally, children also need time and space to explore, make mistakes and struggle. Without struggle, children don’t get to experience the benefts of hard work. They may have started out feeling curious, but if we hand them the answers, then a task appears to be too easy and no longer captures their curiosity. This reinforces beliefs that everything must come to us instantaneously and that struggle is not worthwhile. We must avoid cheating students of feeling capable and learning how to do things on their own. The brain needs to pause to give time for the prefrontal cortex to kick in. This helps us to think and respond, instead of just reacting. Allowing children time to struggle forces them to question, plan, solve problems, organise and grapple with concepts. The more opportunities we give them to tackle appropriately challenging work, the more likely they will be to develop the neural networks to solve future problems. Adults need to be okay with waiting and suspend the instinct to jump in and rescue children with the answers. We have to be able to observe children’s confusion, frustration and discouragement. However, ‘letting it be’ doesn’t mean we should just do nothing. Figuring out when to intervene requires us to take into account the nature of the task, a child’s skill set for solving similar problems and

Productive Puzzling and curiosity

the child’s tolerance for frustration. When you do intervene, don’t do it for them. Rein in your impulse to fx things. Let them know you are there to support them by asking questions such as, “How can I help? Tell me about ____. What have you tried so far? What else could you try?” As Willingham observes, “People are naturally curious, but we are not naturally good thinkers; unless the cognitive conditions are right, we will avoid thinking” (2009, p. 9). In other words, if we always hand out the answer, curiosity will disappear, and with it, Critical Thinking, Complex Problem-Solving and Creativity. When you think about school, what typically comes to mind? Your own experiences when you were in school? Your children’s experiences? Perhaps a particular subject you found fascinating or one that was incredibly boring? The image that comes into my mind is everyday brains doing everyday things. Much of this consists of content download, where students wait to have the teacher tell them what to do or what to think. This type of concrete knowledge is important as the basis for learning, but it is not enough. Beyond concrete learning, efective teachers fnd creative ways to pique curiosity. They may use novelty to introduce a topic, present problems that are intriguing and design projects that expand our understanding of the world. They may also use predictions to build anticipation and hook learners into wanting to know more. The simple act of starting a lesson with a question such as “What did we learn yesterday?” instead of providing a summary of the previous lesson can make a signifcant diference (Agarwal & Bain 2019). These instances achieve the goal of opening up neural pathways for learning. Without further intervention, most brains tend to revert to a more passive state of simply trying to absorb information. Piquing curiosity activates the arousal network and signals potential pleasure in the brain. It allows learners to reach a stage where they are becoming increasingly selfdirected, where they can say “get out of my way, but not too far” (Heick 2019). Ultimately, self-refection empowers learners to efect qualitative changes in their own thinking. Piquing curiosity gets the brain ready for Productive Puzzling and puzzling feeds curiosity.

What are the necessary conditions for Productive Puzzling? Learning activities that promote Productive Puzzling require fve conditions (see Figure 2.2). The foundation must be frmly established by designing an environment that builds trusting relationships and encourages taking risks for learning. The second and third conditions operate interdependently: sufcient challenge to spark curiosity, coupled with solutions that are within reach. Ideally, puzzling is set up to ensure that there are multiple strategies for the solution and, preferably, more than one possible outcome. Opportunities for refection are built into the process and facilitated after the completion of the activity.

Flexible Mindsets 4. Multiple Strategies 5. Opportunities for Ref lection

3. Solutions within Reach

2. Challenge

1. Trusting Relationships

Figure 2.2 The fve conditions for Productive Puzzling

Condition 1: trusting relationships for risk-taking Trust arises from a number of factors within a given environment as well as the actions and reactions of other people. To summarise briefy, it is important to: n n n n n n n

set up physical spaces that invite exploration and co-creation; share that the cornerstone of learning is identifying what we don’t know and grappling with it; clarify that our brains learn best through mistakes and trial and error; model the value of mistakes by ‘talking aloud’ through our own errors; celebrate mistakes and their role in creativity, innovation and inventions; communicate in ways that build trusting relationships; and explicitly troubleshoot challenges and obstacles.

Chapter 4 provides more detail on how to open the window for learning and build trusting relationships for students to ask questions, make mistakes and take risks for learning.

Conditions 2 and 3: challenge and solutions within reach Having created an environment characterised by trust, we can then begin to introduce conceptual challenges to learners (see Figure 2.3). A challenge is something difcult that requires mental efort and determination. It is the gap between what is already known and what is yet to be learned. People tend to seek out novelty, but we quickly discard problems that are too easy or too diffcult (Willingham 2009). If we start a Sudoku puzzle and solve it quickly and easily, we won’t be interested in another puzzle at the same level of difculty. Conversely, if we can’t even fgure out the frst few numbers, then we will become frustrated and give up.

Productive Puzzling and curiosity

WITHIN REACH CHALLENGE

Figure 2.3 Productive Puzzling balances challenge with solutions that are within reach As we strive to change the mindsets of students, we place increasing emphasis on the role of challenge for making brains smarter. Setting goals that are both challenging and achievable is largely a matter of structuring tasks in advance. It is crafted from an educator’s expertise in concert with relationships that build on the knowledge of individual students. Having set up a challenging puzzle for students, the role of the adult is to facilitate deeper puzzling. We express our confidence in learners to solve puzzles by affording them time in which to ponder and by providing specific guiding questions to promote perseverance and flexible strategy use. Effective interventions focus on breaking a puzzle down into smaller, manageable chunks; encouraging learners to ask questions and explain their thinking; and using their responses to guide the type of openended questions you ask next.

Condition 4: multiple strategies There is more than one trail to the top of the mountain. Given the pressures of current-day curricula, speed and accuracy in producing the correct answers are highly valued. There is little time for children to explore and figure things out. IQ tests, which are supposed to measure intelligence, rely heavily on already knowing the right answers and on timed responses. Children who take the time to reason and try different strategies to figure out answers are penalised, often resulting in lower scores than children who are less reflective. We inadvertently reinforce the misconception that knowing is superior to not knowing by only showing excitement and pride in students when they give us the right answers. What would it look like and sound like in classrooms all over the world if teachers gave students a high five every time they identified something they didn’t know? A Flexible Mindset is characterised by the ability to try something out, figure out what works and what doesn’t and then say: Does this make sense? What else can we try? What are the possibilities? These questions encapsulate the ability to shift perspectives and adapt flexibly when learning. Using open-ended prompts and sharing ideas is critical for assisting

Flexible Mindsets

learners to recognise that there are multiple ways to reason, many strategies that can lead to a solution and endless possibilities for what something can become. When learners shift fexibly, they are comfortable with ‘not knowing’ (Duckworth 2006). They take time to generate and evaluate multiple strategies (Meltzer 2010). It is rare that educational practices include direct instruction highlighting the value of diferent thoughts and strategies. Before selecting puzzles that can be solved using multiple strategies, set the climate in the classroom by building trusting relationships. Ensure that learners feel secure with the sharing of difering thoughts.

Condition 5: opportunities for refection During Productive Puzzling, children initially are engaged in refection when they are asked to think about the process. However, the greatest opportunities for refection often happen at the end of an activity or lesson. Metacognition and refection work hand in hand. As learners become increasingly self-aware, they are better able to refect upon ‘What Works When’. Direct strategy instruction has been proven to improve how students transfer learning, use knowledge creatively and refect on processes (Meltzer 2013). Strategies such as retrieval practice help students to identify what they do and do not know and focus on deepening their understanding (Agarwal & Bain 2019). Students need to ‘go deep’ in refecting upon their strengths and challenges, as well as the strategies that work best in a given situation. Predicting how they would approach something diferently in the future is critical for self-directed learning. Once students have begun to understand and use the language of selfrefection, dialogue in the classroom can explore puzzles at greater depths. To stoke Productive Puzzling, students must learn to ask and answer the kinds of questions that deepen exploration beyond initial curiosity (see ‘Carefully Crafted Questions’ in Chapter 5). Adults are charged with teaching students the language of learning: how to think, listen and speak in ways that facilitate deeper learning (Wilson 2015). Productive Puzzling is the underlying mechanism for Flexible Mindsets. This chapter has defned the fve conditions necessary for Productive Puzzling. Applying these principles consistently through the Flexible Mindsets Spiral of Refective Learning allows educators to take charge in their own classrooms (see Table 2.1). These practices create a culture where students feel comfortable taking learningrelated risks, use strategies fexibly and persevere when challenged. Noticing the incongruous, the unexpected, the unfamiliar and the things that provoke a feeling of discomfort entices us to delve further and sets us on course for developing agency in our own learning. In the next section, Chapter 3 will elaborate on the implications of fxed mentalities in closing the window for learning. Chapter 4 will set the foundation by exploring ways to build trusting relationships so students feel comfortable asking

Productive Puzzling and curiosity

questions, making mistakes and taking risks for learning (condition 1). From this base, we can nurture the capacity for learners to engage in Productive Puzzling. In Chapter 5, we will briefy describe the value of balancing challenges (condition 2) with attainable solutions (condition 3). We then explain how to teach learners about strategies (condition 4) and deliver feedback to engage them in self-refection (condition 5).

Table 2.1 The Flexible Mindsets Spiral of Refective Learning: Productive Puzzling

BE METACOGNITIVE

Scan your lesson plans for opportunities to introduce puzzles. How will you help students understand the type of content that is best suited to using thinking and reasoning for Productive Puzzling versus content that is factual and can be learned with more traditional methods? How will you model and encourage the questions that help us to use curiosity to explore new depths? “I wonder what would happen if . . .” “How can we use this new knowledge to imagine a different way of thinking about what we are learning?”

MODEL How will you schedule brief moments for unprogrammed time for students to puzzle, refect or get bored?

ASK QUESTIONS AND AFFORD TIME How will you build in opportunities for students to share their stories about delving deeply into puzzles and how working hard leads to greater satisfaction?

USE SHARING AS A SPRINGBOARD

“I saw your group had a long discussion when you were struggling with building this robot. Share your challenges with the class and how you were able to work through them and fnd a solution together. How did you feel in the middle of the diffcult work and how do you feel about having made the robot work? How did grappling with the challenges contribute to the process?” How will you respond to unexpected moments by encouraging your students to turn curve balls into puzzles to be explored? “You probably weren’t expecting this to happen. Why do you think it happened and how can you explore it further?”

THINK ON YOUR FEET

Flexible Mindsets

References Agarwal, P., & Bain, P. (2019). Powerful teaching: Unleash the science of learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Berlyne, D. (1960). Confict, arousal, and curiosity. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Duckworth, E. (2006). “The having of wonderful ideas” and other essays on teaching and learning. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Elpidorou, A. (2014). The bright side of boredom. Frontiers in Psychology [online]. 5, 1245. [Viewed 14 July 2019]. Available from: doi.10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01245 Gkiokas, D. (2018). How to utilize both brain's thinking modes: Focused vs difuse [online]. The Meta Learners. [Viewed 12 March 2020]. Available from: https:// www.themetalearners.com/how-to-utilize-both-brains-thinking-modesfocused-vs-difuse/ Gruber, M., Gelman, B., & Ranganath, C. (2014). States of curiosity modulate hippocampus-dependent learning via the dopaminergic circuit. Neuron. 84(2), 486–496. Heick, T. (2019). From procedural knowledge to self knowledge: The 4 stages of curiosity [online]. teachthought. [Viewed 10 November 2019]. Available from: www.teachthought.com/learning/4-stages-of-curiosity/ Kashdan, T. (2004). Curiosity. In: C. Peterson & M. Seligman, eds. Character strengths and virtues. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 125–141. Lazarus, R. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Meltzer, L. (2010). Promoting executive function in the classroom. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L. (2013). Executive function processes: The foundation of academic and life success. International Journal for Research in Learning Disabilities. 1(2), 31–63. Medina, J. (2008). Brain rules: 12 principles for surviving and thriving at work, home, and school. Seattle, WA: Pear Press. Oakley, B., & Sejnowski, T. (2018). Learning how to learn: How to succeed in school without spending all your time studying. New York, NY: Penguin Random House. Peterson, S., & Posner, M. (2012). The attention system of the brain: 20 years after. Annual review of neuroscience. 35, 73–89. Sansone, C., & Thoman, D. (2005). Interest as the missing motivator in selfregulation. European Psychologist. 10, 175–186. Silvia, P. (2005). What is interesting? Exploring the appraisal structure of interest. Emotion. 5, 89–102. Silvia, P. (2006). The psychology of interest. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Productive Puzzling and curiosity

Silvia, P. (2008) Interest – The curious emotion. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 17(1), 57–60. Warshauer, H. (2015). Productive struggle in middle school mathematics classrooms. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education. 18(4), 375–400. Willingham, D. (2009). Why don’t students like school? A cognitive scientist answers questions about how the mind works and what it means for your classroom. New York, NY: Wiley. Wilson, M. (2015). The language of learning: Teaching students core thinking, listening and speaking skills. Turner Falls, MA: Center for Responsive Schools, Inc. Zomorodi, M. (2017). Bored and brilliant: How spacing out can unlock your most productive and creative self. New York, NY: St. Michael’s Press.

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Students Can’t Organize What They Can’t See: Making Language Visible for Learning Anthony Bashir, Ph.D., CCC-SLP Consultant to Architects for Learning Bonnie Singer, Ph.D., CCC-SLP Founder and CEO of Vivido Jessica Curtin, M.Ed Vice President of Professional Development, Vivido

Overview Organization is a key aspect of executive function. Our ability to get organized and stay organized, making needed accommodations as a task unfolds, determines the extent to which we maintain coherence and cohesion in the work that we do, e.g., make an explanation, write an essay, summarize a text. We now know that executive function processes are minimally engaged when responses are practiced, smooth, or automatic. In contrast, school demands require us to act deliberately and with intention throughout the day. Consequently, participation in school taxes our executive functions (Singer & Bashir, 2018) and, with that, organization. For students with Developmental Language Disorders (DLD), comorbid challenges may be present due to executive deficits (Singer & Bashir, 1999). These deficits can significantly interfere with the student’s ability to plan the most effective and efficient approach to an oral or written task as well as organize an approach to accomplish the task. Singer & Bashir (1999) state the importance of considering executive and self-regulatory functions within both assessment and intervention for students with DLD. Integrating graphic organizers can assist all students, providing a means for planning and organizing their speaking, listening, reading and writing (Boon, Barbetta, Paal, 2018; Dexter & Hughes, 2011; McGee & Richgels, 1985). Though definitions of what constitutes a graphic organizer differ across researchers, Dexter & Hughs (2011) offer the following: “Graphic

organizers are visual and spatial displays that make relationships between related facts and concepts more apparent (p. 52).” In this presentation, we propose that some graphic organizers are more effective and efficient tools for supporting language learning than others. We review the logic for this thinking and share a set of visual tools that we developed to support students with organizing language for learning-related tasks. These visual tools graphically represent the underlying organization of discourse-level language, allowing teachers and students to see how ideas relate to one another and how ideas come together to represent meaning. With language standing still in a visible form, students can then reflect on and refine the organization of their thinking and in turn express what they know and understand about themselves and their worlds. References Boon, R.T., Barbetta, P.M., & Paal, M. (2018). The efficacy of graphic organizers on the writing outcomes of students with learning disabilities: A research synthesis of single-case studies. Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 23(2), 18-33. Clark, J.M. & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology Review, 3(3), 149-210. Dexter, D. & Hughes, C.A. (2011). Graphic organizers and students with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis. Learning Disability Quarterly, 34(1), 51-72. DiCecco, V.M. & Gleason, M.M. (2002. Using graphic organizers to attain relational knowledge from expository text. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(4), 306-320. Fernandez, M.A., Wammes, J.D. & Meade, M.E. (2018). The surprisingly powerful influence of drawing on memory. Current directions in psychological science. Hyerle, D. (1996). Visual tools for constructing knowledge. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Luiten, J., Ames, W., & Ackerson, G. (1980). A meta-analysis of the effects of advance organizers on learning and retention. American Educational Research Journal, 17(2), 211-218. Marton, K. (2008). Visuo-spatial processing and executive functions in children with specific language impairment. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 43(2), 181-200. Paivio, A. (1979). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Psychology Press.

Robinson, D.H., Robinson, S.L., & Katayama, A.D. (1999). When words are represented in memory like pictures: Evidence for spatial encoding of study materials. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 24, 38-54. Scaife, M. & Rogers, Y. (1996). External cognition: How do graphical representations work? International Journal of Human-Computer studies, 45, 185-213. Westby, C. (1997). There’s more to knowing than passing than knowing the answers. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 28, 274-287.

Students can’t organize what they can’t see Making language visible for learning Bonnie Singer, Ph.D., Anthony Bashir, Ph.D. & Jessica Curtin, M.Ed. 38th Annual Executive Function Conference · October 2023

@vividolearning

What graphics do you use or see being used?

Brains are natural pattern-detectors

Patterns of language are invisible

Some don’t pick up on the patterns for • Following the plot of a story • Explaining • Taking notes from a text • Essay writing • Organizing note cards • Solving equations • Time management

Language

Cognition

Patterns

Executive Functions Our brain’s air traffic control system

Inhibition

Planning (the WHAT)

Organizing (the HOW)

Holding plans in working memory

Affect regulation

Singer & Bashir (2006) Denckla (1996; 1998), Pennington & Ozonoff (1998), Guare & Dawson (2000) Singer & Bashir (2006) Denckla (1996; 1998), Pennington & Ozonoff (1998), Guare & Dawson (2000)

Organization is essential for getting things done efficiently and effectively

Brains do better on patterns! 9

Use graphic organizers!

What’s a graphic organizer? “Spatial arrangements of words intended to represent the conceptual organization of a text” where “relations among elements are indicated by the spatial arrangements of the elements on the page, and the graphic organizer represents the conceptual organization of a text” (Stull and Mayer 2007, p. 810) “Visual and spatial displays that make relationships between related facts and concepts more apparent” (Dexter & Hughes, 2011, p. 52)

Which ones are graphic organizers? • Story maps • Concept maps • Concept maps with checklists • Semantic webs • Matrices • Visual displays (charts, graphs, pictures, and maps) • Publisher vs. teacher vs. student generated • Computer generated vs. hand drawn

Dexter & Hughes (2011); Boon, Barbetta & Paal (2018)

Graphic organizers • No agreement among researchers as to what constitutes a graphic organizer • No standards for who makes them, when, why, and for what purpose • No understanding of long-term effects

Research outcomes • Limited corpus of studies • Small groups of students • Genre differences • Flawed research designs “It was not always clear from the studies if the GO was used correctly at all [by students.]”

Dexter & Hughes (2011, p. 70)

task-focused

zillions of them!

fill-in-theblank

Graphic organizers

organized by someone else

pre-made worksheets visual patterns often don’t look like language

Scaffolding a narrative

Executive Functions Language

Patterns

Emotions

Attention

Make the invisible visible

To organize learning you must organize language

languagefocused

taskfocused

require metacognition metalinguistic awareness just six!

zillions of them! organized by someone else

organize info.

Brain Frames

hand-drawn

G.O.s graphic

tools

fill-in-theblank worksheets

look like how language is organized

visual patterns often don’t look like language

6 patterns of language we use every day! • Contrast

Identify the key differences between two forms of government

• Show Causes & Effects Explain why the water in Flint, Michigan is unsafe to drink • Sequence

Tell how to multiply uneven fractions

• Categorize

Describe the characteristics of different kinds of rocks

• Tell

Portray what life was like on the Oregon Trail

• Show connections

Analyze the major goals of the Washington, Jefferson, and Adams presidencies

Multi-modal is stickier! Language

Thinking

Spatial

Visual tools • A means of graphically representing ideas, conceptual relationships and progression paths

Universal designs for learning Univ. 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 K Pre-K

Represent patterns across all languages

Anchor all teaching

Anchor all learning

Their power is not in what they look like It’s in what you and your students do with them

Key questions • How many graphics do you use? • Are they used across all subjects? • Do they move with students from grade to grade? • Who does the organizing? • Who makes the graphic, when, and for what? • Do they look like what you want students to do with their language?

As students move through school, they experience changes from two directions: inside-out and outside-in. From the inside-out, they develop more elaborate cognitive, metacognitive, and linguistic abilities; increased working memory capacity; and increased speed of processing to bring to the school curriculum.

From the outside-in, they encounter increasingly abstract academic content and expectations to become increasingly responsible for monitoring their own behavior and organizing their own learning.

Westby (1997, p. 285)

“If students are thinking, they can show it. And if they can see their knowledge, they can organize it. And if they can organize their ideas, they can figure out how to express what they know and understand.” Singer (2004)

Keep learning with us

Suggested readings • Boon, R.T., Barbetta, P. & Paal, M. (2018). The efficacy of graphic organizers in the writing outcomes of students with learning disabilities: A research synthesis of singlecase studies. Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 23(2), 18-33. • Dexter, D. & Hughes, C. (2011). Graphic organizers and students with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 34(1), 51-72. • Reinking, D. (1986). Integrating graphic aids into content area instruction: The graphic information lesson. Journal of Reading, 30(2), 146-151.

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Resilience in Students with Reading Challenges: The Intersection Between Neuroscience and Educational Practice Joanna Christodoulou, Ed.D. Associate Professor, Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders at the MGH Institute of Health Professions; Adjunct Lecturer on Education, Harvard Graduate School of Education (HGSE); Research Affiliate at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)

Overview While reading development is central to academic outcomes, many students experience difficulty mastering the components of literacy. In addition to providing reading instruction, educators often look to competencies adjacent to reading to support student progress in reading. One common set of competencies that educators focus on are executive functions (EF). Strengths in EF are often considered to be features of resilience in the context of reading challenges. In this presentation, we will describe EF, review the research linking EF to reading outcomes, and discuss progress and limitations in research efforts. We will also address the common concern regarding the degree of overlap between EF and ADHD and associations with reading outcomes. Research from education and clinical contexts will be accompanied by cognitive neuroscience findings related to EF and to brain plasticity. We will discuss the evolving understanding of brain networks supporting EF skills. Brain imaging studies have established powerful insights regarding the brain's capacity to learn, remediate, and compensate, and brain plasticity will be described here as a parallel feature of resilience linking brain and behavior. This research-driven presentation will invite attendees to draw connections to classroom practices and to conceptualizations of reading and EF.

References Al Dahhan, N. Z., Halverson, K., Peek, C. P., Wilmot, D., D'Mello, A., Romeo, R. R., Meegoda, O., Imhof, A., Wade, K., Sridhar, A., Falke, E., Centanni, T. M., Gabrieli, J. D. E., & Christodoulou, J. A. (2022). Dissociating executive function and ADHD influences on reading ability in children with dyslexia. Cortex; a journal devoted to the study of the nervous system and behavior, 153, 126–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2022.03.025 Butterfuss, R., & Kendeou, P. (2018). The role of executive functions in reading comprehension. Educational Psychology Review, 30, 801-826. Cartwright, K. B., Bock, A. M., Clause, J. H., August, E. A. C., Saunders, H. G., & Schmidt, K. J. (2020). Near-and far-transfer effects of an executive function intervention for 2nd to 5th-grade struggling readers. Cognitive Development, 56, 100932. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2020.100932 Cartwright, K. B., Marshall, T. R., Huemer, C. M., & Payne, J. B. (2019). Executive function in the classroom: Cognitive flexibility supports reading fluency for typical readers-identified low-achieving readers. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 88, 42-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2019.01.011 Child, A. E., Cirino, P. T., Fletcher, J. M., Willcutt, E. G., & Fuchs, L. S. (2019). A cognitive dimensional approach to understanding shared and unique contributions to reading, math, and attention skills. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 52(1), 15-30. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219418775115 Diamond, A., & Ling, D. S. (2019). Review of the evidence on, and fundamental questions about, efforts to improve executive functions, including working memory. Cognitive and working memory training: Perspectives from psychology, neuroscience, and human development, 143. Follmer, D. J. (2018). Executive function and reading comprehension: A meta-analytic review. Educational Psychologist, 53(1), 42-60. Haft, S. L., & Hoeft, F. (2017). Poverty's impact on children's executive functions: Global considerations. New directions for child and adolescent development, 2017(158), 69-79. Johnson, E. S., Humphrey, M., Mellard, D. F., Woods, K., & Swanson, H. L. (2010). Cognitive processing deficits and students with specific learning disabilities: A selective meta-analysis of the literature. Learning Disability Quarterly, 33(1), 3-18. https://doi.org/10.1177/073194871003300101

Kassai, R., Futo, J., Demetrovics, Z., & Takacs, Z. K. (2019). A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence on the near-and far-transfer effects among children’s executive function skills. Psychological Bulletin, 145(2), 165. Lonergan, A., Doyle, C., Cassidy, C., MacSweeney Mahon, S., Roche, R. A. P., Boran, L., & Bramham, J. (2019). A meta-analysis of executive functioning in dyslexia with consideration of the impact of comorbid ADHD. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 31(7), 725-749. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2019.1669609 Marks, R. A., Pollack, C., Meisler, S. L., D'Mello, A. M., Centanni, T. M., Romeo, R. R., Wade, K., Matejko, A. A., Ansari, D., Gabrieli, J. D. E., & Christodoulou, J. A. (2023). Neurocognitive mechanisms of co-occurring math difficulties in dyslexia: Differences in executive function and visuospatial processing. Developmental science, e13443. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13443 Melby-Lerväg, M., & Hulme, C. (2013). Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review. Developmental Psychology, 49(2), 270-291. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028228 Meltzer, L. (2010). Promoting executive function in the classroom. Guilford Press. Niebaum, J. C., & Munakata, Y. (2023). Why doesn’t executive function training improve academic achievement? Rethinking individual differences, relevance, and engagement from a contextual framework. Journal of Cognition and Development, 24(2), 241-259. Peng, P., & Kievit, R. A. (2020). The development of academic achievement and cognitive abilities: A bidirectional perspective. Child Development Perspectives, 14(1), 15-20. Willcutt, E. G., Betjemann, R. S., McGrath, L. M., Chhabildas, N. A., Olson, R. K., DeFries, J. C., & Pennington, B. F. (2010). Etiology and neuropsychology of comorbidity between RD and ADHD: The case for multiple-deficit models. Cortex, 46(10), 1345-1351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2010.06.009 Zelazo, P. D., & Carlson, S. M. (2012). Hot and cool executive function in childhood and adolescence: Development and plasticity. Child development perspectives, 6(4), 354-360. Zhang, Z., & Peng, P. (2023). Longitudinal reciprocal relations among reading, executive function, and social-emotional skills: Maybe not for all. Journal of Educational Psychology.

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Resilience in Students with Reading Challenges: The Intersection Between Neuroscience & Educational Practice Dr. Joanna Christodoulou Director, Brain, Education, and Mind Lab Associate Professor, MGH Institute of Health Professions Adjunct Faculty, Harvard Graduate School of Education BEAMChristodoulou @ joanna22c & @ BEAMstudies jchristodoulou@ mghihp.edu

Learner Variability Navigator: https://lvp.digitalpromiseglobal.org/content-area/literacy-4-6/factors

● What is Executive Function (EF)?

Topics

● What is the brain basis of EF? ● How is EF related to reading? ● How do EF and ADHD compare? ● What have we learned from cognitive neuroscience?

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Higher-order ● Inhibitory Control

● Problem-Solving

● Working Memory

● Reasoning

● Cognitive Flexibility

● Planning Adele Diamond

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HOT

COOL

Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function®, Second Edition (BRIEF®2) Gerard A. Gioia, PhD, Peter K. Isquith, PhD, Steven C. Guy, PhD, and Lauren Kenworthy, PhD

Bailey, R., Barnes, S. P., Park, C., Sokolovic, N., & Jones, S. M. (2018). Executive Function Mapping Project Measures Compendium: A Resource for Selecting Measures Related to Executive Function and Other Regulation-related Skills in Early Childhood. OPRE Report # 2018-59, Washington, DC: Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

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● What is Executive Function (EF)?

Topics

● What is the brain basis of EF? ● How is EF related to reading? ● How do EF and ADHD compare? ● What have we learned from cognitive neuroscience?

Camilleri et al. (2018)

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● What is Executive Function (EF)?

Topics

● What is the brain basis of EF? ● How is EF related to reading? ● How do EF and ADHD compare? ● What have we learned from cognitive neuroscience?

Catts & Petscher 2021. doi:10.1177/00222194211037062

(Haft, Myers, & Hoeft, 2016)

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(Aboud, Bailey, Sefcik, & Cutting, 2015)

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The Reading Brain

(Wolf, 2007)

Patael et al., 2018

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● What is Executive Function (EF)?

Topics

● What is the brain basis of EF? ● How is EF related to reading? ● How do EF and ADHD compare? ● What have we learned from cognitive neuroscience?

DSM-5 Criteria for ADHD

A persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development, as characterized by Inattention and/or Hyperactivity and Impulsivity

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A. Six or more of the following symptoms of inattention have been present for at least 6 months to a point that is disruptive and inappropriate for developmental level: Inattention 1. Often does not give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, work, or other activities. 2. Often has trouble keeping attention on tasks or play activities. 3. Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly. 4. Often does not follow instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace (not due to oppositional behavior or failure to understand instructions). 5. Often has trouble organizing activities. 6. Often avoids, dislikes, or doesn't want to do things that take a lot of mental effort for along period of time (such as schoolwork or homework). 7. Often loses things needed for tasks and activities (e.g. toys, school assignments, pencils, books, or tools). 8. Is often easily distracted. 9. Is often forgetful in daily activities. W hich of these behaviors could be associated with reading difficulties prim arily? secondarily?

B. Six or more of the following symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity have been present for at least 6 months to an extent that is disruptive and inappropriate for developmental level: Hyperactivity and Impulsivity 1. Often fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in seat. 2. Often gets up from seat when remaining in seat is expected. 3. Often runs about or climbs when and where it is not appropriate (adolescents or adults may feel very restless). 4. Often has trouble playing or enjoying leisure activities quietly. 5. Is often "on the go" or often acts as if "driven by a motor". 6. Often talks excessively. 7. Often blurts out an answer before a question has been completed 8. Often interrupts or intrudes on others

W hich of these behaviors could be associated with reading difficulties prim arily? secondarily?

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ADHD + RD ● Reading difficulties (word, text level) are more strongly associated with inattentive (vs hyperactive/impulsive) symptoms ● Most robust for text level skills (fluency, reading comprehension) ● ADHD+RD is associated with greater impact globally Willcutt, 2018

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Rates of ADHD/RD Comorbidity

(Christodoulou et al., in prep.)

Rates of RD/ADHD Comorbidity

(Christodoulou et al., in prep.)

(Al Dahhan, Christodoulou, Gabrieli et al., 2022)

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ADHD & EF Measures ADHD

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

Conners-3 Scales

NEPSY-II

Switching

NEPSY-II

Inhibition

with an index probability score indicating how similar a child is to the clinical ADHD sample

Vanderbilt ADHD Diagnostic Parenting Rating Scale

WISC-IV Coding

which includes 18 DSM-IV ADHD symptoms

Gordon Continuous Performance Test

WISC-IV Symbol Search

Reading Measures READING ACCURACY

GORT-5 Rate 5 Accuracy Comprehension

READING FLUENCY

GORTGORT-5

WRMT-III Word Identification WRMT-III Word Attack WRAML-2 Sentence Memory

TOWRE-2 Sight Word Efficiency TOWRE-2 Phonemic Decoding Efficiency WJ-III Reading Fluency RAN 2-set RAN letters RAN numbers

Q1. Does diagnosis of ADHD impact reading skills in dyslexia? Result: Children with dyslexia alone or with ADHD do not show significant group differences on reading measures

(Al Dahhan, Christodoulou, Gabrieli et al., 2022)

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Q1 Results: Children with dyslexia alone or with ADHD do not show significant group differences for reading networks

(Al Dahhan, Christodoulou, Gabrieli et al., 2022)

Q2.Q2. Does EFEFimpact regardlessofofADHD ADHD status? Does impactreading readingskills skills in dyslexia, dyslexia, regardless status?

1. Typ > DD 2. DD ~ DD+ADHD 3. Impact of Hi EF 4. DD > DD+EF** **EF weakness has significant impact on reading fluency

(Al Dahhan, Christodoulou, Gabrieli et al., 2022)

Q2: Children with both dyslexia and impaired executive function had the most reduced brain activations in the typical left-hemisphere reading network.

(Al Dahhan, Christodoulou, Gabrieli et al., 2022)

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Summary Summary • ADHD and EF are not interchangeable • Relevant for assessing and addressing EF vs ADHD in school settings • Reading among students with dyslexia is impacted by EF deficits rather than ADHD based on reading measures and neuroimaging of reading, specifically in reading fluency

● What is Executive Function (EF)?

Topics

● What is the brain basis of EF? ● How is EF related to reading? ● How do EF and ADHD compare? ● What have we learned from cognitive neuroscience?

Thank you

Stay in touch: Email: BEAMstudies@mghihp.edu Facebook: www.facebook.com/BEAMChristodoulou Twitter: @joanna22c & @BEAMstudies Resources: http://scholar.harvard.edu/joanna/pages/resources

Reading and Writing (2023) 36:401–428 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-022-10361-8

Risk and resilience correlates of reading among adolescents with language‑based learning disabilities during COVID‑19 Rebecca A. Marks1 · Rachel T. Norton1 Joanna A. Christodoulou1

· Laura Mesite1

· Annie B. Fox2

Abstract Students with language-based learning disabilities (LBLD) can face elevated socioemotional well-being challenges in addition to literacy challenges. We examined the prevalence of risk and resilience factors among adolescents with LBLD (N = 93), ages 16–18, and the association with reading performance during the COVID-19 pandemic. Data were collected at the start and end of the first fully remote academic year of COVID-19 (2020–2021). Participants completed standardized word and text reading measures, as well as self-report surveys of executive functions (EF), and socio-emotional skills associated with resilience (grit, growth mindset, self-management, self-efficacy, and social awareness) or risk (anxiety, depression, COVID-19 related PTSD, and perceived COVID-19 impact). Survey data at the start of the school year (Time 1) captured three underlying factors associated with socioemotional risk, socioemotional resilience, and regulation (i.e., EF). Path analyses revealed that students’ Time 2 oral reading scores were significantly and uniquely predicted by socioemotional resilience, even when controlling for word-level reading at Time 1. Socioemotional risk, EF, and perceived COVID-19 impact were not directly related to Time 2 oral reading scores; however, students’ resilience mediated the associations between risk and reading outcomes. These results demonstrate that adolescents’ mental health concerns, self-regulatory ability, and socioemotional resilience were all associated with their experiences of the COVID-19-related stress. However, despite the high-risk context of the pandemic, and socio-emotional challenges faced by students with LBLD, our findings indicate that resilience directly predicts end-of-year reading outcomes and mediates the impact of socioemotional risk on achievement. Keywords Learning disabilities · LBLD · Reading · Socio-emotional skills · Resilience · COVID-19

* Joanna A. Christodoulou jchristodoulou@mghihp.edu Extended author information available on the last page of the article

Vol.:(0123456789)

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Experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic negatively impacted academic skills and mental health for many students (Ellis et al., 2020; Racine et al., 2021), particularly adolescents at risk for academic or socio-emotional challenges (Baschenis et al., 2021; Bosch et al., 2022; Korpa et al., 2021). The present study examines the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic with a focus on adolescents with language-based learning disabilities (LBLD), who are at heightened risk for academic challenges and comorbid psychiatric or mental health difficulties. Guided by a cumulative risk and resilience model of reading impairment (Catts & Petscher, 2022), we examine the associations between socio-emotional risk and resilience factors, adolescents’ experiences of the COVID-19 pandemic, and their reading outcomes after a year of remote schooling. We center this study around connected text reading, which is both an area of challenge for students with LBLD, and of particular importance for content area learning, as well as for college and career readiness (Paige, 2011; Rasinski et al., 2017; Royer et al., 1990). Language-based learning disabilities are difficulties in using and/or understanding oral and/or written language. LBLDs typically fall under the category of specific learning disabilities in school contexts (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2004), and are considered a neurodevelopmental disorder termed specific learning disorder in diagnostic contexts (DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Students with LBLD may have a range of disabilities, including developmental language disorder, dyslexia, and reading comprehension impairment, and may experience difficulties with skills such as decoding, encoding, oral reading fluency, orthographic processing, narrative comprehension and production, syntax, and grammar (Colozzo et al., 2011; Kida et al., 2016). Reading comprehension and reading fluency are two major areas of concern for students with LBLD, whose reading rate may be labored and slow with difficulty accessing the meaning of text (National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 2008; Snow & Biancarosa, 2003). The challenge of reading and understanding connected text is that it is not a singular skill, but rather a complex activity dependent on a range of knowledge and skills (Catts, 2022). By adolescence, readers are expected to be able to read with sufficient skill to extract and analyze content knowledge from text. Students with LBLD, however, come to the task of decoding and understanding text with additional, longstanding processing challenges of oral or written language. In addition, students with LBLD also face elevated concern for anxiety, depression, and related psycho-social vulnerabilities (Hendren et al., 2018). Intersecting biological, environmental, and psychosocial factors can contribute a varied spectrum of reading abilities and longitudinal outcomes for this population (Yu et al., 2018). The COVID-19 pandemic brought environmental changes that may have disproportionately impacted literacy development in students with learning disabilities. In particular, the pandemic may have generated or increased disparities between students receiving special education services and their peers (Yüksel et al., 2021), a potential consequence of the swift change to home isolation and remote learning. One study conducted with university students in Poland reported that students with reading difficulties experienced higher stress levels and worse academic achievement during the pandemic than their peers who did not report having reading difficulties (Zawadka et al., 2021). Another study of Italian children found that, although

Risk and resilience correlates of reading among adolescents…

403

the majority of participants improved in their reading over the course of lockdown, children with dyslexia showed a learning trajectory that was less steep (i.e., slower rate) than predicted (Baschenis et al., 2021). These learning challenges may be further compounded by socio-emotional experiences. During the COVID-19 pandemic, adolescents reported decreased mental health compared to pre-pandemic levels (Racine et al., 2021) and reduced self-confidence, happiness, and social connection (Margolius et al., 2020). Little is known, however, about how the COVID-19 context, in conjunction with other socio-emotional risk and resilience factors, may have affected literacy outcomes in students with LBLD. Given the compounded risk of having a learning disability during a time of school disruption, it is critically important we examine the risk and resilience factors that may mitigate or exacerbate the effects of adverse experiences. For students with reading difficulties in particular, strong executive function and socio-emotional skills can be sources of resilience that may attenuate student challenges (Haft, 2016), while trauma, stress, and executive function deficits can be risk factors that may exacerbate vulnerabilities (Catts & Petscher, 2022). We review specific socio-emotional risks in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic before turning to resilience factors.

Risk factors COVID‑19 stress The COVID-19 pandemic created a global health emergency with serious risk to physical and mental health. Although adolescents were not at higher risk for severe infection, they may have been a subgroup more susceptible to negative mental health consequences (Guo et al., 2020). Fear of COVID-19 infection or exposure may increase symptoms of psychological stress, while prolonged risk of COVID-19 effects presents a continuous risk for negative effects on mental health (Ellis et al., 2020; Guo et al., 2020). Of particular importance for adolescents, the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in a rapid transition to remote learning and increased isolation, particularly during the 2020–2021 school year. In a study of 3,300 adolescents and young adults, Margolius et al. (2020) found that changes brought on by COVID-19 resulted in considerably less time spent on academic activities, decreases in sleep due to emotional and cognitive stressors, a loss in self-confidence, and reported unhappiness, depression, and reduced connection to teachers and peers. Another study of high school students found that nearly a quarter of students reported pandemic-related concerns along with increased anxiety, depression, and loneliness (Gazamarian et al., 2021). Although both studies highlighted disproportionate negative impacts of the pandemic by demographic group (i.e., gender, race, socio-economic status), neither study specifically examined adolescents with learning disabilities (Gazamarian et al., 2021; Margolius et al., 2020), a population likely to be even more vulnerable to the pandemic’s negative effects (Kuhfeld et al., 2020).

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Generalized anxiety and depression Clinically significant symptoms of anxiety and depression can negatively affect the academic and social experiences of adolescents (Magson et al., 2021). Adolescents with LBLD may be at particularly high risk of elevated mental health difficulties, related to both their learning difficulties and the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. First, students with learning disabilities may be at particular risk for comorbid anxiety and/or depression (e.g., Nelson & Harwood, 2011). Children with reading disabilities generally exhibit greater anxiety and worse depressive symptoms than their typically developing peers (Mammarella, 2016), and anxiety is negatively associated with academic performance in students with reading impairments over time (Hossain et al., 2021a). Similarly, adolescents (Giovagnoli et al., 2020) and college students (Ghisi et al., 2016) with dyslexia report increased anxiety and depression, which have also been associated with lower self-esteem. Second, evidence suggests increased levels of anxiety and/or depression in adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic (De France et al., 2022; Magson et al., 2021; Racine et al., 2021), although findings are mixed. (For studies demonstrating lower levels of adolescent anxiety or depression during the pandemic, see Luthar et al., 2021a, 2021b.) Greater anxiety and depression during the pandemic was associated with online learning difficulties (Magson et al., 2021), concerns about academic performance (Luthar et al., 2021a), and more dramatic lifestyle changes associated with the pandemic (De France et al., 2022). Post‑traumatic stress disorder Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is characterized by dissociative-, anxiety-, or fear-related manifestations that arise after exposure to a traumatic event, or after being repeatedly exposed to details of the event (APA, 2013). While those directly affected by COVID-19 (i.e., infection, sickness, experiencing a family member’s death) are at risk for traumatic stress, the fear of COVID-19 infection or exposure can similarly create a risk of developing traumatic stress (Guo et al., 2020). Traumatic experiences in adolescent populations may involve single or multiple exposures to stressors, and have demonstrated adverse effects on cognitive, linguistic, and social-emotional domains (op den Kelder et al., 2017). In their risk and resilience model of dyslexia, Catts and Petscher (2022) suggest that experiences of trauma may confer cumulative risk related to reading difficulties. Independent of pandemicrelated trauma, individuals with learning disabilities may already experience some school-based trauma related to their learning differences (Doyle & Mitchell, 2003).

Resilience factors In the face of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is critical to recognize the resilience factors that may buffer against poor mental health and academic outcomes. Resilience is typically understood as the capacity to successfully adjust to risk or adversity

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(Masten & Barnes, 2018). Although many factors can be understood under the umbrella of resilience, for the present study, we follow prior reading disability frameworks in distinguishing between socioemotional resilience and cognitive resilience (Catts & Petscher, 2022; Haft et al., 2016), though we acknowledge potential overlap. Socioemotional resilience Students may demonstrate resilience via social and emotional domains. Children with well-developed core socio-emotional skills demonstrate awareness of their emotions, social interactions, and personal life goals, in addition to the ability to make responsible decisions related to those goals (Oberle et al., 2016). Specifically, social-emotional proficiency is imperative for academic success, as students navigate communication with peers and teachers, difficult situations, and decision-making opportunities that may affect outcomes in educational contexts and beyond (Zins et al., 2007). Socio-emotional skills are thought to play a critical role in adolescent outcomes, particularly among those affected by traumatic experiences, as well as populations identified with specific learning difficulties (Hendren et al., 2018). On one hand, students with learning disabilities are more likely to have lower academic self-efficacy and endorse fixed beliefs about intelligence—maladaptive characteristics that are negatively associated with performance and achievement (Baird et al., 2009). On the other hand, students with learning difficulties who feel greater control over their own learning demonstrate better academic outcomes (Zheng et al., 2014). In a sample of reading impaired children and young adolescents, parent and teacher ratings of students’ resilience were positively related to academic performance (Hossain et al., 2021b). By building socio-emotional competencies, students may be better equipped to face challenges (Oberle et al., 2016), particularly those associated with reading difficulties (Haft et al., 2016). The current study therefore assesses numerous dimensions of socioemotional resilience (i.e., self-management, self-efficacy, social awareness, grit and growth mindset), and examines their association with mental health risk and COVID-19-related stress as well as reading outcomes. Socio-emotional competencies may attenuate the associations between risk or negative stressors and academic outcomes. Resilience can be understood as a mediating process that allows some individuals to achieve positive outcomes despite the presence of risk. For instance, Chinese adolescents’ resilience mediated the effects of perceived stressful life events on their school adjustment, attenuating the negative impact of stress (Zhang et al., 2019). The COVID-19 pandemic presents a novel context of wide-reaching perceived risks and life stressors with which students must cope. We offer that socioemotional resilience may impact reading skills through numerous potential mechanisms, including through stress and attention systems. At the psychological level, socioemotional resilience may support students in reframing and responding to challenges effectively through underlying stress response regulation. Resilience may also help students to deploy and sustain their attention related to academic topics effectively, even in the context of environmental risk factors.

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Cognitive resilience Cognitive factors can likewise play a role in attenuating the challenges of a learning disability and/or serve as compensatory skills. While many dimensions of both cognitive and linguistic processing can serve as resilience factors (Haft et al., 2016), we focus on executive functions in this study. Executive functions (EFs) are top-down cognitive processes that help with attention, emotion-regulation, problem-solving, impulse control, goal-oriented behavior, and self-management (op den Kelder et al., 2017). Broad EF domains include working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility (Meiri et al., 2019). Strong EF (i.e., self-regulation) skills are protective factors associated with improved academic, health, and well-being outcomes in school-aged populations (Zins et al., 2007), whereas children with EF deficits may experience impulsivity, intensified emotional reactions, and difficulty with goal-directed behavior (op den Kelder et al., 2017). EF is of particular interest for individuals with LBLD, including those with reading difficulties, because EFs are closely linked to underlying processes for reading (Church et al., 2019). EF in early-childhood is predictive of later reading abilities (Blankenship et al., 2019; Thompson et al., 2015), and high EF may help to differentiate between children at risk for dyslexia who do or do not go on to develop reading impairments (Eklund et al., 2013). One potential explanation is that high levels of EF may partially compensate for low decoding abilities to support higher level reading comprehension skills (Cirino et al., 2019). At the same time, however, reading difficulties frequently co-occur with EF deficits (Al Dahhan et al., 2022; Booth et al., 2010; Lonergan et al., 2019). EF can be considered simultaneously as a potential area of weakness for some LBLD students (Al Dahhan et al., 2022; Eklund et al., 2013) and a promising protective factor that may buffer against the adverse effects of major life stressors for others (Shields et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2019).

Current study Most studies of interventions for RD and comorbid diagnoses such as anxiety and depression analyze co-occurring diagnoses individually, indicating a need for future work to address relationships among comorbid factors (Hendren et al., 2018). We present a study with an adolescent sample with LBLD, examining stress related to COVID-19, risk factors (i.e., post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression), resilience factors (i.e., social-emotional skills, executive functions), and performance on reading measures, to identify predictive relationships among variables, at the start and end of a fully remote school year during the COVID-19 pandemic.

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Method Participants Ninety-three adolescents (63 male, 30 female) participated in this study. All participants were enrolled in grade 11 or 12 at a school serving students with learning disabilities located in the Northeast region of the United States. Participants’ age at Time 1 ranged from 16.08 to 18.92 years old (M = 17.37, SD = 0.68 years). Students all carried LBLD diagnoses; although specific diagnostic data is not available per participant, historically, over 90% of the enrollees at this school have been identified with a specific learning disability (SLD). Participant performance on this study’s measures (see Table 1) align with the common reading profile of LBLD students, with 87% performing below the average range (standard score of < 85 or scaled score of < 8) on at least one reading measure, 72% on at least two measures, and 60% on three or more. Data were collected by trained school staff as standard of care in Fall 2020 (October through December) and Spring 2021 (April through June), during the first complete academic year of the COVID-19 pandemic. Deidentified data were provided for secondary data analysis in accordance with approved procedures by the Partners Human Research Committee Institutional Review Board.

Measures Reading Reading performance was measured at the word and connected text levels. Word level skills were indexed using untimed real word reading and untimed pseudoword reading subtests from the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, Third Edition (KTEA-3; Kaufman & Kaufman, 2014). Split-half reliability coefficients for these subtests range from 0.95 to 0.97 in 16–19 year olds (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2014). Connected text reading performance was measured using the Gray Oral Reading Test, Fifth Edition (GORT-5; Wiederholt & Bryant, 2012). Age-normed standardized scores are used in all statistical analyses. Standardized scores for reading rate, accuracy, fluency, and comprehension are based on a mean of 10 and a standard deviation of 3, and the oral reading index is based on a mean of 100 and a standard

Table 1 Percentage of students scoring at or below the agenormed mean score on T1 literacy measures

≤ 85 (%)

≤ 90 (%)

≤ 100 (%)

Word reading

31.2

63.4

91.4

Pseudoword decoding

34.4

54.8

92.5

Oral reading quotient

58.1

80.6

97.8

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deviation of 15. Internal reliability for the GORT-5 subtests range from 0.92 to 0.98 in 16–19 year olds (Wiederholt & Bryant, 2012). Executive function EF was measured with the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, Second Edition (BRIEF-2) Self-Report (Gioia et al., 2015). This measure has strong internal consistency and reliability, with self-report reliability coefficients ranging from 0.71 to 0.97 (Hendrickson & McCrimmon, 2019). Three indices of self-regulation are reported. The Behavior Regulation Index includes inhibition (i.e., controlling impulsivity) and self-monitoring (i.e., monitoring one’s behavior in relation to others). The Emotion Regulation Index includes shifting (i.e., transitioning between situations) and emotional control (i.e., emotion regulation skills). The Cognitive Regulation Index includes task completion (i.e., efficiency when completing school tasks), working memory (i.e., holding task-relevant information in mind), and planning/organizing (i.e., goal setting and organizing goal-directed action). Higher BRIEF-2 scores are indicative of higher clinical concern for EF difficulties. Standardized scores, which are used in all analyses, are based on a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10; scores above the average range are considered mildly elevated (60–64), potentially clinically elevated (65–69), or clinically elevated (at or above 70).

Socio‑emotional resilience Subtests derived from the Panorama Social-Emotional Learning Survey (Panorama Education, 2015) were used to evaluate participants’ social-emotional skills. Mean scores on 5-option Likert scales were used to quantify students’ grit, growth mindset, self-management, social awareness, and self-efficacy. Cronbach’s ɑ for each subtest ranged from 0.82 to 0.93, indicating good internal consistency reliability. The Self-Efficacy subscale (5 items, ɑ = 0.91) asked participants to rate their confidence in their ability to achieve academic outcomes (e.g., “How confident are you that you can complete all the work that is assigned in your classes?”), ranging from 1 = “Not at all confident” to 5 = “Extremely confident.” The Self-Management subscale (10 questions, ɑ = 0.93) asked participants to consider their skill with selfregulation in the classroom within the past 30 days (e.g., “How often did you follow directions in class?”), ranging from 1 = “Almost never” to 5 = “Almost all the time.” The Grit subscale (5 questions, ɑ = 0.82) asked participants to respond to questions about their experience persevering through challenges, such as, “If you fail to reach an important goal, how likely are you to try again?” (1 = “Not at all likely” to 5 = “Extremely likely”). The Growth Mindset subscale (6 questions, ɑ = 0.86) asked participants to rate their belief that factors such as intelligence, effort, and talent can be changed or developed, ranging from 1 = “Not at all possible to change” to 5 = “Completely possible to change.” The Social Awareness subscale (8 questions,

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ɑ = 0.89) asked participants to consider their empathetic interactions with others within the past 30 days, such as “When others disagreed with you, how respectful were you of their views?” (1 = “Not at all respectful” to 5 = “Extremely respectful”). Risk factors Risk factors included participants’ perceived impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as their risk of experiencing anxiety, depression, and PTSD symptomology. Cronbach’s ɑ for these subtests ranged from 0.83 to 0.96. COVID‑19 impact A modified version of the COVID-19 Impact Scale was used to quantify selfreported experiences (Ellis et al., 2020). This 8-item scale was designed for adolescents, and invites responses regarding the pandemic’s impact on the school year, family finances, social relationships, and related concerns (i.e., “To what extent are you worried about how COVID-19 will impact you feeling connected to your friends?” and “How likely is it that you could become infected with the COVID-19 virus?”). The survey response options were modified from the original three-point scale to be: (1) Not at all, (2) A little bit, (3) Somewhat, (4) Quite a bit, and (5) A tremendous amount. Internal consistency reliability was ɑ = 0.83. Anxiety and depression The Pediatric Item Bank, PROMIS Emotional Distress Battery (PROMIS Health Organization, 2013a, 2013b) was used to measure anxiety (13 items, i.e., “My worries overwhelmed me”) and depression (14 items, i.e., “I felt that I had nothing to look forward to”). A 5-point Likert response scale was used, and raw scores were converted to T scores, in which higher values indicate higher risk across 4 categories: None to slight, Mild, Moderate, and Severe. Internal consistency reliability for the anxiety and depression scales were ɑ = 0.94 and ɑ = 0.96, respectively. Post‑traumatic stress symptoms Following the COVID-19 Impact Scale, the UCLA Brief COVID-19 Screen for Child/Adolescent PTSD was administered (UCLA Brief Screen for Child/Adolescent PTSD, 2020). The 11-item scale assessed participants’ potential risk of PTSD symptoms related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Using a 5-point response scale (ɑ = 0.85), participants described how frequently during the past month they have had experiences like, “When something reminds me of what happened or is still happening, I get very upset, afraid, or sad.” Total scores were interpreted in four categories with higher scores indicating a higher risk for PTSD: No PTSD symptoms; Minimal PTSD symptoms; Mild PTSD symptoms; or Potential PTSD. This PTSD screener has strong internal consistency and reliability with subjects ages 7–18, and

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can discriminate between individuals who do vs. do not meet full PTSD diagnostic criteria (Kaplow et al., 2020). Analysis To examine the associations between socio-emotional resilience, risk, and reading skill, we performed structural equation modeling in MPlus Version 8.5 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2017). Model fit was examined using the Chi square value and four goodness-of-fit indices: the comparative fit index (CFI) > 0.95, Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) > 0.95, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) < 0.06, and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) < 0.08 (Kline 2015). First, we conducted an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to examine the underlying latent structure of the risk, resilience, and regulation measures assessed in the fall (Time 1), allowing for two to four factors. The three factor model revealed theoretically principled underlying factors representing socioemotional resilience (all five subscales of the socioemotional learning survey), mental health risk (depression, anxiety and PTSD surveys), and self-regulation (all BRIEF-2 indicators), and was an adequate fit to our data (CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.91, RMSEA = 0.09, SRMR = 0.05). Notably, students’ mean COVIDrelated stress did not load well onto any factor. The four factor model suggested a separate latent construct with COVID-related stress, growth mindset, and PTSD symptomatology as indicators. Although including this fourth factor improved statistical fit ( 𝜒 2diff (4 FAC − 3 FAC)(9) = 30.25, p < 0.001), it was not theoretically aligned with prior literature. We subsequently removed students’ mean COVID-related stress from the factor analysis, and ran a follow-up confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with three factors using a maximum likelihood robust (MLR) estimator (Fig. 1; CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.92, RMSEA = 0.08, SRMR = 0.07). Given the small sample size, we exported factor scores derived from this three factor CFA to represent risk, resilience, and self-regulation in subsequent path models. We then examined two competing models of the associations between these socio-emotional predictors at Time 1, as operationalized using these factor scores, and participants’ text-level reading skills in the spring (Time 2), measured using the GORT-5 Oral Reading Quotient. We controlled for age and word reading ability (KTEA-3 untimed real word reading) at Time 1.

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Fig. 1 Factor analysis representing socio-emotional resilience, self-regulation deficits, and socio-emotional risk

Results Descriptive statistics Reading measures Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics regarding participants word- and textlevel reading skills as measured at Time 1. As expected, this sample’s reading difficulties are reflected in low average mean scores across word-level tasks and by below average mean scores across passage reading tasks. Executive function EF indices show that the majority of participants are in the “not elevated” category for each BRIEF-2 index. Conversely, clinically elevated scores range from 3.2% (emotional control and self-monitor) to 11.8% (working memory). Frequency

31.70–86.60

0.00–33.00

4.13

3.60

3.56

3.89

44.50 11.64

2.32

6. Selfefficacyb

7. Gritb

8. Social awarenessb

9. Anxietyc

10. 48.35 12.61 Depressionc

7.44

5. Self-managementb

11. PTSDd

12. COVID stresse

1.91

15. Text reading fluencyg

6.43

8.82

88.17 10.03

0.81

6.78

0.76

0.82

0.99

14. Pseudow- 88.79 ord readingf

13. Word readingf

32.30–88.00

1.10

3.49

4. Growth mindsetb

0.81

38.00–89.00

9.56

3. Emotion 54.43 regulationa

2.00–11.00

66.00–119.00

51.00–111.00

1.00–4.25

1.00–5.00

38.00–85.00

2. Cognitive 56.25 10.11 regulationa

Range

39.00–85.00

9.06

52.59 1. Behavior regulationa

0.62***

0.63***

0.65***

0.04

0.00

0.12

− 0.03

− 0.11

− 0.03

0.17

− 0.01

− 0.00

0.02

0.24*

0.34*** 0.43***

0.32*** 0.47***

0.22*

0.20*

0.26*

0.13

0.32**

0.13

− 0.03

− 0.10

− 0.13

− 0.12 0.02

0.09

− 0.01 0.77***

0.06

0.15

− 0.03

− 0.12

0.22*

0.04

0.08

0.16

0.34***0.18

0.33***

.06

0.05

0.04

0.01

0.06

0.13

0.51*** 0.47***

− 0.07 − 0.04 − 0.10 − 0.03 − 0.03 − 0.06 0.53***

− 0.09 − 0.17 − 0.13 − 0.06 − 0.05 0.04

0.14

− 0.22* − 0.28** − 0.02 − 0.15 0.60***0.62***

− 0.13

− 0.05

0.37*** 0.17

0.09

− 0.06

0.04

0.46*** 0.83*** 0.70*** 0.63***

− 0.43*** − 0.33*** − 0.35***

0.49*** 0.66*** 0.69***

− 0.39*** − 0.34*** − 0.32***

0.48*** 0.75***

− 0.43*** − 0.46*** − 0.43***

− 0.21*

0.47***

− 0.16

− 0.43*** − 0.36*** − 0.37***

− 0.18

Table 2 Descriptive statistics and correlations between variables at Time 1 15

412 R. A. Marks et al.

82.92 10.27

18. T2 oral reading quotientg

0.03

0.01

57.00–107.00 − 0.01

65.00–105.00

2.00–12.00

Range

0.02

0.06

− 0.03

− 0.02

− 0.03

− 0.05

0.11

0.05

− 0.03

0.18

0.19

7 0.10

0.08

0.09

6 0.21*

0.24*

0.25* 0.06

0.07

0.08

0.13

− 0.03 − 0.03 0.11

14 0.60***

0.49*** 0.36*** 0.68*** 0.68*** 0.76***

0.53*** 0.38*** 0.91*** 0.88***

0.44*** 0.20*

BRIEF-2 subscale, bPanorama SEL survey subscale, cPROMIS Emotional Distress Battery T-score, dUCLA PTSD screen total symptoms, eCOVID-19 Impact scale mean, fKTEA-3, gGORT-5

− 0.07 − 0.13 0.07

− 0.03 − 0.02 0.02

0.03

0.01

N = 93. Bolded values are statistically significant: *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001. T1 = Time 1, T2 = Time 2

8.67

82.72

17. T1 oral reading quotientg

1.72

7.23

16. Reading comprehensiong

Table 2 (continued)

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statistics for each category across the behavior regulation, cognitive regulation, and emotion regulation indices are presented in Supplemental Table S1. Risk factors On average, participants reported that they were “a little bit” to “somewhat” concerned about the COVID-19 pandemic (M = 2.68, SD = 1.40), with 30.1% of participants reporting “quite a bit” or “a tremendous amount” of concern. Participants were similarly worried that the pandemic would impact their school year (M = 2.71, SD = 1.36), with 34.4% of participants reporting “quite a bit” or “tremendous” concern. Of the eight items on the COVID-19 Impact Scale, participants were least concerned that they themselves might become infected with the virus (M = 1.03, SD = 1.02). Means and standard deviations for each item are presented in Table 3. The majority of participants demonstrated minimal risk for COVID-related PTSD, anxiety or depression. Anxiety T scores indicated 79.6% None to slight, 7.5% Mild, 10.8% Moderate, and 2.2% Severe. Depression T scores indicated 68.8% None to slight, 14.0% Mild, 12.9% Moderate, and 4.3% Severe. Risk as measured by the PTSD survey yielded 10.8% No PTSD symptoms, 63.4% Minimal PTSD symptoms, 20.4% Mild PTSD symptoms, and 5.4% Potential PTSD. Associations between COVID‑19 impact, risk, and resilience variables Descriptive statistics and Pearson correlations between each of the risk and resilience measures at Time 1 are also presented in Table 2. Correlations indicate that greater perceived impact of the COVID-19 pandemic (i.e., COVID-19 stress) is associated with more difficulties in emotional control, higher risk of anxiety and COVID-19-related PTSD symptoms, as well as a tendency towards growth mindset.

Table 3 Descriptive statistics for survey items on COVID-19 Impact Scale M

To what extent are you worried about how COVID-19 will impact your school year?

2.71

1.36

To what extent are you worried about how COVID-19 will impact your own and your family’s finances?

2.34

1.15

To what extent are you worried about how COVID-19 will impact your ability to keep up your reputation?

1.85

1.10

To what extent are you worried about how COVID-19 will impact you feeling connected to your friends?

2.38

1.20

To what extent are you concerned about the COVID-19 crisis?

2.68

1.40

How likely is it that you could become infected with the COVID-19 virus?

1.03

1.02

How likely is it that someone you know could become infected with the COVID-19 virus?

2.45

1.22

If you did become infected with COVID-19, to what extent are you concerned that you will be severely ill?

2.09

1.19

All items are on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 = “Not at all” to 5 = “Extremely worried/concerned/likely”

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Fig. 2 Path analysis models explaining variance in end-of-year oral reading skill in relation to students’ perceptions of the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as socio-emotional risk and resilience factors

Measurement and structural models We tested two path analysis models predicting participants’ oral text reading skills (GORT-5 Oral Reading Quotient) at the end of the school year (Time 2; Spring 2021). In the first model, we examined the direct effects of participants’

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socioemotional resilience, risk, and self-regulation factor scores on an oral reading composite score, as well as the indirect effects of resilience, risk, and self-regulation through students’ perceived COVID-19 impact at Time 1 (see Fig. 2A). This model fit the data well (X2(4, N = 93) = 0.83, p = 0.935; CFI = 1.00, TLI = 1.00, RMSEA = 0.00, SRMR = 0.02) and explained 35% of variance in adolescents’ oral reading quotient. Model results revealed significant effects of both socioemotional risk and resilience on self-regulation deficits. The resilience and self-regulation factor scores were both significantly associated with students’ perceived COVID-19 impact at Time 1; however, only socioemotional resilience had a significant direct effect on Time 2 oral reading composite scores. These effects were replicated when using T2 reading comprehension as the dependent variable (see Supplement). In an alternative model based on prior work by Zhang and colleagues (2019), we examined how self-regulation and resilience might mediate the effects of COVID-19 related stress and other risk factors on oral reading (Fig. 2B). Replicating the results of the first structural model, only socioemotional resilience had a significant direct effect on Time 2 oral reading. However, resilience also mediated indirect effects of self-regulation (β = − 0.20, p = 0.007) and perceived COVID-19 impact (β = 0.06, p = 0.043) on oral text reading composite scores (see Supplemental Table S3). There was also a significant indirect path from socioemotional risk to oral reading through both self-regulation and resilience (β = − 0.10, p = 0.016). This second model also fit the data well (X2 (6, N = 93) = 2.28, p = 0.892; CFI = 1.00, TLI = 1.00, RMSEA = 0.00, SRMR = 0.04) and explained 36% of the variance in students’ oral reading quotient. Again, the effects were replicated when using T2 reading comprehension as the dependent variable (see Supplement). Finally, to investigate the components of the resilience factor that might be driving the consistent association with oral reading skill, we conducted post hoc partial correlations between each observed resilience variable and participants’ oral reading

Table 4 Partial correlations between resilience factors at Time 1 and GORT-5 text-level reading skills Growth mindset Self-management Self-efficacy Grit

Social awareness

T1 rate

0.18

0.23*

0.22*

0.17 0.15

T1 accuracy

0.18

0.25*

0.19

0.10 0.16

T1 fluency

0.21

0.25*

0.21*

0.12 0.16

T1 comprehension

0.01

0.27**

0.19

0.15 0.18

T1 oral reading quotient 0.13

0.30**

0.23*

0.16 0.19

T2 rate

0.20

0.22*

0.08 0.15

0.15

T2 accuracy

0.14

0.24*

0.15

0.08 0.12

T2 fluency

0.17

0.25*

0.23*

0.12 0.15

T2 comprehension

0.15

0.25*

0.21*

0.17 0.16

T2 oral reading quotient 0.18

0.27**

0.24*

0.16 0.17

N = 93, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01. T1 = Time 1 (Fall 2020); T2 = Time 2 (Spring 2021). Text-level reading skills are measured by the Gray Oral Reading Test. Partial correlations control for KTEA-3 word recognition at T1

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rate and accuracy (and a composite represented as fluency), and comprehension at Time 1 and Time 2. Reading skill was consistently associated with participants’ selfmanagement and self-efficacy (Table 4). Sensitivity analyses revealed that this pattern of associations was robust when controlling for age, sex, EF, and risk factors.

Discussion The current study examined factors associated with risk and resilience among adolescents with language-based learning disabilities (LBLD), and their relation to reading performance over a year of schooling during the COVID-19 pandemic. Across two path analysis models, students’ experiences of pandemic-related stress were associated with their socio-emotional resilience, mental health risk, and selfregulatory skills at the start of the school year (Fall 2020). End of year reading performance was positively predicted by socioemotional resilience, but was not directly associated with socioemotional risk or self-regulation. Adolescents’ mental health concerns, which are often heightened in LBLD populations, were associated with their stress related to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, despite the high-risk context of the pandemic, reading skills were directly predicted by resilience factors. Risk factors indirectly impacted reading ability, mediated by students’ resilience. Risk, resilience, and the experience of COVID‑19‑related stress The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted home, school, and work environments as nations around the world implemented social distancing and lock-down measures. This dramatic contextual change was linked to poor mental health outcomes (Bosch et al., 2022; Li et al., 2021). Among our sample of 11th and 12th graders with LBLD, we found that greater COVID-19-related stress was correlated with PTSD symptomology and generalized anxiety, but not depression. The association with anxiety is consistent with prior studies, while the non-significant correlation between COVID-19 stress and depressive symptomology is unexpected. For instance, COVID-19 distress in a sample of Australian adolescents correlated with higher incidence of both generalized anxiety and depression, and was negatively associated with life satisfaction (Magson et al., 2021). Furthermore, pandemic-related distress moderated the change in mental health over time. Similarly, increased concern about the threat of COVID-19 was associated with higher incidence of anxiety, depression, and somatic symptoms among Chinese college students (Liu, Liu & Liu, 2020). Our findings are also consistent with studies that have reported increased prevalence of PTSD risk within the context of the COVID-19 pandemic (Sayed et al., 2021), and relationships between PTSD symptomology and anxiety and depression (Stewart et al., 2022). Greater COVID-19-related stress was also correlated with increased difficulties with emotion regulation. Our path analyses shed light on the directionality of this association, revealing a significant path from the self-regulation deficits to COVID19-related stress (Fig. 2A). In contrast, a second model (Fig. 2B) revealed no

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significant pathway from COVID-19 stress to self-regulation deficits, lending specificity to our correlational findings. This result is consistent with a longitudinal study revealing that pre-pandemic emotion dysregulation in U.S. teenagers was linked to greater mental health concerns during the pandemic (Breaux et al., 2021). Interestingly, COVID-19 stress was also correlated with growth mindset. Put another way, adolescents who were more likely to endorse fixed beliefs about learning and intelligence (i.e., “It is not possible to change your level of intelligence”) experienced lower levels of COVID-related stress. This bivariate correlation is also reflected in the first path model, in which higher socioemotional resilience was associated with greater COVID-19 stress. The direction of this association stands in contrast to prior work: a large meta-analysis revealed negative associations between growth mindset and psychological distress, and a positive association between growth mindset and active coping mechanisms, for both adolescents and adults (Burnette et al., 2020). More specific to the COVID-19 context, the Health Belief Model (Rosenstock, Strecher & Becker, 1988) suggests that socio-emotional competencies such as self-efficacy should promote positive coping mechanisms. Higher self-efficacy has been shown to buffer the negative effects of health stressors and mental health problems in adults, through the mediator of COVID-19 risk perception (Zhou et al., 2021). Nevertheless, the association between greater socioemotional competence (particularly growth mindset) and greater perceived COVID-19 impact is apparent in our data. We offer a few speculative hypotheses for this finding. One possible explanation is that adolescents—who have substantially less political and social capital through which to influence their surrounding environment compared to adults—may have had heightened awareness of the ways in which authority figures could have responded to pandemic risks, but may have failed to live up to adolescents’ hopes or expectations. Relatedly, adolescents may have experienced disempowerment or limited agency with reduced social engagement in school/home settings, which may have tempered associations between growth mindset and coping mechanisms. Additional research is needed to clarify how the associations between mindset, socioemotional competence, and risk perception may vary across contexts and individuals during COVID-19. Socioemotional resilience mediates risk and predicts oral reading skill over time In their model of cumulative risk and resilience, Catts and Petscher (2021) suggest that socioemotional and cognitive resilience factors may buffer against the burden of reading difficulties. In the present study, we demonstrate a positive direct effect of socioemotional resilience at Time 1 on oral reading skill at Time 2. In contrast, we observed no direct effects of self-regulation deficits, mental health risk, or COVID19-related stress on reading over time. Our second model shows that self-regulation, COVID-19 stress, and mental health risk are all indirectly associated with reading skill, mediated by adolescents’ socioemotional competence. Post-hoc correlations suggest that the two strongest socioemotional predictors of LBLD students’ oral reading skills were self-efficacy and self-management.

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These findings contribute to the limited research connecting socioemotional resilience to reading achievement, particularly in adolescents, and provide unique insights into the role of resilience for students with LBLD. We extend prior work demonstrating that socioemotional resilience mediates the effects of stressful events on school adjustment among adolescents (Kim et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2019). Results demonstrate that resilience may buffer the negative effects of COVID-19-related stress, mental health risk, and EF deficits on reading. We also find, consistent with prior research, that higher scores on EF and self-regulation is associated with increased resilience (Davidovich et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2019). Notably, we find no direct effect of EF on end of year oral reading composite scores. The inclusion of socioemotional risk and resilience factors, or the overlap between these factors and our EF measures, may have led to contrasting findings with prior work on younger students, demonstrating direct associations between EF and reading skill (e.g., Cirino et al., 2019). However, little is currently known about the role of self-regulation in oral reading or reading comprehension in adolescents. It is possible that the associations between cognition and academic achievement are less pronounced in older compared to younger learners (e.g., Ferrer et al., 2007), or that EF was sufficiently represented in the socioemotional resilience questions indirectly. Our findings extend the notion that socioemotional competence is positively related to academic adjustment more broadly in students with learning disabilities (Haft et al., 2016; Hossain et al., 2021b; Zheng et al., 2014) by connecting resilience directly to reading ability. There has been limited work to date with struggling learners that directly links socioemotional skills to specific domains of student achievement, and most extant research focused on the role of grit and/or growth mindset in younger children (Credé et al., 2017; Hossain et al., 2021b; Petscher et al., 2017; Sisk et al., 2018). The present study’s findings suggest that in older adolescent readers with LBLD, self-efficacy and self-management may be associated with oral passage reading skill (fluency and comprehension). These findings extend prior work suggesting that selfefficacy is associated with reading comprehension skill in early adolescence. For instance, self-efficacy was positively correlated with, but did not uniquely predict reading comprehension above word reading in 7th grade struggling readers (Klauda & Guthrie, 2015). Similarly, while self-efficacy predicted initial reading comprehension skill in 6th graders, growth mindset (but not self-efficacy) predicted growth in reading (Cho et al., 2021). To our knowledge, our study provides early evidence linking both self-efficacy and self-management to reading achievement in older readers (11th and 12th grade) with language-based learning disabilities. One challenge when interpreting our results in conjunction with prior work is the variability in how socioemotional learning, self-efficacy, and self-regulation are operationalized. However, two recent studies with high school students begin to clarify these associations. First, Fairless and colleagues (2021) examined the associations between socioemotional skills, environmental supports, and achievement in a large sample of high-risk U.S. high schoolers. Academic achievement across subjects was positively correlated with students’ socioemotional skills and self-efficacy. In a regression model, self-efficacy was a strong positive predictor of achievement, whereas socioemotional learning (conceptualized in terms of task management,

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peer relationships, and self-regulation skill) did not predict unique variance (Fairless et al., 2021). Like Fairless and colleagues (2021), we find positive effects of self-efficacy on achievement, though we operationalize socioemotional skills differently. A second study with Canadian high schoolers demonstrated an association between an SEL intervention, which included heart rate monitoring and direct instruction in behavior regulation, and reading comprehension test performance specifically (McLeod & Boyes, 2021). The intervention group’s test-taking self-efficacy remained stable over the course of the study—in contrast to a decline in selfefficacy in the control group—and they exhibited reduced test taking anxiety and greater growth in reading comprehension compared to the control group. Together, these findings help to build our burgeoning understanding of socioemotional competence—specifically self-efficacy—and academic outcomes in adolescence. The current study also suggests that adolescents’ socioemotional resilience may have a mediating effect on various risk factors, including pandemic-related distress. This finding dovetails nicely with prior work suggesting that resilience (operationalized in terms of individuals’ faith in their ability to adapt to changing circumstances) similarly mediates the association between COVID-19-related stress and acute stress disorder symptoms among Chinese college students (Ye et al., 2020). We also found that both EF and resilience mediated the effect of participants’ mental health risk factors on reading. Among Chinese adolescents, the impact of stressful life events on school adjustment was serially mediated by both EF and resilience (operationalized in terms of feelings of personal competence and self-acceptance) (Zhang et al., 2019). Our findings are also novel in drawing direct associations between risk factors, resilience factors, and reading outcomes as a specific metric of academic achievement. Importantly, the strongest indicators of our resilience factor were self-efficacy, social awareness, and self-management; post-hoc correlations revealed specific associations between self-efficacy, self-management, and reading skills. Both self-efficacy and self-management may be understood in the context of motivation research and theories of self-regulated learning. Self-management may be closely related to self-monitoring, a critical stage of self-reflection in the self-regulated learning cycle, and could potentially be associated with meta-cognitive strategy use relevant to reading success (Joseph & Eveleigh, 2011). Self-management, and socioemotional resilience more broadly, may also help students to sustain and control their attention to academic topics in the context of reading-related challenges present in LBLD and/or environmental risk factors in the COVID-19 context.

Broader impacts for students with language based learning disabilities The current findings demonstrate that even during a global pandemic, socio-emotional resilience may be associated with reading achievement among high risk learners. Reading difficulties for students with LBLD are chronic and persistent into adulthood; indeed, students in the current study demonstrate reading performance in the low-average and below average range. While resilience does not reduce or

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eliminate this reading difficulty, it may extend students’ bandwidth for tolerating related challenges, facilitate problem-solving, reduce the impact of stigma, temper the socioemotional consequences of learning difficulties, and/or foster an empathetic route for better understanding one’s self and others in the context of struggle. While we focus here on the student’s capacity to adapt to the environment, we also acknowledge the importance of responsive educators and environments for supporting student progress. Efforts to address resilience have spanned research to practice (e.g., educational programs and interventions). Resilience interventions frequently focus on mindset and/or grit in younger children (e.g., Al Otaiba et al., 2022), and tend to query the impact of resilience on mental health or well-being as the primary proximal target outcome. This body of work has rarely been extended to examine the impact of resilience interventions on distal associations with academic achievement (however, see Hossain et al., 2021a, 2021b). Our study suggests that self-efficacy and self-management are the two aspects of resilience most closely associated with reading outcomes in high-risk adolescent learners. This finding is novel, as most prior work has examined resilience in terms of grit and growth mindset in young children. However, we may draw insight from motivational interventions. A meta-analysis specific to reading self-efficacy (Unrau et al., 2018) suggests that (a) motivational interventions can successfully influence students’ self-efficacy beliefs, and (b) that self-efficacy and reading comprehension skill are positively related, although the directionality is unknown. Notably, however, effect sizes were somewhat larger for typical readers than struggling readers, and only one study in the meta-analysis was conducted with high schoolers. Future work should continue extending efforts to older students, and consider including self-efficacy and self-management dimensions in educational programming. Resilience-based training will be important to deliver in conjunction with reading interventions so that empowerment comes from both skill advancement as well as from training to self-advocate, navigate resources, and counter negative feedback (internal or external). Future work can clarify the association between self-efficacy measured generally for a student compared to self-efficacy specific to reading, as the current study used a general measurement. Additional efforts can also include co-designing research with students with LBLD and their educators and parents, building on efforts in the education and health domains (Dahlstrom-Hakki et al., 2021). Limitations The current study was limited in several ways. The LBLD sample did not come from public schools; they were all immersed in a school specifically serving students with learning disabilities, with a specialized curriculum that emphasizes resilience. Because we lack a control group in a public school context, we are unable to determine whether participants’ resilience may have been elevated, or particularly powerful in overcoming risk, reducing the generalizability of the findings. The available data on participants did not include information on socioeconomic status, specific diagnoses, or duration at the school, which would have been valuable factors

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to consider. As LBLD is an umbrella term that captures various types of disabilities, there is untapped heterogeneity in the sample that may be related to reading outcomes. We also lack objective information about the extent to which participants in the current study were impacted by COVID-19 over the school year (i.e., familial financial strain, illness or death of a loved one) as opposed to students’ perceived impact of COVID-19, operationalized in terms of their concern about the pandemic. Notably, however, prior research with adolescents has revealed negative psychosocial impacts of COVID-19, even in communities that were relatively less affected by the pandemic (De France et al., 2022). Finally, we note a few important methodological considerations. The correlations between the individual indicators of resilience and reading measures are quite limited; only the bivariate correlations between self-efficacy and the T1 oral reading measures reach statistical significance. In our latent measurement model, factors reflect clusters of subscales from the same measure (e.g., all BRIEF indices clustered together). Although the organization of latent factors is logical and consistent with prior research, it is nevertheless possible that this model reflects differences in measurement rather than underlying psychological constructs. As we lack data on the concurrent validity of the resilience measures, additional research is needed to ensure that these constructs are being captured as intended. Due to our sample size, we used a data reduction strategy in combination with path analysis rather than a full structural model with latent factors. Finally, our path models control for Time 1 single word reading, but do not fully control for oral passage reading skill at Time 1. Time 1 word reading was selected as a control variable because it is a highly correlated, lower-level skill that supports passage reading, accounting for much but not all of the individual difference in end-of-year oral passage reading. As such, our study does not inform questions about growth in students’ oral reading ability, but rather attempts to clarify the associations between risk, resilience, and reading over the course of an unprecedentedly challenging academic year. Nevertheless, the present findings represent an important step towards a deeper understanding of resilience factors that may support reading among older adolescents with learning disabilities, an understudied population.

Conclusion The current study examined the associations between risk and resilience factors and reading performance among adolescents with LBLD during the COVID-19 pandemic. We found that participants’ socioemotional risk, resilience, and selfregulation were all associated with students’ perceived COVID-19 impact at Time 1. However, risk and self-regulation deficits were not directly associated with oral reading composite scores at Time 2. Instead, socio-emotional resilience significantly predicted oral reading composite scores, and buffered the associations between COVID-related stress, mental health risk, self-regulation, and achievement. These findings add to a growing body of research focusing on reading skill in adolescents,

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particularly those with language-based learning disabilities, and point to the possible protective nature of socioemotional resilience in attenuating the impact of risk factors. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi. org/10.1007/s11145-022-10361-8. Acknowledgements We thank our school partner and their educators, staff, and students. We thank Aliza Grant, Kayla Kenny, Sarah Moser and Xochitl Arechiga for their valuable assistance, and Alden Blodget for insightful feedback. We are grateful for the MGH Institute COVID-19 Small Grant Research Award which helped support this project. Author contributions RAM: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal Analysis, Writing—Original Draft, Writing—Reviewing & Editing. RTN: Conceptualization, Resources, Writing—Original Draft, Writing—Reviewing & Editing. LM: Conceptualization, Resources, Writing—Reviewing & Editing. ABF: Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing—Reviewing & Editing. JAC: Conceptualization, Writing— Original Draft, Writing—Review & Editing, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition.

Declarations Conflict of interest The authors declare that they no conflict of interest to disclose. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licen ses/by/4.0/.

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and academic achievement. Reading Psychology, 32(5), 395–425. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702 711.2010.495633 Panorama Education. (2015). Validity brief: Panorama student survey. Retrieved from: https://go.panor amaed.com/hubfs/Panorama_January2019%20/Docs/validity-brief.pdf. Petscher, Y., Al Otaiba, S., Wanzek, J., Rivas, B., & Jones, F. (2017). The relation between global and psecific mindset with reading outcomes for elementary school students. Scientific Studies of Reading, 21(5), 376–391. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2017.1313846 PROMIS Health Organization. (2013b). PROMIS emotional distress—depression—pediatric item bank. American Psychiatric Association. PROMIS Health Organization. (2013a). PROMIS emotional distress—anxiety—pediatric item bank. American Psychiatric Association. Racine, N., McArthur, B. A., Cooke, J. E., Eirich, R., Zhu, J., & Madigan, S. (2021). Global prevalence of depressive and anxiety symptoms in children and adolescents during COVID-19: A meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics, 175(11), 1142–1150. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatr ics. 2021.2482 Rasinski, T. V., Chang, S.-C., Edmondson, E., Nageldinger, J., Nigh, J., Remark, L., Kenney, K. S., Walsh-Moorman, E., Yildirim, K., Nichols, W. D., Paige, D. D., & Rupley, W. H. (2017). Reading fluency and college readiness. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 60(4), 453–460. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.559 Rosenstock, I. M., Strecher, V. J., & Becker, M. H. (1988). Learning theory and the health belief model. Health Education Quarterly, 15(8), 175–183. Royer, J. M., Marchant, H. G., Sinatra, G. M., & Lovejoy, D. A. (1990). The prediction of college course performance from reading comprehension performance: Evidence for general and specific prediction factors. American Educational Research Journal, 27(1), 158–179. Sayed, M. H., Hegazi, M. A., El-Baz, M. S., Alahmadi, T. S., Zubairi, N. A., Altuwiriqi, M. A., Saeedi, F. A., Atwah, A. F., Abdulhaq, N. M., & Almurashi, S. H. (2021). COVID-19 related posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents in Saudi Arabia. PLoS ONE, 16(8), e0255440. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255440 Shields, G. S., Moons, W. G., & Slavich, G. M. (2017). Better executive function under stress mitigates the effects of recent life stress exposure on health in young adults. Stress, 20(1), 92–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/10253890.2017.1286322 Sisk, V. F., Burgoyne, A. P., Sun, J., Butler, J. L., & Macnamara, B. N. (2018). To what extent and under which circumstances are growth mind-sets important to academic achievement? Two metaanalyses. Psychological Science, 29(4), 549–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617739704 Snow, C. E., & Biancarosa, G. (2003). Adolescent literacy and the achievement gap: What do we know and where do we go from here? Adolescent literacy funders meeting report. Carnegie Corporation of New York. Stewart, T. M., Fry, D., McAra, L., Hamilton, S., King, A., Laurie, M., & McCluskey, G. (2022). Rates, perceptions and predictors of depression, anxiety and post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)-like symptoms about COVID-19 in adolescents. PLoS ONE, 17(4), e0266818. https:// doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266818 Thompson, P. A., Hulme, C., Nash, H. M., Gooch, D., Hayiou‐Thomas, E., & Snowling, M. J. (2015). Developmental dyslexia: Predicting individual risk. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56(9), 976–987. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12412. UCLA Brief COVID-19 Screen for Child/Adolescent PTSD. (2020). Behavioral Health Innovations, LLC. Available from: https://istss.org/getattachment/Clinical-Resources/Assessing-Trauma/ UCLA-Posttraumatic-Stress-Disorder-Reaction-Index/UCLA-Brief-COVID-19-Screening-Form- English-4-13-20.pdf?lang=en-US. Unrau, N. J., Rueda, R., Son, E., Planin, J. R., Lundeen, R. J., & Muraszewski, A. K. (2018). Can reading self-efficacy be modified? A meta-analysis on the impact of interventions on reading self-efficacy. Review of Educational Research, 88(2), 167–204. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346 54317743199 Wiederholt, J. L., & Bryant, B. R. (2012). Gray oral reading tests—fifth edition (GORT-5) (Fifth). Pro-Ed. Ye, Z., Yang, X., Zeng, C., Li, X., Wang, Y., Shen, Z., & Lin, D. (2020). Resilience, social support, and coping as mediators between COVID-19-related stressful experiences adn acute stress disorder among college students in China. Applied Psychology: Health and Wellbeing, 12(4), 1074–1094. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12211

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Yu, X., Zuk, J., & Gaab, N. (2018). What factors facilitate resilience in developmental dyslexia? Examining protective and compensatory mechanisms across the neurodevelopmental trajectory. Child Development Perspectives, 12, 240–246. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12293 Yüksel, N., Çoban, C., & Yazıcı, D. N. (2021). Examining the problems faced by students with special needs in the distance education process during the COVID-19 pandemic. Educational Process International Journal. https://doi.org/10.22521/edupij.2021.104.2 Zawadka, J., Miękisz, A., Nowakowska, I., Plewko, J., Kochańska, M., & Haman, E. (2021). Remote learning among students with and without reading difficulties during the initial stages of the COVID-19 pandemic. Education and Information Technologies, 26, 6973–6994. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10639-021-10559-3 Zhang, Y., Zhang, X., Zhang, L., & Guo, C. (2019). Executive function and resilience as mediators of adolescents’ perceived stressful life events and school adjustment. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 446. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00446 Zheng, C., Gaumer Erickson, A., Kingston, N. M., & Noonan, P. M. (2014). The relationship among self-determination, self-concept, and academic achievement for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 47(5), 462–474. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219412 469688 Zhou, C., Yue, X. D., Zhang, X., Shangguan, F., & Zhang, X. Y. (2021). Self-efficacy and mental health problems during COVID-19 pandemic: A multiple mediation model based on the health belief model. Personality and Individual Differences, 179, 110893. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. paid.2021.110893 Zins, J. E., Bloodworth, M. R., Weissberg, R. P., & Walberg, H. J. (2007). The scientific base linking social and emotional learning to school success. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 17(2&3), 191–210. https://doi.org/10.1080/10474410701413145 Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Authors and Affiliations Rebecca A. Marks1 · Rachel T. Norton1 Joanna A. Christodoulou1

· Laura Mesite1

· Annie B. Fox2

Rebecca A. Marks rmarks@mghihp.edu Rachel T. Norton rachelnortonresearch@gmail.com Laura Mesite laura.mesite@gmail.com Annie B. Fox afox-galalis@mghihp.edu 1

Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, MGH Institute of Health Professions, 36 First Avenue, Boston, MA 02129, USA

School of Healthcare Leadership, MGH Institute of Health Professions, 36 First Avenue, Boston, MA 02129, USA

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The Science of Reading Meets the Art of Instruction: Designing Instructional Practices for Students with LD Josh Clark, M.Ed Head of School, Landmark School Adam Hickey, Ed.M., MSEd Research Coordinator/Consultant, Landmark School Outreach

Overview Teachers are faced with the challenge of implementing the best practices as defined by what the Science of Reading tells us. This change can seem overwhelming for practitioners who are shifting their thinking about reading instruction and embracing a new pedagogical approach. This session will explore the intersection of instruction with the Science of Reading. We will offer both perspectives from institutions that have historically embraced the tenets of the Science of Reading as well as insights we have gained working with public schools who are making a shift in their approaches. References Wexler, Natalie. “More Evidence That Our Approach To Reading Comprehension Is All Wrong.” Forbes, https://www.forbes.com/sites/nataliewexler/2023/09/04/more-evidence-that-our -approach-to-reading-comprehension-is-all-wrong/. Accessed 5 Oct. 2023. Peng, P., Wang, W., Filderman, M. J., Zhang, W., & Lin, L. (2023). The Active Ingredient in Reading Comprehension Strategy Intervention for Struggling Readers: A Bayesian Network Meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543231171345 Press, Associated. “Switching off: Sweden Says Back-to-Basics Schooling Works on Paper.” The Guardian, 11 Sept. 2023. The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/sep/11/sweden-says-back-to-basics-schooli ng-works-on-paper.

The Science of Reading Meets the Art of Instruction

The Plan for the Session

With Josh Clark Head of Landmark School Adam Hickey Landmark School Research Coordinator

The Science of Reading Meets the Art of Instruction

Thank you for joining us

The Science of Reading Meets the Art of Instruction

The Simple View of Reading

Deﬁne SOR Deﬁne the Art of Teaching Reading

Word Recognition

Gough & Tumner, 1986

Language Comprehension

Reading Comprehension

The Science of Reading Meets the Art of Instruction

Scarborough’s Reading Rope

The Art of Teaching Reading

The Science of Reading Meets the Art of Instruction

Impact of Decoding

Motivation Self Regulation Metacognition Volition pbs.org “Misunderstood Minds”

Self Eﬃcacy

The Science of Reading Meets the Art of Instruction

I found out within a few hours, and may mention at once, that Mrs. Pocket was the only daughter of a certain quite accidental deceased Knight, who had invented for himself a conviction that his deceased father would have been made a Baronet but for somebody’s determined opposition arising out of entirely personal motives—I forget whose, if I ever knew—the Sovereign’s, the Prime Minister’s, the Lord Chancellor’s, the Archbishop of Canterbury’s, anybody’s—and had tacked himself on to the nobles of the earth in right of this quite supposititious fact. I believe he had been knighted himself for storming the English grammar at the point of the pen, in a desperate address engrossed on vellum, on the occasion of the laying of the first stone of some building or other, and for handing some Royal Personage either the trowel or the mortar. Great Expectations, Chapter 23

The Science of Reading Meets the Art of Instruction

“Naturally, my pleas regarding the inevitable, grandmotherly reprimand were not only unheeded; they went as unnoticed as Owen Meany, who stood with his hands clasped behind his back, the sun from the attic skylight shining through his protrusive ears, which were a glowing pink - the sunlight so bright that the tiny veins and blood vessels in his ears appeared to be illuminated from within. The powerful morning sun struck Owen’s head from above, and from a little behind him, so that the light itself seemed to be presenting him. In exasperation with my unresponsive cousins, I looked up from the sewing machine and saw Owen standing there. With his hands clasped behind his back, he looked as armless as Watahantowet, and in that blaze of sunlight he looked like a gnome plucked fresh from a fire, with his ears still aflame. A Prayer for Owen Meany, John Irving

The Science of Reading Meets the Art of Instruction

Focus on Language Comprehension

Shifting cognitive load from decoding ﬂuently to thinking Chall’s historical shift from learning to read to reading to learn - 4th grade but happening much earlier with the inﬂuence of technology and students learning to read earlier Always reading to learn; continue to learn to read (just at higher levels > 4th grade) - decoding shifts from basic phonics to include morphological derivations, etc.

The Science of Reading Meets the Art of Instruction

When working with a reader, we need to consider…

The Science of Reading Meets the Art of Instruction

“So What?”

When talking with your reader ● Abstract the person from the brain trying to do the task (read) - decreases emotional response in the face of previous frustration ● Recognize what the brain needs to do to read ● Understand the necessity of being present and attentive to the task and purpose ● Consider the brain’s present skill level

Structured Literacy: Effective Instruction for Students with Dyslexia and Related Reading Difficulties Structured literacy (SL) teaching is the most effective approach for students who experience unusual difficulty learning to read and spell printed words. The term refers to both the content and methods or principles of instruction. It means the same kind of instruction as the terms multisensory structured language education and structured language and literacy. Structured literacy teaching stands in contrast with approaches that are popular in many schools but that do not teach oral and written language skills in an explicit, systematic manner. Evidence is strong that the majority of students learn to read better with structured teaching of basic language skills, and that the components and methods of Structured Literacy are critical for students with reading disabilities including dyslexia. Content of SL Instruction: Language Dyslexia and most reading disorders originate with language processing weaknesses. Consequently, the content of instruction is analysis and production of language at all levels: sounds, spellings for sounds and syllables, patterns and conventions of the writing system, meaningful parts of words, sentences, paragraphs, and discourse within longer texts. Phoneme awareness. Becoming consciously aware of the individual speech sounds (phonemes) that make up words is a critical foundation for learning to read and spell. A phoneme is the smallest unit of speech that can change the meaning of a word. For example, the different vowel phonemes in mist, mast, must, and most create different words. Although linguists do not agree on the list of phonemes in English, it has approximately 43 phonemes–25 consonants and 18 vowels.

In preschool and early kindergarten, children typically learn the underpinnings for phoneme awareness, including rhyming, counting spoken syllables, and reciting phrases beginning with the same sound. By the end of kindergarten, children should identify each speech sound by ear and be able to take apart and say the separate sounds of simple words with two and three sounds. More advanced phoneme awareness skills, especially important for spelling and reading fluency, include rapidly and accurately taking apart the sounds in spoken words (segmentation), putting together (blending) speech sound sequences, and leaving out (deleting) or substituting one sound for another to make a new word. These exercises are done orally, without print, and should be part of instruction until students are proficient readers. A large proportion of individuals with dyslexia has difficulty with this level of language analysis and needs prolonged practice to grasp it. Phoneme awareness is an essential foundation for reading and writing with an alphabet. In an alphabetic writing system like English, letters and letter combinations represent phonemes. Decoding print is possible only if the reader can map print to speech efficiently; therefore, the elements of speech must be clearly and consciously identified in the reader’s mind. Sound-Symbol (phoneme-grapheme) correspondences. An alphabetic writing system like English represents phonemes with graphemes. Graphemes are letters (a, s, t, etc.) and letter combinations (th, ng, oa, ew, igh, etc.) that represent phonemes in print. The basic code for written words is the system of correspondences between phonemes and graphemes. This system is often referred to as the

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Structured Literacy: Effective Instruction for Students with Dyslexia and Related Reading Difficulties phonics code, the alphabetic code, or the written symbol system. The correspondences between letters and speech sounds in English are more complex and variable than some languages such as Spanish or Italian. Nevertheless, the correspondences can be explained and taught through systematic, explicit, cumulative instruction that may take several years to complete. Patterns and conventions of print (orthography). Through explicit instruction and practice, students with dyslexia can be taught to understand and remember patterns of letter use in the writing system. For example, some spellings for consonant sounds, such as –ck, –tch, and –dge, are used only after short vowels. Some letters, like v and j, cannot be used at the ends of words. Only some letters are doubled. Some letters work to signal the sounds of other letters. These conventions can all be taught as part of the print system or orthography. Print patterns and conventions exist as well for representing the vowel sounds in written syllables. It is a convention that almost every written syllable in English has a vowel grapheme. Structured Literacy programs usually teach six basic types of written syllables: closed (com, mand), open (me, no), vowel-consonant-e (take, plete), vowel team (vow, mean), vowel-r combinations (car, port), and the final consonantle pattern (lit-tle, hum-ble). Recognizing written syllable patterns helps a reader divide longer words into readable chunks, and helps in understanding spelling conventions such as doubling of consonant letters (little vs. title). Morphology. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a language. Morphemes include prefixes, roots, base words, and suffixes. These meaningful units are often spelled consistently even though pronunciation changes as they are combined into words (define, definition; nation, national; restore, restoration). Recognizing morphemes helps students figure out and remember the meanings of new words. In

addition, knowledge of morphology is an aid for remembering spellings such as at-tract-ive and express-ion. Syntax. Syntax is the system for ordering words in sentences so that meaning can be communicated. The study of syntax includes understanding parts of speech and conventions of grammar and word use in sentences. Lessons include interpretation and formulation of simple, compound, and complex sentences, and work with both phrases and clauses in sentence construction. Semantics. Semantics is the aspect of language concerned with meaning. Meaning is conveyed both by single words and by phrases and sentences. Comprehension of both oral and written language is developed by teaching word meanings (vocabulary), interpretation of phrases and sentences, and understanding of text organization. Reading comprehension is a product of both word recognition and language comprehension. Throughout structured literacy instruction, students should be supported as they work with many kinds of texts—stories, informational text, poetry, drama, and so forth, even if that text is read aloud to students who cannot yet read it independently. Reading worthwhile texts that stimulate deep thinking is a critical component of Structured Literacy. Principles and Methods of SL Instruction Explicit. In SL instruction, the teacher explains each concept directly and clearly, providing guided practice. Lessons embody instructional routines, for example, quick practice drills to build fluency, or the use of fingers to tap out sounds before spelling words. The student applies each new concept to reading and writing words and text, under direct supervision of the teacher who gives immediate feedback and guidance. Students are not expected to discover or intuit language concepts simply from exposure to language or reading. Page | 2 of 3

Structured Literacy: Effective Instruction for Students with Dyslexia and Related Reading Difficulties Systematic and cumulative. In an SL approach, the teacher teaches language concepts systematically, explaining how each element fits into the whole. Instruction follows a planned scope and sequence of skills that progresses from easier to more difficult. One concept builds on another. The goal of systematic teaching is automatic and fluent application of language knowledge to reading for meaning. Hands-on, engaging, and multimodal. Methods often include hands-on learning such as moving tiles into sound boxes as words are analyzed, using hand gestures to support memory for associations, building words with letter tiles, assembling sentences with words on cards, color-coding sentences in paragraphs, and so forth. Listening, speaking, reading, and writing are often paired with one another to foster multimodal language learning. Diagnostic and responsive. The teacher uses student response patterns to adjust pacing, presentation, and amount of practice given within the lesson framework. The teacher monitors progress through observation and brief quizzes that measure retention of what has been taught. References Birsh, J., & Carreker, S. (2019). Multisensory teaching of basic language skills, 4th ed. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing. Brady, S. (2011). Efficacy of phonics teaching for reading outcomes: Implications from Post-NRP research. In S. Brady, D. Braze, & C. Fowler (Eds.), Explaining individual differences in reading (pp. 69–96), London, UK: Psychology Press. Denton, C. A., Fletcher, J. M., Taylor, W. P., Barth, A. E., & Vaughn, S. (2014). An experimental evaluation of Guided Reading and explicit interventions for primary-grade students at-risk for reading difficulties. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 7(3), 268–293.

meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 71, 393–447. Foorman, B., Beyler, N., Borradaile, K., Coyne, M., Denton, C. A., Dimino, J., Furgeson, J., Hayes, L., Henke, J., Justice, L., Keating, B., Lewis, W., Sattar, S., Streke, A., Wagner, R., & Wissel, S. (2016). Foundational skills to support reading for understanding in kindergarten through 3rd grade (NCEE 2016-4008). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE), Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from the NCEE website: http://whatworks.ed.gov International Dyslexia Association. Knowledge and Practice Standards for Teachers of Reading. https://dyslexiaida.org/knowledge-andpractices/ Kilpatrick, D. (2015). Essentials of assessing, preventing, and overcoming reading difficulties. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. McCardle, P., & Chhabra, V. (Eds.). (2004). The voice of evidence in reading research. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing. Moats, L. C. (2010). Speech to print: Language essentials for teachers, 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing. National Early Literacy Panel (NELP). (2008). Developing early literacy: Report of the National Early Literacy Panel. Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy. National Reading Panel. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Child and Human Development. Seidenberg, M. (2017). Language at the speed of sight: How we read, why so many can’t, and what can be done about it. New York, NY: Basic Books.

The International Dyslexia Association (IDA) thanks Louisa Moats, Ed.D., for her assistance in the preparation of this fact sheet.

Ehri, L., Nunes, S. R., Stahl, S., & Willows, D. (2001). Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s The International Dyslexia Association (IDA). IDA encourages the reproduction and distribution of this fact sheet. If portions of the text are cited, appropriate reference must be made. Fact sheets may not be reprinted for the purpose of resale. © Copyright 2020. The International Dyslexia Association (IDA). For copyright information, please go to our website: https://dyslexiaida.org/policies/

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Universal Design for Learning: What It Is and How It Promotes Students’ Agency Ari Fleisher, M.Ed. Associate Project Director for Professional Learning, CAST, Universal Design for Learning

Overview Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a framework that aims to increase learner access and agency in every learning environment-- “Until Learning Has No Limits.” This pre-recorded session will include direct instruction / lecture in addition to reflection questions, examples, and a video that powerfully highlights one student’s experience. Previewing UDL’s emphasis on Executive Function, the hope is that you can see connections to your own practice and determine next steps in learning about and experimenting with UDL. The goals of this session are to build background in the UDL Core concepts, and to explore some examples of how applying the UDL framework can increase learner agency. UDL Core concepts are based on the idea that learner variability is the norm, and predictable. It also urges us to focus on barriers in environments, rather than learners, which now impacts not only our language but our design. Lastly, we will dig into the idea of expert learning, an emphasis on learning itself and its impacts throughout the classroom and our lives. CAST Resources ● Check out all the books available at CAST Professional Publishing, especially our new release: Building Executive Function and Motivation in the Middle Grades: A Universal Design for Learning Approach ● Want to stay in touch? Sign up for the CAST Newsletter. ● Research with CAST: Work with us on one of our groundbreaking research projects, design projects, or act in an advisory role! Let us know you’re interested. ● Learn with CAST: Get in touch for more information about our professional learning services! Email PL@cast.org ● Reach out to Ari Fleisher from CAST at afleisher@cast.org

UDL Guidelines Resources ● ● ● ● ● ●

UDL Guidelines (interactive web page) UDL at a Glance (5-minute video) UDL Guidelines (6-minute video) About the [UDL] Graphic Organizer (web page) FAQs about UDL (web page) Research Evidence about UDL (web page)

UDL Resources ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

[bit.ly/UDLandAgency]Session Slide Deck Practices of an Expert Learner (list version) Practices of an Expert Learner (Google doc) CAST makes UDL: Theory and Practice available online (digital book, no cost) National Center on Accessible Educational Materials (CAST accessibility website) CAST Free Webinars (multiple 1-hour video recordings) Top 5 UDL Tips for Fostering Expert Learning (tip sheet) Expert Learning (1-hour CAST webinar recording, slides, and digital handout) Check out Grant Blasko, the Expert Learner we heard from during the session

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Universal Design for Learning: What it is and how it promotes students’ agency bit.ly/UDLandAgency

Facilitator Today’s Slides:

bit.ly/UDLandAgenc y

Ari Fleisher, CAST Professional Learning afleisher@cast.org www.cast.org @CAST_UDL | #CASTPL

Our Goals for Today ● Build background in the UDL Core concepts: ○ Learner variability is the norm, and predictable ○ The barrier is in the environment, not the learner. ○ All learners can be expert learners. ● Explore some examples of how applying the UDL framework can increase learner agency.

@CAST_UDL | #CASTPL

11/6/23

Key Terms for Today Access

Barriers

We create access when the design of the materials and experience is able to be reached by all students.

We remove aspects of a design that could prevent learners from reaching the goals.

@CAST_UDL | #CASTPL

Climb the tree

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is an educational framework that guides the development of flexible methods, materials, and environments that embrace variability, minimize barriers, and develop expert learning for all. 6

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Instead of asking if the learner is ready for the lesson, UDL asks if the lesson is ready for the learner. -Michael McSheehan, Evolve & Effect, LLC, educational consultant © 2021 CAST | Until learning has no limits ®

Our Learning Environment Engage

Perceive

Act

Sit, stand, recline

Slides: Powerpoint, Google Slides,

Take notes (on paper, on a copy of the slides, digital or paper)

Eat or drink Fidget

bit.ly/UDLandAgency, QR

code

Take a break

Video: Faster/slower, captions Resources: Before, during, after

@CAST_UDL | #CASTPL

Write an email (to Ariafleisher@cast.org , to a colleague, to yourself)

Your Learning Environment Engaging

Understanding

Organizing and Communicating

How can your space better support your engagement this morning?

What is the best way for you to perceive and understand this content?

What are your preferences today for notetaking and/or sharing your questions and ideas?

@CAST_UDL | #CASTPL

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UDL Concepts Learner variability is: ● the norm ● predictable

The barrier is in the design not the learner.

All learners can become expert learners.

@CAST_UDL | #CASTPL

Understanding Variability: The Dinner Party Analogy

Dinner Party Guests gluten-free

dental work

vegetarian

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The Dinner Party Analogy: Proactive Menu Design

Meal Plans to Lesson Plans

@CAST_UDL | #CASTPL

Dimensions of Variability ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Interest Effort and Persistence Self-Regulation Perception Language Background Knowledge Physical Navigation Communication Skills Executive Function Skills @CAST_UDL | #CASTPL

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Variability is predictable; we can design to leverage and honor it.

https://udlguidelines.cast.org/

UDL Guidelines ● Practical summary of research in neuroscience, cognitive psychology, and learning sciences ● Common instructional design language ● Tool for anticipating barriers to learning ● Guidance for design

Three Brain Networks Affective Networks The “W hy” of Learning

Recognition Networks The “W hat” of Learning

Strategic Networks The “How” of Learning

Provide multiple means of Engagement

Provide multiple means of Representation

Provide multiple means of Action & Expression

Affective networks monitor the internal and external environment to set priorities, motivate, and engage learning and behavior.

Recognition networks sense and perceive information in the environment and transform it into usable knowledge.

Strategic networks plan, organize, and initiate purposeful actions in the environment.

How learners will engage?

How learners will perceive?

How learners will act on their understanding?

@CAST_UDL | #CASTPL

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Engagement Where can students have choice? What is available when they get stuck? How can you provide options that reduce the anxiety and stress?

Representation How many representations of the content can you provide? What can you do to ensure learners understand the language and symbols embedded in the content? How can you highlight patterns and help students make connections? © 2020 CAST | Until learning has no limits ®

Action & Expression What can you do to ensure those with visual, auditory and physical disabilities can access the content? How can you offer options for products and communication? How can you support the planning, strategy and resource management in my course? © 2020 CAST | Until learning has no limits ®

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The barrier is the design, not the learner.

Architecture:

Retrofitting for Access

@CAST_UDL | #CASTPL

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Closed Captioning- Necessary for one, good for all

Cost: Cost:

$100

1980’s: Individuals purchase captioning boxes

1990: Americans with Disabilities Act

1993: FCC mandates that every TV has the appropriate chip

@CAST_UDL | #CASTPL

Equality, Equity, and UDL

Equality @CAST_UDL | #CASTPL

Equity

Shifting language: Where is the barrier? Eliana doesn’t have strong enough English skills to read the novel. The course content is represented in only physical paper-copy books and cannot be translated using technology. If Max were more organized, they would be more successful at school. The class assignments do not scaffold executive function skills. Trey isn’t in the state of mind he needs to be in when he gets to school. The school day begins without providing learners with options for selfregulation. @CAST_UDL | #CASTPL

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Problem of Practice

Change the Students

“Many students spent more time managing the steps of the project than learning the material!

● Ask para to work with students who “don’t have organizational skills” ● Ask the special education teacher to provide remedial instruction ● Refer students who “cannot manage the steps” to a study skills class

It will be difficult to assess student work, and know who learned the content, because executive function demands got in the way of learning!”

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Problem of Practice

Change the Lesson

“Many students spent more time managing the steps of the project than learning the material!

● Checklist of project steps ● Video recording of teacher reviewing the instructions ● Rubric for self-assessment ● Calendar with suggested due date for each step

It will be difficult to assess student work, and know who learned the content, because executive function demands got in the way of learning!”

All learners can become expert learners.

Practices of Expert Learners

@CAST_UDL | #CASTPL

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Expert Learner Story Grant Blasko, high school student SOURCE: Aut Com Conference 2019, keynote presentation by Grant Blasko, shared with permission / grantblasko.net © 2021 CAST | Until learning has no limits ®

Expert learning theory of change

Set a Goal Learner makes decisions about to get there

Reflect on process Monitor progress toward goal

Expert Learning Theory of Change

Designer creates opportunity to set goals or adopt new goals

Designer articulates clear, relevant goal

Set a Goal

Learner makes decisions about to get there

Reflect on process

Designer gives feedback and supports reflection on process

Designer’s Job

Designer outlines multiple learning pathways

Monitor progress toward goal

Designer supports learners to monitor progress

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Teachers need to be expert learners themselves, continuously growing and changing. They need to be able to model and mentor the process of learning, with all its hills and valleys, exposing their own learning and making it explicit both in action and in personal reflection. Anne Meyer, David Rose, and David Gordon Universal Design for Learning: Theory & Practice © 2021 CAST | Until learning has no limits ®

Access and Agency

How does what I am doing… Increase Access for All Learners

@CAST_UDL | #CASTPL

Increase Agency for All Learners

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Design so every learner feels Welcomed Come as you are. You are known. Your voice is valued. We have design for you.

Access opens the door

Three Kinds of Access Design access to the emotions that facilitate learning.

@CAST_UDL | #CASTPL

Design access to the materials and content.

Design access to navigating and sharing learning.

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How do you design for access? Engagement

Perception

Physical Action

● Interest & Relevance ● Clear goals

● Accessible Materials ● Supports for Language

● Clear and consistent navigation of tools, resources and materials

● Building Community

@CAST_UDL | #CASTPL

How do we design for all students to have agency?

Pathways to Learning

@CAST_UDL | #CASTPL

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Agency to be who I am as a learner… How do you want to engage in this learning and selfregulate throughout the process?

What ways help you to learn to content and skills, and apply them to situations that matter to you?

@CAST_UDL | #CASTPL

How do you want to navigate this learning and express your understanding?

Learner Agency by Design

@CAST_UDL | #CASTPL

How do you design for agency? Engagement

Representation

Action & Expression

● Student goalsetting ● Ongoing feedback

● Connect to background ● Big ideas and themes

● Flexible spaces

● Transfer that matters

● Options for Expression ● Support planning and monitoring progress

@CAST_UDL | #CASTPL

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Research with CAST Work with us on one of our groundbreaking research projects, design projects, or act in an advisory role! Let us know you’re interested. bit.ly/cast-research-interest © 2021 CAST | Until learning has no limits ®

Learn with us Get in touch for more information about our professional learning services! Email PL@cast.org

Want to stay in touch?

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Building Executive Function and Motivation in the Middle Grades A Universal Design for Learning Approach By Susanne Croasdaile

Available now from castpublishing.org

Ari Fleisher CAST Professional Learning afleisher@cast.org

Thank You! Keep in touch!

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UDL & the Learning Brain In the past decade, there have been unprecedented ways to examine the living brain and to better understand what happens during learning. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) was inspired by such advances in cognitive neuroscience research and offers a framework that integrates what we know about the learning brain to inform the design of environments that support all learners. First, let’s talk about the geography of the brain. Generally, incoming sensory information, such as what we see and hear, is received in the back of the brain, including the occipital and temporal lobes of the brain (Recognition networks), processed and relayed for meaning in the center of the brain (Affective networks), and is organized in the frontal lobes for response or action (Strategic networks). While there is no linear progression for this process, this model for thinking about three broad learning networks can be helpful when we design learning experiences. The UDL Guidelines and associated checkpoints align to this neurological organization and help educators address the predictable variability in learning that we know will be present in any environment. UDL recognizes variability in:

Knowing key facts about the brain can help inform learning design for the variability of learners.

There is no average brain.

Variability is the dominant feature of the nervous system. Like fingerprints, no two brains are alike. Each brain is a complex, interconnected web that is sculpted and influenced by genetics and interactions with the environment. Variability can be overwhelming for educators who are planning for dozens of learners each day. Luckily, learner variability is predictable, and can be organized across three brain networks targeted by the UDL framework: affective, recognition, and strategic. The concept of neuro-variability is important for educators, because it reminds us that learners do not have an isolated learning “style”, but instead rely on many parts of the brain working together to function within a given context. There is no single way a brain will perceive, engage with, or execute a task. Variability is not just an important consideration for thinking about differences between students, but also within students in different contexts.

Engagement (the why of learning, which aligns with affective networks): interest, effort and persistence, and self regulation Representation (the what of learning, which aligns with recognition networks): perception, language and symbols, and comprehension Action & Expression (the how of learning, which aligns with strategic networks): physical action, expression and communication, and executive function

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When we design learning environments proactively for variability, we anticipate and value the incredible strengths and diversity of our learners.

The brain has incredible plasticity.

Each brain is made up of billions of interconnected neurons that wire together to form unique pathways. We are born with a foundation of brain structures. Over time, these structures change based on our experiences and interactions with our environment. When we learn, some connections become stronger and faster. As Hebb’s Law (1949) states, “neurons that fire together wire together.” Connections that are not used are weakened and pruned away. In other words, “use it or lose it.” Understanding the plasticity of the brain is important for educators, because it helps us recognize that learning is a constant growth process constructed over time. Proactive design of flexible pathways toward learning goals supports learners by building on the strengths and connections that are already established. Frequent, formative feedback and opportunities for active learning create and strengthen the connections within our learning brains. Our brains are not fixed, but grow and change with use.

What you know really matters.

Previous experiences drive our interest and engagement, perception and attention, and goals and actions. The nervous system constantly makes predictions and anticipates how we will fare in a particular environment or towards a particular goal. For example, if a learner is asked to do a math problem, read aloud, or respond to a prompt, the brain will recall prior experiences in that context. That recall drives perception, action, and engagement. Based on previous experiences, the brain decides which goals are valuable — or not valuable — to pursue.

Acknowledging the variability in learner background knowledge and experience is important for educators, because each learner brings a unique blend of experiences and expectations to each learning event. When we design for variability using the UDL framework, clarifying the goals and integrating flexibility in engagement, representation, and action and expression, we acknowledge that learners do not learn in one linear pathway. This approach fosters learning environments that value the uniqueness of our learners and the variability each brings. This empowers learners to maximize their strengths, focus on areas of challenge, and drive their own learning processes. Ultimately, UDL helps foster expert learners who are purposeful and motivated, strategic and goal-directed, and

resourceful and knowledgeable.

Goals drive the nervous system.

Essential to any learning experience is a clear goal. A clear goal enables the nervous system to direct energy purposefully to build relevance, perceive information, and act strategically. Ultimately, educators and learners need to be aware of the intended learning goals so that they can begin to build connections, connect to background knowledge, and practice for expertise. Recognizing that our brains are goal-driven is important for educators, because if we don’t make learning goals explicit to our learners, they have no way of knowing what the target is, how to reach it, or when they’ve achieved it. Think about a GPS or navigation app. Without a destination, a GPS is simply a map with infinite possibilities and no directions. Once we input a destination, we can then decide whether we want a route without tolls, one that meanders through the countryside, or one that is the fastest or shortest distance. With a clear, explicit learning goal, learners are empowered to choose their best pathway to achieve that goal.

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Our brains always have a goal, whether it’s to avoid a task, sneak a cookie from the jar, or complete a task with the least amount of effort. The more explicit we are with our learners about the goals and incorporate their own goals, the more meaningful the learning experience will be, the more purposeful the options available will be, and the less likely our brains will focus on competing goals. Understanding these key facts about the learning brain not only helps educators in designing challenging, high quality learning opportunities, but they’re also incredibly important for our learners to understand, as well. The more we understand about our own learning and how it happens, the further we advance toward the ultimate goal: becoming expert learners. Suggested Citation: CAST (2018). UDL and the learning brain. Wakefield, MA: Author. Retrieved from https://www.cast.org/products-services/resources/2018/udl-learning-brain-neuroscience

Resources Human Connectome Project Brain Facts Neuroscience for Kids UDL Theory and Practice, Chapter 3: Variability Brain Matters, from Harvard Graduate School of Education’s Dr. Todd Rose Annenberg Learner: Neuroscience and the Classroom Why learning styles don’t exist, by Daniel Willingham Daniel Willingham’s Learning Styles FAQ We Don’t Need Learning Styles by Elizabeth Stein, MiddleWeb Linking Research to Classrooms Blog from Kennedy Krieger Institute

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Understanding the Cycles of Anxiety, Avoidance, and Accommodation Arielle Gartenberg, Psy.D, NCSP Licensed Clinical Psychologist and Nationally Certified School Psychologist (NCSP), The Concord Center Leah Benjamin, Psy.D. Licensed Clinical Psychologist, The Concord Center

Overview Researchers have found that anxiety in children and adolescents has been on the rise over the past several years. This was the case even before the pandemic, but since 2021 the estimate is that 25.2% of adolescents meet criteria for some form of clinical anxiety. When we see students and/or those we care about struggling with anxiety, we often feel driven to do what we can to help them experience less anxiety. We might allow or encourage them to avoid the things that elicit anxiety, or we might make accommodations to their environments or situations to prevent the anxiety from occurring. These normal and well-meaning responses can create cycles that can have the unintended consequence of increasing anxiety and keeping people stuck in patterns of avoidance and dependence. This talk aims to: - Further define the concept of anxiety and how it connects to behavioral regulation and motivation - Discuss the ways that accommodations can increase anxiety - Provide information about ways break cycles of anxiety and foster resilience in the classroom References Lebowitz, E. (2020, November 1). SPACE: Supportive Parenting for Anxious Childhood Emotions [Powerpoint Slides]. Yale Child Study Center, Yale University. Lebowitz, E. R. (2021). Breaking free of child anxiety and OCD: A scientifically proven program for parents. Oxford University Press.

Lebowitz, E. R., Marin, C., Martino, A., Shimshoni, Y., & Silverman, W. K. (2020). Parent-based treatment as efficacious as cognitive-behavioral therapy for childhood anxiety: A randomized noninferiority study of supportive parenting for anxious childhood emotions. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 59(3), 362-372. Lebowitz, E. R., & Omer, H. (2013). Treating childhood and adolescent anxiety: A guide for caregivers. John Wiley & Sons. Shimshoni, Y., Shrinivasa, B., Cherian, A. V., & Lebowitz, E. R. (2019). Family accommodation in psychopathology: A synthesized review. Indian journal of psychiatry, 61(Suppl 1), S93–S103. https://doi.org/10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_530_18

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Understanding the Cycles of Anxiety, Avoidance, and Accommodation ResearchILD’s Executive Function Conference, 2023 Leah Benjamin, PsyD, and Arielle Gartenberg, PsyD The Concord Center

Goals of Presentation ◦ Further define the concept of anxiety and how it connects to behavioral regulation and motivation ◦ Discuss the ways that accommodations can increase anxiety ◦ Provide information about ways break cycles of anxiety and foster resilience in the classroom

What Is Anxiety?

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What is Anxiety? ◦ Anxiety is alarm system all people have in order to keep us safe ◦ From an evolutionary perspective, anxiety is very adaptive! ◦ Ex: A fear about loud sound keeps us safe from a sabretooth tiger ◦ Ex: looking both ways before crossing the street keeps us safe from oncoming traffic

 Creazilla Clipart

Le b o w itz, E . R ., & O m e r, H . (2 0 1 3 ). Tre a tin g c h ild h o o d a n d a d o le sc e n t a n xie ty : A g u id e fo r c a re g iv e rs. Jo h n W ile y & So n s.

What is Anxiety? •Anxiety becomes an issue when it is exaggerated to things or situations that do not pose real danger ◦ Think of this as a True vs. False alarm ◦ A true alarm warns us of fire (danger) ◦ A false alarm (e.g., unhelpful anxiety or an anxiety disorder) is overly sensitive alarm that goes off for burnt popcorn or steamy shower when there is no real threat

Lebow itz, E . R ., & O m er, H . (2013). T reating childhood and adolescent anxiety: A guide for caregivers. John W iley & S ons.

What Causes Anxiety Difficulties? While there is no single cause, there can be many contributing factors, such as:

Genetics

Biology

Environment

Temperament

Lebow itz, E . R ., & O m er, H . (2013). T reating childhood and adolescent anxiety: A guide for caregivers. John W iley & S ons.

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How Does Anxiety Present Itself? ◦ Internalizing ◦ Withdrawing, Shutting Down, Avoiding (FLEEING) ◦ Being quiet, shy, or clingy (FREEZING) ◦ Crying ◦ Externalizing ◦ Acting out (FIGHTING) ◦ Arguing (FIGHTING)

 NIACBM Lebow itz, E . R ., & O m er, H . (2013). T reating childhood and adolescent anxiety: A guide for caregivers. John W iley & S ons.

How Does Anxiety Present Itself? ◦ Anxiety usually includes three aspects: 1. Physiological experiences (e.g., rapid heartbeat, stomachaches, sweating) 2. Cognitions (e.g., thoughts) 3. Behaviors (e.g., avoidance) Individuals who are struggling with anxiety often try to find ways to not experience their anxiety, or to make themselves feel better when their anxiety is activated.

Lebow itz, E . R ., & O m er, H . (2013). T reating childhood and adolescent anxiety: A guide for caregivers. John W iley & S ons.

Avoidance and Accommodation

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How Avoidance Works ◦ One way people make themselves feel better is by staying away from situations that makes them anxious. ◦ By doing so their anxiety is maintained; they “learn” that the way to feel better is to avoid, which in turn leads to more avoidance. This becomes a vicious cycle

 iStock Photo

Lebow itz, E . R ., & O m er, H . (2013). T reating childhood and adolescent anxiety: A guide for caregivers. John W iley & S ons.

The Interpersonal Nature of Anxiety ◦ People who suffer from anxiety tend to rely on others for avoiding their anxiety. ◦ While this is a natural response to anxiety, for individuals with anxiety challenges this pattern of behavior actually maintains the anxiety. ◦ If you are working with an anxious person, you probably find yourself torn between two opposites: 1. Wanting to help them experience less anxiety (accommodation) 2. Wanting to push them to be self-sufficient ◦ When we get pulled into these two directions, we can fluctuate from a stance of being overprotective versus overdemanding

Lebow itz, E . R ., & O m er, H . (2013). T reating childhood and adolescent anxiety: A guide for caregivers. John W iley & S ons.

How Accommodation Works ◦ Accommodation is anything that you may be doing or not doing to reduce or prevent someone else’s anxiety ◦ This is a very common response to anxiety! ◦ For example, 95% of parents of anxious children report that they engage in accommodations ◦ Sometimes we accommodate because: ◦ 1) It is hard to see the person we care about suffer ◦ 2) We want or need to solve a problem ◦ 3) We need move on with our day/to the next task

Lebow itz, E . R ., & O m er, H . (2013). T reating childhood and adolescent anxiety: A guide for caregivers. John W iley & S ons.

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Cycle of Accommodation

 Lan Truong

◦ This cycle can actually increase anxiety and make the task/situation feel harder the next time ◦ We become convinced that accommodation is the only way to function ◦ The next time the situation appears, the anxious individual is more likely to seek accommodation, and we are more likely to accommodate ◦ This maintains symptoms of anxiety ◦ The necessary accommodations often increase and become more severe over time

Lebow itz, E . R ., & O m er, H . (2013). T reating childhood and adolescent anxiety: A guide for caregivers. John W iley & S ons.

Accommodation vs. Assistance Accommodation is:

Assistance is:

◦ Performing tasks for or with the student that they can complete independently in order to decrease their anxiety. ◦ Is the individual able to perform the task independently? ◦ Does this decrease their anxiety in the short-term? ◦ Does this inadvertently send the message that this child needs the support in order to function effectively in the future?

◦ Scaffolding to help the individual do the task if they don’t have the skill ◦ Helping an individual access education or other services in the ways their same aged peers may naturally be able to

Lebow itz, E . R ., & O m er, H . (2013). T reating childhood and adolescent anxiety: A guide for caregivers. John W iley & S ons.

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Types of Accommodation ◦ There are two types of accommodation: ◦ Participation: involvement in anxiety driven behaviors or rituals; providing reassurance ◦ Modification: changes to routines to prevent; permission to avoid things that create anxiety When we accommodate others’ anxieties, we are essentially depriving them the chance to learn that they can cope with distress

Lebow itz, E . R ., & O m er, H . (2013). T reating childhood and adolescent anxiety: A guide for caregivers. John W iley & S ons.

Le b o w itz, E . (2 0 2 0 , N o v e m b e r 1 ). SP A C E : Su p p o rtiv e P a re n tin g fo r A n xio u s C h ild h o o d E m o tio n s [P o w e rp o in t Slid e s]. Y a le C h ild Stu d y C e n te r, Y a le U n iv e rsity .

School Accommodations Participation ◦ Answering frequent reassurance seeking questions about the students completed work on a long-term assignment ◦ Doing some of the work for a student when they are attached to it being “just right” or so that they don’t fail

Modification ◦ Permission to not have to present at all throughout the duration of the course ◦ Allowing students to start over on blank pieces of paper or worksheets when perfectionism arises ◦ Avoiding calling on students who you know are socially anxious

Lebow itz, E . R ., & O m er, H . (2013). T reating childhood and adolescent anxiety: A guide for caregivers. John W iley & S ons.

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Examples of Accommodation ◦ Separation Anxiety ◦ Lying in bed with our child until they fall asleep (participation) ◦ Answering every text/phone call when someone is anxious about being apart from us (participation) ◦ Refraining from going out on a date night/work trip (modification) ◦ Keeping a child home from school (modification) ◦ Social Anxiety ◦ Speaking for someone/ordering for them at a restaurant (participation) ◦ Not calling on socially anxious students in class (participation) ◦ Avoiding social events (e.g., birthday parties) (modification) ◦ Avoiding certain places (e.g., malls) (modification) Lebow itz, E . R ., & O m er, H . (2013). T reating childhood and adolescent anxiety: A guide for caregivers. John W iley & S ons.

Examples of Accommodation ◦ Obsessive Compulsive Disorder ◦ Washing hands or doing laundry a specific way while anxious person is supervising us (participation) ◦ Avoiding “contaminated” places, people, or things (modification) ◦ Generalized Anxiety ◦ Answering reassurance seeking questions (participation) ◦ Providing details about the schedule for the day/weekend (participation) ◦ Checking their academic work (participation) ◦ Avoiding changes to routines or schedules (modification)

Lebow itz, E . R ., & O m er, H . (2013). T reating childhood and adolescent anxiety: A guide for caregivers. John W iley & S ons.

A Note About Accommodation Accommodation is a natural and well-intended response to anxiety! ◦ While we are not the problem when it comes to working with individuals who have anxiety, we can be an important part of the solution ◦ Learning how to respond to anxiety with support (rather than trying to protect them from their anxiety or demand that they act bravely) can help break cycles of accommodation ◦ This is done by acknowledging how scared and uncomfortable the anxious person might be, while also steering them toward just a little more coping with the discomfort

Lebow itz, E . R ., & O m er, H . (2013). T reating childhood and adolescent anxiety: A guide for caregivers. John W iley & S ons.

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So, How Is This Done? ◦ Examples of interventions: ◦ Supportive Statements ◦ Targeting accommodations/reducing accommodating behavior ◦ Contingency management This work is often done in individual and group therapy formats, using treatment approaches including SPACE and CBT

Sample Supportive Statements ◦ Anxiety is uncomfortable, but you can handle it. ◦ It’s not easy. I know you can do it. ◦ It’s hard, but you have the power to get through. ◦ Everyone feels worried sometimes. This moment will pass, and you will ultimately be okay.

Lebow itz, E . R ., & O m er, H . (2013). T reating childhood and adolescent anxiety: A guide for caregivers. John W iley & S ons.

The Role of “Supporters” ◦ Partner with case manager, therapist, or parents to determine the best course of action for the students that you work with. ◦ Keep in mind the function of reducing accommodations and using supportive statements, but remember that your job may be to hold the role of a “supporter.” ◦ Supporters can help to reinforce the treatment messages regarding the need to overcome anxiety. ◦ By expressing caring and concern for children, and confidence in their abilities, supporters can bolster the children’s self-esteem and encourage motivation. ◦ Children may be more willing to face a frightening situation in the presence of a supporter than they would in the presence of a parent. ◦ Supporters can help to minimize disruptive behavior and react to such behaviors in effective ways that do not escalate the situation.

Lebow itz, E . R ., & O m er, H . (2013). T reating childhood and adolescent anxiety: A guide for caregivers. John W iley & S ons.

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How To Be a Supporter ◦ If in doubt, check it out! Work with the student’s case manager and IEP team get clarity on their goals. ◦ Ask about ways you can be helping to be an active part of their treatment – make sure they help you get clear on your role. ◦ Once you know more about what the child is working on, express support, encourage coping, and praise progress,

Lebow itz, E . R ., & O m er, H . (2013). T reating childhood and adolescent anxiety: A guide for caregivers. John W iley & S ons.

Supporter - Example Take for example, the child that refuses to go to school because of anxiety. The parent may be trying different things in the morning- explanation (“school is very important for your future”) reassurance (“it’ll be ok once you get there”), bribery (“We’ll take you to the movies this afternoon”), threats (“no TV for a week if you don’t go to school”). Often, none of these methods are effective. Involving supporters in these situations would mean that the parent calls a supporter in the morning when the child refuses to go to school (the child’s aunt for example), and over the phone she would say: “Mom and dad told me you don’t want to go to school today. I know it’s hard for you to go to school, but I also know you are a very brave ki,d and you can do it. Is there anything I can do to help you?” A simple supportive message coming from an adult that is not the parent does wonders. In the short-term and the long-term.

Lebow itz, E . R ., & O m er, H . (2013). T reating childhood and adolescent anxiety: A guide for caregivers. John W iley & S ons.

References ◦ Lebowitz, E. (2020, November 1). SPACE: Supportive Parenting for Anxious Childhood Emotions [Powerpoint Slides]. Yale Child Study Center, Yale University. ◦ Lebowitz, E. R. (2021). Breaking free of child anxiety and OCD: A scientifically proven program for parents. Oxford University Press. ◦ Lebowitz, E. R., Marin, C., Martino, A., Shimshoni, Y., & Silverman, W. K. (2020). Parent-based treatment as efficacious as cognitive-behavioral therapy for childhood anxiety: A randomized noninferiority study of supportive parenting for anxious childhood emotions. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 59(3), 362-372. ◦ Lebowitz, E. R., & Omer, H. (2013). Treating childhood and adolescent anxiety: A guide for caregivers. John Wiley & Sons. ◦ Shimshoni, Y., Shrinivasa, B., Cherian, A. V., & Lebowitz, E. R. (2019). Family accommodation in psychopathology: A synthesized review. Indian journal of psychiatry, 61(Suppl 1), S93–S103. https://doi.org/10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_530_18

N EW R E S E A R C H

Parent-Based Treatment as Efﬁcacious as CognitiveBehavioral Therapy for Childhood Anxiety: A Randomized Noninferiority Study of Supportive Parenting for Anxious Childhood Emotions Eli R. Lebowitz, PhD, Carla Marin, PhD, Alyssa Martino, MS, Yaara Shimshoni, PhD, Wendy K. Silverman, PhD

Objective: Treatment for childhood anxiety disorders is insufficient in many cases. Parent involvement has been examined to augment child-based cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), but no studies have compared the efficacy of stand-alone parent-based treatment to CBT. Research implicates family accommodation in the maintenance and course of childhood anxiety. Supportive Parenting for Anxious Childhood Emotions (SPACE) is a parent-based treatment that reduces accommodation of childhood anxiety. This study compared SPACE to CBT in a noninferiority trial. Method: Participants were children with primary anxiety disorders (N ¼ 124; 7 14 years of age; 53% female participants; 83% white), randomly assigned to either SPACE (n ¼ 64) with no direct child therapist contact, or CBT (n ¼ 60) with no parent treatment. A total of 97 participants (78%) completed all treatment sessions and assessments. Attrition did not differ significantly between groups. Primary anxiety outcomes included diagnostic interview and clinician-rated scales. Secondary outcomes included parent and child ratings of anxiety severity, family accommodation, and parenting stress. Noninferiority margins were determined based on statistical and clinical considerations. Change in family accommodation and parenting stress were examined using mixed models analyses. Results: SPACE was noninferior, relative to CBT, on primary and secondary anxiety outcomes, and based on ratings provided by independent evaluators, parents, and children. Family accommodation and parenting stress were significantly reduced in both treatments, with significantly greater reduction in family accommodation following SPACE compared to CBT. Treatment credibility and satisfaction were high. Conclusion: SPACE is an acceptable and efficacious treatment for childhood anxiety disorders, is noninferior to CBT, and provides an alternative strategy for treating anxiety in children. Key words: anxiety disorders, parent-based treatment, cognitive-behavioral therapy clinical trials, family accommodation J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2019;-(-):-–-.

hildhood anxiety disorders are common, chronic, and impairing, and confer major short-term and long-term risks to physical and mental health when not treated successfully.1,2 Efficacious treatments include cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and medications, but are insufficient in up to half of cases in clinical trials,3 indicating the need for additional treatment options. Decades of research, tying parent and family variables to the etiology and course of childhood anxiety disorders, has led to repeated efforts to improve outcomes by involving parents in treatment. Early outcomes suggested a benefit to child-and-parent treatment over child-only treatment.4 Subsequent research, however, has failed to support this conclusion, and reviews and meta-analyses have concluded

Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry Volume - / Number - / - 2019

that outcomes of child-only treatment are comparable to those of child-and-parent treatment,5,6 although the latter may be superior when parent anxiety is high.7 These welldocumented findings underscore the importance of identifying alternative treatment targets if parent work is to significantly enhance outcomes. In contrast to numerous randomized studies examining whether parent involvement enhances child-based treatment,4,8-12 it is unknown whether parent-based treatment alone, without child-based therapy, is efficacious. Only two randomized trials have tested parent-only interventions for childhood anxiety, and neither included a comparison with CBT. One study, specifically aimed at young children below age nine, compared a parent-only group intervention www.jaacap.org

LEBOWITZ et al.

to a waitlist condition.13 Another compared two versions of parent-guided CBT to waitlist.14 Both studies showed promising results, as have a number of open trials,15-17 suggesting that parent-based treatment may present an efficacious alternative to child-based therapy. Parent-led and family-based interventions have also been developed for anxiety-related problems including obsessive-compulsive disorder18 and posttraumatic stress disorder.19 However, whether parent-only treatment can be as efficacious as CBT for child anxiety remains unanswered. Another critical question is what should be the focus and objectives of efficacious parent-based interventions for childhood anxiety? Shifting the focus of treatment from child to parents opens the door to a meaningful change in treatment conceptualization, enabling the development of novel approaches grounded in theoretical and empirical research on the unique role of parents for child anxiety. In human and nonhuman mammals, offspring respond to anxiety with parent-oriented attachment behaviors, and parental proximity exerts anxiolytic effects on offspring.20-22 Human parents reduce child anxiety through physical contact23 and more complex behaviors such as verbal reassurance. Burgeoning research underscores the importance of considering these parental responses to child anxiety, in particular the high levels of family accommodation consistently reported by parents of anxious children.24-29 Family accommodation refers to the myriad changes in parental behaviors and routines intended to help a child avoid or alleviate anxiety-related distress. Despite being well-intentioned, family accommodation is linked to more severe child anxiety and greater functional impairment, and may predict poorer response to CBT.24,30-34 Examples of family accommodation include sleeping next to a child with separation anxiety, speaking for a child with social phobia, or repeatedly reassuring a child with generalized anxiety. From a theoretical perspective, family accommodation may maintain child anxiety by promoting avoidance and maintaining the child’s reliance on parents rather than developing independent coping skills. Family accommodation can also reduce child motivation for treatment, by providing the means to avoid otherwise anxiety-provoking situations. Translating research on these patterns of familial interactions into novel clinical applications enables the shift from child work to parent work to be a meaningful change in the principles and components of treatment, rather than a change in the modality of treatment delivery alone. Parent-based interventions for child anxiety to date have derived primarily from traditional CBT, with parents trained as lay CBT therapists. As such, the interventions have focused on the child’s behavior and 2

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cognitions with comparatively little emphasis on family accommodation.5,10,13,14,16,35 The empirical and theoretical rationale for parent-based treatment focused on reducing family accommodation, and the critical need for alternatives to currently available treatments, led to the development of Supportive Parenting for Anxious Childhood Emotions (SPACE).36 SPACE is unique in making the reduction of parental accommodation the centerpiece of the intervention. Rather than training parents as lay CBT therapists, SPACE focuses on systematically identifying and monitoring family accommodation, developing and implementing detailed plans for reducing accommodation, and equipping parents with strategies for coping with children’s distressed and/or aggressive responses to reduced accommodation. Because SPACE focuses entirely on parent change, parents can implement SPACE even when a child is not amenable to treatment. A pilot trial of SPACE provided initial support for its feasibility, acceptability, and potential efficacy.17 Parents of 10 children (aged 9 13 years) participated in weekly SPACE sessions, with no direct child therapy. All participants completed treatment, and client satisfaction was high. Child anxiety was significantly reduced following treatment, as were ratings of family accommodation. Another small pilot study of SPACE, with parents of children with obsessivecompulsive disorder, also showed significant improvement and high satisfaction.37 The present investigation was a randomized controlled noninferiority trial to determine whether SPACE is as efficacious as CBT, the best-established, strongest evidencebased treatment for childhood anxiety disorders. Noninferiority methodology was selected rather than the more commonly reported superiority testing because failure to show superiority of one treatment over another is insufficient evidence of treatment equivalence (see Data Analysis). Participants were randomly assigned to one treatment or the other, with those assigned to SPACE receiving no direct child-based treatment, and those assigned to CBT receiving no parent-based treatment. Primary outcomes were clinician-rated measures of child anxiety. Secondary outcomes included child and parent ratings of child anxiety and of family accommodation, as well as a parent-rated measure of parenting stress, to investigate the impact of SPACE on parenting stress associated with childhood anxiety. We hypothesized the following: 1) SPACE would not be inferior to CBT on primary outcomes of child anxiety; 2) SPACE would not be inferior to CBT on secondary outcomes of child and parent rated child anxiety symptoms, and parenting stress; 3) SPACE would be associated with greater reduction in family accommodation of child anxiety symptoms, compared to CBT; and 4) SPACE would not be Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry Volume - / Number - / - 2019

PARENT TREATMENT FOR CHILDHOOD ANXIETY

inferior to CBT on treatment credibility and client satisfaction.

assessments with parents and children at baseline, midtreatment, and posttreatment.

METHOD

Participants

Study Design

Participants were 124 children aged 7 to 14 years (mean age: 9.6 years, SD ¼ 2.45; 53% female participants), randomly assigned to SPACE (n ¼ 64) or CBT (n ¼ 60). Parents self-referred or were referred by providers including mental health providers within secondary and tertiary care settings, primary care general practitioners, and school personnel, between 2013 and 2018. The sample was predominantly white (83%) and non-Hispanic (88%), with a minority being black (6%) or of more than one race/ ethnicity (11%). Most parents were married or in domestic partnerships (92%; 4% single; 4% divorced). Parents’ modal educational attainment was Master’s level (40%; 28% Bachelor’s; 12% some college; 9% professional/ technical degree; 6% Associate’s; 3% high school; 2% PhD). Most parents (76%) were employed during the study; modal family income was >$125,000 (49%; 19% $100,000 $124,999; 10% $81,000 $99,999; 9%

The study was approved by the university’s Institutional Review Board and registered on www.clinicaltrials.gov. A total of 124 children were assigned to either SPACE or CBT in a 1:1 ratio using a computerized randomization algorithm (Figure 1). Parents of children assigned to SPACE received 12 parent-only sessions, following the manualized SPACE treatment protocol,17,36 with no direct child therapist contact. Children assigned to CBT received 12 sessions of exposure-based CBT, following an established manualized treatment protocol used in previous child anxiety trials.38 Parents of children assigned to CBT received no parent-treatment sessions but met with the child’s therapist at the start, middle, and end of treatment, for approximately 20 minutes each time, to keep them informed about their child’s therapy. Independent evaluators (IEs) masked to study arm completed

FIGURE 1 CONSORT Diagram of Study Enrollment and Retention

Note: Response indicates Clinical Global Impression Scale (CGI) improvement rating of “Very Much Improved” or “Much Improved.” Remission indicates a CGI Severity rating of “Not At All Ill” or “Borderline Ill.” CBT ¼ individual cognitive-behavioral therapy; SPACE ¼ Supportive Parenting for Anxious Childhood Emotions.

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LEBOWITZ et al.

$61,000 $80,999; 7% $41,000 $60,999; 4% $21,000 $40,999; 2% $0 $20,999). Primary anxiety diagnoses were generalized anxiety disorder (35.2%), social phobia (34.8%), separation anxiety disorder (18.2%), and speciﬁc phobia (11.8%). Comorbidity was common, with 75% having at least two anxiety disorders, and 48.4% having at least one nonanxiety diagnosis. Child medications included antidepressants (11%) and stimulants (7%). Table 1 summarizes baseline characteristics for the sample overall and by treatment arm. Inclusion criteria were as follows: primary DSM-5 anxiety disorder diagnosis; age 7 to 14 years; residing with mother at least 50% of the time; ﬂuent in English; medication free or on a stable dose of antidepressant or stimulant

when child and parent, upon consultation with the prescriber, agreed to refrain from changes during the study period; parental informed permission and consent; and child assent. Exclusion criteria were as follows: drug or alcohol abuse; psychotic symptoms; autism spectrum disorder; any comorbid disorder more impairing than the most severe anxiety disorder; concurrent psychotherapy or medication, apart from stable dose of antidepressant or stimulant; and serious suicidal intent or risk. Mothers were the identiﬁed participating parents, had to be present in all SPACE sessions, and completed all parent evaluations and assessments. Fathers could choose to attend sessions and were present in 12% of sessions,

TABLE 1 Baseline Characteristics Overall and by Treatment Arm Child Age, mean (SD) Child Sex, % female Parent Age, mean (SD) PARS, mean (SD) CGI-S, mean (SD) SCARED parent report, mean (SD) SCARED child report, mean (SD) FASA, mean (SD) Total Participation Modiﬁcation Distress Consequences FASA-CR, mean (SD) Total Participation Modiﬁcation Distress Consequences PSI Comorbid diagnoses Any comorbid anxiety, % Depression, % ADHD, % OCD, % ODD, % Medications SSRI Stimulants

Full Sample (N ¼ 124) 9.4 (2.41) 53 42.3 (5.9) 19.3 (4.3) 4.98 (.83) 31.4 (11.26)

SPACE (n ¼ 64) 9.1 (2.2) 47 41.6 (6.5) 19.8 (4.21) 4.9 (.82) 31.5 (12.1)

CBT (n ¼ 60) 9.9 (2.54) 61 43.1 (5.2) 18.8 (4.64) 5.1 (.84) 31.2 (10.38)

t / c2 .8 2.5 1.2 1.2 1.1 .21

p .35 .11 .21 .24 .28 .83

32.7 (14.49)

31 (13.85)

34.6 (15.06)

1.37

.17

15.7 (8.09) 10.7 (4.63) 5 (4.23) 1.51 (0.94) 5.25 (3.16)

16.7 (7.97) 11.3 (4.52) 5.4 (4.18) 1.65 (0.97) 5.63 (2.98)

14.6 (8.13) 10.1 (4.71) 4.5 (4.27) 1.36 (0.89) 4.84 (3.32)

1.4 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.3

.14 .14 .14 .09 .17

13.2 (6.5) 9.1 (4.0) 4.1 (3.5) 1.35 (1.26) 5.93 (3.17) 133.6 (20.6)

13.2 (6.7) 8.9 (4.1) 4.2 (3.6) 1.41 (1.34) 6.18 (3.41) 131.49 (19.42)

13.2 (6.3) 9.3 (3.9) 3.9 (3.4) 1.29 (1.18) 5.65 (2.89) 135.9 (21.68)

.03 .47 .47 .52 .92 1.02

.97 .64 .64 .61 .36 .31

75 10 18 14 13

80 8 16 11 14

70 12 20 17 12

1.8 .62 .53 1.1 .1

.17 .43 .47 .31 .74

14 9

8 4

6 5

.19 .2

.66 .65

Note: ADHD ¼ attention-deﬁcit/hyperactivity disorder; CGI-S ¼ Clinical Global Impressions–Severity; FASA ¼ Family Accommodation Scale–Anxiety; FASA-CR ¼ Family Accommodation Scale–Anxiety Child Report; OCD ¼ obsessive-compulsive disorder; ODD ¼ oppositional deﬁant disorder; PARS ¼ Pediatric Anxiety Rating Scale; PSI ¼ Parenting Stress Index; SCARED ¼ Screen for Childhood Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders; SPACE ¼ Supportive Parenting for Anxious Childhood Emotions; SSRI ¼ Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors.

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attending at least once in 25% of cases. Father attendance was not found to be related to any baseline or outcome variables. Randomization success was conﬁrmed using c2 and t tests. There were no signiﬁcant differences between the treatment groups in anxiety diagnoses or on demographic or study variables (Table 1). Procedures

Following initial telephone screening, families were invited to the baseline evaluation, and, after providing informed consent and assent, were administered separate diagnostic interviews and a standardized assessment battery. Parents and children returned to the clinic 1 week later, received clinical feedback, reviewed the study protocol, and were subsequently randomized to SPACE or CBT. Therapists were crossed across treatment arms to reduce therapist variance. Following the sixth session, a midtreatment evaluation was conducted. Following the 12th and ﬁnal treatment session, a posttreatment evaluation was conducted, including diagnostic interviews and primary and secondary outcomes. Treatment Arms CBT. CBT was the comparator arm, given that it is the best-

established treatment for childhood anxiety with the strongest evidence base, and the current standard of care.39 The study used a prototypical CBT manual that has been used in previous clinical trials.38 Children met alone with their therapist for 12 weekly, 60-minute sessions. The first sessions included discussion of the presenting problem, and psychoeducation about anxiety and the treatment rationale. Then an exposure hierarchy was devised, and therapy focused on in-session and out-of-session exposures. Cognitive work included identification of faulty cognitions, generating alternative cognitions and self-statements, and practicing cognitive restructuring in-session and out-ofsession. Termination included review of gains and remaining problems, and relapse prevention. Therapists met with parents to provide information on the child’s therapy and to elicit information to inform exposure hierarchies, but were trained not to provide parent guidance or to suggest modifications to parental behavior. Parents who asked for guidance were told to encourage their child to use skills learned in therapy. SPACE. Parents of children assigned to SPACE participated in 12 weekly, 60-minute sessions. The study used the published SPACE manual.17,36 The first sessions included discussion of the child’s presenting problem, and the rationale for SPACE, including addressing any concerns Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry Volume - / Number - / - 2019

about parent-based treatment. Parents were then taught supportive responses to child anxiety that acknowledge the child’s experience while also conveying confidence in the child’s ability to cope. Family accommodations were carefully and comprehensively mapped out, and a target accommodation was selected for modification. A detailed plan for changes to the accommodation was constructed, and parents were instructed in how to communicate the plan to the child. Treatment then focused on implementation and trouble-shooting of the accommodation reduction plan, and parents monitored their accommodation between sessions. When the accommodation was successfully reduced, a second target was selected and addressed in a similar manner. SPACE includes modules for problem-solving common difficulties relating to child responses to reduced accommodation, including distress, anger, and aggression. Therapist Training and Treatment Integrity and Fidelity

Therapists were doctoral- and postdoctoral-level psychology students who received extensive training in both treatments. Training included didactic learning, viewing of treatment sessions, and leading a case prior to independently treating study cases. Weekly supervision to all study therapists was co-led by the primary investigator and another clinician with decades of experience supervising CBT. The two treatments are highly distinct: SPACE is parent-only and not focused on child behavior, whereas CBT is child-only and focused entirely on child thoughts and behaviors. Fidelity and lack of carry-over were confirmed through fidelity checklists completed by clinicians after each session and at the end of treatment, and by independent raters. All treatment sessions were videotaped, and 25% of sessions were randomly selected for review by the independent raters using the fidelity checklists used by the clinicians. Weekly supervision was used to review treatment delivery and promptly address any drift in fidelity. Measures Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule: Child and Parent Versions. The Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule: Child

and Parent Versions (ADIS C/P)40 is a semi-structured diagnostic interview with excellent psychometric properties that is considered the gold standard in establishing childhood anxiety diagnoses. The interview was administered separately to children and parents. Final diagnoses were determined by integrating information from both and were agreed upon by expert consensus, including one of the interview’s authors. Remission on the ADIS was deﬁned conservatively as loss of primary and all other anxiety disorders posttreatment. www.jaacap.org

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Pediatric Anxiety Rating Scale. The Pediatric Anxiety

Rating Scale (PARS)41 is a clinician-administered child anxiety severity measure with established psychometric properties that has been used in major clinical trials. The PARS consists of a 50-item symptom checklist followed by global items that rate severity of identiﬁed symptoms on a 6-point scale. The PARS was administered to children and parents together, and 6 global items were summed to produce a total score from 0 to 30.42 Interrater reliability was established for IEs (r ¼ 0.9). Clinical Global Impressions. The Clinical Global Impres-

sions (CGI) scales are widely used in clinical trials, and provide clinician ratings of overall severity of psychopathology (CGIS) and overall improvement following treatment (CGI-I). CGI-S scores range from 1 (“no illness”) to 7 (“severely ill”); CGI-I scores range from 1 (“very much improved”) to 7 (“very much worse”). Remission on CGI-S was deﬁned as a posttreatment rating of “not at all ill” (1) or “borderline ill” (2)43; treatment response was deﬁned as a posttreatment rating of “very much improved” (1) or “much improved” (2).44 Screen for Childhood Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders. The Screen for Childhood Anxiety Related

Emotional Disorders45 (SCARED) is a 41-item rating scale of childhood anxiety symptoms. Parallel parent and child versions were administered. The SCARED has established psychometric properties.45,46 Internal consistency was excellent (a ¼ 0.89 for the parent version and a ¼ 0.91 for the child version).

Family Accommodation Scale–Anxiety. The Family Ac-

commodation Scale–Anxiety is a rating scale for assessing family accommodation of childhood anxiety. Parallel parent24 (FASA) and child25 (FASA-CR) versions were administered. A total accommodation score is calculated from 9 items that rate frequency of accommodations on a 5-point scale. Two subscores are calculated from items pertaining to active participation in symptoms and modiﬁcation of family routines and schedules. Additional items query parental distress stemming from accommodation, and short-term negative child responses to not being accommodated. FASA and FASA-CR are the most widely used measures of family accommodation of childhood anxiety with established psychometric properties. Internal consistency was excellent for FASA (a ¼ 0.9) and good for FASA-CR (a ¼ 0.8). Parenting Stress Index. The Parenting Stress Index47 (PSI)

is a 36-item index of parenting-related stress, scored on a 5-point scale. The PSI has been widely used and has established psychometric properties. Internal consistency was excellent (a ¼ 0.91). 6

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Client Credibility Questionnaire. The Client Credibility

Questionnaire48 (CCQ) is a four-item questionnaire that assesses perceptions of the rationale for psychotherapeutic interventions, and expectancies regarding treatment outcomes. Parallel parent and child versions were administered after subjects were randomized and the treatment rationale was explained.

Client Satisfaction Questionnaire. The Client Satisfaction

Questionnaire (CSQ-8) is an eight-item questionnaire that assesses satisfaction with treatment services. Parallel versions were administered posttreatment. Independent Evaluator Training and Reliability

The IEs were master’s- and doctoral-level clinicians, trained according to procedures established by instrument developers including didactic learning, observation, comparison with ratings by expert clinicians, and live weekly supervision. The IEs were masked to treatment assignment. Interrater reliability for pretreatment and posttreatment ratings was excellent (ICC > 0.9 for all comparisons). Data Analysis

Noninferiority methodologies differ from superiority methodologies that test whether a treatment is superior to a comparator against a null hypothesis that both treatments are the same. Failing to reject this null hypothesis, in superiority testing, does not necessarily indicate treatment equivalence; rather, it indicates that any differences detected are insufficient to confidently reject the possibility that the treatments do not differ. Any number of factors could contribute to the null hypothesis not being rejected in superiority analysis (eg, lack of power), and thus equivalence can be established only when tested against a null hypothesis that the treatments do in fact differ. This is the goal of noninferiority testing. In noninferiority testing, the null hypothesis posits that the comparator condition is superior to the treatment being tested, and is rejected only when CIs around the mean differences between treatment arms do not exceed a predetermined noninferiority margin. The noninferiority margin is selected to represent the amount of “acceptable difference,” or the maximum difference in outcomes that is permitted for both treatments to still be considered equivalent. Because the noninferiority test is essentially one-tailed, some researchers advocate using 97.5% CIs; this conservative approach was implemented in the current study. Furthermore, because intent-to-treat analyses (ITT) can artificially increase the perception of noninferiority through narrower CIs, testing focused on treatment completers for whom posttreatment data were available (per Food and Drug Administration guidelines for noninferiority trials). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry Volume - / Number - / - 2019

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Establishing Noninferiority Margins. For the primary

outcome (PARS), the noninferiority margin was set at 6 points. Thus, the null hypothesis that SPACE is inferior would be rejected if the upper limit of the 97.5% CI around the mean posttreatment PARS score for children who received SPACE was no more than 6 points higher than the mean posttreatment PARS score for CBT. The 6-point margin was selected based on statistical and clinical considerations. As noninferiority margins were not previously established for PARS, we first calculated the reliable change index (RCI) for PARS. The RCI is a statistic that determines the magnitude of change necessary to identify reliable change on a given self-report measure and is calculated as: RCI ¼ Oð2 ðSEÞ2 , where SE is the standard error of measurement. The RCI for PARS, based on previously published data, including results from the Childhood Anxiety Multimodal Treatment Study (CAMS), is eight points.44 Clinically, an 8-point noninferiority margin may be considered overly lenient; we therefore further reduced the margin by 25% to 6 points. This margin was further supported by research indicating that the average reduction in PARS score that optimally predicts treatment response is 6 points.44 Noninferiority margins for child and parent SCARED were 11 and 13 points, respectively, and were established in similar manner. The RCI for child and parent SCARED are 21 and 17 points, respectively. These were reduced by 25% to 15 and 13 points. Because the 15-point margin for the child-rated SCARED is still greater than the average reduction in child SCARED scores that optimally predicted treatment response in CAMS49 (ie., 11 points), the noninferiority margin was further reduced to 11. Mean differences between treatment arms on primary and secondary outcomes, with 97.5% CIs, were compared using the t test function in SAS 9.4 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). Improvement on secondary outcomes of family accommodation (FASA; FASA-CR) and parenting stress (PSI) were examined using separate mixed model effects with Group (SPACE, CBT), Time (pre-, mid-, and posttreatment), and a Group Time interaction covarying for baseline anxiety severity, using unstructured covariance matrices to account for within-subject correlation across measurement times, and fit via restricted maximum likelihood. Estimated marginal means were examined to characterize longitudinal patterns in significant interactions. Power Analysis. Power calculation using PASS-16 with a

set at 0.025 indicated that a sample of 41 children in each treatment arm would provide 90% power for noninferiority margins of primary and secondary outcomes. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry Volume - / Number - / - 2019

Actual recruitment was larger to allow for expected attrition up to 30%. RESULTS Treatment Retention

A total of 97 participants (78%) completed the posttreatment assessment (Figure 1). Retention did not differ signiﬁcantly between SPACE (n ¼ 48) and CBT (n ¼ 49) (c2 ¼ 0.8, p ¼ .34). Treatment completers and noncompleters did not differ on clinical or sociodemographic variables. In CBT only, noncompleters had higher baseline parent-rated child anxiety than completers (t ¼ 2.3, p < .05). No other signiﬁcant differences emerged for either treatment. Before conducting further analyses, we assessed for missing data bias, outliers, and statistical violations, which were found to be inconsequential. Primary Outcomes PARS. Table 2 summarizes descriptive statistics for all

outcomes at baseline, midtreatment, and posttreatment, for study completers. Figure 2A presents the 97.5% CIs for the mean difference between SPACE and CBT on the primary outcome of PARS. The 97.5% CI lay entirely below the 6-point noninferiority margin, indicating that SPACE was not inferior to CBT (p < .001). Response and Remission. There were no significant group differences in the proportions of participants classified as treatment responders on CGI-I (SPACE: 87.5%, CBT: 75.5%; c2 ¼ 3.2, p ¼ .7). Likewise, there were no significant group differences in the proportions of participants classified as remitters on CGI-S (SPACE: 58.3%, CBT: 59.2%; c2 ¼ 0.02, p ¼ .88) or ADIS C/P (SPACE: 68.8%, CBT: 63.3%; c2 ¼ 0.32, p ¼ .57). Secondary Outcomes SCARED. For both child and parent SCARED, the 97.5%

CIs for the difference between treatments lay entirely below the noninferiority margin, indicating that SPACE was not inferior to CBT (p < .01 and p < .01 respectively). Figure 2B and C present the 97.5% CIs for SCARED. FASA/FASA-CR. Mixed models analysis indicated that

parent-rated family accommodation was reduced signiﬁcantly in both treatments (FTIME ¼ 3.42, p < .05; FTREATMENT ¼ 0.964, p ¼ .3). A signiﬁcant interaction emerged between treatment arm and timepoint, indicating greater reduction in family accommodation following SPACE, compared with CBT (FINTERACTION ¼ 3.51, p < .01). Figure 3 presents longitudinal estimated marginal means data from the mixed models analysis for change in parent-rated family accommodation. As also apparent in Figure 3, the rate of accommodation reduction was linear www.jaacap.org

LEBOWITZ et al.

TABLE 2 Outcome Measures for Treatment Completers at Baseline, Midtreatment, and Posttreatment Baseline CGI-I CGI-S PARS SCARED parent report SCARED child report FASA FASA-CR PSI

Midtreatment

SPACE

CBT

SPACE

CBT

4.92 (.84) 19.89 (4.36) 32.35 (12.11) 30.43 (14.52) 16.7 (7.89) 14.1 (6.7) 131.32 (19.53)

4.97 (.84) 18.65 (4.43) 29.78 (10.27) 33.43 (14.91) 14.2 (8.39) 12.9 (6.5) 137.63 (20.96)

28.9 (13.6) 25.4 (14.9) 12.7 (7.9) 8.9 (7.5) 79.8 (12.9)

27.1 (9.9) 28.7 (14.9) 13.1 (9.3) 8.1 (6.6) 81.9 (14.2)

Posttreatment SPACE 1.61 (.58) 2.17 (1.16) 7.88 (3.79) 22.04 (13.72) 22.12 (13.9) 8.52 (6.8) 7.2 (5.51) 82.69 (13.14)

CBT 1.65 (.75) 2.35 (1.25) 8.98 (4.69) 17.29 (12.43) 19.63 (14.05) 7.68 (6.11) 6.63 (5.35) 83.7 (11.73)

Note: CBT ¼ cognitive-behavioral therapy; CGI-I ¼ Clinical Global Impressions–Improvement; CGI-S ¼ Clinical Global Impressions–Severity; FASA ¼ Family Accommodation Scale–Anxiety; FASA-CR ¼ Family Accommodation Scale–Anxiety Child Report; PARS ¼ Pediatric Anxiety Rating Scale; PSI ¼ Parenting Stress Index; SCARED ¼ Screen for Childhood Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders; SPACE ¼ Supportive Parenting for Anxious Childhood Emotions.

for SPACE, with 48% of reduction occurring in the first half of treatment, whereas in CBT, accommodation reduction occurred mostly (65%) in the second half of treatment. Child-rated family accommodation was likewise reduced significantly in both treatments, but no significant interaction emerged between time and treatment arm.

between groups. Average child-rated satisfaction was 27 (SD ¼ 4.9) for SPACE and 28 (SD ¼ 3.3) for CBT (t ¼ 1.9, p ¼ .06.) Average parent-rated satisfaction was 28 (SD ¼ 3.2) for SPACE and 28 (SD ¼ 4.5) for CBT (t ¼ .34, p ¼ .74).

PSI. Mixed models analysis indicated that parenting stress

DISCUSSION In this study, SPACE, a novel, completely parent-based treatment for childhood anxiety disorders, was as efﬁcacious as CBT, the established treatment for childhood anxiety with the strongest evidence base. Noninferiority of SPACE was established for both primary and secondary outcomes, and based on ratings by IEs, parents, and children. In contrast to numerous studies of parental involvement in child-based therapy, entirely parent-based treatment protocols are exceedingly rare in childhood anxiety research.13,14 This is the ﬁrst randomized clinical trial to compare parent-based treatment to child-based treatment. Theoretical and empirical research supports a unique role for parents in childhood anxiety, stemming from children’s natural reliance on caregivers for protection and reassurance. Chronic activation of this interpersonal parentoriented anxiety response entangles parents in childhood

was significantly reduced in both SPACE and CBT (FTIME ¼ 1196, p < .001; FTREATMENT ¼ 0.27, p ¼ .6), with no significant interaction between time and treatment arm (FINTERACTION ¼ 0.98, p ¼ .32). Treatment Credibility and Satisfaction CCQ. Treatment credibility was high, and not significantly

different for SPACE and CBT. Child-rated credibility averaged 2.4 (SD ¼ 0.33) for SPACE and 2.5 (SD ¼ 0.41) for CBT, from a maximum of 3 (t ¼ 1.7, p ¼ .09). Parent-rated credibility averaged 6.8 (SD ¼ 1.3) for SPACE and 7.3 (SD ¼ 1.2) for CBT, from a maximum of 9 (t ¼ 1.6, p ¼ .11). Satisfaction

Children and parents reported high levels of satisfaction with both treatments, with no signiﬁcant differences

FIGURE 2 Mean Differences and CIs for Child Anxiety Outcomes

Note: Panels A, B, and C, show mean differences in Pediatric Anxiety Rating Scale (PARS), parent-rated Screen for Childhood Anxiety Related Disorders (SCARED), and child-rated SCARED scores, respectively. Diamond indicates the actual differences, and bars indicate the 97.5% CI around the mean. Dotted lines indicate the noninferiority margin for each measure. Mean differences below 0 indicate lower anxiety following SPACE, whereas mean differences above 0 indicate lower anxiety following CBT.

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FIGURE 3 Parent-Rated Family Accommodation by Treatment Condition From Baseline to Posttreatment

Note: Data presented for estimated marginal means from mixed models analysis covarying for baseline child anxiety. CBT ¼ cognitive-behavioral therapy; SPACE ¼ Supportive Parenting for Anxious Childhood Emotions.

anxiety symptoms through high levels of family accommodation.24,26,32 Family accommodation, which causes significant distress to parents and maintains child anxiety over time,26,29-31,34 provides a target for novel interventions. SPACE stems directly from this interpersonal formulation of child anxiety. The finding that SPACE is as efficacious as CBT has direct clinical implications. For clinicians, efficacious parent-based treatment provides an alternative approach to be deployed alongside or instead of CBT. Parent-based treatment may be particularly useful when child-based treatment is not a viable option, such as when severe developmental or communication problems preclude individual or cognitive interventions. The finding that baseline severity predicted attrition in CBT but not in SPACE may point to its usefulness for severe anxiety cases. However, the high consent rate and the absence of significant differences in attrition, credibility, or satisfaction between SPACE and CBT support the broad acceptability and feasibility of SPACE for a wide variety of cases. More research is required to replicate these findings and to address questions pertaining to optimal selection and sequencing of parent-based and child-based therapies. Examination of differential response patterns to the two treatments, based on child, parent, or family variables, may enhance clinicians’ ability to personalize treatment selection. Mounting evidence for the efficaciousness of parent-based Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry Volume - / Number - / - 2019

treatments through replication studies will also have important but challenging policy implications. One such challenge is ensuring that reimbursement for parent-based treatments matches reimbursement for child-based therapy. Research is also required to investigate the respective mechanisms of action responsible for clinical improvement in SPACE and CBT. SPACE represents a natural next step in translating the rapidly expanding research on family accommodation into a treatment for childhood anxiety.24,30-34 The finding that parent-rated family accommodation was significantly more reduced following SPACE, compared with CBT, supports the premise of SPACE that reducing accommodation will improve child anxiety. This hypothesis is also in line with the finding that reduction in family accommodation occurred equally across treatment in SPACE, whereas in CBT the reduction in accommodation occurred mostly in the latter half of treatment. It may be that reduction in family accommodation in SPACE preceded, and led to, reduction in anxiety symptoms, whereas in CBT, reduced accommodation resulted from lower anxiety levels as treatment progressed. Research on directionality of change in child anxiety treatment is sparse and is needed to advance understanding of mechanisms of change.38 Paternal involvement in treatment did not have a significant impact on outcomes in the current trial. Data on family accommodation by fathers are lacking, and may inform understanding of the importance of involving fathers in parent-based treatment. The current study must be considered in light of certain limitations. The study included two active and potent treatment arms, and, as is common in noninferiority trials, did not include an inactive or sham treatment arm. It was necessary to restrict parental involvement in CBT to ensure treatment differentiation and to enable the comparison of child- and parentbased treatments; however, this differs from the greater parental involvement often used in CBT. It would be useful to compare SPACE and CBT to a parent-and-child treatment, combining CBT with parent work focused on reducing accommodation. In addition, the sample was mostly of white ethnicity and of medium-to-high socioeconomic status, making it important to establish whether findings generalize to heterogenous populations. Research on CBT has indicated that low socioeconomic status may predict poorer treatment response.50 Despite these limitations, the study is important and novel, being the first clinical trial to establish the efficacy of a parent-based intervention relative to the standard-of-care CBT, and the first randomized trial of SPACE, a treatment focused exclusively on shaping parental behavior. Findings indicate that SPACE is as efficacious as CBT for childhood anxiety disorders, and help to establish SPACE as a useful treatment option for anxious children. www.jaacap.org

LEBOWITZ et al.

Accepted February 28, 2019. Drs. Lebowitz, Marin, Shimshoni, and Silverman, and Ms. Martino are with the Yale University Child Study Center, New Haven, CT. Dr. Lebowitz’s work on this manuscript was funded by the National Institute of Mental Health (K23MH103555) and the Center for the Advancement of Translational Science (KL2TR000140). The authors wish to thank James Jaccard, PhD, of the New York University School of Social Work, for statistical consultation for this study. The authors wish to thank James Leckman, MD, PhD, of the Yale School of Medicine Child Study Center, and Ruth Feldman, PhD, of Interdisciplinary Center of Herzilya, who provided mentorship and consultation for this project.

Disclosure: Dr. Lebowitz has received royalties from John Wiley and Sons and funding from the National Institute of Mental Health. Dr. Silverman has received royalties from Oxford University Press and funding from the National Institute of Mental Health. Drs. Marin and Shimshoni and Ms. Martino report no biomedical ﬁnancial interests or potential conﬂicts of interest. Correspondence to Eli R. Lebowitz, PhD, 230 S. Frontage Road, New Haven, CT 06520 7900; e-mail: eli.lebowitz@yale.edu 0890-8567/$36.00/ª2019 American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2019.02.014

REFERENCES 1. Costello EJ, Egger HL, Copeland W, Erkanli A, Angold A. The developmental epidemiology of anxiety disorders: phenomenology, prevalence, and comorbidity. In: Silverman W, Field A, eds. Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2011:56-75. 2. Greenberg PE, Sisitsky T, Kessler RC, et al. The economic burden of anxiety disorders in the 1990s. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999;60:427-435. 3. Silverman WK, Pina AA, Viswesvaran C. Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for phobic and anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2008;37:105-130. 4. Barrett PM, Dadds MR, Rapee RM. Family treatment of childhood anxiety: a controlled trial. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1996;64:333-342. 5. Barmish AJ, Kendall PC. Should parents be co-clients in cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxious youth? J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2005;34:569-581. 6. Reynolds S, Wilson C, Austin J, Hooper L. Effects of psychotherapy for anxiety in children and adolescents: a meta-analytic review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2012;32:251-262. 7. Cobham VE, Dadds MR, Spence SH. The role of parental anxiety in the treatment of childhood anxiety. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1998;66:893-905. 8. Bodden DH, Bogels SM, Nauta MH, et al. Child versus family cognitive-behavioral therapy in clinically anxious youth: an efﬁcacy and partial effectiveness study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2008;47:1384-1394. 9. Mendlowitz SL, Manassis K, Bradley S, Scapillato D, Miezitis S, Shaw BF. Cognitivebehavioral group treatments in childhood anxiety disorders: the role of parental involvement. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999;38:1223-1229. 10. Nauta MH, Scholing A, Emmelkamp PMG, Minderaa RB. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for children with anxiety disorders in a clinical setting: no additional effect of a cognitive parent training. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2003;42: 1270-1278. 11. Spence SH, Donovan C, Brechman-Toussaint M. The treatment of childhood social phobia: the effectiveness of a social skills training-based, cognitive-behavioural intervention, with and without parental involvement. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2000;41:713-726. 12. Wood JJ, Piacentini JC, Southam-Gerow M, Chu BC, Sigman M. Family cognitive behavioral therapy for child anxiety disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2006;45:314-321. 13. Cartwright-Hatton S, McNally D, Field AP, et al. A new parenting-based group intervention for young anxious children: results of a randomized controlled trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011;50:242-251. 14. Thirlwall K, Cooper PJ, Karalus J, Voysey M, Willetts L, Creswell C. Treatment of child anxiety disorders via guided parent-delivered cognitive-behavioural therapy: randomised controlled trial. Br J Psychiatry. 2013;203:436-444. 15. Cartwright-Hatton S, McNally D, White C. A new cognitive behavioural parenting intervention for families of young anxious children: a pilot study. Behav Cogn Psychother. 2005;33:243-247. 16. Thienemann M, Moore P, Tompkins K. A parent-only group intervention for children with anxiety disorders: pilot study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2006;45:37-46. 17. Lebowitz ER, Omer H, Hermes H, Scahill L. Parent training for childhood anxiety disorders: the SPACE program. Cognit Behav Pract. 2014;21:456-469. 18. Freeman J, Sapyta J, Garcia A, et al. Family-based treatment of early childhood OCD: the Pediatric OCD Treatment Study Junior (POTS Jr.) randomized controlled trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2014;71:689. 19. Salloum A, Swaidan VR, Torres AC, Murphy TK, Storch EA. Parents' perception of stepped care and standard care trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy for young children. J Child Fam Stud. 2016;25:262-274. 20. Moriceau S, Sullivan RM. Maternal presence serves as a switch between learning fear and attraction in infancy. Nat Neurosci. 2006;9:1004-1006.

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21. Callaghan BL, Tottenham N. The neuro-environmental loop of plasticity: a cross-species analysis of parental effects on emotion circuitry development following typical and adverse caregiving. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2016;41:163-176. 22. Tottenham N, Hare TA, Millner A, Gilhooly T, Zevin J, Casey BJ. Elevated amygdala response to faces following early deprivation. Dev Sci. 2011;14:190-204. 23. Ollendick TH, Lewis KM, Cowart MJ, Davis T 3rd. Prediction of child performance on a parent-child behavioral approach test with animal phobic children. Behav Modif. 2012; 36:509-524. 24. Lebowitz ER, Woolston J, Bar-Haim Y, et al. Family accommodation in pediatric anxiety disorders. Depress Anxiety. 2013;30:47-54. 25. Lebowitz ER, Scharfstein L, Jones J. Child-report of family accommodation in pediatric anxiety disorders: comparison and integration with mother-report. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2015;46:501-511. 26. Storch EA, Salloum A, Johnco C, et al. Phenomenology and clinical correlates of family accommodation in pediatric anxiety disorders. J Anxiety Disord. 2015;35:75-81. 27. Lebowitz ER, Panza KE, Bloch MH. Family accommodation in obsessive-compulsive and anxiety disorders: a ﬁve-year update. Expert Rev Neurother. 2016;16:45-53. 28. Kerns CE, Pincus DB, McLaughlin KA, Comer JS. Maternal emotion regulation during child distress, child anxiety accommodation, and links between maternal and child anxiety. J Anxiety Disord. 2017;50:52-59. 29. Reuman L, Abramowitz JS. Predictors of accommodation among families affected by fear-based disorders. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2018;49:53-62. 30. Norman KR, Silverman WK, Lebowitz ER. Family accommodation of child and adolescent anxiety: mechanisms, assessment, and treatment. J Child Adolesc Psychiatr Nurs. 2015;28:131-140. 31. Settipani CA. The effect of child distress on maternal accommodation of anxiety: relations with mother and child factors. Dissertation Abst Int B: Sci Engin. 2015;76: 810-823. 32. Kagan ER, Peterman JS, Carper MM, Kendall PC. Accommodation and treatment of anxious youth. Depress Anxiety. 2016;33:840-847. 33. Peterman JS, Carper MM, Elkins RM, Comer JS, Pincus DB, Kendall PC. The effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy for youth anxiety on sleep problems. J Anxiety Disord. 2016;37. 34. Salloum A, Andel R, Lewin AB, Johnco C, McBride NM, Storch EA. Family accommodation as a predictor of cognitive-behavioral treatment outcome for childhood anxiety. Fam Soc. 2018;99:45-55. 35. Manassis K, Lee TC, Bennett K, et al. Types of parental involvement in CBT with anxious youth: a preliminary meta-analysis. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2014;82:1163-1172. 36. Lebowitz ER, Omer H. Treating Childhood and Adolescent Anxiety: A Guide for Caregivers. NJ: Wiley; 2013. 37. Lebowitz ER. Parent-based treatment for childhood and adolescent OCD. J ObsessiveCompulsive Relat Disord. 2013;2:425-431. 38. Silverman WK, Kurtines WM, Jaccard J, Pina AA. Directionality of change in youth anxiety treatment involving parents: an initial examination. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2009;77:474-485. 39. Silverman WK, Pina AA. Psychosocial treatments for phobic and anxiety disorders in youth. In: Roberts MC, ed. New York: Springer Science and Business Media; 2008:65-82. 40. Silverman WK, Albano AM. Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule (ADIS-IV) Parent Interview Schedule. New York: Oxford University Press; 1996. 41. RUPP Anxiety Study Group. The Pediatric Anxiety Rating Scale (PARS): development and psychometric properties. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2002;41:1061-1069. 42. Caporino NE, Brodman DM, Kendall PC, et al. Deﬁning treatment response and remission in child anxiety: signal detection analysis using the pediatric anxiety rating scale. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2013; 52:57-67.

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43. Ginsburg GS, Kendall PC, Sakolsky D, et al. Remission after acute treatment in children and adolescents with anxiety disorders: ﬁndings from the CAMS. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2011;79:806-813. 44. Walkup JT, Albano AM, Piacentini J, et al. Cognitive behavioral therapy, sertraline, or a combination in childhood anxiety. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:2753-2766. 45. Birmaher B, Khetarpal S, Brent D, et al. The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36:545-553. 46. Birmaher B, Brent DA, Chiappetta L, Bridge J, Monga S, Baugher M. Psychometric properties of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): a replication study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999;38:1230-1236.

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47. Abidin RR. Parenting Stress Index. In: Professional Manual. 3rd ed. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources; 1995. 48. Borkovec TD, Nau SD. Credibility of analogue therapy rationales. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 1972;3:257-260. 49. Caporino NE, Sakolsky D, Brodman DM, et al. Establishing clinical cutoffs for response and remission on the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED). J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2017;56:696-702. 50. Taylor JH, Lebowitz ER, Jakubovski E, Coughlin CG, Silverman WK, Bloch MH. Monotherapy insufﬁcient in severe anxiety? Predictors and moderators in the child/adolescent anxiety multimodal study. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2018;47:266-281.

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Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome: When Students Can’t Get Things Done Peter Isquith, Ph.D. Senior Attending Neuropsychologist with the Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Program, Boston Children’s Hospital

Overview Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome (CDS) describes a developmentally inappropriate and persistent set of behaviors or symptoms that interfere with an individual’s ability to get started, to sustain. This syndrome, formerly known as “Sluggish Cognitive Tempo,” is characterized by a daydreamy or inattentive style and by low energy often reflected in low motor tone and output and difficulty getting started on, and persisting in, tasks or activities. Many individuals with CDS also demonstrate a slowness in performing activities. It often presents in elementary grades as inattention, low tone, and difficulty persisting with schoolwork. By middle school, students often have difficulty completing their work despite good knowledge and skills, and by high school many are performing poorly and become disengaged from their school, extra-curricular, and social lives. As adults, they may underperform academically and vocationally, and develop secondary mood problems such as depression. In this presentation, we will discuss the developmental course of Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome, its crossover characteristics and distinctiveness from attention disorders, and what we know about causes, outcomes, and treatments. This discussion aims to equip participants with the knowledge and skills necessary to recognize and support students who present with Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome. Learning Objectives: 1. Identify the key symptoms of Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome in individuals across the age range 2. Describe similarities and differences with attention disorders 3. Explore interventions to manage the impact of CDS on functioning and emotional well-being.

References Barkley, R. A., Willcutt, E., & Jacobson, L. A. (2022). What is the cognitive deficit in sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT)? A review of neuropsychological research. The ADHD Report, 30(2), 1-10. Barkley, R. A. (2013). Distinguishing sluggish cognitive tempo from ADHD in children and adolescents: executive functioning, impairment, and comorbidity. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 42(2), 161-173. Bauermeister, J. J., Barkley, R. A., Bauermeister, J. A., Martínez, J. V., & McBurnett, K. (2012). Validity of the sluggish cognitive tempo, inattention, and hyperactivity symptom dimensions: Neuropsychological and psychosocial correlates. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 40, 683-697. Becker, S. P. (2021). Systematic review: Assessment of sluggish cognitive tempo over the past decade. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 60(6), 690-709. Becker, S. P., Leopold, D. R., Burns, G. L., Jarrett, M. A., Langberg, J. M., Marshall, S. A., ... & Willcutt, E. G. (2016). The internal, external, and diagnostic validity of sluggish cognitive tempo: A meta-analysis and critical review. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 55(3), 163-178. Becker, S. P., Marshall, S. A., & McBurnett, K. (2014). Sluggish cognitive tempo in abnormal child psychology: an historical overview and introduction to the special section. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 42, 1-6. Becker, S. P., & Langberg, J. M. (2013). Sluggish cognitive tempo among young adolescents with ADHD: Relations to mental health, academic, and social functioning. Journal of Attention Disorders, 17(8), 681-689. Becker, S. P., Willcutt, E. G., Leopold, D. R., Fredrick, J. W., Smith, Z. R., Jacobson, L. A., ... & Barkley, R. A. (2023). Report of a work group on sluggish cognitive tempo: Key research directions and a consensus change in terminology to cognitive disengagement syndrome. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 62(6), 629-645. Cano-Crespo, A., Moreno-García, I., Servera, M., & Morales-Ortiz, M. (2023, July). Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome and Child Sleep Problems in ADHD, Anxiety and Depression. In Healthcare (Vol. 11, No. 14, p. 2022). MDPI. Carlson, C. L., & Mann, M. (2002). Sluggish cognitive tempo predicts a different pattern of impairment in the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, predominantly inattentive type. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31(1), 123-129.

Fredrick, J. W., & Becker, S. P. (2023). Cognitive disengagement syndrome (Sluggish Cognitive Tempo) and social withdrawal: Advancing a conceptual model to guide future research. Journal of Attention Disorders, 27(1), 38-45. Fredrick, J. W., & Becker, S. P. (2023). Sluggish Cognitive Tempo (Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome) and academic functioning: A systematic review and agenda for future research. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 26(1), 82-120. Fredrick, J. W., Jacobson, L. A., Peterson, R. K., & Becker, S. P. (2023). Cognitive disengagement syndrome (sluggish cognitive tempo) and medical conditions: a systematic review and call for future research. Child Neuropsychology, 1-35. Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., Guy, S. C., & Kenworthy, L. (2015). Behavior rating inventory of executive function, 2nd Edition. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. Gul, A., & Gul, H. (2023). Sluggish cognitive tempo (Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome) symptoms are more associated with a higher risk of internet addiction and internet gaming disorder than ADHD symptoms: A study with medical students and resident doctors. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 139, 104557. Jacobson, L. A., Geist, M., & Mahone, E. M. (2018). Sluggish cognitive tempo, processing speed, and internalizing symptoms: The moderating effect of age. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 46, 127-135. Jacobson, L. A., & Mahone, E. M. (2019). Sluggish cognitive tempo predicts academic fluency, beyond contributions of core academic skills, attention, and motor speed. Journal of attention disorders, 23(14), 1703-1710. Jacobson, L. A., Murphy-Bowman, S. C., Pritchard, A. E., Tart-Zelvin, A., Zabel, T. A., & Mahone, E. M. (2012). Factor structure of a sluggish cognitive tempo scale in clinically-referred children. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 40, 1327-1337. Koriakin, T. A., Mahone, E. M., & Jacobson, L. A. (2015). Sleep difficulties are associated with parent report of sluggish cognitive tempo. Journal of developmental and behavioral pediatrics: JDBP, 36(9), 717. Lahey, B. B., Applegate, B., McBurnett, K., Biederman, J., Greenhill, L., Hynd, G. W., Barkley, R. A., Newcorn, J., Jensen, P., Richters, J., Garfinkel, B., Kerdyk, L., Frick, P. J., Ollendick, T., Perez, D., Hart, E. L., Waldman, I., & Shaffer, D. (1994). DSM-IV Field Trials for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151(11), 1673–1685. Luedke, J. C., Vargas, G., Jashar, D. T., Morrow, A., Malone, L. A., & Ng, R. (2023). Cognitive disengagement syndrome in pediatric patients with long COVID: associations with mood, anxiety, and functional impairment. Child Neuropsychology.

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Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome When Students Can’t Get Things Done Peter K. Isquith, PhD

38th Annual Executive Function Conference: Executive Function, Motivation, and Engagement

Research Institute for Learning and Development

Qui nn P re s c h o o l • Daydreamy, drifty • Lost in a fog • Low tone • Low energy • Sleepy • Doesn’t get started • Disengaged

Quinn Early Elementary • Anxious • Upset with change • Learns basic academic skills • Likes facts

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Quinn Later Elementary • Learns quickly • Academics okay • Sits and drifts • Needs prompts to start • Fades quickly • Doesn’t sustain effort • Stares off, in a fog • Needs supervision to do work • Slow output • Socially isolated • Dislikes physical activity

Middle School • Parents push him to do work • Doesn’t get started • Low energy, low tone • Can sit for hours and do nothing • Increasingly focused on video • Grades begin to drop • Evaluation finds good cognitive ability & academic skills • Must be unmotivated

High School • Socially isolated • No group activities/ sports • Does little work, poor grades • Appears unmotivated, lazy • Parents frustrated • Teachers frustrated • Appears depressed • Negative self-concept • Gives up

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Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome

a.k.a. Sluggish Cognitive Tempo

Peter K. Isquith, PhD

Senior Attending Neuropsychologist, Boston Children’s Hospital Instructor in Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School Assistant Professor in Psychiatry, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth

Disclosure Peter Isquith is an author of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) family of instruments, the Tasks of Executive Control, the PostConcussion Executive Inventory, and the Adaptable Pediatric Neurocognitive Battery.

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Sluggish, Daydreamy, & “Unmotivated” A set of symptoms emerged as separate from Attention Deficit Disorder with & without Hyperactivity during development of DSM-III. This was described as “ADHD NOS” in DSM-IV Not included in DSM-V.

Lahey et al, 1994

Symptoms of CDS

Becker, 2013

Na mi n g ? • Sluggish cognitive tempo • Concentration deficit disorder • Cognitive disengagement/hypoactivity disorder • Cognitive disengagement syndrome • Syndrome vs. disorder?

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ADHD-I Symptoms versus CDS Symptoms • Careless mistakes • Fails to pay close attention • Poor sustained attention • Does not listen • Fails to finish work • Difficulty organizing • Avoids sustained effort • Loses things • Forgetful • Easily distracted

• Daydreams • Lost in thought • Slow-moving • Lethargic • Apathetic • Appears drowsy/sleepy • Easily confused • Stares off • Effort fades quickly • Slow to complete tasks

The Penny SCT Scale Yawning, stretching, sleepy eyed Appears sluggish Seems drowsy Appears tired or lethargic Underactive, slow moving, lacks energy Lacks initiative to complete work Needs extra time for assignments Is apathetic; shows little interest Is unmotivated Slow or delayed in completing tasks Effort fades quickly

SCT/CDS Measurement • 14 items in 3 scales • Minimal overlap with ADHD • Developed in Canada • Validity study in U.S. 3 factors: • Sleepy/sluggish • Low initiation/persistence • Slow/daydreamy

Daydreams Lost in a world of their own Daydreams Penny et al, 2009; Jacobson et al, 2012

How common is Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome? • Community sample of 1,800 children ages 6-17 years • CDS only 2.3% • ADHD only 5.3% • CDS + ADHD 3.4% • Controls (n = 1,603)

CDS prevalence = 5.7%

• ADHD and CDS are not entirely overlapping: • 59% of children with CDS also had ADHD • 39% of children with ADHD also had CDS • 41% of those with CDS did not have ADHD

Barkley, 2013

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Risks for Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome • Genetics- Only a few studies to date suggests some heritability • Prenatal- Exposure to alcohol or maternal smoking • Health- Brain injury, cancer treatments (ALL), low thyroid, sleep • Psychopathology- ADHD, depression, anxiety, autism symptoms • Cognitive- Working memory, weak association with processing speed Becker et al, 2022

Academic Impact of CDS • Reduced academic performance in math and reading • Lower achievement in writing • Lower grades • Reduced homework completion • Reduced daily functioning at home

Bauermeister et al., 2012; Jacobson et al., 2012; Becker & Langberg, 2013; Watabe et al., 2013; Willcutt et al., 2014

Social-Emotional Impact of CDS • Higher rates of anxiety and depression • Increased social withdrawal and isolation • Decreased social competence • Peer relationship problems • Increased shyness, fear • Lower rates of externalizing disorders

Barkley, 2012; Becker et al., 2014; Carlson & Mann, 2002; Willcutt et al., 2014

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CDS Uniquely Predicts Academic Fluency • Study of 247 clinically referred 6- to 20-year-olds • CDS/ADHD scales, speed, timed/untimed reading and math • CDS consistently predicted reading/math fluency • “Slow” factor had the largest contribution (vs sleepy/sluggish; daydreamy) controlling for: • Graphomotor speed • Untimed reading/math • Inattentive ADHD symptoms Jacobson & Mahone, 2019

CDS Predicts Academic Impairment • Predicting teacher ratings of academic difficulty in CDS

. Sleepy/sluggish + Slow/daydreamy + Low initiation/persistence => Academics

• CDS was a strong predictor of academic impairment beyond inattentiveness Largely driven by Low Initiation/Persistence factor (p = 0.003)

(Jacobson et al., 2012)

CDS & Self-Regulation • BRIEF ratings: 5 studies found CDS related to Cognitive Regulation Initiation Working Memory Planning & Organization Task Monitoring • BDEFS ratings: 7 studies found CDS related to Self-Organization & Problem Solving Barkley et al, 2022

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Executive Function in CDS 75 70 65 60

TD SCT

55 50 45 40 In hi b i t

S el f-M o ni to r

S hi ft

E mo ti o na l C o ntr ol

In iti a te

W o rki n g M em o ry

P al n /Org a ni ze T as k-M o ni to r

Gioia et al., 2015

Executive Function in CDS & ADHD-I 75 70 65 60

SCT

AD H D- I

50 45 40 In hi b i t

S el f-M o ni to r

S hi ft

E mo ti o na l C o ntr ol

In iti a te

W o rki n g M em o ry

P al n /Org a ni ze T as k-M o ni to r

Gioia et al., 2015

Executive Function in CDS, ADHD-I, & ADHD-C 75 70 65

TD AD H C-C AD H D- I SCT

60 55 50 45 40 In hi b i t

S el f-M o ni to r

S hi ft

E mo ti o na l C o ntr ol

In iti a te

W o rki n g M em o ry

P al n /Org a ni ze T as k-M o ni to r

Gioia et al., 2015

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Is CDS just lack of Sleep? • Sleepiness is different from CDS in college students (Langberg et al., 2014) • But worse CDS was associated with poor sleep quality (Becker et al., 2014) • Sleep problems contribute to CDS beyond inattention (Koriakin et al., 2013)

Assessment guidelines • CDS symptoms provide unique information about functioning • Should be a routine part of assessment • Rule-out sleep problems, medical risks, environmental demands, mood, trauma • Assess via: • Parent and teacher (self?) ratings of attention, CDS, mood, anxiety • Speed & Fluency measures

Treatment

No specific treatment programs for CDS • Cognitive behavior therapy some evidence of gains (Pfiffner et al., 2007) • Home-School behavior program may reduce symptoms (Langberg et al., 2014) • Medications • Methylphenidate- reduced CDS in ADHD (First et al. 2021)

• Lisdexamfetamine reduced CDS separate from ADHD in adults (Adler et al., 2021) • Atomoxetine- reduced CDS separate from ADHD in children (McBurnett et al., 2017)

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Qui nn

Finding Strength

Knows everything Becomes quiz champion Understands himself as smart with difficulty engaging

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College • Attends international university • Finds his muse- economics • Learns multiple languages on his own • Develops friendships • Graduates summa cum laude

Post-college • Successful in international business • Has nerdy friends with similar interests • Has fiancé • Still hard to find motivation if not interested • Understands self as having CDS, not “lazy”

References B arkley, R . A ., W illcutt, E ., & Jacobson, L . A . (2022). W hat is the cognitive deficit in sluggish cognitive tem po (S C T )? A review of neuropsychological research. T he A D H D R eport, 30(2), 1-10. B arkley, R . A . (2013). D istinguishing sluggish cognitive tem po from A D H D in children and adolescents: executive functioning, im pairm ent, and com orbidity. Journal of C linical C hild & A dolescent Psychology, 4 2 (2 ), 1 6 1 -1 7 3 . B auerm eister, J. J., B arkley, R . A ., B auerm eister, J. A ., M artínez, J. V ., & M cB urnett, K . (2012). V alidity of the sluggish cognitive tem po, inattention, and hyperactivity sym ptom dim ensions: N europsychological and psychosocial correlates. Journal of abnorm al child psychology, 4 0 , 6 8 3-6 9 7 . B ecker, S . P . (2021). S ystem atic review : A ssessm ent of sluggish cognitive tem po over the past decade. Journal of the A m erican A cadem y of C hild & A dolescent P sychiatry, 60(6), 690-709. B ecker, S . P ., L eopold, D . R ., B urns, G . L ., Jarrett, M . A ., L angberg, J. M ., M arshall, S . A ., ... & W illcutt, E . G . (2016). T he internal, external, and diagnostic validity of sluggish cognitive tem po: A m eta-analysis and critical review . Journal of the A m erican A cadem y of C hild & A dolescent P sychiatry, 55(3), 163-178. B ecker, S . P ., M arshall, S . A ., & M cB urnett, K . (2014). S luggish cognitive tem po in abnorm al child psychology: an historical overview and introduction to the special section. Journal of abnorm al child psychology, 42, 1-6. B ecker, S . P ., & Langberg, J. M . (2013). S luggish cognitive tem po am ong young adolescents w ith A D H D : R elations to m ental health, academ ic, and social functioning. Journal of A ttention D isorders, 1 7 (8 ), 6 8 1 -6 8 9 .

B ecker, S . P ., W illcutt, E . G ., L eopold, D . R ., F redrick, J. W ., S m ith, Z . R ., Jacobson, L . A ., ... & B arkley, R . A . (2023). R eport of a w ork group on sluggish cognitive tem po: K ey research directions and a consensus change in term inology to cognitive disengagem ent syndrom e. Journal of the A m erican A cadem y of C hild & A dolescent P sychiatry, 62(6), 629645. C ano-C respo, A ., M oreno-G arcía, I., S ervera, M ., & M orales-O rtiz, M . (2023, July). C ognitive D isengagem ent S yndrom e and C hild S leep P roblem s in A D H D , A nxiety and D epression. In H ealthcare (V ol. 11, N o. 14, p. 2022). M D P I. C arlson, C . L ., & M ann, M . (2002). S luggish cognitive tem po predicts a different pattern of im pairm ent in the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, predom inantly inattentive type. Journal of C linical C hild and A dolescent Psychology, 3 1 (1 ), 1 2 3 -1 2 9 . F redrick, J. W ., & B ecker, S . P . (2023). C ognitive disengagem ent syndrom e (S luggish C ognitive T em po) and social w ithdraw al: A dvancing a conceptual m odel to guide future research. Journal of A ttention D isorders, 27(1), 38-45. F redrick, J. W ., & B ecker, S . P . (2023). S luggish C ognitive T em po (C ognitive D isengagem ent S yndrom e) and academ ic functioning: A system atic review and agenda for future research. C linical C hild and F am ily P sychology R eview , 26(1), 82-120. F redrick, J. W ., Jacobson, L . A ., P eterson, R . K ., & B ecker, S . P . (2023). C ognitive disengagem ent syndrom e (sluggish cognitive tem po) and m edical conditions: a system atic review and call for future research. C hild N europsychology, 1-35. G ioia, G . A ., Isquith, P . K ., G uy, S . C ., & K enw orthy, L . (2015). B ehavior rating inventory of executive function, 2 nd E dition. Lutz, FL: Psychological A ssessm ent Resources, Inc. G ul, A ., & G ul, H . (2023). S luggish cognitive tem po (C ognitive D isengagem ent S yndrom e) sym ptom s are m ore associated w ith a higher risk of internet addiction and internet gam ing disorder than A D H D sym ptom s: A study w ith m edical students and resident doctors. R esearch in D evelopm ental D isabilities, 139, 104557.

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References Jacobson, L. A ., G eist, M ., & M ahone, E . M . (2018). S luggish cognitive tem po, processing speed, and internalizing sym ptom s: T he m oderating effect of age. Journal of abnorm al child psychology, 4 6 , 1 2 7 -1 3 5 . Jacobson, L. A ., & M ahone, E . M . (2019). S luggish cognitive tem po predicts academ ic fluency, beyond contributions of core academ ic skills, attention, and m otor speed. Journal of attention disorders, 2 3 (1 4 ), 1 7 0 3 -1 7 1 0 . Jacobson, L. A ., M urphy-B ow m an, S . C ., P ritchard, A . E ., T art-Z elvin, A ., Z abel, T . A ., & M ahone, E . M . (2012). F actor structure of a sluggish cognitive tem po scale in clinically referred children. Journal of abnorm al child psychology, 4 0 , 1 3 2 7 -1 3 3 7 . K oriakin, T . A ., M ahone, E . M ., & Jacobson, L . A . (2015). S leep difficulties are associated w ith parent report of sluggish cognitive tem po. Journal of developm ental and behavioral pediatrics: JD B P, 3 6 (9 ), 7 1 7 .

M ayes, S . D ., B ecker, S . P ., C alhoun, S . L ., & W aschbusch, D . A . (2023). C om parison of the cognitive disengagem ent and hypoactivity com ponents of sluggish cognitive tem po in autism , A D H D , and population-based sam ples of children. R esearch on C hild and A dolescent P sychopathology, 51(1), 47-54. P enny, A . M ., W aschbusch, D . A ., K lein, R . M ., C orkum , P ., & E skes, G . (2009). D eveloping a m easure of sluggish cognitive tem po for children: content validity, factor structure, and reliability. Psychological assessm ent, 2 1 (3 ), 3 8 0 . T am m , L ., E pstein, J. N ., O rban, S . A ., K ofler, M . J., P eugh, J. L ., & B ecker, S . P . (2023). N eurocognition in children w ith cognitive disengagem ent syndrom e: accurate but slow . C hild N europsychology, 1-20. W atabe, Y ., O w ens, J. S ., E vans, S . W ., & B randt, N . E . (2014). T he relationship betw een sluggish cognitive tem po and im pairm ent in children w ith and w ithout A D H D . Journal of A bnorm al C hild Psychology, 4 2 , 1 0 5 -1 1 5 .

L ahey, B . B ., A pplegate, B ., M cB urnett, K ., B iederm an, J., G reenhill, L ., H ynd, G . W ., B arkley, R . A ., N ew corn, J., Jensen, P ., R ichters, J., G arfinkel, B ., K erdyk, L ., F rick, P . J., O llendick, T ., P erez, D ., H art, E . L ., W aldm an, I., & S haffer, D . (1994). D S M -IV F ield T rials for A ttention D eficit H yperactivity D isorder in C hildren and A dolescents. A m erican Journal of Psychiatry, 1 5 1 (1 1 ), 1 6 7 3–1 6 8 5 . Luedke, J. C ., V argas, G ., Jashar, D . T ., M orrow , A ., M alone, L. A ., & N g, R . (2023). C ognitive disengagem ent syndrom e in pediatric patients w ith long C O V ID : associations w ith m ood, anxiety, and functional im pairm ent. C hild N europsychology, 1-21.

W iggs, K . K ., F roehlich, T . E ., & B ecker, S . P . (2023). P harm acologic M anagem ent of C ognitive D isengagem ent S yndrom e (C D S ) and Im plications for A ttentionD eficit/H yperactivity D isorder (A D H D ) T reatm ent: E m erging T reatm ents and R ecom m endations for F uture R esearch. C N S drugs, 1-12. W iggs, K . K ., T hornton, K ., F redrick, J. W ., L ow m an, C . N ., L angberg, J. M ., & B ecker, S . P . (2023). P hysical and E xtracurricular A ctivity in A dolescents W ith and W ithout A D H D : E xam ining G roup D ifferences and the R ole of C ognitive D isengagem ent S yndrom e S ym ptom s. Journal of A ttention D isorders, 10870547231154905. W illcutt, E . G ., C hhabildas, N ., K innear, M ., D eF ries, J. C ., O lson, R . K ., L eopold, D . R ., ... & P ennington, B . F . (2014). T he internal and external validity of sluggish cognitive tem po and its relation w ith D S M –IV A D H D . Journal of abnorm al child psychology, 4 2 , 2 1 -3 5 .

Thank you! Peter.Isquith@Childrens.Harvard.edu 38

Reading Comprehension: Strategies That Improve Accuracy and Reduce Reading Anxiety Tami Katzir, Ph.D. Director, Edmond J. Safra Center for Brain and Learning Disabilities, Full Professor, Haifa University Overview In our information-driven society, proficient reading comprehension is a vital skill that can enhance understanding and alleviate the stress often associated with reading. This presentation examines the principles and techniques of reading, emphasizing methods to empower individuals to become more adept and assured readers. Reading anxiety, a common hurdle for many, will be discussed objectively, and evidence-based strategies to mitigate it will be explored. The talk delves into a systematic examination of the causes and contributing factors of reading anxiety, and it offers practical, research-backed solutions to address this issue. Furthermore, this talk will provide attendees with an array of proven reading comprehension strategies, rooted in empirical evidence. Participants will gain insights into how to dissect complex texts, engage with material on a more profound level, and enhance retention of vital information. References Baker, J. A. (2006). Contributions of teacher–child relationships to positive school adjustment during elementary school. Journal of School Psychology, 44(3), 211- 229. Katzir, T., Kim, Y.S., & Dotan, S. (2018). Reading self-concept and reading anxiety in second grade children: The roles of word reading, emergent literacy skills, working memory and gender. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1180. Pekrun, R., Lichtenfeld, S., Marsh, H. W., Murayama, K., & Goetz, T. (2017). Achievement emotions and academic performance: Longitudinal models of reciprocal effects. Child development, 88(5), 1653-1670. Resources The Edmond J. Safra Center for Brain and Learning Disabilities Resource Website: https://ejsafra.haifa.ac.il/

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Reading Comprehension: Strategies to improve accuracy and reduce reading anxiety Prof. Tami Katzir Edmond J. Safra Center for Research in Brain and Learning Disabilities Haifa University

“In today’s world, there is often so much emphasis placed on the intellect that the interaction between feeling and thinking is rarely identified, yet alone addressed. Nonetheless, emotions can and do have a powerful effect on cognition and learning” Douglas Newton, Thinking with Feeling, 2014

Nature of Childhood Today? OECD Report 2019 Increased levels of anxiety and depression

National Literacy Trust 2019 Young people’s reading engagement, enjoyment and frequency declined

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Insights about the feeling of reading from different religious contexts

Today’s Talk

Teaching whole Children in a skill-oriented society

The role of emotions in reading: Defining Reading Anxiety

How to link emotions into RC instruction

Island of UnderstandingA new integrated framework to teach reading instruction

Questioning the skills approach paradigm 6

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Six min of reading reduced stress levels’ heart rate and muscle tone by 68% (Lewis, 2009).

Reading Is Beneficial fo Mental Health

Increases Empathy for others (Gabriel & young, 2011). Conflicts in stories as a foundation to learn about the self (Rott, 2018)

Role of Emotions in Reading N = 1051 Blicher, Shany & Katzir, in prep Control Value Theory, Pekurn et al., 2020

What is anxiety? Type of fear or strong feeling about a situation

Thought of a threat or something that may go wrong in the future

Causes fright and uncertainty

Lasts a short time or can be prolonged

Can affect our ability to eat, sleep, concentrate, travel, leave the house, go to school and work

Can interfere with our enjoyment take over our lives our life and control thoughts and behaviors

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Anxiety by Age https://www.cdc.gov/childrens mentalhealth/data.html

What could be the causes of anxiety? Test Anxiety

General anxiety Different types

Academic anxiety

Social anxiety

Who is at risk for academic anxiety?

•Parental style? •Student-teacher relationship Tucker et al. 2016 •Learning disabilities •Low socioeconomic status Brunel & Partners 2019

•gender

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Most of Not at the time sometimes all not

Mark how scared you are when you:

Academic anxiety Reading anxiety scale Tami Katzir

have to read a page with lots of words and no drawings

have to read from the blackboard before the whole class

See the teacher reading from the blackboard

Submit a paper or language test to the teacher

Receive language homework with questions to submit in the next lesson

Need to take a surprise language test

Often

Always

Gender differences

Reading Self-Concept and Reading Anxiety in Second Grade Children: The Roles of Word Reading, Emergent Literacy Skills, Working Memory and Gender Tami Katzir, Young-Suk G. Kim, Shahar Dotan

Reading anxiety Girls Boys

94 92 90 88 86 84 82 80

* 1. 5 1 0. 5 0

*p<0.05

Reading confidence

*No gender differences were found in reading abilities

Rate mediated RA

RAq1 RAq2

RAN-L

RAq3 RAq4

-.29 20% -.22

Reading Rate (WPM)

48%

17% .41

Reading SelfConcept

.28 Verbal fluency

-.66

Reading Anxiety

RAq5 RAq6 RAq7 RAq8 RSCq9

Katzir, Kim, Dotan, 2018

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The role of reading anxiety and student-teacher relationship as mediators of the relation between reading difficulties and behavioral problems Authors: Yishay Shemer-Hafuta, Tami Katzir, Dana Cohen , Shahar Dotan

Structural Equation Model (SEM) Analysis

Chi square=6.16, df=5, p=.29, NFI =.98, CFI=.99 , TLI =.99, RMSEA =.02

Main Results

Reading tasks: reading anxiety-behavior problems Reading anxiety mediates the relationship between reading fluency and externalizing behavior

Reading anxiety mediates the relationship between reading comprehension and externalized behavior

It is possible that the type of reading task has a different effect on the intensity of specific anxiety

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Main Results Reading tasks: teacher-student relationship-behavior problems

Reading fluency and internalized behavior problems are moderated by teacher-student relationship

Teacher-student relationship can moderate the relationship between reading fluency difficulties and externalizing behavior problems

The Role of Emotion Words in RC

Emotion words convey information about inner states, attitudes, beliefs, social contexts, motives, values, and behaviors (Shiota & Kelther, 2005) Emotion words were found to be related to inference making (Beck et al., 2012) Emotion words were better recalled than neutral words (Kissler et al., 2009).

The Role of Early Detection of At-Risk Kindergarteners in Preventing Later Literacy and Emotional Difficulties – A Longitudinal Study KàG3 Authors: Shirly Poran, Tami Katzir, Shahar Dotan, Dana Cohen

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Comparisons of Emotional Aspects Indices in Grade Three, according to the Different Divisions in K

Prediction of Reading Self-Concept in Grade Three through Early Literacy Skills

Prediction of Reading Anxiety in Grade Three through Early Literacy Skills

Strong association between early literacy skills and G3 reading-concept, as well as in reading anxiety.

Low achievers in K displayed greater reading anxiety and lower self-concept than typical achievers in the G3.

These findings indicate the importance of emotional aspects along with the linguistic and cognitive aspects from developmental perspective.

The Teacher – As prophet 10 0

I remembered how to read words

An estimation of improved student RC

70 60

The teacher believed in my ability to read better

50 40 30 20 10

41% 30%

0 -20

-10

I wanted to read better

Improvement in RC

19%

The teacher knows how to teach well

The words were at my level

Gallili, Shany & Katzir, in prep.

Students post-intervention perception of the cause of reading improvement • The student was asked: What helped you improve your reading most? 1.The teacher knows how to teach reading very well 2. I wanted to read better and it was important to me

4.6 18.5

3. The words and phrases were at my level 4. The teacher believed in my ability 40.8 to read better 5. I remembered how to read words that I had already learned to read Gallili, Shany & Katzir, in press

1 2 3 4 5

5.4 24

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The teaching of reading should incorporate an integrated approach linking cognition and emotion Reading is both a personal and a connected activity

Interim Summery

There is an importance to the family, teacher and curriculum we teach Different negative and positive emotions may affect the child’s sense of a a reding self Suggestions, Empathic Listening could serve as a basis to propel reading and also be taught through reading

Reading and Emotion Skills

Linguistic

Cognitive

Emotional

(Beck et al., 2012; Denham et al., 2015; Katzir et al.,2018 ; Katzir & Primor, 2016)

Integrating SEL with Pedagogy SEL strategies Linking literacy and emotions

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The cognitiveemotional model of reading comprehension

Reader

Task

text

Katzir & Primor, 2016

Potential for mediating tool for instruction

The Or Program For second grade

Literacy and reading skills

Prof. Tami Katzir, Dr Orly Lipka and Dr. Shelley Shaul Pedagogical development: Shahar Dotan, Adi Bufman, Michal Sadan Inspired by RAVE-O and Maryanne Wolf!! • •

185 second graders Teaching model for M.A students

Story book deep learning Independent learner empowerment

Cognitive and meta cognitive strategies

Potential for mediating tool for instruction

The Or model of teaching reading Opening with ppt: setting of class goal, mini lesson Instruction of target words

Group, play based modeled activity

Individual practice with feedback

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‫‪Cognition and Emotion at the Task level‬‬ ‫‪Vocabulary‬‬ ‫‪Exploring‬‬

‫‪Prediction‬‬

‫‪Excited‬‬

‫‪Learning strategies‬‬

‫‪31‬‬

‫‪Cognition and Emotion at the Text level‬‬ ‫ַמר ִנְרָגּשׁ‬

‫‪Emotional‬‬ ‫‪characters‬‬

‫ַמר ִנבּוּי וְּגֶּבֶרת חוֶֹקֶרת‬

‫‪Academic‬‬ ‫‪characters‬‬

‫ֵאיזוֹ ִהְתַרְגּשׁוּת! ֲאִני הוּא ַמר ִנְרָגּשׁ!‬

‫ֵבּין ַמר ִנבּוּי ִלְגֶּבֶרת חוֶֹקֶרת ‪6‬א ִנַתּן ְלַהְפִריד‪,‬‬

‫ִמְתַלֵהב ִמָכּל ֵארוַּע‪ְ ,‬מִסיָבּה אוֹ ָסַתם‬ ‫ִמְפָגּשׁ!‬

‫ַהְצֵמד ֶשָׁתִּמיד ְמַנֵחשׁ ֶאת ֶהָעִתיד!‬

‫ֲאִני ִמְתַרֵגּשׁ ִמְדָּבִרים ְקַטִנּים ְכּמוֹ ְצחוֹק‬ ‫ֶשׁל ִתּינוֹק‪,‬‬ ‫וְַגם ִמְדָּבִרים ְגּדוִֹלים ְכּמוֹ ֶצֶמר ֶגֶּפן‬ ‫ָמתוֹק!‬

‫ְמַנְבִּאים ַעל ָמה יְִסְפּרוּ ְסָפִרים‪,‬‬ ‫ָמה יְִהיֶה ָבַּאָגָּדה‪ִ ,‬מי יְִהיוּ ַהִגּבּוִֹרים?‬ ‫ְבַּחֵיּיֶהם יֵשׁ ָכּל ַהְזַּמן ֶמַתח‪,‬‬ ‫ְמַחְפִּשׂים יַַחד ֲעֵקבוֹת ַבֶּשַּׁטח‬

‫ָבַּליְָלה ֲאִני ‪6‬א ִנְרַדּם‪,‬‬

‫יוְֹצִאים ַלַהְרַפְּתָקאוֹת ְלִגלּוּי ְדָּבִרים ִנְסָתִּרים‬

‫ַבּבּ ֶֹקר ָקם ַמָמּשׁ ֻמְקָדּם‪,‬‬

‫ִעם ְזכוִּכית ַמְגֶדֶּלת וְכוַֹבע ֶשׁל חוְֹקִרים‬

‫ִכּי ַהיּוֹם ָקַצר וָּמֵלא ַבַּהְפָתּעוֹת‪,‬‬

‫ַהְשִּׁריר ֶהָחָזק ְבּיוֵֹתר ֶשָׁלּנוּ הוּא ַהִדְּמיוֹן וְַהמּ ַֹח‬

‫וְָצִרי‪ְ W‬לַהְגִשׁים ֶאת ָכּל ַהִמְּשׁאָלוֹת!‬

‫וְּלַהֲעלוֹת ִנבּוּיים ָתִּמיד יֵשׁ ָלנוּ כּ ַֹח!‬

‫‪32‬‬

‫‪Miss Hope‬‬ ‫‪Nice to meet you, I am Miss Hope,‬‬ ‫‪Here to provide a ladder or rope.‬‬ ‫‪Anything to help, to show you the way,‬‬ ‫‪A smile, a strategy, sunshine with a ray.‬‬ ‫‪In times of despair, I look at the sun,‬‬ ‫‪And know that our journey has only begun.‬‬ ‫‪We'll breathe and laugh; the road never ends,‬‬ ‫‪And know that our source is always our friends.‬‬

‫‪33‬‬

‫‪11‬‬

11/6/23

Mr. Help Nice to meet you, I'm Mr. Help, When in trouble, please don't Yelp. For I am here to lend a hand, To support you and help you stand. I'll give a clue, a road, a map, I'll help you smile when you're about to snap. There's always a way, there's always a door, Don't be afraid; you're not alone anymore.

Reading comprehension strategies – Sequencing events and emotions worry

happy

excited

confidence

familiar

fear

strange

confusion

Cognition and Emotion at the Task level Text structure

Story sequencing based on emotions

Story sequencing based on events

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Cognition and Emotion at the Task level Asking questions Academic questions

Emotional questions

Cognition and Emotion at the Task level Inferencing

Emotional inference – hidden thoughts

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Tami Katzir & Orly Lipka Pedagogical development: Shahar Dotan, Adi Shechter, Tami Sabag - Shoshan

Teaching the whole child: Stories with embedded skills

Arriving to the island

Survival challenges

Friendship challenges

Leaving the island

Aims To examine the effectiveness of a structured multi-componential vocabulary-based reading comprehension program on children’s: • Cognitive and Emotion Vocabulary • Reading comprehension • Academic emotions

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An Island of Understanding 18 lessons plans

Teacher Manual

Techno pedagogical games

Tailored Homework

Classroom based

Books

Pedagogy

Content

Vocabulary Fluency strategies

narrative Historical expository

Characters

Dian Fossey, Martin Luther King, Jane Goodall, Local hero's

Children’s Island

Values Self transcendence

Socio-Emotional abilities

Listening , Friendship Loyalty, Generosity, Justice

Values R e la tio n sh ip s w ith e n viro n m e n ts, h u m a n s a n d se lf

S ch w a rtz (1 9 9 2 )

Roberts, 2015

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Target Words

W a itin g C o m p a ris o n

Observation

In ve s tm e n t

E q u a lity

L is te n in g

Hope

D is tre s s

C o n fid e n c e

Pe ace

Development

P ro xim ity E xp e c ta tio n

C o p in g

Demonstration

C h o ic e

C o n c lu s io n

M u tu a lity

C oncept

Need C re a tiv ity

C u rio s ity

C o n s tra in t

A d va n ta g e

Pre ve n tio n

E xp e rie n c e

C re a tiv ity P ro c e s s

T a rg e t

Disappointment

Justice O p in io n

• 30 target word: Academic and emotion

Multiple exposures to target words in different tasks Task level – Word bank (semantic)

Word level

Text level

Hope expectation for a good thing to happen

Task level – Morphology Task level – emotional inference What is your hope?

Design

Pre-test October-November 2018

Intervention 18 lesson plans

Post-test May-June 2019

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Gain scores between intervention and control groups “Herut” Vocabulary - Emotional Vocabulary - Academic Vocabulary RC test

T-test (Gain Score )

Effect Size (Cohen’s d)

3.95*** 3.95*** 4.02*** 5.00***

0.47 0.37 0.38 0.44

Emotional Empowerment

Group activities, technology and songs

Circles of Emotions and Values

Listening

Findings Literacy measures Gain scores

2.4

1.37

0 -2 -4 -6 -8

-6.9

Vocabulary

2.08

Sig more gains for poor children *The differences presented are significant, p<0.05

3.68

4.03 3.37

3.81

2.37

Intervention

Pr id e

3.73

en t

4.06

En joy m

4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

8.1

ue Bo re do m

Va l

Emotional measures

Control

Blicher et al in prep; Katzir et al., 2019

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Teacher’s and Children’s voices

“It’s a celebration in the classroom.”

"Apart from cooperation and words, we learn to listen to each other and take care of each other..."

"It's not like a language lesson at school, it's a lesson for life, about friendship."

From neurons to narratives: The role of emotions in reading comprhension Child

Mind

Education

Brain

Home Katzir & Paré-Blagoev (2006)

Curriculum Teacher

Conclusion • Reading needs to be taught with feeling. • Teacher’s play a critical role. • Skills through stories. • Close gender, SES and struggling readers gap. • Sense of community and shared responsibility.

11/6/23

Pedagogical development: Shahar Dotan, Adi Bufman, Michal Sadan, Adi Schechter, Tami Sabag Shoshan.

Consultation: Netta Paz, Maya Benish

Thank you

Teacher Training Development: Kama Galili, Michal Sadan, Adi Bufman Teacher Training: Tal Erez, Adi Bufman, Einal Tesler

Research: PI’S: Orly Lipka, Shelley Shaul, Anat Prior, Michal Shani Shahar Dotan, Dana Cohen, Rotem Yinon

Safra Team: Adi Canaan Shimrit Selai

Clinical Coordinator: Liron Hazan

Ministry of Education: Odette Sela

ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 11 July 2018 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01180

Reading Self-Concept and Reading Anxiety in Second Grade Children: The Roles of Word Reading, Emergent Literacy Skills, Working Memory and Gender Tami Katzir 1* , Young-Suk G. Kim 2 and Shahar Dotan 1 1

Edmond J. Safra Brain Research Center for the Study of Learning Disabilities, Department of Learning Disabilities, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel, 2 Education, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States

Background: Most studies in the field of reading have focused on the linguistic and cognitive factors. Less is known about the affective aspects of reading in young readers, such as self-perceptions of reading, and reading anxiety. Aims: This study aimed to shed light on the direct and indirect relations between reading and related skills (working memory, emergent literacy skills, word reading accuracy and rate, and gender) as sources of reading affect (reading self-concept and anxiety). Sample: A total of 115 Hebrew speaking second graders participated in this study. Edited by: Michael S. Dempsey, Boston University, United States Reviewed by: Manuel Soriano-Ferrer, Universitat de València, Spain Angela Jocelyn Fawcett, Swansea University, United Kingdom *Correspondence: Tami Katzir katzirta@gmail.com Specialty section: This article was submitted to Educational Psychology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology Received: 13 May 2018 Accepted: 19 June 2018 Published: 11 July 2018

Methods: A set of measures assessing reading accuracy and rate, emergent literacy skills (phonological fluency, rapid automatized naming and working memory) and reading affect questionnaires (reading self-concept and reading anxiety) were administered to the participants. Results: Path analysis was used as the primary analytic approach. Results indicated a negative moderate relation between reading self-concept and reading anxiety. The relations of working memory and emergent literacy to reading self-concept and reading anxiety were indirect via word reading accuracy and reading rate. Girls reported higher reading anxiety and lower reading self-concept, despite higher performance in reading accuracy and no difference in reading rate. Conclusion: The current results support the importance of examining reading affect and potential sources of reading affect. Results suggest that reading self-concept and reading anxiety and their related skills should be considered in designing reading intervention and instructions. Keywords: reading, anxiety, self-concept, working memory, gender

Citation: Katzir T, Kim Y-SG and Dotan S (2018) Reading Self-Concept and Reading Anxiety in Second Grade Children: The Roles of Word Reading, Emergent Literacy Skills, Working Memory and Gender. Front. Psychol. 9:1180. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01180

INTRODUCTION Reading development involves complex interactive and dynamic processes among language, cognition, and affect. Most studies in the field of reading have focused on the linguistic and cognitive factors; and consequently less is known about the basis of affective aspects of reading in young readers, such as self-perceptions of reading (Kasperski et al., 2016). In the present study

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alternative ideas have been proposed and examined. One hypothesis is that reading affect influences reading achievement (e.g., Baker and Wigfield, 1999; Bishop and Snowling, 2004; Conlon et al., 2006). For example, Attentional Control Theory (Eysenck and Derakshan, 2011) proposes that anxiety inhibits performance. It is well documented that anxiety reduces working memory capacity, and consequently people tend to retain less information from reading a text when they are anxious (Pratt et al., 1997; Derakshan and Eysenck, 1998; Eysenck et al., 2007). Similarly, Blair (2002) postulated that negative emotions of young children would lead them to focus on the object of their emotions rather than on the academic tasks they are asked to perform. Thus, negative emotions interfere with scholastic activities by reducing resources needed to integrate and attend to important details (see also Zhou et al., 2010; Owens et al., 2012) or by disrupting the effort students bring to their studies (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2009). An alternative hypothesis is that children’s reading affect develops in response to reading experiences (Chapman and Tunmer, 2003). As many students judge their self-worth through academic success or failure, perceived failure on a test may increase fear of negative judgment and threat to self-worth (Covington, 1992; Denscombe, 2000; Chamberlain, 2012). Marsh (1986) suggested an internal/external frame of reference model (I/E model) for forming academic self-concepts. According to this model, students compare their levels of academic ability using two different but connected frames of reference: internal and external comparison processes. When it comes to reading, internal appraisal is related to one’s perceptions of difficulties or ease associated with reading tasks and experiences. External points of reference can be related to the teacher’s feedback, comparisons to peers on reading tasks, or experiences in the home (Katzir et al., 2009). Consistent with this view, Chapman et al. (2000) found that differences in self-concept between poor and average students were evident as early as a few weeks after commencing first grade and were also related to phonological awareness and letter naming knowledge. Building on these, Kasperski et al. (2016) recently hypothesized that reading self-concept develops as a function of reading skills. In particular, they hypothesized that reading rate, not accuracy, is particularly critical to forming students’ reading affect. According to their rate-appraisal model, individual differences in reading rate are highly salient factors for young developing readers, more so than reading accuracy, in the self-assessment of reading competence and may act as points of reference for the internal evaluation processes through which reading self-concept is shaped. Kasperski et al. (2016) explored the relationship of reading rate and accuracy to reading self-concept with Hebrew speaking children in grades two and three, and found that children’s performance on reading rate predicted reading selfconcept after accounting for reading accuracy. Similar to the idea about reading self-concept, the internal and external comparisons may also elevate one’s sense of worry about reading or reading anxiety, especially in struggling readers (Margalit and Zak, 1984) as reading anxiety is induced from past difficulties associated with reading (Zbornik, 1988, 2001; Zbornik and Wallbrown, 1991). Hinton et al. (2008) suggested

we address this gap in the literature by focusing on two affective aspects in reading, reading self-concept and reading related anxiety (reading anxiety hereafter), in young children. Specifically, we examined potential factors that influence reading affect by investigating the relations of working memory, emergent literacy skills, reading accuracy and rate, and gender to reading self-concept and reading anxiety.

Reading Self-Concept, Reading Anxiety, and Reading Reading self-concept is the overall self-perception of oneself as a reader (Conradi et al., 2014). It is related to reading motivation and to reading performance (Chapman and Tunmer, 1995, 2003; Conlon et al., 2006; Katzir et al., 2009; Kasperski et al., 2016), and the strength of these relationships increase with age (Chapman and Tunmer, 2003; Kasperski et al., 2016). For example, Conlon et al. (2006) showed that children’s perceptions of reading competence significantly accounted for variations in word identification, spelling and reading comprehension skills. In addition, children with more positive reading self-concept had higher performance on reading comprehension after accounting for their verbal ability and word reading (Katzir et al., 2009). Another affect that has been related to reading skills is anxiety. Significant levels of general anxiety have been found to be negatively associated with reading skills for children (Merryman, 1974; Calvo and Carreiras, 1993; Tsovili, 2004; Grills-Taquechel et al., 2012, 2013, Grills et al., 2014; Plakopiti and Bellou, 2014). Studies with adult dyslexics have reported higher levels of general anxiety (Tsovili, 2004; Carroll and Iles, 2006; Plakopiti and Bellou, 2014), and academic and social anxiety (Boetsch et al., 1996; Carroll and Iles, 2006). For example, Meer et al. (2016) found that when asked to read aloud, adults with dyslexia exhibit higher level of physical arousal typically related to anxiety as measured by their Galvanic skin response when compared to typical readers. Taken together, the studies on children and adults with reading difficulties suggest that these readers show elevated level of anxiety. However, previous studies on reading and anxiety have typically focused on general anxiety in populations with severe reading difficulties (as seen earlier) or in the context of second language learning (L2) (Horwitz et al., 1986; Young, 1986, 1990, 1998; Horwitz, 2001; Brantmeier, 2005; Ghonsooly and Loghmani, 2012; Rajab et al., 2012; Tsai and Li, 2012; Mohammadpur and Ghafournia, 2015; Guimba and Alico, 2016). Less is known about specific worry and anxiety toward reading (reading anxiety1 ) in typically developing children (Piccolo et al., 2016).

Sources Influencing Reading Self-Concept and Reading Anxiety Even though the relationship between reading and reading selfconcept has been consistently demonstrated, the mechanisms underlying this relationship remains to be clarified. Several 1

The term, anxiety, is typically used in a clinical context as a diagnosed phobia that may occur in abnormal situations or in pathological samples. In this paper we refer to reading anxiety as worry or fear about reading which is a continuous construct found in typical readers as well as struggling readers.

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with little attention to negative affect toward reading (reading anxiety). The second aim was to examine the relations of working memory and emergent literacy skills to reading self-concept and reading anxiety. Many studies have established the roles of working memory (e.g., Smith-Spark and Fisk, 2007; Berninger et al., 2008; Beneventi et al., 2010; Moll et al., 2014; Kim et al., 2017), phonological awareness (e.g., Wagner and Torgesen, 1987; Byrne, 1998; National Institute of Child Health, and Human Development [NICHD], 2000), and rapid naming (Swanson et al., 2003; Kirby et al., 2010; Manolitsis et al., 2011; Moll et al., 2014) in word reading skills across languages. If reading affect emerges from reading and reading related experiences, then, foundational skills of reading (i.e., working memory and emergent literacy skills) might relate to reading self-concept and reading anxiety. An important corollary to this research question is paths of relations. If working memory and emergent literacy skills are related to reading self-concept and reading anxiety, then, are their relations direct or primarily indirect via word reading skills? To our knowledge, only one study examined the relation of emergent literacy skills to reading affect – Kasperski et al. (2016) found that one of the emergent literacy skills, rapid automatized naming, was indirectly related to reading self-concept via reading rate. The third aim was to clarify the relations of word reading accuracy versus reading rate to reading affect (reading selfconcept and reading anxiety). As noted earlier, Kasperski et al. (2016) hypothesized a salient role of reading rate for reading self-concept and found supporting evidence. We replicate and extend Kasperski et al.’s study by examining the relations of word reading accuracy and rate to reading self-concept and reading anxiety. If reading experiences influence how the child feels toward reading, both accuracy and rate may play roles in positive emotions and negative emotions related to reading (reading selfconcept and anxiety). The current study will focus on the Hebrew orthography, which in the first stages of reading acquisition is characterized as a shallow orthography. In this orthography children achieve high proficiency rate in accuracy around the end of second grade (Geva et al., 1997; Share and Levin, 1999; Shany et al., 2012). The last aim of the present study was to extend previous studies on the relation of gender reading to reading affect. Specifically, we investigated how gender is related to reading selfconcept and reading anxiety after accounting for word reading accuracy and rate. A previous study reported that boys tended to have an inflated reading competence (Fives et al., 2014). In the present study, we examined whether boys and girls have differential reading self-concept and reading anxiety after accounting for word reading skills (accuracy and rate), working memory, and emergent literacy skills. We hypothesized that working memory, rapid naming, and phonological awareness would be indirectly related to reading self-concept and reading anxiety via word reading accuracy and word reading rate, because children’s perceptions and appraisal on their reading ability would be based on explicitly reading tasks. In other words, children are likely to perceive reading words in print as a reading task compared to manipulating sounds (i.e., phonological awareness), and therefore, the point

that neuronal networks are built based on emotional responses to the task. Thus, if a child is asked to read aloud the stimulus ‘a’ (an initial neutral stimulus), and reading aloud is repeatedly paired with difficulties with performing the task and associated unpleasant situation (e.g., negative feedback), then a negative conditioned response to reading may occur. As a consequence, when the child is asked to read again, the act of reading will be associated with a sense of worry toward the reading process. In some cases, students fear making pronunciation errors or other mistakes while reading aloud in front of their peers (Ahmad et al., 2013). This speculation was supported by Grills-Taquechel et al. (2012) who investigated general anxiety and reading skills among first grade students and found that reading fluency (a composite of accuracy and speed) predicted separation anxiety symptoms and decoding skill was found to positively predict harm avoidance symptoms. The third, final alternative hypothesis is a bidirectional relation between affect and reading skills (Jensen et al., 2013; Carey et al., 2016). According to this account, experiences with reading and reading related skills result in variation in reading self-concept and competence and anxiety, which, in turn, causes children’s responses to reading activities (affinity or anxiety). Children’s attitude toward reading activities, then, would result in variation in the amount of reading practice, which, in turn, relate to reading development. Finally, gender might play a role in the development of reading self-concept and anxiety. From the early years of elementary school, girls are reported to have lower expectations and less confidence about future academic achievements than do boys (Frey and Ruble, 1987; Pressley et al., 1987). Moreover, girls were shown to be more affected by failure experiences than matched – ability boys (Licht and Dweck, 1984; Dweck, 1986). Later, in secondary education, girls further decline in academic selfconcept at a faster rate than boys (De Fraine et al., 2007) despite the fact that girls tend to report enjoying reading more than do boys (Guthrie and Greaney, 1991), reading more books than do boys (Elley, 1994) and more motivated to read (Wigfield and Guthrie, 1997). When it comes to differential reading competence as a function of gender, high performance in word reading was associated with positive perceived competence in reading among girls whereas poorer achievers and boys had inflated selfperceptions such that they had positive perceived competence despite their low performance in word reading (Fives et al., 2014).

Present Study Previous studies have consistently indicated the relation between reading affect and reading performance. In the present study, our goal was to expand our understanding of reading and reading related skills (working memory, emergent literacy skills, word reading accuracy, word reading rate, and gender) as sources of reading affect (reading self-concept and anxiety). Under this overarching goal, we had several specific aims. First, we explored reading anxiety as well as reading self-concept as part of reading affect and examined their relations. Previous work on reading affect primarily focused on positive affect such as reading self-concept and competence (or efficacy) (as seen earlier) or the relations between general anxiety and reading

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in regard to accuracy. Self-corrections and errors were noted by the experimenter for the purposes of qualitative observation, but these were very rare. Following the works of Denckla and Rudel (1976) and Wolf and Denckla (2005), the total time taken to name the letters was the student’s score. Alternate form reliability was reported to be 0.74 in second grade (Shany et al., 2006).

of reference for appraisal of their reading skills would be their performance on ‘reading’ tasks, not emergent literacy skills or working memory. We also hypothesized that word reading rate would be particularly important to reading self-concept based on a previous study (Kasperski et al., 2016). However, we did not have an a priori hypothesis about whether reading accuracy versus rate would be differentially related to reading anxiety versus reading self-concept, given little previous work. We also anticipated that female students would have lower reading selfconcept and higher anxiety even after accounting for word reading accuracy, word reading rate, rapid naming, phonological awareness, and working memory.

Word Reading Accuracy and Rate Children’s word reading skill was measured by the word identification task (“Alef Ad Taf ”, Shany et al., 2006). The students were asked to read a list of 38 single pointed words (i.e., with diacritics) at their regular reading rate as accurately as possible in isolation. All 38 words were nouns, at different levels of frequency, length, and morphological structure. Accuracy score was calculated as the percentage of correctly read words from a total of words read. Rate score was calculated as the number of words read in 1 min. Reliability was reported to be 0.85 (Shany et al., 2006).

MATERIALS AND METHODS Participants Participants in this study were 115 second grade learners, 65 boys (56.52%) and 50 girls (43.48%). Children were from two schools in northern Israel. Based on the Israeli Ministry of Education’s school SES index which classifies schools based on parents’ education, family income, school location and immigration and neighborhood, the first school was from a medium-high socioeconomic background (decile 2) and the other was from low socioeconomic background (decile 9). No differences were found on all baseline measures between the two schools. The participants’ age ranged 7–9 years (M = 7.71; SD = 0.44). Data were collected at the end of the academic year. All participants had normal or corrected to normal vision and hearing. Due to the fact that diagnosis of learning disabilities in Israel begins in third grade and above, no child had a diagnosis of learning disability.

Reading Self-Concept In the present study we used the competence subscale from the Reading Self-concept Scale (Chapman and Tunmer, 1995). The competence subscale contains 10 items (e.g., can you work out what a story means?). The experimenter read each item aloud and the participant was required to respond to each question on a scale ranging from 1 (no, never) to 5 (yes, always) and higher scores reflected a more positive self-concept. Cronbach’s α was 0.84.

Reading Anxiety A questionnaire was adapted on the basis of the Abbreviated Math Anxiety Scale (AMAS) (Hopko et al., 2003). The questionnaire was adjusted to measure reading anxiety among second grade students. Similar to the test developed by Zbornik (1988), the examiner first explained to the children that the reading anxiety is a test to find out how children feel about reading, but there are no right or wrong answers. Subsequently, the examiner read the statements to the children and they answered how much they agree with the statement, circling strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, or strongly disagree in the booklet. For example, the statement, “How worried are you when you think about 1 day before an upcoming math test?” was modified to “How concerned are you when you think about an upcoming literacy lesson?” The questionnaire included nine statements (e.g., “think of literacy lessons,” “begin to study a new topic in literacy classes”). Replies were given on a fivepoint Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (never concerned) to 5 (always concerned) such that higher scores reflected higher anxiety. Cronbach’s α was 0.83.

Measures Working Memory The Digit Span test in Wechsler Intelligence Scale for ChildrenRevised (WISC-R) was used. Participants were asked to repeat strings of digits in the same order, and in reversed order. There were 16 strings in each task, and the test was stopped when the participant failed to recall two strings of the same length. Strings recalled correctly on each test scored one point. Standard score was calculated. Reliability is reported to be 0.87 (Williams et al., 2003).

Phonological Awareness The phonemic fluency test (Kavé, 2005) was used where students was asked to say as many Hebrew words as possible beginning with the letter bet, except for names of people and places. The number of words retrieved in 1 min was their score. Reliability (α) was reported to be 0.90 (Kavé, 2005).

Rapid Automatized Naming

Procedures

The alphabet subtest of the rapid automatized naming (RAN-L) was used from “Alef Ad Taf ” (Shany et al., 2006). This subtest consisted of five Hebrew letters, (s), ℵ (a), k (d), (g), and (l), and each repeated randomly 10 times. The child was asked to name an array of 50 letters arranged in five rows of 10 letters each as fast as he could and no specific instructions were given

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The study was approved by the Chief Scientist of the Ministry of Education in Israel as well as the Research Ethics Committee of the Department of Education at the University of Haifa. Before testing, written informed consent was obtained from the parents of the participants. The tests were individually administered over

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word reading accuracy, word reading rate, reading self-concept, and reading anxiety were also examined in these models (see Figure 1). Note that in preliminary analysis gender was not related to working memory and emergent literacy skills and thus, the paths from gender to working memory and emergent literacy skills were not included in these path models. To address the research question about the predictive relations between reading self-concept and reading anxiety, again two alternative path models were fitted to the data. In the first model (Figure 3), reading self-concept was hypothesized to predict reading anxiety. In the second model (Figure 4), reading anxiety was hypothesized to predict reading self-concept. Overall model fits were determined by the following multiple indices: chi-square statistic, comparative fit index (CFI), TuckerLewis index (TLI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and standardized root mean square residuals (SRMR). Excellent model fits are characterized by RMSEA values below 0.08, CFI and TLI values = or >0.95, and SRMR = or <0.05 (Hu and Bentler, 1999). TLI and CFI values >0.90 and SRMR = or <0.10 are considered acceptable (Kline, 2005).

two sessions by trained graduate students in a quiet room at the school. Each session lasted approximately 20–30 min.

Data Analytic Strategy Path analysis was used as the primary analytic approach to address the research questions. The relation between reading self-concept and reading anxiety was examined in the bivariate correlation and in the path analysis. To examine the research question about the relations of working memory, emergent literacy skills, to reading self-concept and reading anxiety, two the two alternative models are shown in Figures 1A,B were compared. In Figure 1A model, word reading accuracy and word reading rate were hypothesized to completely mediate the relations of rapid automatized naming, phonological awareness, and working memory to reading self-concept and reading anxiety. In Figure 1B model, these variables were hypothesized to be directly related to reading self-concept and reading anxiety over and above word reading accuracy and rate (i.e., partial mediation model). In these models, reading self-concept and reading anxiety were allowed to covary because the primary question is not the nature of relation between reading selfconcept and reading anxiety, but instead the nature of relations of predictors to these outcomes. Because these two models were nested, model fit differences were tested with chi-square difference. Note that these models also address the research question about the relations of reading accuracy and reading rate to reading self-concept and anxiety because rapid automatized naming, phonological awareness, and working memory were hypothesized to predict word reading accuracy and word reading rate, which, in turn, were hypothesized to predict reading self-concept and reading anxiety. The relations of gender to

RESULTS Descriptive Statistics Descriptive statistics are presented in Table 1. Students’ performances on the tasks had sufficient variation around the means. In the reading self-concept, the mean was 32.16 with standard deviation (SD) of 7.04. In the digit span task, which had normative information, the mean standard score was in the average range (M = 11.03, SD = 2.57). Students, on average, read with high accuracy (M = 84%; SD = 12%). Students read,

TABLE 1 | Descriptive statistics. Variable

Mean (SD)

Min–Max

Skewness

Kurtosis

RAN letters

40.63 (8.25)

26–69

0.85

0.87

Phonological awareness

6.20 (2.49)

0–13

−0.04

0.07

Digit span (raw)

9.55 (2.04)

5–15

0.16

−0.30

Digit span (SS)

11.03 (2.67)

5–18

0.19

−0.20

Reading accuracy (percent accurate)

84.34 (11.70)

23–100

−2.20

7.61

Reading rate

34.96 (19.49)

11.50–142.50

2.18

8.27

Reading self-concept

32.16 (7.04)

9–40

−1.06

0.59

Reading anxiety

14.43 (6.59)

9–35

1.33

1.01

TABLE 2 | Correlations between variables. Variable

1. RAN letters

–

2. Phonological awareness

−0.22∗

–

3. Digit span

−0.19∗

0.28∗∗

–

4. Reading accuracy

−0.08

0.22∗

0.42∗∗∗

–

5. Reading rate

−0.36∗

0.34∗∗∗

0.36∗∗∗

0.28∗∗

–

6. Reading self-concept

−0.18

0.23∗

0.15

0.31∗∗

0.39∗∗∗

–

7. Reading anxiety

−0.19∗

−0.26∗∗

−0.19∗

−0.28∗∗

−0.58∗∗∗

−0.16

∗ p < 0.05; ∗∗ p < 0.01; ∗∗∗ p < 0.001.

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on average, 35 words/min. Distributional properties in terms of skewness and kurtosis were all within the acceptable range (±3).

The Relations of Working Memory, Emergent Literacy Skills, Word Reading Accuracy and Rate, and Gender to Reading Self-Concept and Reading Anxiety

Correlations Bivariate correlations are presented in Table 2. Reading selfconcept and reading anxiety were negatively and moderately related (r = −0.58, p < 0.001). Reading anxiety was negatively related to all the other variables (−0.16 ≤ rs ≤ −0.28). Directions of other variables were in expected directions. Rapid automatized naming was weakly and negatively related to the other variables (−0.08 ≤ rs ≤ −0.36). Phonological awareness and working memory (digit span) were also weakly to somewhat moderately related to other variables (0.15 ≤ rs ≤ 0.42).

In order to address the question about direct and indirect relations of working memory and emergent literacy skills to reading self-concept and reading anxiety, two alternative models are shown in Figures 1A,B were fitted. Model fit for the complete mediation model (Figure 1A) was good: χ2 (9) = 12.39, p = 0.19, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.057, SRMR = 0.046. The partial mediation model (Figure 1B) also had good fit to the data: χ2 (3) = 3.56, p = 0.31, CFI = 1.00, TLI = 0.97, RMSEA = 0.04, and

FIGURE 1 | Two alternative models of the relations of working memory, phonological awareness (PA), rapid automatized naming (RAN), reading accuracy, reading rate, and gender to reading self-concept and reading anxiety. In (A), reading accuracy and reading rate completely mediate the relations of RAN, PA, and working memory to reading self-concept and reading anxiety whereas in (B), they mediate the relations partially.

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hypothesized to predict reading self-concept. Results for the first model is shown in Figure 3. Not surprisingly, reading selfconcept predicted reading anxiety with moderate magnitude (−0.54, p < 0.001). What is notable is that gender was positively related to reading self-concept (0.19, p = 0.02), but was not related to reading anxiety (−0.09, p = 0.29), indicating that reading selfconcept completely mediates the relation of gender to reading anxiety. Furthermore, reading self-concept completely mediated the relation of reading rate to reading anxiety as reading rate was not related to reading anxiety (−0.06, p = 0.50) after controlling for its relation to reading self-concept. When reading anxiety was hypothesized to predict reading self-concept (Figure 4), reading anxiety predicted reading selfconcept (−0.47, p < 0.001). The gender effect on reading selfconcept was no longer statistically significant (0.10, p = 0.17), once its relation to reading anxiety was accounted for (−0.19, p = 0.04). Furthermore, reading rate was related to both reading anxiety (−0.22, p = 0.02) and reading self-concept (0.19, p = 0.01) such that reading anxiety partially mediated the relation of reading rate to reading self-concept.

SRMR = 0.03. Chi-square difference test showed no difference between these two models (1χ2 = 8.83; 1df = 6, p = 0.18), and therefore, a more parsimonious model, the complete mediation model (Figure 1A) was selected as the final model. Standardized beta weights of the complete mediation model (Figure 1A) are presented in Figure 2. Rapid automatized naming, phonological awareness, and working memory were all independently related to word reading rate (−0.29 to 0.23, ps < 0.02). Furthermore, working memory was independently related to word reading accuracy. Word reading accuracy and word reading rate were not related to each other (0.17, p = 0.06) once phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming, and working memory were accounted for. Gender was negatively related to word reading accuracy such that male students had lower word reading accuracy (−0.18, p = 0.03), but there was no difference in word reading rate between male and female students (0.13, p = 0.10). Despite this lower word reading accuracy, male students had statistically higher reading self-concept (0.19, p = 0.02), and lower reading anxiety (−0.19, p = 0.04). Reading self-concept and reading anxiety were moderately and negatively related (−0.51, p < 0.001) after accounting for the variables in the model. Furthermore, word reading accuracy (0.26, p = 0.003) and reading rate (0.29, p < 0.001) were both independently related to reading self-concept whereas for reading anxiety, only reading rate (−0.22, p = 0.02), not reading accuracy, was related.

DISCUSSION In spite of their clear relevance, students’ emotions in school settings have been largely neglected in education research (Pekrun et al., 2002). This is especially true in the domain of reading. Research on reading typically focuses on cognitive and linguistic factors, with less attention to the role of affective factors. Individuals’ emotions were shown to be linked to academic success (Pekrun et al., 2017), and most of the available studies concentrated on positive feelings toward learning. Enjoyment of learning, for instance, was shown to be linked to achievement (Götz and Hall, 2013). Similarly, motivation and reading selfconcept were related to school achievement in different ages

Predictive Relations Between Reading Self-Concept and Reading Anxiety In order to examine the predictive nature between reading selfconcept and reading anxiety as well as their mediating roles, two models were fitted to the data. In the first model (Figure 3), reading self-concept was hypothesized to predict reading anxiety where in the second model (Figure 4), reading anxiety was

FIGURE 2 | Results of path model where reading self-concept and reading anxiety are covaried.

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FIGURE 3 | Results of path model where reading self-concept predicts reading anxiety.

FIGURE 4 | Results of path model where reading anxiety predicts reading self-concept.

(Katzir et al., 2009; Schaffner and Schiefele, 2013; Pekrun et al., 2017). However, the role of negative emotions such as reading anxiety has rarely been studied in typical young readers. Moreover, the links among emergent literacy skills, gender, reading self-concept and reading anxiety have not been studied. The present study adds several important, unique findings to the extant literature. First, we found that reading anxiety was moderately and negatively correlated with reading self-concept – a measure that has also been linked to reading motivation.

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This pattern is consistent with findings on math anxiety and math self-concept (e.g., Pajares and Miller, 1994). Children who exhibit a lower sense of competence in reading are those who are afraid of reading and may subsequently develop avoidance. These findings in young children, as early as the end of second grade, underscore the importance of evaluating a wide spectrum of emotions, both positive and negative, in developing readers. As the initial stages of reading acquisition may be particularly more challenging for some children, the long term effects of these feelings should be examined and monitored over time.

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a previous finding that reading rate was the strongest and single predictor of reading self-concept for those in second and third grade (Kasperski et al., 2016) as well as studies in foreign language learning – students with high foreign language anxiety have slower speed of processing in reading tasks, than do non-anxious readers (MacIntyre and Gardner, 1994; Loghmani and Ghonsooly, 2012). Thus, in line with Marsh’s model of I/E feedback as the basis of self-evaluation (Marsh, 1986), in the case of reading, the self is centrally impacted by the sense of speed. Therefore, for young children, an internal and external source of positive and negative self-evaluation may be reading speed. However, unlike Kasperski et al. (2016) study, we found the role of reading accuracy in reading self-concept, which indicates that children’s sensitivity to their reading accuracy (whether they are prone to reading errors) is likely to be part of their self-appraisal of their reading ability. The present findings are from children learning to read in Hebrew. Hebrew, in its pointed version (with diacritic marks which children use until fourth grade), is a shallow orthography, including one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds (Geva et al., 1997). Hence, learning to read pointed Hebrew is less demanding than opaque languages (e.g., English) and is characterized by 90% average accuracy in the end of second grade (Geva et al., 1997; Share and Levin, 1999). This pattern may lead to different roles of reading accuracy and rate on reading affect in reading Hebrew compared to other languages. There are several directions for future studies. First, a future study should capture processes of children’s self-appraisal and investigate whether the roles of reading accuracy and reading rate vary as a function of children’s developmental phase of reading – both reading accuracy and reading rate might influence one’s appraisal during the beginning phase when children are more likely to make decoding errors whereas during the more advanced phase, errors are limited and more palpable aspect of reading performance to children might be reading speed. Second, due to the differences in the developmental trajectories of reading accuracy and rate across languages, future studies should examine the roles of both reading accuracy and rate in reading affect across languages. Third, the present findings are also revealing about the relation between gender and reading affect. Gender based differences have been widely studied in many academic domains across different age groups (e.g., Hill et al., 2016). In the academic context, it is socially assumed that boys show higher abilities in math and science, while fewer girls have reading difficulties (Quinn and Wagner, 2015). In fact, in this study, girls were more accurate than boys in their word reading. In light of this, it is reasonable to hypothesize that girls would have lower reading anxiety and higher reading self-concept. However, girls reported significantly higher reading anxiety and lower reading self-concept (see Figures 3, 4), indicating that girls are more critical of or overly sensitive to their reading compared to boys. This finding diverges from previous studies which based on questionnaires reported no differences in reading self-concept among third grade boys and girls (Marinak and Gambrell, 2010). On the other hand, these results are consistent with those of Frenzel et al. (2007) who concluded that although

Addressing these feelings early on may help diminish their impact over time. Second, we found that the relations of working memory and emergent literacy to reading self-concept and reading anxiety are primarily indirect via word reading accuracy and reading rate. A large body of literature has shown the relation of working memory, rapid automatized naming, and phonological awareness to reading skills (e.g., Wagner and Torgesen, 1987; Byrne, 1998; National Institute of Child Health, and Human Development [NICHD], 2000; Berninger et al., 2008; Beneventi et al., 2010; Kirby et al., 2010; Manolitsis et al., 2011; Moll et al., 2014; Kim et al., 2017). Then, students’ emergent literacy skills may be related to reading affect. However, when we explicitly tested alternative models, an indirect relations model was supported, indicating that although working memory and emergent literacy skills are important foundations for word reading development, and they are not directly related to reading self-concept and reading anxiety. These findings also suggest that children’s appraisal or perceptions of their own reading ability is likely to be based on reading tasks, not emergent literacy skills. Third, the findings revealed differential relations of word reading accuracy and reading rate to reading self-concept versus reading anxiety. For reading self-concept, both reading accuracy and reading rate were independently related, suggesting that children’s experiences with accuracy and rate are likely to influence their reading self-concept. This finding diverges from Kasperski et al. (2016) study which found a unique relation of rate, but not accuracy, to reading self-concept. The discrepancy might be due to several differences between the studies, including grade of the children, and included variables in the statistical model. The children in the present study were in second grade whereas those in Kasperski et al.’s study were in second and third grade. Therefore, children in Kasperski et al.’s study may have been in a more advanced stage of reading development at which point reading rate may be a more salient factor for self-appraisal of reading skills. When the outcome was reading anxiety which was not investigated in previous studies, reading accuracy was not related. The relation of reading rate to reading anxiety, on the other hand, varied to some extent as a function of the directionality of hypothesized relations between reading self-concept and reading anxiety. When the directionality is hypothesized from reading self-concept to reading anxiety (Figure 3), the effect of reading rate on reading anxiety was indirect, completely mediated by reading self-concept. In other words, reading rate influences how one feels about as a reader, which then, influences worry and anxiety about reading. When the directionality was from reading anxiety to reading self-concept, reading rate uniquely predicted reading anxiety, indicating that reading anxiety partially mediates the relation of reading rate to reading self-concept. That is, reading rate does contribute to the child’s negative feelings (worry and anxiety) associated with reading, but it also makes a direct contribution to reading self-concept over and above reading anxiety. Overall, these findings suggest that reading rate may serve as the basis of self-appraisal of one’s reading skills that influences reading self-concept and reading anxiety. This is in line with

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fifth grade girls did not differ from boys in math achievements, the girls reported significantly higher anxiety, hopelessness, and shame, and less enjoyment and pride than boys. These gender differences in the academic anxiety measure for typical children are in line with earlier works on math anxiety (Wigfield and Meece, 1988; Frenzel et al., 2007), test anxiety (Pintrich and de Groot, 1990), and second language anxiety (Alkhateeb, 2014). A plausible explanation for these findings may be related to the fact that girls generally have lower confidence with regard to academic achievements (Wigfield and Meece, 1988; Frenzel et al., 2007). Most importantly, a future fine-grained look at gendered responses to reading experiences (success and failure) is needed. It may be that girls are more critical of themselves in response to their own internal feedback as well as external feedback (Marsh, 1986). Another important possibility that requires a future investigation is the potential social factors in the differential development of reading self-concept and reading anxiety as a function of gender. The higher reading anxiety among girls may be the result of gender stereotypes, which are known to influence children as early as second grade (Jameson, 2014). Stereotypes of females as helpless, passive, and dependent result in girls’ reduced feelings of control and promote internal worry in girls (Pomerantz et al., 2002). Although not the primary focus in this study, a couple of other findings are worth noting. First, reading rate and accuracy were not related after accounting for the included emergent literacy skills in this sample of second grade Hebrew speaking children. This finding is in line with previous studies which showed a dissociation between rate and accuracy in reading development in Hebrew for second, fourth and sixth graders (Shany et al., 2012). Second, rapid naming and phonological awareness were not independently related to word reading accuracy whereas rapid naming was related to reading rate. These findings are consistent with other findings on first grade Hebrew speaking children (Shechter, 2017)2 .

can provide educators with knowledge and understanding about feelings experienced in the context of academic tasks. Reading instruction, combined with teacher awareness of students’ emotional and behavioral difficulties, can lead to reading success (Atkinson et al., 2002). Third, we focused on word reading accuracy and reading rate in relation to reading self-concept and reading anxiety for children in grade 2. However, given that reading is developmental phenomenon with the goal of successful reading comprehension, it would be important to understand the presence of reading anxiety in all reading stages. A longitudinal study examining reading and reading related skills to reading affect from the beginning to advanced phases of reading would be informative. In addition, although none of the children in the present study were diagnosed with reading difficulties because of the diagnosis timeline in Israel (grade 3 and above), it is apparent that there are children in the sample whose reading accuracy and reading rate are very low (see Table 1). An examination of potentially differential patterns of relations for students with typically developing reading skills versus those with reading difficulties was beyond the scope of the present study. However, children with reading difficulties or dyslexia might show more pronounced relations of reading with reading affect due to greater difficulties and associated higher anxiety (e.g., Carroll and Iles, 2006; Plakopiti and Bellou, 2014; Meer et al., 2016), and therefore, future studies are warranted. Another important future direction is intervention work. Previous studies have shown that reading motivation is malleable such that a 4-week motivational engagement program has recently been linked to significantly higher reading comprehension of seventh grade students (Guthrie and Klauda, 2014). While a substantial amount of research has focused on reading motivation in children (Bates et al., 2016), future work should work on other aspects such as reading self-concept and anxiety in terms of intervention.

CONCLUSION

Limitations and Future Directions The following several limitations are worth noting. First, our focus was on the relations of reading and emergent literacy skills to reading affect. However, as noted earlier, theoretical accounts and empirical evidence suggest a potential bidirectional relation between affect and academic achievement (Jensen et al., 2013; Carey et al., 2016). Therefore, future longitudinal studies as well as experimental studies should explore the bidirectional nature of the relationship. Second, it is possible that reading anxiety is part of a more general structure such as trait anxiety or achievement anxiety. Future studies should examine the connection between reading anxiety and other anxieties. In addition, as stated in the introduction, children’s self-concept is affected and defined by social comparison. A better understanding of the potentially challenging feelings associated with specific aspects of reading

Although most of prior research has focused on the cognitive and linguistic aspects of reading development, growing body of literature indicates the importance of reading affect and its interactions with cognitive and linguistic factors. Overall, our findings support the relations of reading skills and gender to reading affect such as reading self-concept and reading anxiety. These add to the extant literature and indicates the importance of emotional aspects along with the linguistic and cognitive ones.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS TK contributed in conceptual framework, task development, and writing the article. Y-SK contributed in data analysis, conceptual framework analysis, and writing the article. SD contributed in data collection and writing the article.

In this study, first graders’ phonological skills were less related to reading pointed Hebrew, i.e., the transparent version of the Hebrew orthography (see Shany et al., 2012 for a discussion of transparent and deep versions of the Hebrew orthography).

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Mohammadpur, B., and Ghafournia, N. (2015). An elaboration on the effect of reading anxiety on reading achievement. Engl. Lang. Teach. 8, 206–215. doi: 10.5539/elt.v8n7p206 Moll, K., Ramus, F., Bartling, J., Bruder, J., Kunze, S., Neuhoff, N., et al. (2014). Cognitive mechanisms underlying reading and spelling development in five European orthographies. Learn. Instruct. 29, 65–77. doi: 10.1016/j.learninstruc. 2013.09.003 National Institute of Child Health, and Human Development [NICHD] (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and its Implications for Reading Instruction (NIH Publication No. 00-4769). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Owens, M., Stevenson, J., Hadwin, J. A., and Norgate, R. (2012). Anxiety and depression in academic performance: an exploration of the mediating factors of worry and working memory. Sch. Psychol. Int. 33, 433–449. doi: 10.1177/ 0143034311427433 Pajares, F., and Miller, M. D. (1994). Role of self-efficacy and self-concept beliefs in mathematical problem solving: a path analysis. J. Educ. Psychol. 86, 193–203. doi: 10.1037//0022-0663.86.2.193 Pekrun, R. (2006). The control-value theory of achievement emotions: assumptions, corollaries, and implications for educational research and practice. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 18, 315–341. doi: 10.1007/s10648-006-9029-9 Pekrun, R., Elliot, A. J., and Maier, M. A. (2009). Achievement goals and achievement emotions: testing a model of their joint relations with academic performance. J. Educ. Psychol. 101:115. doi: 10.1037/a0013383 Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Titz, W., and Perry, R. P. (2002). Academic emotions in students’ self-regulated learning and achievement: a program of qualitative and quantitative research. Educ. Psychol. 37, 91–105. doi: 10.1207/s15326985ep3702_4 Pekrun, R., Lichtenfeld, S., Marsh, H. W., Murayama, K., and Goetz, T. (2017). Achievement emotions and academic performance: longitudinal models of reciprocal effects. Child Dev. 88, 1653–1670. doi: 10.1111/cdev. 12704 Piccolo, L. R., Giacomoni, C. H., Julio-Costa, A., Oliveira, S., Zbornik, J., Haase, V. G., et al. (2016). Reading anxiety in L1: reviewing the concept. Early Child. Educ. J. 45 537–543. doi: 10.1007/s10643-016-0822-x Pintrich, P. R., and de Groot, E. V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. J. Educ. Psychol. 82, 33–40. doi: 10.1037//0022-0663.82.1.33 Plakopiti, A., and Bellou, I. (2014). Text configuration and the impact of anxiety on pupils with Dyslexia. Proc. Comput. Sci. 27, 130–137. doi: 10.1016/j.procs.2014. 02.016 Pomerantz, E. M., Altermatt, E. R., and Saxon, J. L. (2002). Making the grade but feeling distressed: gender differences in academic performance and internal distress. J. Educ. Psychol. 94, 396–404. doi: 10.1037//0022-0663.94.2.396 Pratt, P., Tallis, F., and Eysenck, M. (1997). Information-processing, storage characteristics and worry. Behav. Res. Ther. 35, 1015–1023. doi: 10.1016/s00057967(97)00057-0 Pressley, M., Levin, J. R., Ghatala, E. S., and Ahmad, M. (1987). Test monitoring in young grade school children. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 43, 96–111. doi: 10.1016/ 0022-0965(87)90053-1 Quinn, J. M., and Wagner, R. K. (2015). Gender differences in reading impairment and in the identification of impaired readers: results from a large-scale study of at-risk readers. J. Learn. Disabil. 48, 433–445. doi: 10.1177/002221941350 8323 Rajab, A., Zakaria, W. Z. W., Rahman, H. A., Hosni, A. D., and Hassani, S. (2012). Reading anxiety among second language learners. Procedia 66, 362–369. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.11.279 Schaffner, E., and Schiefele, U. (2013). The prediction of reading comprehension by cognitive and motivational factors: does text accessibility during comprehension testing make a difference? Learn. Individ. Diff. 26, 42–54. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2013.04.003 Shany, M., Bar-On, A., and Katzir, T. (2012). Reading different orthographic structures in the shallow-pointed Hebrew script: a cross-grade study in elementary school. Read. Writ. 25, 1217–1238. doi: 10.1007/s11145-011-9314 Shany, M., Lahman, D., Shalem, T., Bahat, A., and Zayger, T. (2006). “Alef ad taf ”—A System for Diagnosing Disabilities in the Processes of Reading and Writing According to National Norms. Holon: Yesod Publishing.

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Share, D. L., and Levin, I. (1999). “Learning to read and write in Hebrew,” in Learning to Read and Write: A Cross-Linguistic Perspective, eds M. Harris and G. Hatano (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 89–111. doi: 10.1017/ 9781316155752.007 Shechter (2017) Reading Fluency Development in Hebrew Speaking Children. Master thesis, University of Haifa, Haifa. Smith-Spark, J. H., and Fisk, J. E. (2007). Working memory functioning in developmental dyslexia. Memory 15, 34–56. doi: 10.1080/09658210601043384 Swanson, H. L., Trainin, G., Necoechea, D. M., and Hammill, D. D. (2003). Rapid naming, phonological awareness, and reading: a meta-analysis of the correlation evidence. Rev. Educ. Res. 73, 407–440. doi: 10.3102/ 00346543073004407 Tsai, Y., and Li, Y. H. (2012). Test anxiety and foreign language reading anxiety in a reading-proficiency test. J. Soc. Sci. 8, 95–103. doi: 10.3844/jssp.2012.95.103 Tsovili, T. D. (2004). The relationship between language teachers’ attitudes and the state-trait anxiety of adolescents with dyslexia. J. Res. Read. 27, 69–86. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9817.2004.00215.x Wagner, R. K., and Torgesen, J. K. (1987). The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychol. Bull. 101:192. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.101.2.192 Wigfield, A., and Guthrie, J. T. (1997). Relations of children’s motivation for reading to the amount and breadth or their reading. J. Educ. Psychol. 89, 420. doi: 10.1037//0022-0663.89.3.420 Wigfield, A., and Meece, J. L. (1988). Math anxiety in elementary and secondary school students. J. Educ. Psychol. 80, 210–216. doi: 10.1037//0022-0663. 80.2.210 Williams, P. E., Weiss, L. G., and Rolfus, E. (2003). WISC-IV Technical Report# 3: Clinical Validity. Available at: http://pearsonassess.com/HAIWEB/Cultures/enus/Productdetail.htm?Pid=015-8979-044&Mode=resource Wolf, M., and Denckla, M. B. (2005). Rapid Automatized Naming and Rapid Alternating Stimulus tests (RAN/RAS). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

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Young, D. J. (1986). The relationship between anxiety and foreign language oral proficiency ratings. For. Lang. Ann. 19, 439–445. doi: 10.1111/j.1944-9720.1986. tb01032.x Young, D. J. (1990). An investigation of students’ perspectives on anxiety and speaking. For. Lang. Ann. 23, 539–553. doi: 10.1111/j.1944-9720.1990.tb 00424.x Young, D. J. (1998). Affect in Foreign Language and Second Language Learning: A Practical Guide to Creating a Low-Anxiety Classroom Atmosphere. Boston, MA: McGraw Hill. Zbornik, J. (2001). Reading Anxiety Manifests Itself Emotionally, Intellectually. Lakewood, OH: LRP Publications. Zbornik, J. J. (1988). Empirical and Theoretical Extension of a Reading Anxiety Paradigm. Doctoral dissertation, Kent State University, Kent. Zbornik, J. J., and Wallbrown, F. H. (1991). The development and validation of a scale to measure reading anxiety. Read. Improve. 28:2. doi: 10.1002/cpp. 1987 Zhou, Q., Main, A., and Wang, Y. (2010). The relations of temperamental effortful control and anger/frustration to Chinese children’s academic achievement and social adjustment: a longitudinal study. J. Educ. Psychol. 102:180. Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Copyright © 2018 Katzir, Kim and Dotan. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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ResearchILD Resources

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THE SMARTS ONLINE EXECUTIVE FUNCTION CURRICULUM OVERVIEW Welcome to SMARTS Online, an evidenced-based curriculum for teaching executive function strategies. The current curriculum is based on ten years of research and in-school studies completed by ResearchILD staff under the direction of Dr. Lynn Meltzer. The SMARTS Online curriculum has been What Is Executive Function? successfully beta-tested in public, private, charter, and home schools across the United States. SMARTS provides you with 30 lessons you can use to teach students strategies for accessing important executive function processes—goal setting, organizing, prioritizing, thinking flexibly, remembering, and self-monitoring. With SMARTS, students develop the self-understanding to know which strategies work best for them as well as why, where, when, and how to use those strategies to complete their homework, to plan long-term projects, and to study for tests. Designed for students in grades 6–12, SMARTS works with existing curricula in general education classrooms, special education classrooms, learning centers and tutoring sessions. You can teach SMARTS in its entirety or select key lessons to reinforce specific strategies. Your SMARTS subscription connects you to:

Executive function is an umbrella term for the complex cognitive processes students use to set goals, plan their time, organize and prioritize, think flexibly, access their working memory, self-monitor, and selfcheck. The model of a funnel helps to explain the importance of executive function processes for learning. When students learn to use executive function strategies, they are able to coordinate (or “funnel”) the various processes required to complete complex academic tasks such as taking notes or writing. When students have executive function weaknesses, the funnel becomes blocked and they are unable to produce work that reflects their true potential. SMARTS lessons are grouped by five executive function processes that affect learning: Goal Setting: Identifying short-term and long-term goals

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30 evidence-based lessons with supporting handouts, PowerPoint presentations, and videos.

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Surveys to help you and your students understand their learning profiles.

Organizing and Prioritizing: Sorting and ordering information based on relative importance

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SMARTS Digital Training Sessions to help learn more about executive function and your students.

Accessing Working Memory: Remembering and manipulating information mentally

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SMARTS Planning Tools to help you get started and plan your year.

Cognitive Flexibility: Switching easily between approaches; thinking flexibly

Self-Monitoring and Checking: Identifying and correcting personal errors

By fostering a culture of strategy use in your classroom, you can help your students do more than just improve academically; they will increase their academic self-confidence as well as their effort and motivation to succeed in school. As our research and clinical work has shown, increased self-understanding and use of executive function strategies are critically important for a student’s success in school and beyond. SMARTS Overview

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SMARTS Executive Function Curriculum Unit 1. Introduction to Executive Function Strategies Learning Goals Lessons Outcomes Students will understand their 1.1 What is metacognition? Students will be able to: learning strengths and weakThinking about thinking • Define metacognition nesses and learn about execu1.2 What is cognitive flexibility? • Understand the core executive function processes. Defining how to think flexibly tive function processes • Apply their knowledge of ex1.3 What is executive function? ecutive function strategies to The EF Wheel their understanding of themselves as learners 1.4 I-SEE a strategy: What makes a “strategy” a strategy? Unit 2. Goal Setting—Identifying short-term and long-term goals Learning Goals Lessons Students will learn to develop 2.1 Identifying CANDO goals appropriate goals with defin2.2 Thinking through individual able outcomes. goals Students will develop strategies for implementing their goals throughout the school year.

Outcomes Students will be able to: • Define CANDO goals • Describe the elements of “good goals” • Use a rubric to assess goals • Design CANDO goals that demonstrate reflective thinking

Unit 3. Cognitive Flexibility—Shifting problem-solving approaches; thinking flexibly Learning Goals Students will learn that multiple strategies can be used to solve a given problem and will, through repeated practice, develop a variety of strategies to support flexible thinking and problem solving.

Lessons 3.1 Being flexible and shifting expectations

Students will learn how to distinguish the main ideas from the less important details.

3.4 Purposeful highlighting

SMARTS Overview

3.2 Shifting perspectives in writing 3.3 Skim and scoop strategy

Outcomes Students will be able to: • Explain the importance of shifting approaches flexibly • Write according to multiple perspectives • Shift between the main idea and details

3.5 Shifty math

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Unit 4. Organizing and Prioritizing Materials and Time—Creating categories to work efficiently Learning Goals Lessons Outcomes Students will learn to 4.1 The 4 C’s strategy Students will be able to: organize their materials for 4.2 Developing an under• Explain strategies for orgaschool and schedule their time appropriately. standing of time nizing belongings and the importance of planning 4.3 Prioritizing time • Use calendars and tools for daily, weekly, and monthly 4.4 Monthly planning planning • Apply their knowledge of 4.5 Weekly planning planning to breaking down assignments into meaningful parts

Unit 5. Organizing and Prioritizing Ideas and Information— Sorting information based importance Learning Goals Lessons Outcomes Students will gain the knowl5.1 Sorting and categorizing Students will be able to: edge and the strategies necesusing BOTEC • Describe strategies for orsary to organize information for 5.2 Bottom-up vs. top-down reading, writing papers, taking ganizing thoughts for notethinkers taking, essay writing, and notes, and studying for tests. studying 5.3 Note-taking from a lesson • Integrate memory strategies with organizational strategies 5.4 Using the Triple-Note-Tote to enhance understanding of topics 5.5 Studying with the PPCQ strategy Unit 6. Remembering—Manipulating information mentally Learning Goals Lessons Outcomes Students will learn and imple6.1 Why is working memory Students will be able to: ment strategies to efficiently important? • Define memory strategies inand accurately store and recall 6.2 Using cartoons and associaimportant information. cluding acronyms, cartoons, tions to remember and crazy phrases • Apply memory strategies to 6.3 Using funny phrases and important information across stories to remember academic content areas 6.4 Creating strategies for remembering

SMARTS Overview

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Unit 7. Self-Monitoring and Self-Checking—Identifying errors and self-correcting Learning Goals Lessons Outcomes Students will learn to monitor 7.1 What is self-monitoring? Students will be able to: their behavior in the moment to 7.2 What is self-checking? • Identify strategies for selfensure that they stay on task. monitoring and self-checking Students will become aware of 7.3 The Top-3-Hits strategy • Explain and reflect upon their the types of errors they often use of executive function make and learn strategies to 7.4 Breaking down directions strategies avoid repeating these mistakes in the future. 7.5 Stop, review, reflect: completing checklists of all the executive function strategies

SMARTS Overview

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Elementary School Curriculum Overview

SMARTS Online is an evidence-based curriculum for teaching executive function strategies. The current curriculum is based on ten years of research and in-school studies completed by ResearchILD staff under the direction of Dr. Lynn Meltzer. The SMARTS Online curriculum has been successfully beta-tested in public, private, charter, and home schools across the US. SMARTS provides elementary grade teachers with 30 lessons that they can use to teach students strategies for accessing important executive function processes—goal setting, organizing, prioritizing, thinking flexibly, remembering, and self-monitoring. Students develop the self-understanding to know which strategies work best for them as well as why, where, when, and how to use those strategies to complete their work. The SMARTS Elementary School Curriculum works with existing curricula in general education classrooms, special education classrooms, and learning centers and is designed for students in grades 2-5. Since each lesson is divided into four 20-minute sessions, teachers have the flexibility to integrate lessons into the daily practice of their elementary school classroom. Unit 1: Introduction: Building a Community of Metacognitive Learners • Lesson 1: How do I think about my thinking? o Students engage in a discussion about “metacognition” and identify their personal strengths and challenges and the strategies they use in their everyday lives. • Lesson 2: How can I manage my work? o Students complete an activity that introduces them to the five executive function processes and helps them to identify their strengths and challenges in three of these processes. • Lesson 3: How do I think flexibly? o Students discuss the concept of cognitive flexibility and its importance for strategy use. They complete an activity that illustrates how words can have multiple meanings. • Lesson 4: How can I use strategies to help me? o Students identify how to make strategies individualized, systematic, efficient, and effective (I-SEE). Then, they examine their own strategies, refining them to ensure they fit the I-SEE model. 1 Copyright © 2019 ResearchILD. All rights reserved. No unauthorized use or copying. See Terms of Use.

Elementary School Curriculum Overview Unit 2: Goal Setting: Understanding the Big Picture and Breaking it Down • Lesson 1: I CANDO my goals! o Students learn to create personalized and achievable goals that are Clear, Appropriate, Numerical, Doable, and with Obstacles considered (CANDO). • Lesson 2: Thinking through individual goals o Students review common obstacles that prevent them from achieving their goals. Building off of Lesson 2.1, students take the goals they have already set and develop strategies to achieve these goals (e.g., students break goals into steps and think about the obstacles they may face when trying to achieve their goals). Unit 3: Thinking Flexibly • Lesson 1: Being flexible and shifting expectations o Students explore shifting between multiple perspectives in reading and writing. • Lesson 2: I’m wearing your shoes o Students explore shifting between multiple perspectives in social situations. • Lesson 3: Skim and Scoop o Students learn how to comprehend what they read efficiently and how to differentiate between the main ideas and details of a text. • Lesson 4: Purposeful Highlighting o Students use highlighting to identify multiple perspectives when reading and taking notes. This strategy also helps students highlight effectively and to avoid over-highlighting (the “yellow page syndrome”). • Lesson 5: Shifty math o Students identify multiple methods for solving a problem and understand how the same problem can be analyzed in multiple ways. Unit 4: Organizing Materials and Time ● Lesson 1: Organizing your materials (The 4 C’s) o Students learn the 4 C’s strategy for organizing and then apply the strategy to the organization of their own belongings. ● Lesson 2: Developing an understanding of time o Students examine their understanding of time and see the importance of measuring time.

Elementary School Curriculum Overview

● Lesson 3: Estimating time o Students learn to improve their ability to estimate time while completing tasks, as well as gain an understanding of the importance of time estimation. ● Lesson 4: Prioritizing time o Students learn to think in terms of Have To’s (obligations) and Want To’s (aspirations) while expressing their intentions visually in a daily planner. ● Lesson 5: Planning production time o Students employ strategies to practice short-term planning and to identify ‘production time’ then apply them for use in their own planners/calendars. Unit 5: Organizing Information ● Lesson 1: Sorting and categorizing using BOTEC o Students learn strategies for organizing information to improve their writing. The BOTEC strategy will help students learn to brainstorm, organize, write topic sentences, provide evidence, and reach a conclusion. ● Lesson 2: Note-taking o Students learn why taking notes is important and how to effectively organize information from a text. ● Lesson 3: Triple-Note-Tote o Students learn “Triple-Note-Tote,” a three-column strategy for note-taking and organizing information, which can be used across content areas. ● Lesson 4: Summarizing stories o Students learn to create summaries using the Star strategy, which helps them to understand the “who, what, where, when, why and how” of a text. Unit 6: Remembering ● Lesson 1: Why is memory important?

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o Students will identify their own strengths and challenges in working memory and learn how memory connects to following directions and completing school related tasks. Lesson 2: Using cartoons and associations o Students learn two mnemonic strategies that help support working memory, using pre-existing knowledge to create cartoons and associations to remember important information. 3

Elementary School Curriculum Overview ● Lesson 3: Acronyms and crazy phrases o In this lesson, students learn to use acronyms and phrases in order to lock information into long-term memory. ● Lesson 4: Visualizing and storytelling o Students will practice remembering unfamiliar processes or information through visualization and storytelling. Unit 7: Self-monitoring and checking ● Lesson 1: Focus and distraction o Students discuss and define what it means to be focused and not distracted. They will identify the situations that do and do not help them focus, and they will practice monitoring their behavior to stay on task. ● Lesson 2: Check your sources o Students discuss the danger of using information from unreliable sources and learn the 2 T Test strategy to determine whether a given source is trustworthy. ● Lesson 3: Top 3 hits o Students use their own work to check for their most common errors. Students generate a list of their personal Top-3-Hits for checking their own future assignments. ● Lesson 4: Manage my mood o Students learn to develop an awareness of their mood in different situations and the impact it has on learning. ● Lesson 5: What hat am I wearing? o Students will check their behavior to ensure that it matches the situation they are in and the task at hand. ● Lesson 6: Wrap-Up: Stop, Review, Reflect o Students review the SMARTS strategies they have learned and then they create a Strategies for Success sheet they can use in the future. By fostering a culture of strategy use in their classrooms, teachers can help students do more than just improve academically; they will increase their students’ academic self-confidence as well as their effort and motivation to succeed in school. As our research and clinical work has shown, increased self-understanding and use of executive function strategies are critically important for a student’s success in school and beyond.

The MetaCOG Surveys & Toolkit is an interactive executive function survey system that highlights students’ perceptions of their strategy use, motivation, effort, and resilience. Used in classrooms, learning centers, and therapeutic settings around the world, the MetaCOG Surveys & Toolkit is the culmination of almost two decades of research completed under the direction of Dr. Lynn Meltzer.

The MetaCOG Surveys & Toolkit helps students develop an understanding of their learning profiles, including their executive function strengths and challenges, what motivates them, and what helps them persist. This self-understanding is the foundation for building students’ metacognitive awareness, motivation, and use of EF strategies. The MetaCOG Surveys & Toolkit is a convenient and easy-to-use tool to help teachers track growth, select their instructional priorities, and view a snapshot of their students’ EF strategy use, motivation, and effort across various subjects and tasks. While the MetaCOG Surveys & Toolkit can be purchased independently of SMARTS, pairing the SMARTS curriculum with the MetaCOG Surveys & Toolkit is a powerful way to collect data and inform instruction in any educational setting. Using the surveys and reflection activities, teachers receive recommendations that align SMARTS lessons to their students' challenges. They can also celebrate students’ strengths, use them to leverage strategies that address challenges, and foster supportive relationships. The MetaCOG Surveys & Toolkit is not a diagnostic measure; however, it provides valuable information about students’ use of executive function strategies as well as their self-concept, perceived effort, and persistence.

MetaCOG Surveys Process 1. Students complete the STRATUS and/or ME survey, instantaneously receiving a personalized profile. The STRATUS profile covers students’ EF strengths and challenges, strategy recommendations, and a list of suggested SMARTS lessons. The ME profile covers students’ motivation, persistence, and effort across various subjects and tasks. 2. Students review their personalized profiles so they can understand their own strengths and challenges. Reflection activities can extend students’ learning, promote self-understanding, and help them find their personalized pathways to success. 3. Teachers receive a class report that includes the strengths and challenges for each student and for the class overall. Teachers can also view a classwide motivation and effort report, and they receive an action plan that includes suggested SMARTS lessons based on class data. This information can inform parent conferences and IEP meetings, as well as provide a baseline for measuring student growth over time.

SUGGESTED LESSONS

MetaCOG Online Like a Rubik’s Cube, EF areas are interrelated. Working Memory

Lessons from different areas of EF focus provide you with many approaches to build on your class’s strengths and help them improve areas of challenge. The following list of lessons is suggested based on your class’s survey data

Class: Reresents the interconnectedness of all EF areas. This list is intended as

Self-Monitoring & Self-Checking

a starting point, and we recommend that you adjust your lessons according

Goal Setting

available. This list of suggested lessons offers many options and approaches

students’ needs, the time of year, and the amount of time you have Teacher: Ms.toCyour arey

to help build on your students’ strengths and improve their challenges.. Organizing & School: Phillips Elementa ry Prioritizing Cognitive Flexibility

Date: 2022/02/08

CLASS: SUGGESTED LESSONS ARRANGED BY PRIORITY

▼

Unit/ Lesson #

2.2

Thinking Through One’s Goals

2.1

Identifying CANDO Goals

Lesson Title

4.3

Prioritizing Time

4.2

Developing an Understanding of Time

5.1

Sorting and Categorizing Using BOTEC

3.4

Purposeful Highlighting

5.2

Bottom-Up Vs. Top-Down Thinkers

5.3

Note-Taking From a Lesson or Lecture

6.2

Cartoons and Associations

6.1

Why Working Memory is Important

For more information,visit: www.smarts-ef.org/metacog

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION & MENTORING PROGRAM

What is SMARTS @ Home? “We love SMARTS @ Home! My son is so much better at setting goals and learned that the easy answer isn’t always the best answer.” –Parent of a 4th grade student Does your child lose papers or pencils, have trouble getting started or finishing an assignment, or get “stuck” doing a problem when one method doesn’t work? When faced with one of these challenges, does your child simply give up, waiting for you to swoop in and “do it for them?” THE SMARTS APPROACH Children need to be explicitly taught strategies, and the home presents unique opportunities to help their children develop the strategies they need. By following our research based instructional model, SMARTS @ Home provides explicit instruction in strategy use, opportunities to develop greater self-understanding, and boosts students’ self-esteem and ability to persevere when challenged. WHAT IS SMARTS @ HOME? SMARTS @ HOME is an organized collection of activities designed to help families support students in their development of executive function strategies outside of school. Working directly with an adult, children build self-awareness and come to understand the purpose and benefits of using strategies to overcome challenges. They will begin to set goals, develop a method for organizing materials, and build a foundation for time management and self-regulation of behaviors. SMARTS @ Home contains six units that are specifically designed for homeschool or afterschool use by families. Unit 1 – How do I think about my thinking? Unit 2 – How can I use strategies to help me? Unit 3 – How can I think flexibly? Unit 4 – I CANDO my goals Unit 5 – Organizing your materials (The 4C’s Strategy) Unit 6 – Developing an understanding of time HOW ARE THE LESSONS STRUCTURED? Everything you need for each lesson is included, complete with a script, interactive activities, printable handouts, and more! The lessons can be adapted, allowing you to adjust the level of challenge and providing students with choices on how to complete the activities. In addition, each unit comes with a Bridge Letter that can be shared with the any other adults providing support as well as extension ideas to help connect the strategies to other areas of life. LEARN MORE Learn more about SMARTS@Home and try a free lesson! Copyright © 2023 ResearchILD. All rights reserved. No unauthorized use or copying. See Terms of Use. www.smarts-ef.org

2023-2024

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION AND EQUITY FELLOWSHIP All educators play a crucial role in removing barriers and developing equitable approaches that support the success of every student.

Gather

Teach

Learn

Our mission is to empower ALL students to learn how to learn and to promote persistence and resilience through executive function strategies that build academic and life success.

2023-2024 EF and Equity Fellows: * = Returning Fellow

Angie Koontz – School Counselor, Somonauk Middle School

Molly Buckley – Literacy Coach; Mendell Elementary School, Boston Public Shools Elizabeth Bowen – School Psychologist; Boston Public Schools

Laurin Hoegy – Student Support Teacher; Stanley Humphries Secondary School

Andrea Livesey - Social Wellness Teacher, Joseph Lee School, Boston Public Schools

Cinamon Streva - Special Education Teacher, SR1 Charter and Preparatory STEM Academy Nakia Johnson - Special Education Teacher, MATCH Public Charter High School Yvonne Schlangen - Graduation Coach, Creek Wood High School

Dr. Carmen Johnson - School Psychologist, Catalyst Charter Schools

Jason Alemany* - Special Education Teacher, Herberg Middle School Lois Aubin*- Special Education Administrator, Reid Middle School

Donna Bowen* - Learning Specialist, Merrick Academy Charter School

Rose Delorme-Metayer* - Director of McCarthy Institute, Boston Latin School Ebonia Williams* - General Education Teacher, Lansing School District Kevin Mackey* - Intervention Specialist, St. Ignatius High School Zoe Smith* - Resource Room Teacher, Boston Latin School

Ruthe Ann Garner* - Special Education Teacher, Bayhill High School If you are interested in joining our 2024-2025 Fellowship, please reach out to Taylor McKenna, ResearchILD Associate (tmckenna@researchild.org).

EA RC HIL

Research Institute for Learning and Development www.researchild.org smarts-ef.org

4HANK YOU FOR JOINING US AT THE

38 TH A N N UA L

E X E C U T I V E F U N C T I O N C O N F E R E N C E EXECUTIVE FUNCTION, MOTIVATION, AND ENGAGEMENT

Fostering Social-Emotional Learning and Positive Behavior in Students