37th Annual Executive Function Conference Digital Binder by cvanderberg

EA RC HIL

Research Institute for Learning and Development www.researchild.org smarts-ef.org

ANNUAL

EX E CUTIVE FU NCTION CON FER ENC E

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

LYNN MELTZER, Ph.D., CONFERENCE FOUNDER AND CHAIR

VIRTUAL CONFERENCE NOVEMBER & , 202 — ONLINE

Thursda , November 3rd 9:30 - 9:50

Welcome L M

, P .D., C

9:50 - 10:45

Igniting Success and Reducing Stress for All Students: Metacognition, Executive Function, and Emotional Regulation L M , P .D.

10:45 - 11:00

Q&A

11:00 - 11:15

Break

11:15 - 12:05

The Power of Micromoments in our Lives and the Lives of our Students R B , P .D.

12:05 - 12:20

Q&A

12:20 - 12:50

Lunch

12:50 - 1:40

Building Meaning Builds Students Brains: Implications for Re-inventing Schools M H I , E .D.

1:40 - 1:55

Q&A

1:55 - 2:10

Break

2:10 - 3:00

Smart but Stuck: Executive Function, Attention, and Emotion T E. B , P .D.

3:00 - 3:15

Q&A

3:15 - 3:30

Break

3:30 - 4:30

Panel: EF & Social-Emotional Learning: Fostering Students Strengths A B , P .D., CCC-SLP, M G , M.E ., S I , M.S., S L , M.E ., M.S., C M , M.A., M S , P .D., T , B.S.

4:30 - 4:40

Q &A

4:40

Closing Remarks L M , P .D. 1

Friday, November 4th 9:30 - 9:40

Overview L M

, P .D., C

9:40 - 10:30

Promoting Mental Health in the Classroom: Therapeutic Strategies for Reducing Stress and Anxiety and Enhancing Students Self-Esteem D P , P .D.

10:30 - 10:45

Break

10:45 - 11:35

Creating Sanctuary Classrooms: The Impact of Adverse Childhood Experiences on Learning G S , E .S., LMFT

11:35 - 11:50

Q&A

11:50 - 12:05

Break

12:05 - 1:05

SMARTS Schools Panel: EF Across the Grades: Fostering Independent Learning and Self-Con dence D A , M.E ., M C , E .L., R D M , M.E ., S , M.E .

1:05 - 1:15

Q&A

1:15 - 2:00

Lunch Break OR SMARTS Optional Sessions

1:20 - 1:50

Lunch Session 1: SMARTS: I EF I M G , M.E ., & S OR Lunch Session 2: M COG O 2.0: A N S E L M , P .D., & C

1:20 - 1:50

A , M.E .

, M.E .

2:00 - 2:50

How to Win Races with a Runaway Brain: Ways to Bring Out the Best in ADHD E H , M.D.

2:50 - 3:05

Q&A 2

3:05 - 3:20

Break

3:20 - 4:20

Panel: EF and Social-Emotional Learning: The Keys to Resilience R B , P .D., S C , M.E ., J D , P .D., D K , M.E ., J S , M.E ., D L , M.E ., CAGS

4:20 - 4:30

Q&A

4:30

Closing Remarks L M , P .D.

C nc

en S eake

1. Wearing Your Shoes: Teachers Collaborating with Parents to Promote Executive Function at School and at Home M G , M.E . & M S , P .D. 2. Executive Function and Social-Emotional Learning: Strategies for Perspective Taking, Self-Understanding, and Self-Management S L , M.E ., M.S. & C , M.E . 3. Beyond Jokes and Riddles: Cognitive Flexibility Across the Grades and Content Areas D K , M.E . 4. Transition to College: Promoting Students' Self-Understanding and Executive Function Strategy Use J S , M.E . 5. Project Based Learning and Technology: Fostering Creativity, Problem Solving, and Engagement in Students C M , M.A. 6. The Wonders of Blunders: Laying the Foundation for Resilience and Cognitive Flexibility in Early Childhood J D , P .D. & S C , M.E . 7. Addressing Social and Emotional Learning and Enhancing Mindfulness S I , M.S. & T , B.S. 8. School-Based Mindfulness Programs: Research and Practical Implications R B , P .D. 9. Creating Classroom Environments That Help ASD Students to Thrive, Not Just Survive D L , M.E ., CAGS

Fac l Bio L Me e , P .D., i he Pre iden and Direc or of he Re earch In i e for Learning and De elopmen (Re earchILD) in Le ing on, MA. She i a Fello and Pa -Pre iden of he In erna ional Academ for Re earch in Learning Di abili ie . She i he Fo nder and Program Chair of he Ann al E ec i e F nc ion Conference, (formerl he Learning Difference Conference) hich he ha chaired for he pa 36 ear . For 30 ear , he a an A ocia e in Ed ca ion a he Har ard Grad a e School of Ed ca ion and an Adj nc A ocia e Profe or in he Depar men of Child De elopmen a T f Uni er i . Her 40 ear of clinical ork, re earch, p blica ion , and pre en a ion ha e foc ed on nder anding he comple i of learning and a en ion problem . Her e en i e p blica ion incl de ar icle , chap er and book , mo recen l , E c F c Ed ca :F T P ac c (2018), P E c F c Ca (2010) and T P P Ca : E a c L a a dS ca S (2015), co-edi ed i h Karen Harri . Toge her i h her Re earchILD aff, he ha de eloped SMARTS, an e idence-ba ed E ec i e F nc ion and Peer Men oring/ Coaching C rric l m for middle and high chool den ( . mar -ef.org). She ha been an in i ed peaker a n mero na ional and in erna ional conference , incl ding he In erna ional A ocia ion for Cogni i e Ed ca ion conference in So h Africa. She ha been honored i h a n mber of a ard incl ding he Co ncil for Learning Di abili ie O anding Re earch A ard in Oc ober, 2015 and he Inno a i e Program of he Year A ard from CHADD (Children i h A en ion Defici Di order ). Da A e a de , M.Ed., ha orked in he Three Village School Di ric ince 2001. D ring her ime here, he ha held he po i ion of pecial and general ed ca ion eacher, and beha ior con l an . Da n c rren l ork a a eacher men or for he P pil Per onnel Ser ice Depar men . Da n earned her ndergrad a e degree in Elemen ar and Special Ed ca ion from S . Jo eph College. Af er grad a ing from C.W. Po Uni er i i h her Ma er in Li erac Ed ca ion, Da n a ended S on Brook Uni er i here he recei ed an ad anced cer ifica e in Applied Beha ior Anal i and became a Board-Cer ified Beha ior Anal in 2010. She i al o cer ified a a School Di ric Leader. Da n pro ide raining and profe ional de elopmen in he area of e ec i e f nc ioning, applied beha ior anal i , and ario o her opic ha per ain o children i h di abili ie . Da n i a pa iona e den ad oca e and of en de elop program ha ill be er e he need of den in pecial ed ca ion. Da n ha bro gh her pecial ed ca ion e per i e o her home chool di ric b crea ing and er ing a he Pre iden of

heir Special Ed ca ion Paren Teacher A ocia ion. Da n dedica ion o pecial ed ca ion i onl o ma ched b he commi men he pro ide o her famil . Rebecca Bae e , P .D., i a Po doc oral Re earch A ocia e a he Uni er i of Illinoi Chicago, d ing he effec and implemen a ion of ocial and emo ional learning (SEL) and mindf lne -ba ed program for eacher and den . She recei ed her PhD from he Uni er i of Penn l ania Ed ca ion Polic program. Her di er a ion d in ol ed a longi dinal field e perimen of a brief elf-compa ion in er en ion de igned o bol er adap i e belief and mind e in beginning eacher . Rebecca' re earch in ere foc on he de elopmen , implemen a ion, and e ing of approache de igned o in ill in eacher and den he ocial and emo ional compe encie and mind e nece ar for hri ing in he profe ion, in chool, and in life. She ha kill in mi ed-me hod re earch (e.g., q ali a i e re earch; randomi ed con rolled rial e perimen , r e de elopmen and anal i ), de ign-ba ed implemen a ion re earch, and implemen a ion cience. Mo recen l , he cond c ed a re ie of chool-ba ed mindf lne program (SBMP ) and, ba ed on finding from ha ork, i p bli hing a e of implemen a ion repor ing recommenda ion for SBMP . A Ba , P .D., CCC-SLP, i c rren l an Adj nc Fac l member of he L nch School of Ed ca ion and H man De elopmen a Bo on College. In addi ion, he er e a a con l an o Archi ec for Learning. He a formerl he Coordina or of he Fre hman Academic S die Program a Emer on College, he Di abili Ser ice Coordina or, and he Direc or of he Wri ing and Learning Cen er. Hi re earch in ere cen er on he effec of earl pre chool peech and lang age di order on life o come . He c rren l collabora e i h Dr. Bonnie Singer on he de elopmen of ri en lang age in r c ional and in er en ion ra egie ha in egra e e ec i e and elf-reg la or f nc ion in o he ri ing proce . R be B , P .D., i a clinical p chologi on he fac l (par - ime) of Har ard Medical School and former Direc or of he Depar men of P cholog a McLean Ho pi al, a pri a e p chia ric ho pi al in he Bo on area. Hi fir po i ion a McLean a a principal of he chool in he locked door inpa ien ni of he child and adole cen program. Dr. Brook ha lec red na ionall and in erna ionall and ri en e en i el abo ch opic a : re ilience acro he life pan, paren ing and famil i e , mo i a ion, learning, and crea ing po i i e chool and ork en ironmen . He i he a hor or co-a hor of 19 book incl ding Ra R C d ;T P R c ; and T ac C d :N S

I c L S cc . He ha on n mero a ard for hi ork, incl ding mo recen l , he Men al Heal h H mani arian A ard from William Jame College in MA for hi con rib ion a a clinician, ed ca or, and a hor. Dr. Brook ha al o er ed a a con l an o Se ame S ree Paren Maga ine. T a E. B , P .D., earned hi Ph.D. in Clinical P cholog a Yale Uni er i and hen er ed on he clinical fac l of he Depar men of P chia r a Yale School of Medicine for 20 ear hile opera ing a clinic in Connec ic for children and ad l i h ADHD and rela ed problem . In Ma 2017, he reloca ed o California here he opened hi Bro n Clinic for Aenon and Rela ed Di order in Manha an Beach. He ha a gh con in ing medical ed ca ion co r e on ADHD for he American P chia ric A ocia ion for he pa 18 ear and ha gi en lec re and ork hop in ho pi al , medical chool , ni er i ie and for profe ional and ad ocac gro p hro gho he Uni ed S a e and in more han 40 o her co n rie . Dr. Bro n i a Clinical Profe or of P chia r and Ne ro cience a he Uni er i of California Ri er ide School of Medicine and i an elec ed Fello of he American P chological A ocia ion, The APA Di i ion of P chopharmacolog and S b ance Ab e, and he Socie of Clinical Child and Adole cen P cholog . He ha p bli hed 30 ar icle in profe ional jo rnal and 7 book on ADHD i h ran la ion of 12 foreign lang age . Hi mo recen book are S a , b S c : E T a d Ad ADHD; O d B :R ADD/ADHD C d a d Ad -A P ac ca G d , and ADHD a d A S d S a K d a d Ad : T S S ,S a dT a . Hi 28 min e ideo on Yo be W a I A D c H ac D d ? ha recei ed more han 6.5 million ie . Hi eb i e i .Bro nADHDClinic.com. Ma a Ca , Ed.L., i a pecial ed ca or ho ha orked in he Three Village School Di ric ince 2009. O er he co r e of her career, he ha had he pri ilege of orking in ario e ing in grade K-6, incl ding re o rce room, Direc Teacher Con l (DTC), elf-con ained 12:1:1 and elf-con ained 15:1:1. In Sep ember of 2020, M . Ca oro embarked on a jo rne i h he di ric E ec i e and Social De elopmen (ESD) program, a program pecificall engineered o ppor den i h defici in he area of e ec i e f nc ioning. I ha become a pa ion of her o con in e hi deep di e in o he area of e ec i e f nc ioning, hile ppor ing he gro h of he di ric program. Grad a ing i h her degree in Ed ca ional Leader hip in Ma 2021, M . Ca oro became he In r c ional Diagno ician a Se a ke Elemen ar School. She con in e o po r her effor in o ppor ing eacher and aff

o bring a arene o he impor ance of he e kill and ed ca ion in hi area. While he con ider her elf a lifelong learner and a pa iona e ed ca or, M . Ca oro ci e her bigge accompli hmen a ha of a ife and mom o her hree o ng children. S a a C e, M.Ed., i an a hor and e ec i e f nc ion coach ho par ner i h den o e plore em , habi and mind e ha facili a e learning ho o learn. Thro gh b ilding r ing rela ion hip , he empo er den o e meaningf l goal and ac i el direc heir learning o ard f lfilling heir per onal a pira ion . A he managing direc or of reFLEXion , he ork along ide a eam o pro ide re o rce , profe ional coaching and con l a ion o b ild Fle ible Mind e ha help ed ca or o reframe eaching a an eq i able pa h a o ard b ilding re ilience and adap abili for all den . S annah hold a MEd in de elopmen al p cholog and ha gro n her e per i e hro gho he pa 25 ear orking in he field of ed ca ion. She ha a gh a all le el from pre chool hro gh college. For decade , he orked in ed ca ional e ing a an earl childhood ed ca or, in egra ed middle chool eacher, a peciali ed a i m herapi , learning ppor eacher and college profe or. Wi h he aim of making learning engaging and acce ible o all den , S annah ha er ed a an ed ca ional con l an o familie , ed ca or and chool . Thro gh ork hop , peer men oring and in erna ional pre en a ion , he ha pearheaded effor o b ild profe ional learning and coaching comm ni ie . Her calling i o ran form cla room in o pace ha cen er re pon i ene , rele ance and c rio i and here e can bring all of o r el e o o r learning. J eD a , P .D. (Ca ab.), i a p chologi and a hor ho belie e ha he e ence of eq i lie in eq ipping all learner i h he ool he need o re pond adap i el and re ilien l o he ad er i of oda comple and e er-changing orld. For decade , he ha par nered in a ide range of comm ni e ing o engage children, familie , program and organi a ion in elf-di co er and forging a pa h a for direc ing heir o n jo rne . J lie hold an M.A. in earl childhood and a Ph.D. in ed ca ion. She ha cond c ed polic re earch on child de elopmen , famil need , addic ion , li erac among inma e and learning difference . J lie ha lec red a he ndergrad a e and grad a e le el in p cholog , ed ca ion and organi a ional de elopmen and ha pre en ed in erna ionall . J lie and her colleag e, S annah Cole, recen l co-a hored F b M d Sc :C a Ba P C ca T ,C P b -S a dC a . J lie ha dri en c ing-edge ini ia i e incl ding: ICAN Ma h; he I-PLAY P c in er en ion; P a P d ha la he earl fo nda ion for e ec i e f nc ion proce e ; and C a a ha arge cri ical

hinking, comple problem- ol ing and crea i i and enco rage ac ion o ard ol ing ocial problem . J lie ee her elf a a Changemaker ho ri e o ran form mind e and crea e learning en ironmen here in e iga or , inno a or and in pirer can hri e. M c ae G e c e , M.Ed., i he Direc or of he SMARTS program a he Re earch In i e for Learning and De elopmen (Re earchILD). O er he pa 11 ear , he ha orked o de elop and gro he SMARTS program, collabora ing i h eacher and admini ra or in chool . In addi ion o leading he pilo and la nch of bo h he econdar and elemen ar c rric la, Michael ho raining and ork hop for SMARTS ed ca or . Since he la nch of SMARTS in he fall of 2015, Michael ha ppor ed more han 2,500 SMARTS ed ca or aro nd he orld, helping hem bring he po er of e ec i e f nc ion in o he cla room. In addi ion, Michael i a conference coordina or for Re earchILD Learning Difference Conference. A an ed ca ional peciali , Michael e e ec i e f nc ion ra eg in r c ion o ppor eenager and o ng ad l . Ed a d (Ned) Ha e , M.D., i a board-cer ified child and ad l p chia ri and orld a hori on ADHD. He i a grad a e of Har ard College and T lane Medical School, and a a Har ard Medical School fac l member for 21 ear . He i he Fo nder of The Hallo ell ADHD Cen er in Bo on Me roWe , Ne York Ci , San Franci co, Palo Al o and Sea le. He ha pen he pa fo r decade helping ho and of ad l and children li e happ and prod c i e li e hro gh hi reng h-ba ed approach o ne rodi er i , and ha ADHD and d le ia him elf. Dr. Hallo ell i a Ne York Time be elling a hor and ha ri en 20 book on m l iple p chological opic . The gro ndbreaking Di rac ion erie , hich began ihD D ac , co-a hored i h Dr John Ra e in 1994, parked a re ol ion in nder anding of ADHD. Dr. Hallo ell i he ho of hi ne podca called Dr. Hallo ell Wonderf l World of Differen here he celebra e he orld of differen in i man and aried form . In celebra ing he man difference ha adorn h mani , he hope o break do n barrier of igma and mi nder anding and ho ho all of benefi from he difference be een . Dr. Hallo ell ha been fea red on 20/20, 60 Min e , Oprah, PBS, CNN, The Toda Sho , Da eline, Good Morning America, The Ne York Time , USA Toda , Ne eek, Time Maga ine, he Lo Angele Time , he Bo on Globe and man more. He i a reg lar col mni for ADDi de Maga ine. Dr. Hallo ell li e in he Bo on area i h hi ife S e and he ha e hree children, L c , Jack and T cker.

Ma He e I d -Ya , Ed.D., i a Profe or of Ed ca ion, P cholog and Ne ro cience a he Uni er i of So hern California, Fahm A allah Profe or of H mani ic P cholog , and Direc or of he USC Cen er for Affec i e Ne ro cience, De elopmen , Learning and Ed ca ion (CANDLE). She die he p chological and ne robiological de elopmen of emo ion and elf-a arene , and connec ion o ocial, cogni i e and moral de elopmen in ed ca ional e ing . She e cro -c l ral, in erdi ciplinar die of narra i e and feeling o nco er e perience-dependen ne ral mechani m con rib ing o iden i , in rin ic mo i a ion, deep learning, and genera i e, crea i e and ab rac ho gh . Her ork ha a pecial foc on adole cen from lo -SES comm ni ie , and he in ol e o h from he e comm ni ie a j nior cien i in her ork. A former rban p blic j nior high- chool cience eacher, he earned her doc ora e a Har ard Uni er i in 2005 in h man de elopmen and p cholog and comple ed her po doc oral raining in ocial-affec i e ne ro cience i h An onio Dama io in 2008. Since hen he ha recei ed n mero a ard for her re earch and impac on ed ca ion and ocie , among hem an Honor Coin from he U.S. Arm , a Commenda ion from he Co n of Lo Angele , a Co arelli Pri e from he P c d U.S. Na a Acad Sc c edi orial board, and earl career achie emen a ard from he AERA, he AAAS, he APS, he In erna ional Mind, Brain and Ed ca ion Socie (IMBES), and he Federa ion of A ocia ion in Beha ioral and Brain Science Fo nda ion (FABBS). Immordino-Yang a a 2018-2019 Spencer Fo nda ion mid-career fello . She er ed on he U.S. Na ional Academ of Science commi ee ri ing H P L a II: L a ,C a dC , and on he A pen In i e Na ional Commi ion on Social, Emo ional and Academic De elopmen . C rren l Immordino-Yang i cond c ing e eral f nded, m l i ear ne robiological re earch die on adole cen den and heir eacher . She i er ing on he ad i or board of he UNESCO World Ed ca ion A e men , and a pa pre iden of IMBES, among o her na ional and in erna ional role . S e e I d, M.S., i he Direc or and Co-fo nder of he Ea on Co n r Da School in Ea on, CT. She earned her Bachelor degree in Comm nica ion Di order /Learning Di abili ie a Nor h e ern Uni er i and her Ma er in Ed ca ion for Pre-K 12 a So hern Connec ic Uni er i . She i one of Ea on Co n r Da School fo nding paren and i one of he chool' o direc or . Her 42 ear of eaching e perience incl de ork i h a ide range of learner incl ding gif ed, pecial need , a i m, and pical den age Pre-K 12 in bo h pri a e and p blic chool e ing . S ellen firml belie e ha e er child de er e an

indi id ali ed ed ca ion. She i al o an Original Pla Speciali ha ing appren iced and orked i h Dr. Donald on in Original Pla for o er 20 ear . S ellen i Chairman of he Board for ASSET, (an organi a ion ha foc e on red cing an ie in he cla room), and he i on he Ad i or Board for he US A i m Socie . D a K ca d, M.Ed., i he A i an Direc or of he Re earch In i e for Learning and De elopmen (ILD) and he Direc or of O reach and Profe ional De elopmen . She coordina e and facili a e o ide profe ional de elopmen for pri a e and p blic chool and con l i h paren and eacher . She i al o an e perienced Ed ca ional Speciali ho pro ide indi id al ed ca ional herap o high chool and college den a ell a ad l ih learning and a en ional i e . D ring her career, he ha orked i h all le el of ed ca or from paraprofe ional o perin enden and a formerl he Direc or of Special Ed ca ion a a biling al char er chool in La rence, MA. Donna hold a Ma er degree in C rric l m and In r c ion along i h S per i or/Direc or Cer ifica ion from he Uni er i of Ma ach e , Lo ell. She i a con rib ing a hor o a Re earchILD book en i led, P E c F c Ca . S e Le , M.Ed., M.S., i he Direc or of SMARTS Training and Profe ional De elopmen a he Re earch In i e for Learning and De elopmen (Re earchILD) in Le ing on, MA. She ha been in he field of Special Ed ca ion for o er 30 ear and began a a reading and learning peciali i h he majori of her career a a Direc or of S ppor Ser ice . She hold a M.Ed. from he Da id Yellin College of Ed ca ion, and an M.S. in Managemen from Le le Uni er i . A Direc or of SMARTS Training, he i re pon ible for crea ing, coordina ing, and implemen ing program for ed ca or acro he co n r . She, along i h her eam of rainer ho profe ional de elopmen ork hop and ebinar foc ing on e ec i e f nc ion ra eg in r c ion, and Shell pro ide coaching o general and pecial ed ca ion eacher in bo h pri a e and p blic chool e ing . A par of he SMARTS c rric l m eam, Shell championed he de elopmen of he SMARTS Elemen ar c rric l m hich la nched in 2019. She i al o an in r c or for he middle chool and high chool Ma er Yo r Mind e ec i e f nc ion mmer co r e . Shell ha led af er- chool d and er ice-learning program for elemen ar and middle chool den foc ing on he SMARTS Elemen ar and Secondar c rric la. A an Ed ca ional Speciali , Shell ork i h den of all age , elemen ar age hro gh college, ho r ggle i h learning, a en ion, and e ec i e f nc ion challenge . She pro ide peciali ed in r c ion and academic ppor in he area of reading, ri ing, e prepara ion,

and e ec i e f nc ion kill . A a rained Mindf lne Teacher, he emplo mindf lne o ppor her den in elf-reg la ion, a en ion, and heir o erall ell-being. In addi ion o e abli hing rong rela ion hip i h her den , he promo e a gro h mind e approach, and eache elf-ad ocac kill . She belie e rongl ha i h he righ approach, pa ience, and e plici in r c ion ha e er indi id al can cceed. D L cc , M.Ed., C.A.G.S., i he Direc or of Con l a ion and P choed ca ional Ser ice a Ne rop chological & Ed ca ional Ser ice for Children and Ad l (NESCA). She ha been ac i e in he field of ed ca ion, p cholog , and academia for o er 30 ear . She i an in erna ional con l an and peaker ho peciali e in program de ign and he incl ion of children i h pecial need , e peciall ho e diagno ed i h ASD. She ha n mero p blica ion in he field and er ed on he Board of A i m A perger Ne ork (AANE) for i een ear . Do a Program Direc or and Direc or of Con l a ion a A pire/Ma ach e General Ho pi al here he b il child hro gh o ng ad l program and e abli hed he 3S (i.e. elf-a arene , ocial compe enc and re managemen ) a he backbone of all programming. M . L cci clinical in ere incl de mind-bod prac ice , po i i e p cholog , and he e of echnolog and biofeedback de ice in he in r c ion of ocial and emo ional learning, e peciall a he appl o ne ro-di er e indi id al . A par of hi ork Do co-a hored he Think Smar Feel Good C rric l m for earl childhood learner . Do i a cer ified Le el 1 Social Thinking Trainer and a Mindf lne -Ba ed S re -Red c ion (MBSR) rainer. She a al o Senior In e iga or a he Mind and Life S mmer Re earch In i e: Ed ca ion, De elopmen al Ne ro cience and Con empla i e Prac ice : Q e ion , Challenge , and Oppor ni ie . C Me e , M.A., i he Fo nder and Direc or of MakeShif EdTech. Colin mi ion a MakeShif EdTech i o rain eacher and den o e echnolog in order o make he hif o inno a i e and crea i e, 21 -cen r learning. Before fo nding MakeShif EdTech, Colin a he Direc or of Academic Technolog and Fo nder of he Fabrica ion Lab a he Carroll School in Lincoln, MA, a chool for children i h lang age-ba ed learning difference . D ring hi ime a he Carroll School, Colin b il inno a i e maker pace program acro all hree chool camp e and rained eacher and den o e echnolog and projec -ba ed learning o help den de elop heir reng h hile remedia ing heir eakne e . Colin ha rained h ndred of eacher and den in a ide range of ed ca ional echnolog , in par ic lar, programming, coding, and 3D Prin ing. In addi ion, he ha a gh ma h cla e o elemen ar and middle chool

den for o er 14 ear here he in egra ed projec -ba ed learning and maker pace ed ca ion in o cla room in r c ion. Colin ob ained hi Ma er degree from S anford Uni er i School of Ed ca ion Learning, De ign, and Technolog . He belie e ha den ho ld no onl be con mer of heir ed ca ion b crea or . R e De e Me a e , M.Ed., i he c rren Direc or of he McCar h In i e a Bo on La in School. A grad a e of Bo on La in School, Uni er i of Ma ach e Amher and a grad a e degree from Nor hea ern Uni er i . A he Direc or of he McCar h In i e Ro e manage he o of cla room academic ppor program for den in grade 7-9. The e ppor incl de he Wolfpack Af er School program, Sa rda S cce School and he implemen a ion of e ec i e f nc ioning programming and raining for aff, den and familie . D a P c , P .D., i he CAS Feld Famil Profe or of Teaching E cellence in he Depar men of P chological and Brain Science a Bo on Uni er i , and ha been he Direc or of he Child and Adole cen Fear and An ie Trea men Program a he Cen er for An ie and Rela ed Di order ince 1999. Dr. Pinc ha foc ed her clinical re earch career on he de elopmen of in er en ion for children and adole cen i h he mo highl impairing and nder died an ie di order . Her re earch ha in e iga ed no el forma of cogni i e beha ioral rea men , incl ding in en i e rea men , a ell a he impac of incl ding paren in rea men i h o h. She ha been he recipien of n mero re earch gran and con rac from he NIMH, SAMSHA, PCORI and local fo nda ion . Dr. Pinc c rren re earch foc e on no el a o e pand familie acce o e idence-ba ed care for an ie . She i c rren l e ing he implemen a ion of e idence-ba ed rea men for o h an ie in comm ni e ing ch a chool , pedia ric heal h care cen er , and men al heal h clinic acro he na ion. Dr. Pinc ha al o dedica ed a ignifican par of her career o haring acc ra e informa ion abo effec i e cogni i e beha ioral rea men for child an ie di order i h he p blic. Pinc reg larl gi e alk and ork hop aro nd he na ion on child an ie o paren and heal hcare profe ional . She recen l recei ed he Florence Halpern A ard for Di ing i hed Profe ional Con rib ion o Clinical P cholog , a arded b Di i ion 12 of he American P chological A ocia ion. M d Sc , P .D., i a learning difference peciali and con l an in pri a e prac ice and former Profe or and Chair of Ed ca ion. In addi ion o raining f re and c rren general and

pecial ed ca ion eacher , her career ha cen ered on orking i h children and o ng ad l and heir familie o cce f ll na iga e chool and pecial ed ca ion em ; de elop lifelong academic and career ra egie and kill ; prac ice mindf lne re red c ion echniq e ; and, l ima el , b ild confidence and he capaci for elf-kno ledge and elf-ad ocac . Re earch in ere incl de empo ermen , e ec i e f nc ion, eacher prepara ion, ran i ion, and i al fac or rela ed o reading challenge . Dr. Scirri i c rren l a SMARTS e ec i e f nc ion c rric l m rainer, coach, and con l an ; ri e c rric l m con en and blog for home chooling organi a ion ; and ork clo el i h he Paren Ne ork of We ern Ne York o pro ide c rric l m and raining o eacher and admini ra or , er ice pro ider and aff, and paren and caregi er . She li e in We ern Ne York i h her h band, a on fini hing radi ional high chool, a da gh er beginning o home chool high chool, and o dog . Ge e Sc , Ed.S., LMFT, i a NJ Licen ed Famil Therapi i h he Cen er for Co n eling Ser ice LLC; Senior Pre en er for M d C d , a oon o be la nched affilia e b ine prac ice foc ed on he role of all ad l in he li e of children; adj nc in r c or for he Co n elor Ed ca ion Depar men a The College of Ne Jer e (TCNJ); and a e- ide Re o rce Coordina or for he Tra ma ic Lo Coali ion for Yo h Program, R ger Uni er i Beha ior Heal h Care (UBHC). J a S e be , M.Ed., i he Direc or of Ed ca ional Therap a he Re earch In i e for Learning and De elopmen (Re earchILD). She pro ide con l a ion o paren and eacher , a ell a a e men , ed ca ional herap , and e ec i e f nc ion coaching o den of all age . Her recen in ere ha been in helping college den de elop e ec i e f nc ion ra egie ailored o heir indi id al learning le . Self-reflec ion, for he e older den , i e en ial o heir cce . Her e perience i h he e den in pired hi ear E ec i e F nc ion Conference e ion. Joan belie e ha den of all age , ho ha e learning difference benefi grea l from ha ing an all o help hem na iga e heir a hro gh he organi a ional and academic challenge of chool. Prior o orking a ILD, Joan a a pecial ed ca ion eacher and hen he Direc or of Ed ca ion a The Harbor School , Inc., a re iden ial rea men cen er for adole cen i h learning, beha ioral and emo ional di abili ie . She ha an ndergrad a e degree in Elemen ar Ed ca ion from he Uni er i of Roche er (Phi Be a Kappa) and earned a Ma er Degree in Special Ed ca ion from he Uni er i of Nor h Carolina a Chapel Hill.

Ca Va de be , Ed.M., i a SMARTS A ocia e and an Ed ca ional Speciali and ha been i h he Re earch In i e for Learning and De elopmen (Re earchILD) ince 2020. Cai lin lead he Me aCOG Online e ec i e f nc ion r e de elopmen and ppor ario SMARTS c rric l m projec . A an Ed ca ional Speciali , Cai lin ork i h elemen ar and middle chool den i h learning, a en ion, and e ec i e f nc ion challenge and pro ide peciali ed in r c ion and academic ppor in area ch a ri ing and e ec i e f nc ion ra eg de elopmen . Prior o joining Re earchILD, Cai lin orked a an a i an elemen ar chool eacher and in a one-on-one eaching e ing. She ha al o orked i h man ar ed ca ion program , incl ding m e m ed ca ion and hand -on ar making. Cai lin hold a B.A. from Amher College and an Ed.M. in Mind, Brain, and Ed ca ion from Har ard Uni er i Grad a e School of Ed ca ion. Sa d V a e, M.Ed., i a Special Ed ca or in he Cambridge P blic School , and ha been a pecial Ed ca or for he pa 10 ear . She al o ha e perience co- eaching high chool ma h (Algebra 1, Geome r , and Algebra 2). In addi ion o eaching, M .Vol aire i a ca e manager/liai on for den on IEP . She began eaching E ec i e F nc ion cla e for den on IEP and 504 d ring he chool ear 2020-2021. Te a Z e a , B.S., fo nded Up ream Ed ca ion o en re eacher ha e he ool o help heir den red ce re af er gro ing p i h e ere an ie and fir hand e perience of he lack of men al heal h re o rce in chool . C rren l , Up ream impac 40,000 den eekl acro he co n r . She ha been recogni ed b Forbe a a ildl cce f l millennial i h an n radi ional ed ca ion. Her fir book, I A T a, a p bli hed in 2017. In 2021, Te a ga e a alk a TED Cherr CreekWomen called The Po er of 5 Min e for Yo h Men al Heal h. Te a earned her B.S. in Social En reprene r hip from he Wa on In i e a L nn Uni er i . In her pare ime, Te a lo e o ake The Cla and e plore Colorado i h her bo friend. She li e in Bo lder, Colorado.

Research Institute for Learning and Development Board of Directors Tim Donohue, M.S. Chair, Vice President E-Learning, Knowledge Solutions

Ben Niles, M.A. Associate Director of Student & Young Alumni Programs, Brandeis University

Jane Gertler, Ed.D. Education Consultant

Alex Pire, B.A. Head of Product, Amundi Asset Management

Robert Gleason, M.B.A. CEO, Entrepreneur and Advisor

Christopher Ranjitkar, M.B.A. Senior Director of Marketing and Corporate Communications, The RMR Group

David Giordano, J.D. Managing Partner, Giordano Law, LLC Peter Henderson, M.B.A., M.A. President, Henderson Leadership Advisors Rich Hirschen, CPA, CGMA Partner, Gray, Gray & Gray, LLP James Horrocks, M.B.A., CFP® Managing Director, Chief Executive Officer, Coastal Capital Group Suellen Inwood, M.S. Director, Co-founder, Easton Country Day School Alec Lai, M.Ed. Founder & CEO, Zephyr Business Group Na'ama Landau, B.A. Vice President and Senior Director, Collegewise Emily Legere, M.B.A. VP, Chief of Staff, Acoustic

Anjali Sastry, Ph.D. Senior Lecturer, MIT Sloan School of Management Senior Strategist, Jameel World Education Lab William Warren, B.S. Senior Associate Scientist, Life Biosciences

Research Institute for Learning and Development Professional Advisory Board Bob Brooks, Ph.D., Co-Chair Clinical Psychologist, Faculty, Harvard Medical School (part-time), lecturer and author C. Julie Dunstan, Ph.D., Co-Chair Psychologist, Founding Director, ReFLEXions

Research Institute for Learning and Development Conference Staff Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D. President and Director, Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD)

Elizabeth Ross, M.A. SMARTS Media Manager, Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD)

Donna Kincaid, M.Ed. Assistant Director, Director of Outreach and Training; Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD)

Lorissa Gomez, M.B.A. SMARTS Operations Coordinator, Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD)

Mark Logan, Ph.D., M.B.A. Executive Director, Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD)

Caitlin Vanderberg, M.Ed. SMARTS Program Associate, Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD)

Robin Winston, B.S. Executive Assistant, Conference Manager, Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD)

Taylor McKenna, M.A., M.Ed. SMARTS Program Associate, Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD)

Jamie Cutler, M.S. Director of Marketing and Communications, Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD) Michael Greschler, M.Ed. Director, SMARTS program, Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD) Kim Davis, M.Ed. Senior Associate for Research and Teacher Training, Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD)

No ember 3, 2022 - Da 1 Plenar Speakers

age

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S e f ALL S de : ,a dE a Re a

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D. P e de a d D ec , e f Lea g a d De e e

Re ea ch I

(Re ea chILD)

Overview Wh are our students feeling so stressed and over helmed in school? Ho can e transform classrooms so that students re-engage in the learning process and develop the strategies and self-confidence to succeed in school and in life? This presentation ill address the critical importance of promoting metacognitive a areness, e ecutive function, and social-emotional learning, processes that have become essential in ever classroom as the pace and pressure of the curriculum have increased. After a high-level overvie of metacognition and e ecutive function, e ill focus on a s of embedding an assessment-teaching model into dail instruction. We ill discuss MetaCOG Online, our unique classroom-based surve s stem to help students to understand their learning profiles in combination ith strategies for setting goals, problem-solving fle ibl , organi ing, prioriti ing, and self-monitoring. Additionall , e ill discuss approaches that build students motivation and self-confidence so that the make the effort to use strategies in their class ork, home ork, and test preparation. When teachers embed these processes into their classrooms, the empo er students to learn ho to learn and to become motivated, fle ible, resilient students ith the tools to succeed in school and in life. References Barkle , R. (2012). E ec eF Ne York: The Guilford Press. Bro n, T. (2014). S a b Josse -Bass.

S c :E

: Wha he a e, H

Tee

a d Ad

, a d Wh he e

ed.

h ADHD. San Francisco:

Diamond A. (2012) Activities and programs that improve children's e ecutive functions. C D ec P ch g ca Sc e ce. 21: 335

D eck, C. S. (2008). M d e : The Ne P ch House. Melt er, L.J. (Ed) (2018). E ec Ne York: Guilford Press. Melt er, L.J. (Ed.) (2010). P Press.

f S cce . Ne York, NY: The Random

Ed ca

g E ec

The

he C a

P ac ce (2nd ed.).

. Ne York: Guilford

Melt er, L.J. (2014). Teaching e ecutive function processes: Promoting metacognition, strateg use, and effort. In Goldstein, S. & Naglieri, J.(Eds.) E ec eF c g Ha db . Ne York: Springer, 445-474. Melt er, L.J., & Basho, S. (2010). Creating a classroom- ide e ecutive function culture that fosters strateg use, motivation, and resilience. In Melt er, L.J. (ed.) P g E ec e F c he C a . Ne York: Guilford Press. Melt er, L.J., Basho, S., Redd , R., & Kurkul, K. (2015). The role of mentoring in fostering e ecutive function, effort, and academic self-concept. I e a a J a f Re ea ch Lea g D ab e . Melt er, L.J., Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., & Stace , W. (2015) E ecutive Function and Peer Mentoring: Fostering Metacognitive A areness, Effort, and Academic Success. In Harris, K., & Melt er, L. (Eds.) The P e f Pee he C a : E ha c g Lea ga dS ca S . Ne York: Guilford Press. Melt er, L.J., Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., Stace , W., Ross, E., & Sno , E. (2015). SMARTS E ec eF c a d Me gP g a , .smarts-ef.org. Melt er L., Greschler M.A., Davis K., & Vanderberg, C. (2021). E ecutive Function, Metacognition, and Language: Promoting Student Success With E plicit Strateg Instruction. Pe ec e f he ASHA S ec a I e e G , 6(6), 1343 1356. https://doi.org/10.1044/2021_PERSP-21-00034 Naglieri, J. & Goldstein, S. (Eds.) E ec

g Ha db

. Ne York: Springer, 2014.

For additional information, visit www.researchild.org., www.smarts-ef.org, or contact me at lmeltzer@ildlex.org.

Igniting Success and Reducing Stress for ALL Students: Metacognition, Executive Function, & Emotional Regulation

2020-2022: Have you been on overload?

© RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

My brain feels clogged

I don’t know where to begin

I’m so frustrated

I feel stuck

I can’t figure out what to focus on

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Executive function processes are essential for most daily activities

Resilience Academic Success

Metacognition Effort

Executive Function Strategies

Self-concept Emotional Regulation

(Meltzer, 2007, 2010) © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

Overview • WHAT is Executive Function? •

WHY are EF strategies essential for learning and for reducing stress?

•

HOW do we foster Metacognitive Awareness to promote students’ self-understanding so they learn HOW to learn?

•

HOW do we reduce students’ anxiety and stress by promoting metacognitive awareness, EF strategies, and resilience?

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

WHAT is Executive Function?

WHAT is Executive Function? An umbrella term for all the complex cognitive processes that control: • Flexible, goal-directed behavior. • The coordination and synthesis of multiple processes and subskills.

Executive Function Paradigm (Meltzer, 2007, 2010)

• Goal Setting •Organizing & Prioritizing

• Cognitive Flexibility/ Thinking Flexibly •Remembering/Accessing Working Memory • Self-Monitoring & Checking © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2021 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

WHY are EF strategies essential for learning and for reducing stress?

EF Strategies are critical for learning

Structure the minutes and hours each day

Estimate time for schoolwork, sports, activities, friends Schedule & pace learning & reading

Learn independently

Clogged Funnel… Anxiety

“I get so frustrated. I have all these ideas in my mind but I can’t figure out how to start writing… I just get stuck and I give up.” © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Executive Function & Emotion

“When I got a big assignment that I didn’t understand, I got so angry because I just spent an hour staring at a blank word document and couldn’t figure out how to start….it was really tough and incredibly stressful.” (Billy, 7th grade)

Attention

Effort

Executive Function

Emotional Regulation © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

HOW do we foster Metacognitive Awareness to promote self-understanding in students so they learn HOW to learn?

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Metacognitive Awareness

Self-understanding: • HOW do I think? •

HOW do I learn?

• HOW do my strengths and weaknesses affect my learning? • WHAT strategies work best for me?

Metacognition and Executive Function: Keeping the Funnel Unclogged Goal-Setting: How do I set doable goals?

Organization: How do I organize my time and my ideas?

Prioritizing: How do I figure out what’s most important for my reading & writing?

Cognitive Flexibility: What is another way that I can solve this math problem?

Working Memory: How do I remember all these details for my quizzes and tests?

Self-monitoring: How do I find my mistakes when I check my work.

“My teacher and parents tried dozens of approaches to help me stay organized and engaged in the classroom but I still struggled. I felt so anxious and frustrated and I kept hoping that somebody could help me understand how to learn more easily.” (Billy, 24yrs)

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

HOW to Foster Metacognitive Awareness

Ø ‘Know Yourself’ Venn Diagrams. Ø MetaCOG Ø Motivation & Effort Toolkit (ME) Ø Strategy Use Survey (STRATUS) Ø Strategy Reflection Sheets

Metacognitive Awareness: Know Yourself Activity

My Strengths

My Weaknesses

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

HOW to Foster Metacognitive Awareness: Billy’s Know Yourself Venn Diagram

My Strengths:

My Challenges:

1. Working hard.

1. Paying attention.

2. Remembering things for tests.

2. Organizing my things.

3. Understanding what I read.

3. Organizing my time.

4. Learning new strategies.

5. Taking notes on what I read. 6. Checking my work.

5. Solving math problems.

HOW to Foster Metacognitive Awareness

Ø ‘Know Yourself’ Venn Diagrams. Ø MetaCOG Ø Motivation & Effort Toolkit (ME) Ø Strategy Use Survey (STRATUS) Ø Strategy Reflection Sheets

Foster Metacognitive Awareness: MetaCOG Surveys • ME (Motivation, Effort, and Resilience Survey) • STRATUS (Strategy Use Survey) • TPSE (Teacher Perceptions of Students’ Effort Survey) ResearchILD, 2004, 2014

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Metacognition: MetaCOG Billy’s MERS:

Items:

Teacher’s TPSE

Difference

1. In general, I am a hard worker.

2. Doing well in school is

important to me. 3. I spend as much time as needed to get my work done. 4. I keep working, even when the work is difficult.

MetaCOG Online (Motivation, Effort, Resilience Survey) Class Profile

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

MetaCOG Online (Motivation, Effort, Resilience Survey) Class Profile

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

MetaCOG Online: SAMPLE QUESTIONS

SAMPLE QUESTIONS

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

MetaCOG Online NEXT STEPS Suggested ways you can improve Self-Monitoring and Self-Checking

• Put a post-it note by your desk with a reminder to read over your work before handing it in.

• Before you leave for school in the morning, ask yourself if you have all the items you need.

• When logging out of your computer for the day, quickly check if you completed all your tasks for the day.

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

HOW to Foster Metacognitive Awareness

Ø ‘Know Yourself’ Venn Diagrams. Ø MetaCOG Ø Motivation & Effort Toolkit (ME) Ø Strategy Use Survey (STRATUS) Ø Strategy Reflection Sheets

Strategy Reflection Share •

What strategy did you use?

•

How did you use the strategy?

•

Was the strategy helpful?

•

How did you know that it was helpful?

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Foster Metacognitive Awareness: Strategy Reflection Sheets

Strategy boards or walls for Ben and other students to share their strategies. © RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2022 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

Foster Metacognitive Awareness: Strategy Reflection Sheets

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Strategy Reflection Sheets

What does executive function mean to you? • Strategies that can be used to make decisions. • Executive function, like a team, works together to solve problems. • Executive function means goals that you set personally and ones that you don't even realize. You can use them in school, workplace, or even at home. • I associate executive function with organization skills.

After reviewing their EF Profiles, students reported one thing they learned:

r ou fo ank y say th allenges. to e h k yc ld li I wou g m e fix m helpin der 6th gra

I that know e I now to m ak ture need the fu e to v ls for goa ings I ha on th ve on. im pro rad 8th g

I ha v to re e th e c a v wha ise and pacity t a b e I d o to re fo rm tte r bec lear o 10 th n e r! m e grad er

I need to work on my memory for assignments to help me get better grades and not miss assignments. 6th grader

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

VIDEO- Billy & Chace

Executive Function, Stress, and Anxiety

EF, Stress, & Anxiety 10/26/22, 12:44 AM

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• Stress shifts cognition from topdown control processes to bottom-up automatic processes. • Stress affects working memory, cognitive flexibility, and cognitive inhibition. • Stress impairs executive control and forces attention away from important information. •

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Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

• Suicide is now the 2nd leading cause of death among adolescents aged 15-19 years. • 8% of H.S. students have made a suicide attempt some time in their lifetime. • Many of these students show academic & behavioral difficulties in school.

HOW do we reduce students’ stress and anxiety by promoting metacognitive awareness, EF strategies, and positive mindsets?

Metacognitive Awareness & EF Strategies result in Reduced Stress

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Resilience Academic Success

Metacognition Effort

Executive Function Strategies

Self-concept Emotional Regulation

(Meltzer, 2007, 2010) © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Unclogging the Funnel with EF Strategies

• Goal Setting • Cognitive Flexibility/ Thinking Flexibly •Organizing & Prioritizing •Remembering/Accessing Working Memory • Self-Monitoring & Checking © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Teach EF Strategies Explicitly

Use metacognitive prompts for teaching all strategies: • WHAT is the strategy? • WHEN is the strategy most helpful? • HOW should the strategy be used?

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Long-Term Projects Summarizing & Note-Taking

Math Problem Solving

Written Language

Triple-Note- Monthly Tote Planning Shifty PPCQ Math Diagnostic Lizard Skim & Scoop

Studying

Test Taking Top-3-Hits

Reading Comprehension

Executive Function Strategy Tool Box

Goal-Setting

CANDO Goals C= Clear A=Appropriate N=Numerical D=Doable O=Obstacles considered

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Identifying CANDO Goals Long-term goal: I want to earn a B+ in math this year.

Short-term goals: I want to practice math word problems for 30 minutes a day

Lesson 2.1 © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Identifying CANDO Goals CANDO Goals Help make your goal doable by listing 3 steps needed to achieve it. “I want to improve my score on the next math test by 10 points.” Steps for reaching the goal:

Lesson 2.1 © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Identifying CANDO Goals This goal is doable because there are 3 steps listed to help achieve it.

Study 30 minutes a day

Make flash cards to practice 4x/week

Review my notes from class every night

Improve math score by 10 points!

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Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Identifying CANDO Goals What are some obstacles that might get in the way of reaching the goal? I got busy with other work and didn’t review my flash cards. I left my notes at home.

I couldn’t do the HW because I didn’t understand it! Review my notes from class every night

Improve math score by 10 points!

Make flash cards to practice 4x/week

Study 30 minutes a day

Lesson 2.1 © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Identifying CANDO Goals What are some ways to overcome obstacles ? • Spend extra time studying the

I forgot my notes at next night. school. • Study during a free block.

I didn’t understand • Talk to the teacher the next day. • Ask a friend or parent for help. the lesson and couldn’t do my HW. I was too busy with other work.

• Make up studying time on the weekends, in the morning before school, or during a free block.

Lesson 2.1 © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Organizing and Prioritizing Time

Prioritizing Time

Tug of War “Have-to’s”

Lesson 4A.4

vs.

“Want-to’s”

Prioritizing Time Fred’s Have-to’s and Want-to’s Start Book Report

Read 20 minutes

Play Fortnite

Ride Bike Lesson 4A.4

Go to karate

Practice Piano

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Prioritizing Time Fred’s Daily Planner Have-To’s

Want-To’s

start book report

play Fortnite

read for 20 minutes

go to karate

Lesson 4A.4

Read 20 minutes

Play Fortnite

ride bike

practice piano

Start Book Report

Ride Bike

Go to karate

Practice Piano

Prioritizing Time Fred’s Daily Planner

ST R I F ” to’s e v a “H e h t e Plac 7:30 - 8:00

Read for 20 m inutes

8:00 - 3:00

SCHOOL

3:00 - 3:30 3:30 - 4:00 4:00 - 4:30 4:30 - 5:00 5:00 - 5:30

Start book report

5:30 - 6:00 6:00 - 6:30

DINNER

6:30 - 7:00

Practice piano

7:00 - 7:30 7:30 - 8:00

Lesson 4A.4

Self-Monitoring and Self-Checking

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Self- Monitoring & Self-Correcting

Top 3 Hits

© RESEARCHILD, RESEARCHILD, 2022 2021 || WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG || 44 MILITIA MILITIA DRIVE, DRIVE, SUITE SUITE 20 20 || LEXINGTON, LEXINGTON, MA MA 02421 02421 || 781-861-3711 781-861-3711 ©

• Recognizing and fixing the kinds of mistakes YOU make. • Knowing, finding AND correcting errors. • Asking, “Does it make sense?”

Cognitive Flexibility: Shifting & Thinking Flexibly

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Shifting Flexibly/Cognitive Flexibility

Switching flexibly between approaches. • Shifting back and forth between major themes and relevant details. • Focusing on big ideas and ignoring irrelevant information.

Shifting Flexibly

Teach children to shift perspectives and to self-monitor flexibly when they read, write, solve math problems, and interact socially.

Cognitive Flexibility: I’m Wearing Your Shoes

When we take someone else’s perspective, we try to see things from their point of view

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Cognitive Flexibility: I’m Wearing Your Shoes Regulating Emotions: Conflict Resolution Strategies

Cognitive Flexibility I’m Wearing Your Shoes

What could I have done differently? § How could shifting flexibly and perspective-taking have helped solve the conflict? § How can we use this knowledge to stop conflicts before they start?

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

Promote Effort and Persistence to Reduce Stress

Overview • WHAT is Executive Function? •

WHY are EF strategies essential for learning and for reducing stress?

•

HOW do we foster Metacognitive Awareness to promote students’ self-understanding so they learn HOW to learn?

•

HOW do we reduce students’ anxiety and stress by promoting metacognitive awareness, EF strategies, and resilience?

Lynn Meltzer, Ph.D., ResearchILD 2022; www.researchild.org; www.ildlex.org; www.smarts-ef.org

11 Creating Strategic Classrooms and Schools Embedding Executive Function Strategies in the Curriculum LYNN MELTZER

cademic performance in our 21st-century digital schools is increasingly dependent on students’ ability to set goals, organize, prioritize, shift flexibly, access working memory, and self-monitor, all processes that are critically important from elementary school through college (Barkley, 2012; Brown, 2006, 2014; Denckla, 2007; Meltzer, 2007, 2014). These executive function (EF) processes are the underpinnings for accurate and efficient performance in school, especially for those academic tasks that require students to integrate and synthesize multiple subskills, namely, reading comprehension, writing, studying, test taking, and long-term projects (Brown, 2014; Goldstein & Naglieri, 2014; Meltzer, 2013, 2014; Meltzer & Basho, 2010; Meltzer, Reddy, Greschler, & Kurkul, 2013). This chapter provides an overview of research-based EF strategies that are important for all students and are critically important for students with learning and attention difficulties. These strategies are most effective when they are taught explicitly and integrated into the classroom curriculum. The first section focuses on a theoretical framework 263

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for understanding metacognition and EF processes and their impact on students’ effort, resilience, and academic performance (Meltzer, 2014; Meltzer, Basho, Reddy, & Kurkul, 2015). The second section addresses techniques for promoting metacognitive awareness and embedding EF processes into the curriculum in five core areas: goal setting, cognitive flexibility, organizing and prioritizing, accessing working memory, and self-monitoring. The connections between students’ self-understanding and use of EF strategies, on the one hand, and their attention and emotional regulation in the classroom, on the other hand, are also discussed briefly. The third and final section describes the SMARTS Executive Function and Mentoring Program (Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015) a research-based EF curriculum that provides teachers with procedures and materials for integrating EF strategies into the curriculum (Meltzer, 2014, 2015; Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, & Stacey, 2015).

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE I’m naturally smart. I have a lot of common sense. But I’m not very organized and I procrastinate a lot. Executive function strategies helped me shift perspectives and understand myself better. I wish I had learned this stuff when I was younger. I could have used it throughout school. —KYLE , 10 TH GRADER

As discussed in Part I of this book, EF is a multifaceted construct or “umbrella term” for the complex cognitive processes that underlie flexible, goal-directed responses in novel or difficult situations (Anderson, 2002; Barkley, 2010, 2012; Denckla, 2007; Goldstein & Naglieri, 2014; Meltzer, 2007, 2010). The core EF processes that influence academic performance include goal setting, cognitive flexibility/shifting, organizing and prioritizing, working memory, and self-monitoring (Meltzer, 2007, 2010, 2014; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015) (see Table 11.1 for definitions). These EF processes often affect students’ ability to complete academic tasks that involve synthesis and integration such as initiating writing assignments, summarizing information, taking notes, completing projects with multiple parts, studying, and submitting work on time (Barkley, 2010; Dawson & Guare, 2010; Denckla, 2007; Denckla & Mahone, Chapter 1, this volume; Meltzer, 2010, 2014; Meltzer & Basho, 2010; Meltzer, Dunstan-Brewer, & Krishnan, Chapter 5, this volume). Academic tasks that are often challenging for students with EF weaknesses are listed in Table 11.2.

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TABLE 11.1. EF Processes Defined Goal Setting: Identifying short-term and long-term objectives. Figuring out a purpose and end-point. Cognitive Flexibility/Shifting: Switching easily between approaches. Looking again, in a brand new way. Prioritizing and Organizing: Ordering based on relative importance and arranging information systematically. Identifying what’s most important and sorting and categorizing information. Accessing Working Memory: Juggling information mentally. Juggling information and ideas in one’s mind. Self-Monitoring: Identifying errors and self-correcting. Finding and fixing one’s own mistakes. Note. Copyright 2014 by ResearchILD. Reprinted by permission.

Students who struggle with these EF processes often experience frustration and failure, and begin to feel that their brains are “clogged” with information. The paradigm that we use to explain these difficulties is based on the analogy of a “clogged funnel,” as is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 5 (Figure 5.1, repeated here as Figure 11.1). Instruction that emphasizes EF strategies can help students to “unclog the funnel,” and prevent increasing difficulties as the complexity and pace of the curriculum intensify. A comprehensive discussion of these EF weaknesses can be found in my book, Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom (Meltzer, 2010), and strategies for teaching specific EF processes can be found in our recently launched SMARTS Online Executive Function Curriculum (Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015; www.smarts-ef.org).

PROMOTING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION ACROSS THE GRADES Executive function strategies helped me learn that, even when things are hard, I can do them. I can use strategies to make things easier. If there is a really hard word problem in math, I can read the problem and then rewrite the problem in my own way. Then it’s easy. —JORDAN, EIGHTH GRADER

Explicit strategy instruction benefits all students and is essential for students with learning and attention difficulties (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2014; Meltzer 2013, 2014; Meltzer, Katzir, Miller, Reddy, & Roditi,

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TABLE 11.2. Impact of EF Processes on Academic Performance Goal Setting • Setting realistic short-term goals for homework completion and projects. • Setting realistic monthly, quarterly, or year-long goals for academic and outof-school activities. • Breaking down long-term goals into smaller, manageable steps. Shifting Flexibly/Cognitive Flexibility • Shifting approaches flexibly during reading comprehension, writing, and math tasks. • Shifting between major themes or key concepts and relevant details. • Problem-solving flexibly to get “unstuck” in academic and social situations. Organizing and Prioritizing • Time: Allocating adequate time to important tasks and major goals. Planning and allocating time to the multiple steps in assignments, for example, writing papers, taking notes (history, science), completing longterm projects. • Workspaces: Reducing distractions and clutter in work areas. • Materials: Using class notes, textbooks, and study guides strategically. Creating systems for categorizing and finding materials easily. • Ideas: Organizing and prioritizing ideas on the basis of the main themes or key concepts (reading comprehension, writing). Prioritizing details that are important versus details that are irrelevant and can be ignored (reading comprehension, writing, math). • Information: Dividing time between reading and research versus output, such as writing a paper, layout, editing. Accessing Working Memory • Following multistep directions. • Completing math calculations, especially mental computation. • Studying effectively so that critical information is retained over time to prevent the “Friday spelling test effect” (Meltzer, 2010). • Remembering to hand in completed homework and other assignments on time, for example, students with EF difficulties often leave school with their homework still in their bags. • Remembering to bring necessary books and materials from school to home and back again. Self-Monitoring • Checking and correcting work strategically, for example, use of personalized error checklists. • Monitoring progress systematically on classwork, papers, projects, and tests.

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Key Executive Function Processes • • • • •

Goal Setting Shifting Flexibly/Cognitive Flexibility Organizing and Prioritizing Accessing Working Memory Self-Monitoring

2004; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; Swanson, 2001; Swanson & Hoskyn, 2001). When classroom instruction promotes students’ metacognitive awareness so that they understand their own profiles of strengths and weaknesses, they are more likely to generalize their strategy use across content areas. Students also need to develop an understanding of the goals and benefits of using specific strategies for tasks so that they make the effort to adapt these strategies to fit their personal learning profiles. For example, the strategies needed to study for a math test that emphasizes procedural knowledge will differ from the strategies needed to study for a Spanish test that emphasizes memorization of vocabulary. This section highlights selected approaches for teaching EF strategies explicitly and systematically in the context of the curriculum. The initial focus is on the critical role of metacognitive awareness, with suggestions for promoting metacognitive awareness in the classroom. This is followed by subsections on each of the five key EF processes, namely, goal setting, cognitive flexibility/shifting, organizing and prioritizing, accessing working memory, and self-monitoring. Within each subsection, we discuss the role of the specific EF process in the context of the academic curriculum, specifically, reading, writing, math, and the other content areas. Each subsection also includes a brief overview of a few relevant teaching strategies, many of which are core components of the SMARTS Online Executive Function Curriculum (www.smarts-ef. org; Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015). The last subsection briefly summarizes the important connections between these EF strategies and students’ emotional regulation in the classroom.

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METACOGNITIVE AWARENESS When you know what your strengths and weaknesses are, it gives you a different understanding of the work you have to do. It helps you reevaluate what you’re doing. If I know I have a paper to write, I’ll spend more time planning it out and figuring out where to attack differently. —BOB , 10 TH GRADER

Metacognitive awareness, a concept originally defined by Flavell (1979) and Brown, Bransford, Ferrara, and Campione (1983), refers to each student’s understanding and beliefs about how he or she thinks and learns, as well as the strategies that can be used to accomplish specific tasks. Students’ self-understanding about their learning profiles, as well as their strengths and weaknesses in academic and social situations, influence their selection of specific strategies on academic tasks (Meltzer, 2010; Meltzer, Katzir, et al., 2004). Metacognitive awareness also boosts students’ motivation to master and use these strategies in their daily classwork and homework so that their academic performance improves beyond a single task (Meltzer, Reddy, Pollica, & Roditi, 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Sales, et al., 2004).

PROMOTING METACOGNITIVE AWARENESS IN THE CLASSROOM Teachers can promote students’ metacognitive awareness when they build a culture in their classrooms that helps students to understand their learning profiles as well as the importance of using strategies for their academic work. More specifically, they can teach students explicitly what strategies are, why they should use strategies, and which strategies are effective for which tasks. Formal and informal assessment methods can help teachers to understand each student’s self-perceptions and use of EF strategies. Three practical approaches that are easy to implement in classrooms are discussed briefly below: the MetaCOG survey system, the Know Yourself Venn Diagrams system, and strategy reflection sheets. 1. MetaCOG-R Survey System (Metacognitive Awareness System— Revised) (Meltzer, Katzir, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Pollica, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Sales, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Kurkul, Reddy, & Basho, 2014; Meltzer, Reddy, & Sayer, 2014). The MetaCOG-R, for use with 9- to 18-year-olds, is a criterion-referenced assessment system. As is discussed in greater detail in Meltzer, Dunstan-Brewer, and Krishnan (Chapter 5, this volume), the MetaCOG-R compares students’, teachers’, and parents’ perceptions of students’ effort, strategy use, and academic

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performance (Meltzer, 2014; Meltzer, Katzir, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Pollica, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Sales, et al., 2004; see also Meltzer, 2010, available at www.researchild.org and smarts-ef.org). These strategy ratings focus on academic areas that depend heavily on EF processes—for example, reading comprehension, written language, homework, and studying (see Table 5.3 in Chapter 5 on p. 130); Meltzer, Katzir-Cohen, Miller, & Roditi, 2001; Miller, Meltzer, Katzir-Cohen, & Houser, 2001). The MetaCOG is described in greater detail by Meltzer, Dunstan-Brewer, and Krishnan (Chapter 5, this volume). Survey systems such as the MetaCOG-R can be used for a variety of purposes over the course of the school year: a. To understand students’ views of their own effort, use of strategies, and academic performance. b. To help educators and clinicians to compare their own judgments with their students’ self-perceptions as well as parents’ perceptions. c. To develop a system for teaching strategies to help students plan, organize, prioritize, shift flexibly, memorize, and check their work. d. To track students’ understanding and implementation of these strategies over time. Completion of the three MetaCOG surveys helps students to develop an understanding of their own learning profiles. This self-understanding is the foundation for building students’ metacognitive awareness and their use of EF strategies (see Meltzer, Dunstan-Brewer, & Krishnan, Chapter 5, this volume, for additional information). A sample of the qualitative items on one of the students’ surveys in the MetaCOG, the MERS (Motivation, Effort, and Resilience Survey) is provided in Figure 11.2 to illustrate the often differing perceptions of students and their teachers. On another MetaCOG questionnaire, the STRATUS Strategy Use survey, students are required to rate their use of strategies in their academic work (see Table 11.3). 2. “Know Yourself” Venn Diagrams System (www.smarts-ef.org). Students’ self-understanding can be promoted by using the SMARTS “Know Yourself” Venn Diagram strategy, which provide a structured method for encouraging students to think about their strengths and weaknesses so that they begin to understand their learning profiles and to recognize which strategies work best for them (see Figure 11.3). The Venn Diagram strategy helps students to make their learning profiles

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Teacher’s Comments: Ben works hard when the task is structured. However, he has no self-confidence and his concentration is erratic. His grades are poor and I’m not sure how to help him. FIGURE 11.2. MERS Survey: Sample of sixth-grade student’s self-understanding of his effort and academic performance.

TABLE 11.3. Sample Items from the MetaCOG STRATUS Strategy Use Survey • I have trouble breaking down my homework into smaller, more manageable parts. • I have trouble organizing my thoughts before I write. • When I read or write, I struggle to figure out the main ideas. • When I am learning something new, I connect it to something I already know. • When I do my work, I ask if my answers make sense. • If the method I am using to solve a problem is not working, I use another way of solving it. Note. The STRATUS comprises 30 items. Items from Meltzer, Reddy, et al. (2014).

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FIGURE 11.3. Know Yourself Venn Diagram strategy for promoting students’ metacognitive awareness and understanding of their strengths and weaknesses (Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015; www.smarts-ef.org). Copyright 2015 by ResearchILD. Reprinted by permission.

explicit so that they recognize and embrace their strengths and understand that their weaknesses are not all-encompassing. 3. Strategy Reflection Sheets. Strategy reflection sheets require students to reflect on and describe the processes and strategies they use for their classwork, homework, and test preparation. These comprise a multiple-choice format, structured questions, and an open-ended format and can be adjusted based on each student’s specific needs. As is illustrated in Figures 11.4a and 11.4b, completing and sharing strategy reflection sheets helps students to understand which strategies work well for them, as well as why, where, when, and how to apply specific strategies to their schoolwork.

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PROCESSES IN READING AND OTHER CONTENT AREAS Strategy Reflection Sheet: Multiple-Choice Format

(a)

What strategies did you use for your writing assignment and preparing for your test? ___ Mapping and Webbing ___ Graphic Organizer ___ Linear Outline ___ BOTEC*

___ Sentence Starters ___ Personalized Editing Checklist ___ Triple Note Tote* ___ Other

FIGURE 11.4. Strategy reflection sheets for writing and test preparation. (a) multiple-choice format (asterisks indicate SMARTS strategies) (b) openended format. Copyright 2004 by ResearchILD. Reprinted by permission.

Metacognitive awareness and effective strategy use are promoted when teachers provide incentives to make strategy use count. When grades for homework and tests include points for completing strategy reflection sheets, teachers promote strategic learning in all students. Furthermore, daily or weekly strategy shares allow students to discuss their use of strategies with one another. This process is strengthened by grouping students into “executive coaching teams” who support one another so that a culture of strategy use develops in the classroom. A summary of easy-to-use techniques for promoting students’ metacognitive awareness and use of EF strategies, is provided in Table 11.4. In summary, when teachers create a classroom culture that promotes metacognitive awareness and self-understanding, they can maximize the effectiveness of teaching EF strategies in the context of the curriculum.

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TABLE 11.4. Easy-to-Use SMARTS Techniques for Promoting Students’ Metacognitive Awareness and Use of EF Strategies in Classroom Activities Strategy reflection sheets for homework Students are graded for completing strategy reflection sheets for selected homework and test preparation assignments. This activity builds metacognitive awareness and strategic habits of mind. Strategy shares Brief daily or weekly discussion times for students to share their favorite personalized strategies from the week’s homework. Personalized strategy note cards and/or notebooks Students record their favorite strategies on strategy note cards or in strategy notebooks to make practice easier at school and at home. Strategy-of-the week display board and strategy wall Students’ favorite strategies are showcased in different content areas on display boards. Students vote for a Strategy of the Week for display. By year’s end, students’ favorite personal strategies cover classroom walls. Note. SMARTS Executive Function Curriculum (Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015). Copyright 2015 by ResearchILD. Reprinted by permission.

Goal Setting We talked about goals, long-term goals and short-term goals. I learned that one of my weaknesses is that I don’t plan ahead for things, so I always do that at the last minute. SMARTS taught me how to break apart my work into pieces, so I can do one piece at a time. —JOHN, NINTH GRADER

Goal setting involves the selection of specific, realistic objectives and goal-relevant activities in all aspects of students’ lives including their classwork, homework, and after-school activities. When students set their own goals, they are more motivated to make the effort to attain these goals (Krishnan, Feller, & Orkin, 2010; Zimmerman, 2000; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). Goal setting also enhances motivation and self-efficacy and requires students to: • Understand their learning strengths and weaknesses as well as their learning profiles. • Understand the “big picture” and envision the end point of a task. • Value the task. • Recognize that goals need to be attainable. Students who are able to set goals and to shift from the “big picture” to the details are usually more successful with the complex tasks that are

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typical of our 21st-century schools (Meltzer, 2007, 2014). In contrast, students with poor self-understanding of their learning profiles often fail to set short-term and long-term goals, which often compromises their performance and their involvement in after-school activities (Krishnan et al., 2010). The foundations of effective goal setting and planning are often developed when parents use daily schedules, calendars, and agendas. In the early grades, these strategies are important for schoolwork, longterm projects, and after-school activities. These strategies are even more critical in the middle and high school grades when students are required to understand the goals of their assignments and to plan their study time, as well as their approaches to projects and papers. As students juggle multiple deadlines for different ongoing assignments and projects, they often underestimate the amount of work involved in major projects and open-ended tasks. As a result, they need strategies for breaking down tasks into manageable parts. Students also need to build goal-oriented schedules for planning their homework and study time after school when there is less structure. As is evident from Table 11.5, goals should be clear, appropriately realistic, and structured in a step-wise fashion. Furthermore, likely obstacles should be considered, together with potential solutions that are clearly identified. When students analyze their goals systematically, they are more likely to achieve their goals, especially in view of the fact that they often set goals that are vague and unrealistic (e.g., “I want to go from C’s to all A’s this semester”; “I want to be the best student in the class”). Strategies such as the SMARTS CANDO Goal-Setting Strategy (see Table 11.5; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015) can help students to set realistic, achievable goals and to identify the steps needed to achieve these goals as well as the potential obstacles that can interfere with the process (see Table 11.5). Students can set academic and nonacademic goals early in the school year and can be taught to review these at specific times throughout the year.

Cognitive Flexibility/Shifting Learning about cognitive flexibility was my favorite part of SMARTS. That’s not something you see in school a lot. Usually it’s like, “Here’s a question, now find the answer.” It was so interesting to think about problems in a different way and to begin to understand how important it is for school. —JEN, NINTH GRADER

Cognitive flexibility, or the ability to think flexibly and to shift approaches, is a critically important EF process that is often challenging

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TABLE 11.5. The SMARTS CANDO Goal-Setting Strategy Mnemonic

Purpose

Example

Clear

Avoids the use of vague words

“I want to earn at least a B on my science tests.”

Appropriate

States a goal that is attainable and realistic

“I will improve by at least one letter grade.”

Numerical

Quantifies the goal so that progress is measurable

“I will study science for 2 hours a week.”

Doable

Breaks down the steps needed to achieve the goal

“In order to get an A or B on the next test, I will study for 1 hour every day over the next 5 days.”

Obstacles Considered

Anticipates likely obstacles and incorporates potential solutions

“I feel like I’m stuck on my research paper, I need to schedule a meeting with my science teacher to get help.”

for students, especially for students with learning and attention difficulties (Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007; Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015). The ability to adapt to unfamiliar or unexpected situations, to shift mind-sets and problem-solving approaches, and to integrate different representations, develops across the lifespan and varies across individuals (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b; Deák, 2008; Dweck, 2008; Elliott & Dweck, 2005). In fact, developmental changes from childhood into adulthood influence children’s ability to manage complex academic tasks and to process many components simultaneously (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b; Semenov & Zelazo, Chapter 4, this volume). Typically, students in the early elementary grades have a more limited understanding of the importance of shifting flexibly and using a range of different approaches and strategies than do middle and high school students. As students advance into the higher grades, their ability to learn new concepts is often connected to their willingness to abandon previously successful approaches and to shift flexibly to alternative methods (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b). Futhermore, students’ motivation, interest, passion, and attention also influence their willingness to try using different approaches and to shift flexibly from one approach to another, rather than continuing to rely on the same approach to tasks (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008; Semenov & Zelazo, Chapter 4, this volume). Overall, this ability to shift approaches and to synthesize information

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in novel ways is essential for effective reading, writing, math problem solving, note taking, studying, and test taking. In the reading area, accurate and efficient decoding requires students to flexibly coordinate the letter–sound relationships with the meanings of printed words (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b), and the role of cognitive flexibility in reading comprehension is even more important. Specifically, reading comprehension requires students to process the meaning of text, flexibly access their background knowledge, recognize the purpose or goal of reading (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b), and monitor their own comprehension (Block & Pressley, 2002; Scornavacco et al., 2015). When reading text that incorporates complex or figurative language, students need to shift between the concrete and the abstract, between the literal and the symbolic, and between the major themes and the relevant details. Furthermore, reading for meaning taxes students’ ability to flexibly manage many different types of linguistic information at the word level, sentence level, and paragraph level (Klingner, Vaughn, Boardman, & Swanson, 2012). Similarly, when writing, students must shift between their own perspective and that of the reader, and between the important concepts and supporting details. Writing also requires students to shift flexibly between genres, topics, formats, and core concepts (Harris & Graham, 2009; Harris, Graham, Mason, McKeown, & Olinghouse, Chapter 13, this volume). In the math domain, students’ understanding of concepts, computational procedures, and word problems depends on their cognitive flexibility. Students are required to shift from the words and sentences in math problems to the numbers, operations, algorithms, and equations needed to solve the problems (Steinberg & Roditi, Chapter 12, this volume). They also need to learn how and when to shift problemsolving schemas so that their final calculations are accurate and logical (Montague & Jitendra, 2006). In content-area subjects, including science and history, students are required to differentiate main ideas from details in their textbooks. Students’ understanding of the material depends on their ability to shift from the main themes to the details and to use context clues to shift flexibly among the different possible meanings of words and phrases (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2012, 2014). Similarly, learning a foreign language requires a significant amount of flexible thinking, as students are challenged to shift back and forth between their native language and the new language they are learning. Finally, studying and test taking require students to shift among multiple topics or problem types, as they are often presented with information that is formatted differently from the ways in which they have learned or studied it before. Similarly, students are required to shift flexibly when tasks require them to apply their knowledge to novel tasks or situations—for

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example, applying their background knowledge or theoretical understanding to solving a math equation or answering a history question on a test (Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015). For students who struggle to shift flexibly between perspectives and to process multiple representations easily, academic tasks often become progressively more challenging beyond the first few grades in school (Meltzer, 2014; Goldstein & Naglieri, 2014). Furthermore, these students experience mounting difficulty as the curriculum demands increase in complexity and require them to interpret information in more than one way, change their approach when needed, and choose a new strategy when the first one is not working (Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015).

Strategies for Promoting Cognitive Flexibility A variety of instructional approaches can be used to promote flexible thinking across different grades and content areas. First, when teaching emphasizes systematic approaches to thinking critically and to solving problems creatively, students are required to think flexibly about ways in which their solutions could lead to different possible outcomes. Second, when teaching encourages peer discussion and collaborative learning, students are exposed to multiple viewpoints and can be challenged to approach problems from the perspectives of their peers (Yuill, 2007). Strategies for shifting flexibly can also be embedded into daily activities at home and in school. Activities with jokes, riddles, word categories, and number puzzles can help students to practice using flexible approaches to language interpretation and number manipulation. The efficacy of using jokes to teach flexible thinking in the early grades has been demonstrated in an interesting series of studies (Yuill, 2007). Their findings indicated that an explicit focus on the ambiguous language in jokes generalized to reading comprehension as students were required to think about and analyze language in different ways. As one example, students’ reading comprehension and interpretation of text can be improved by presenting different scenarios that teach them to analyze language and to shift among different interpretations. When they come across words or sentences that do not make sense to them, they can be taught to stop reading and to ask themselves the following questions: • Does the word have more than one meaning? • Can the word be used as both a noun and a verb?

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• Can a different syllable be emphasized in the word to give it a different meaning? • Can a different part of the sentence be emphasized to change its meaning? • Does the passage contain any figurative language, such as metaphors or expressions that may be confusing? Shifting strategies are critically important for improving students’ reading comprehension, written language, and understanding of content-area material. In the area of reading comprehension, students can be taught to shift flexibly between and among major themes and relevant details based on the goals and content requirements of the reading tasks (Meltzer & Bagnato, 2010; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015). For example, the SMARTS Skim and Scoop strategy can be used to teach students to skim text systematically and to identify the main idea and important details in a passage (see Figure 11.5). As is evident from Figure 11.5, students fi nd the main idea by

FIGURE 11.5. The SMARTS Skim & Scoop Strategy: A strategy for shifting flexibly from the main ideas to the details and back.

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scanning the passage and circling the key words that are repeated most frequently. They then jot down the other key words in the margin of the passage; this helps them to visualize the subtopics of the passage and reinforces the idea that the main idea can be broken down into subtopics. Students then skim each paragraph looking for repeated words, synonyms, and common ideas, restating the common theme as the topic of that paragraph. This structure helps students to shift between the main ideas, subtopics, and supporting details and to begin to develop a broad outline of the passage. Similar shifting strategies can be used to improve written language. For example, three-column note-taking systems and graphic organizers make explicit connections between the main ideas and supporting details and help writers to shift more fluidly between the two. Using the SMARTS Triple Note Tote strategy, students record the major themes, core concepts, or key questions in the first column, the relevant details in the second column, and a memory strategy in the third column (see Figure 11.6). The Triple Note Tote strategy helps students to differentiate between important concepts and details and also to separate relevant information from details that are irrelevant and should be ignored. This strategy can also be used to organize and prioritize information and terms as is shown in Figure 11.7 in the next section.

Organizing and Prioritizing When I learned strategies for organizing, it helped me to get my work done, to cut it up so it doesn’t seem so daunting any more. I learned to focus on the main idea, then the supporting details. It has made the work simpler and it’s way better than just jumping right in without a plan and messing up a lot. —VICTOR , SEVENTH GRADER

Organization, or the ability to systematize and sort information, is an EF process that underlies most academic and life tasks. Students need to learn strategies for systematically organizing their time, their materials, and their ideas. They also need to learn how to apply these strategies to their writing, note taking, studying, and test preparation. These strategies become increasingly important in the upper elementary grades when students are presented with an increasingly large volume of detailed information that they are required to organize for effective learning. How well they learn and remember information depends on how effectively they use strategies for organizing and prioritizing the concepts and details so that working memory is less cluttered. While many students successfully participate in class and accurately complete

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FIGURE 11.6. Triple Note Tote: A SMARTS strategy for shifting flexibly between main ideas and details for reading and writing.

structured homework assignments, they may have more difficulty with independent, open-ended tasks. Reading and note taking, studying for tests, and completing written assignments all require students to impose their own structure on information. When organizational strategies are taught systematically in the context of schoolwork, students are more likely to generalize these strategies and to succeed academically (Krishnan et al., 2010). Improved academic performance and higher grades, in turn, increase students’ motivation to use these strategies independently and to generalize them across different contexts (Meltzer, 2010).

Strategies for Promoting Organizing and Prioritizing Strategies for organizing and prioritizing information all underlie efficient reading comprehension, writing, note taking, studying, and test preparation. Strategies such as templates, thinking maps, and graphic

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organizers provide a structured format for helping students to read for meaning, extract major themes, and relate new with known information (Kim, Vaughn, Wanzek, & Shangjin, 2004). Graphic organizers are also effective for improving students’ reading comprehension across subject areas, in particular language arts, math, science, social studies, and foreign languages. Most importantly, these organizational strategies can be taught across multiple grade levels from elementary school through high school and beyond (Krishnan et al., 2010). For example, three-column note-taking systems guide students to ask themselves active questions about the text they are reading and writing about and help them with reading, writing, summarizing, note taking, and studying. Three-column note-taking systems also encourage students to identify the main ideas, “chunk” information into manageable parts, organize and prioritize information, and develop strategies for memorizing the information for quizzes and tests (see Figure 11.6). Similar organizational strategies are also important for complex writing and note taking, which require students to focus on multiple processes simultaneously including listening, organizing, prioritizing, separating main ideas from details, and then writing down these ideas (Graham & Harris, 2003; Harris & Graham, 2009; Harris, Graham, Mason, McKeown, & Olinghouse, Chapter 13, this volume). Many students read their textbooks and articles without taking notes, or they take notes in a random, scattered way that does not reduce the information load. Other students have difficulty deciding which information should be recorded and struggle to separate the key concepts from the supporting details, so they need the writing process to be broken down explicitly by using organizers and templates that match their learning profiles. For example, the SMARTS BOTEC strategy uses a mnemonic and a visual image to help students to organize and prioritize a large volume of information and to focus on the important steps when they are completing homework, studying, or taking tests. As is evident from Figure 11.7, the BOTEC strategy helps them to Brainstorm, Organize their thoughts, generate a Topic Sentence or thesis statement, Elaborate by providing Evidence, and draw a Conclusion. Students’ academic performance generally improves when they use the organizational strategies discussed above for writing, taking notes, studying, and completing tests.

Accessing Working Memory I used to think I was really bad at math. I could never remember anything! Then I learned to create crazy phrases and acronyms to help me remember and also to calculate things in my head . . . It’s so much easier now! —K ATIE , FIFTH GRADER

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Essay Question: How do you feel about homework? BRAINSTORM your ideas here: A lot of people feel that being tired is the reason why they more focused on playing video games than on doing homework. People have trouble listening and paying attention in class. ORGANIZE: Choose three ideas from your list above that relate best to the essay question. 1. Being tired 2. More important things 3. Understanding TOPIC SENTENCE: There are obstacles that prevent kids in school from doing their homework.

FIGURE 11.7. BOTEC: A SMARTS strategy for organizing and prioritizing information for writing.

”Working memory” refers to the ability to store information for short time periods while simultaneously manipulating the information mentally, for example, holding the major themes in mind while sorting through the details, or calculating a math problem mentally. Working memory is a critically important process that focuses the mind, directs mental effort, and also helps students to ignore distractions and to accomplish tasks (see Swanson & Kong, Chapter 9, this volume). In fact, Baddeley (2006) and Swanson & Kong (Chapter 9, this volume) emphasize that working memory often functions as the central executive that directs the other cognitive processes, including the individual’s ability to inhibit impulses, shift attention, and direct effort to the task at hand (see Swanson & Kong, Chapter 9, this volume). Working memory therefore plays a critical role in listening comprehension, reading comprehension, written expression, mental computation, math problem solving, as well as efficient and accurate long-term learning. Students who use strategies to access working memory efficiently are generally more successful with tasks that require them to focus on multiple processes simultaneously such as following directions, responding to oral questions, completing multistep directions, and mental computation in math (Kincaid & Trautman, 2010). Reading comprehension and written language are also heavily dependent on working memory as students need to remember and manipulate

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multiple details (e.g., spelling, punctuation, rules of grammar) as they remember the main ideas, organize their ideas, prioritize important information, and figure out which details to ignore. Similarly, summarizing, taking notes, and studying for tests require students to focus on multiple processes simultaneously and to remember key ideas, formulate notes while listening, and identify major themes while writing (Kincaid & Trautman, 2010). Memorizing information in the classroom is heavily dependent on students’ ability to focus and sustain their attention in order to make connections, retain information, and retrieve relevant details. In fact, attention and memory are so strongly linked that the two processes are often viewed as part of the same executive process (Swanson & Sáez, 2003; Swanson & Kong, Chapter 9, this volume). To remember, retain, and retrieve information, students benefit from learning strategies for sustaining their attention, attaching meaning to information, chunking information, as well as rehearsing and reviewing. When students are able to make meaningful associations, they are more successful with transfer of information into long-term memory and its later retrieval (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2012).

Strategies for Enhancing Working Memory Teaching students to use working memory strategies is linked with the process of teaching them strategies for organizing and prioritizing information in meaningful ways so that they can reduce the large volume of information they are required to memorize, especially in the content areas such as science, biology, and history. Mnemonics comprise one of the most effective methods for chunking information and retaining important details so that information can be mentally manipulated in working memory (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2012; Regan, Evmenova, Mastropieri, & Scruggs, 2015). Mnemonic strategies (e.g., keywords, pegwords, acronyms, acrostics) encourage students to connect new information to what they already know, make meaningful connections to seemingly disconnected details, and improve retention of information (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 2000; Regan et al., 2015). For example, students can be taught to remember the states and their capitals by region using crazy phrases that help them to organize, sequence, and chunk the information so that there are fewer details to memorize. Some students prefer to use visual strategies, such as personalized diagrams, cartoons, graphic organizers, and templates (Kincaid & Trautman, 2010). Chants, rhymes, and songs are also important to teach to students who rely on verbal or auditory strategies to memorize. As students learn and practice memory strategies, they benefit from modeling and support from

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teachers and peer mentors, who can encourage them to create their own memory strategies that match their individual learning profiles and to practice applying these strategies to their schoolwork (Kincaid & Trautman, 2010).

Self-Monitoring/Self-Regulation If a kid keeps getting D’s on his test, but he doesn’t stop to think about why he’s getting a D, he can’t do any better. You have to look at your tests and find patterns in your mistakes, then you can see the hard stuff coming and be prepared. —JAKE , 11TH GRADER

“Self-monitoring” refers to the ways in which learners manage their cognitive and metacognitive processes to track their own performance and outcomes (Zimmerman, 2000; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). When students self-monitor, they review progress toward their goals, evaluate the outcomes, and redirect their efforts when needed. The ability to self-monitor depends on students’ metacognitive awareness, as well as their flexibility in shifting back and forth from the themes to the details. Therefore, students’ self-monitoring strategies relate to their ability to recognize when, how, and why to use specific strategies; to check the effectiveness of their strategy use; to evaluate and revise their strategy use; and to continually adjust their use of strategies based on the task demands (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). Many students, especially students with learning and attention problems, have difficulty reflecting, monitoring their own learning, and evaluating the connections between their effort, strategy use, and performance. As they focus their effort on reading, writing, math problem solving, and content learning, they may struggle to monitor their attention and performance, and may have difficulty shifting among a range of problem-solving approaches or strategies that are available to them (Klingner et al., 2012; Montague, 2003). Students therefore need systematic, structured, and scaffolded instruction in using self-monitoring strategies flexibly so that they can become independent learners who do not need the assistance of others to complete academic tasks successfully (Graham & Harris, 2003; Reid & Lienemann, 2006). Numerous studies have shown that teaching self-monitoring strategies systematically to students can improve their performance significantly (Graham & Harris, 2003). Explicit, structured teaching encourages students to slow down and allocate the necessary time to spiral back and forth between the task demands and their own output (Meltzer, 2013, 2014; Reid & Lienemann, 2006). Students also need to be

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taught self-regulation strategies such as asking themselves questions as they go through the steps of problem solving as well as monitoring their own performance systematically (Montague, 2003). Explicit and systematic instruction therefore helps students to gain access to strategic knowledge, apply strategies, and regulate their use of strategies and overall performance. For example, in the writing domain, students need to be taught strategies for shifting mind-sets from that of the “writer” to that of the “editor” as they often have difficulty identifying their own errors. A “one-size-fits-all” generic editing checklist is often ineffective, as different students make different types of errors (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). While one student may consistently make spelling errors but have no difficulty with organization, another may have the opposite profile. When students develop explicit and personalized checklists for particular assignments, they know what to check for and they make fewer errors (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). Self-monitoring and editing are often easier if students edit their work using a different colored pen, if they read their written work aloud, or if they write the original draft on a computer, print it out, and edit a hard copy. Peer editing is also extremely powerful if a systematic process is implemented in the classroom (see Harris, Graham, Mason, McKeown, & Olinghouse, Chapter 13, this volume).

Strategies for Improving Self-Monitoring and Self-Regulation Students often realize that their writing is weak but they do not know how to revise their writing to improve the content, structure, and organization using specific strategies. Even when they are given a rubric that outlines the expectations for the assignment, they may have difficulty determining whether their writing meets the criteria. They benefit from a guided process for analyzing several of their writing samples to determine their most common mistakes and using this process to develop personalized editing checklists (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). They also benefit from creating personalized checklists to help them to check their work systematically. Figure 11.8 provides one example of a personalized strategy that a sixth grader developed to cue him to check his writing for errors he commonly made, particularly the extent to which he mixed his tenses and used awkward sentence structure. Finally, when taking tests, students also benefit from developing personalized strategies and checklists for editing their work before handing in their tests. Personalized self-checking cards and mnemonics to remember the core ideas are most beneficial (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). For example, Figure 11.9 illustrates a strategy for checking tests that incorporates a visual image for those who more easily remember

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STOPS S– Sentence Structure T– Tenses O–Organization P– Punctuation S– Spelling

visual information as well as a “crazy phrase” for those students who more easily remember verbal information. Overall, effective self-monitoring requires students to reflect on their progress toward a goal, select strategies that work, and alter ineffective strategies (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). The quality of students’ academic work improves when they are able to recognize the value of reviewing their work and shifting mind-sets so that they know what to look for and how to shift flexibly from the major themes to the details (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010; Meltzer & Basho, 2010). As discussed in the next section, students’ motivation and emotional mind-sets frequently affect their willingness to make the often superhuman effort needed to stop, reflect, check, and correct multiple drafts of their work, processes that are critically important for long-term academic success.

Emotional Regulation Students’ self-understanding and their ability to engage actively in the learning process through the use of EF strategies is strongly connected with their ability to regulate their emotions in and outside the classroom (Stein, 2010). The effects of emotion on the learning process range along a continuum. Specifically, moderate emotional arousal has a positive influence on students’ attention and use of EF processes including working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibition (Gross, 2007; Stein,

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Checking Strategies for Tests Name Did I write my name on the test?

Direc ons Did I follow the direc ons?

Strategies Did I use my strategies?

Correc ons Did I check and make correc ons?

2010). In contrast, extreme emotional reactions (e.g., anxiety, anger) often disrupt students’ attention and ability to shift flexibly in academic and social situations as well as their ability to learn and remember new information (Stein, 2010). More specifically, the relationship between anxiety and performance is characterized by a U-shaped curve so that a moderate level of anxiety is optimal for most students so that they make the effort to organize and prioritize information and to use strategies flexibly. In contrast, test performance is often poor when students either are not anxious at all and have consequently not studied, or are excessively anxious, which interferes with attention, working memory, and overall performance (Goleman, 1995). In the classroom, students’ self-understanding as well as their ability to regulate and shift their emotions are important processes underlying efficient learning. As students develop strategies for regulating their emotional responses in the classroom, they more easily attend to instructions, sustain their effort, and curb their frustration in response to difficult tasks (Stein, 2010). They also learn how to collaborate with peers and to adjust their behavior to fit the classroom’s “culture” and routines. More specifically, when students regulate their emotions they can more easily focus attention on the academic content rather than their feelings, use self-talk to encourage themselves when anxious, ask for help when needed, and express their feelings in socially acceptable ways (Stein, 2010). As discussed by Stein (2010), a proactive approach to

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addressing students’ emotional regulation in the classroom involves four critical components: • Understanding each student’s learning profile and emotional vulnerabilities. • Understanding what kinds of triggers may upset each student. • Developing individualized prevention and intervention plans for vulnerable students. • Telling students ahead about upcoming changes, transitions, challenges, or requests for participation in classes. Prevention approaches for teachers focus on helping students to avoid frustration and get started by providing structure, breaking down tasks into smaller steps, giving alternative assignments or test formats if needed, or providing flexible due dates (Stein, 2010). Intervention approaches also focus on avoiding judgment, anger, or blame; providing a system of collaborative supports; and offering choices to students (e.g., safe places to reduce stress; quiet rooms for taking tests). The next and final section of this chapter provides a brief overview of a systematic EF curriculum that includes procedures and materials for integrating EF strategies into the curriculum (Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015).

SMARTS: A SYSTEMATIC PROGRAM FOR TEACHING EF STRATEGIES IN THE CONTEXT OF THE CURRICULUM I am naturally smart. I have a lot of common sense. But I’m not very organized and I procrastinate a lot. SMARTS helped me shift perspectives and develop strategies to understand myself better. I wish I had learned these SMARTS strategies when I was younger. I could have used it during my entire academic career. —KYLE , 12TH GRADER

As has been emphasized throughout this chapter, all students benefit when EF strategies are taught explicitly and are embedded systematically into the daily curriculum (Meltzer, 2014, 2015; Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015). The final section of this chapter briefly summarizes the SMARTS Executive Function and Mentoring program, a research-based program that is designed to foster metacognitive awareness and EF strategy instruction in combination with peer mentoring and peer coaching (Meltzer, 2013; Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Reddy, Greschler, & Kurkul, 2013). SMARTS is an acronym for Strategies, Motivation, Awareness, Resilience, Talents, and Success, and each of these strands is

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a core component of this program (Meltzer, 2013; Meltzer et al., 2011; Meltzer et al., 2012; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015). The SMARTS program is anchored in a theoretical paradigm that is designed to promote the key processes that are the underpinnings for resilience and success, namely, metacognition, EF strategies, persistence, and academic self-concept (see Figure 5.2 and discussion in Meltzer, Dunstan-Brewer, & Krishnan, Chapter 5, this volume). When students understand how to learn, they can become flexible thinkers and problem solvers who can be taught strategies to help them organize, prioritize, shift flexibly, and self-monitor when they complete their classwork, homework, and tests (Meltzer, 2010, 2014; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; www.smarts-ef.org). Once this foundation of metacognitive awareness has been established, EF strategies can be taught explicitly and systematically so that students learn to set their own goals, organize and prioritize information, shift flexibly in both academic and social situations, use effective strategies for accessing working memory, and self-monitor effectively. Students’ academic selfconcept, effort, and resilience can be enhanced further by building a supportive peer-mentoring and peer-coaching community in schools, when this is logistically feasible. As is discussed below, the SMARTS program has been designed to promote metacognitive awareness, to teach EF strategies explicitly and systematically, and to promote academic selfconcept and resilience using explicit instruction that is complemented by peer mentoring, if possible (see Figure 11.10). To help teachers provide explicit teaching of EF strategies that are linked with the academic curriculum, SMARTS Online has been developed, pilot-tested, and evaluated in public, private, charter, and home school settings over the past 8 years (Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015). SMARTS Online explicitly addresses the important processes that have been discussed in this chapter, namely, metacognitive awareness, goal setting, cognitive flexibility, organizing and prioritizing, accessing working memory, and self-monitoring. This year-long curriculum comprises 30 lesson plans, PowerPoint presentations for the classroom, handouts and worksheets, and training videos, all of which focus on teaching EF strategies explicitly and systematically from the late elementary grades into high school (see Figure 11.11 for selected lessons from the SMARTS Curriculum) (Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015; www.smarts-ef.org). These EF strategies are designed to help students to become active learners who can begin to use strategies effectively for their classwork, homework, and studying. In summary, the SMARTS Executive Function and Mentoring program is designed to help teachers to implement EF instruction in their

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classrooms in the most practical, efficient, and effective manner possible, as is summarized briefly below (Meltzer, 2013, 2014; Meltzer, Bascho, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Stacey, et al., 2015).

SMARTS: Helping Teachers to Promote Flexible Learning in Students SMARTS was a lifeline for us. My main job is to get kids to be successful in school, and SMARTS has been a great support. It’s given me a whole new perspective, and respect for the fact that not every kid thinks or performs the same way. —11TH- GRADE TEACHER

Our work with educators who have implemented the SMARTS Executive Function curriculum in their classrooms has consolidated a number of principles than can guide the practice of teachers who strive to promote flexible thinking in their students and to embed EF strategies into the curriculum. These principles include the following:

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• Teachers foster metacognitive awareness in their students by integrating activities that promote self-understanding into classroom tasks. • Teachers foster flexible thinking and strategic mind-sets in their students using a strengths-based approach to instruction. • Teachers develop a best practices model of EF strategy instruction that takes account of students’ strengths and challenges when they assign classwork, homework, and tests. FIGURE 11.11. The SMARTS Online Executive Function Curriculum: Selected units and lessons. Copyright 2015 by ResearchILD. Reprinted by permission.

• Teachers develop an awareness of ways in which their own teaching styles affect the EF demands they place on their students. • Teachers create a culture of strategy use in their classrooms by embedding EF strategies in their curriculum and daily teaching practices.

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• Teachers create classroom activities that take account of the interactions among EF strategies, effort, academic self-concept, and academic performance as well as the cycle that builds persistence, resilience, and long-term academic success. • Teachers integrate EF strategies into students’ homework assignments, long-term projects, and tests and they make strategy use count by assigning grades and extra credit for strategy use. • Teachers create opportunities for students to share their strategies in groups and to showcase strategies that they have created independently. • Teachers and schools create a strategic and reflective learning environment across grades and content areas that integrates EF into all aspects of learning while promoting a strengths-based approach to instruction for all students. • Teachers implement peer mentoring or peer coaching in their classes to increase the impact of these EF strategies on students’ learning. • Teachers recognize that a systematic peer support system provides a powerful forum for helping students to understand their learning profiles, to develop metacognitive awareness, and to apply EF strategies to their schoolwork and homework (Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015).

SMARTS: Helping Students to Learn HOW to Learn The SMARTS strategies really helped me a lot. Once I learned about goal setting and other strategies in SMARTS, I created a schedule for getting my homework done, I finished my homework more quickly, and I got better grades. SMARTS was a great program for me. —JENNY, EIGHTH GRADER

As teachers implement practices and strategies that promote flexible thinking, students learn HOW to learn and benefit in the following ways: • Students increase their metacognitive awareness and their selfunderstanding so that they can identify their strengths and weaknesses as well as their personal and academic goals. • Students understand that EF strategies and focused effort are important for academic success. • Students begin to value the process of learning as they become cognitively flexible and learn to shift flexibly during problemsolving and other academic tasks. • Students learn how to set attainable academic goals, organize and

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prioritize information, and think flexibly when they read, take notes, write, and study. • Students begin to recognize that their own effort, persistence, and determination are critical for fostering academic and life success. • Students view themselves as part of a community of learners who can help one another through peer mentoring and peer coaching, a process that also strengthens emotional self-regulation (see Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015, for details).

SMARTS Intervention Studies: Summary of Findings Our school-based studies over the past 8 years have consistently demonstrated that SMARTS benefits general education as well as special education students by helping them to understand their strengths and weaknesses while building their motivation to work hard and to use learning strategies in their schoolwork (Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Greschler, Kurkul, et al., 2015; Meltzer, Sayer, Reddy, & Greschler, 2015). In our most recent SMARTS intervention study, sixth- and seventh-grade teachers were trained to use the SMARTS curriculum to teach EF strategies to 200 general and special education students while the control group teachers continued to provide the usual curriculum to another 200 students. Compared to nonSMARTS students, special education and general education students in the SMARTS program used significantly more EF strategies in their classwork. They were also more flexible, worked harder when they completed their classwork and homework, and showed higher levels of self-understanding (Meltzer, Sayer, et al., 2015; Sayer, Meltzer, Reddy, Greschler, & Stacey, 2015). These students were also more resilient and optimistic in their approach to the many academic challenges they faced on a daily basis (Meltzer, Sayer, et al., 2015). One of our most interesting findings was that students with learning difficulties in the intervention group showed significant increases in cognitive flexibility over the course of the school year. In contrast, students with learning difficulties in the control group declined in their cognitive flexibility so that they were less flexible in their approach to problem-solving and learning tasks despite the fact that they were receiving individualized remediation in school. In other words, students with learning difficulties who were receiving small-group pull-out services in the learning center at least once or twice weekly were nevertheless deteriorating in their ability to shift flexibly. In contrast, the students in these learning centers who were taught EF strategies explicitly and systematically in the context of their academic work showed improvements over the course of the year. Teachers also reported that the breadth and depth

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of the SMARTS program made a major difference to the quality of students’ classwork and homework. In a series of other school-based intervention studies, our findings highlighted the importance of strengthening students’ cognitive flexibility and teaching students strategies for thinking flexibly. Specifically, SMARTS students with higher cognitive flexibility scores were more goal-oriented, more persistent, and worked harder in school (Meltzer et al., 2011). Students who were flexible thinkers also used more strategies in their schoolwork and were more organized. Classroom teachers rated these students as having stronger academic performance and as checking their work more frequently (Meltzer et al., 2011). Overall, students’ cognitive flexibility, academic self-concept, and goal orientation all influenced their effort, persistence, and academic performance. When a mentoring component was included in the SMARTS intervention, our findings from four studies with middle and high school students in four low-income inner-city schools in Boston showed that positive mentoring relationships increased students’ motivation, effort, and strategy use, resulting in improved self-concept and self-efficacy (Meltzer et al., 2011; Meltzer et al., 2013; Meltzer, Kurkul, et al., 2014; Meltzer, Reddy, et al., 2014). More specifically, students in stronger peer mentoring relationships displayed significantly higher levels of effort and strategy use in comparison with students in weak peer mentoring relationships (Meltzer et al., 2013; Meltzer, Reddy, et al., 2014; Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015). These students also used strategies more frequently and consistently in their classwork, homework, projects, studying, and tests. Interestingly, students in stronger peer-mentoring relationships showed higher levels of metacognitive awareness as evidenced on their completed strategy reflection sheets as well as by their ability to identify and correctly apply EF strategies. Furthermore, they showed significantly higher levels of resilience in comparison with students in weak peer-mentoring relationships (e.g., “I do not let problems stop me from reaching my goals”) (Meltzer, Basho, et al., 2015). Findings also showed that the intervention had positive effects on teachers’ self-understanding and approaches to teaching (Meltzer, Sayer, et al., 2015; Sayer et al., 2015). Prior to the SMARTS intervention, teachers reported that they did not use consistent approaches to teaching strategies in special education or general education classes. At the end of the school year, the special education and the general education teachers reported that they were able to collaboratively develop unique, interactive ways to embed the SMARTS EF strategies into the curriculum. Most importantly, teachers reported that they and their students developed stronger metacognitive awareness and began to value the importance of using EF strategies (Meltzer, Sayer, et al., 2015; Sayer et al., 2015).

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CONCLUSIONS The growing presence of technology and the increased pace of our 21stcentury classrooms have increased the pressure on students to set goals, problem-solve flexibly, organize, prioritize, and self-monitor. As a result, schools are placing more emphasis on the importance of promoting metacognitive awareness in students and teaching EF processes explicitly and systematically. When school programs integrate explicit instruction in EF strategies and emotional regulation into the curriculum, they provide students with a strong foundation for developing self-confidence, a positive work ethic, and resilience, the gateways to academic and life success. Our SMARTS Executive Function Curriculum has been developed as one step toward meeting this critical need by promoting students’ metacognitive awareness and understanding of why, where, and how to use specific strategies to help them succeed with the academic curriculum across the grades and content areas. Hopefully, the next decade will see many more programs that build EF strategies into students’ daily work, thereby promoting positive self-concept, persistence, resilience, and academic success in all students. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We offer our thanks to the dedicated staff and interns at the Research Institute for Learning and Development for their help and support and for their invaluable suggestions, in particular, Michael Greschler, Kim Davis, and Sylvie Wong. Thanks, too, to Bee Keswa and Thelma Segal for their help with the manuscript preparation. Thanks to Stacy Parker Fischer and the Oak Foundation for supporting our work on EF and SMARTS for many years and for helping so many teachers and students to become flexible, strategic learners.

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Meltzer, L., Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., & Stacey, W. (2015). Executive function and peer mentoring: Fostering metacognitive awareness, effort, and academic success. In K. Harris & L. Meltzer (Eds.), The power of peers in the classroom: Enhancing learning and social skills (pp. 1–32). New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L. J., Greschler, M., Stacey, W., Kurkul, K., Ross, E., & Snow, E. (2015). SMARTS Online Executive Function Curriculum. Available at www.smarts-ef.org. Meltzer, L., Katzir, T., Miller, L., Reddy, R., & Roditi, B. (2004). Academic self-perceptions, effort, and strategy use in students with learning disabilities: Changes over time. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 19(2), 99–108. Meltzer, L. J., Katzir-Cohen, T., Miller, L., & Roditi, B. (2001). The impact of effort and strategy use on academic performance: Student and teacher perceptions. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 24(2), 85–98. Meltzer, L., & Krishnan, K. (2007). Executive function difficulties and learning disabilities: Understandings and misunderstandings. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Executive function in education: From theory to practice (pp. 77–106). New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L., Kurkul, K., Reddy, R., & Basho, S. (2014, February). Executive function strategies: The link between effort and academic self-concept. Paper presented at the Pacific Coast Research Conference, San Diego, CA. Meltzer, L., Reddy, R., Brach, E., Kurkul, K., Stacey, W., & Ross, E. (2011, April). The SMARTS Mentoring Program: Fostering self-concept, motivation, and executive function strategies in students with learning difficulties. Paper presented at the annual conference of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA. Meltzer, L., Reddy, R., Greschler, M., & Kurkul, K. (2013, June). In L. Meltzer (Chair), Executive function and effort: The effects of peer mentoring in students with learning differences. Paper delivered at the 37th annual conference of the International Academy for Research in Learning Disabilities, Boston, MA. Meltzer, L., Reddy, R., Pollica, L., & Roditi, B. (2004). Academic success in students with learning disabilities: The roles of self-understanding, strategy use, and effort. Thalamus, 22(1), 16–32. Meltzer, L. J., Reddy, R., Sales, L., Roditi, B., Sayer, J., & Theokas, C. (2004). Positive and negative self-perceptions: Is there a cyclical relationship between teachers’ and students’ perceptions of effort, strategy use, and academic performance? Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 19(1), 33–44. Meltzer, L., Reddy, P., & Sayer, J. (2014). Metacognitive Awareness System, Revised (MetaCOG-R). Lexington, MA: Research Institute for Learning and Development. Meltzer, L., Sayer, J., Reddy, R., & Greschler, M. (2015, October). Executive function, effort, and resilience in the classrooom: What does our research tell us? Paper presented at the Council for Learning Disabilities Conference, Las Vegas, NV. Miller, L., Meltzer, L., Katzir-Cohen, T., & Houser, R. (2001). Academic heterogenity in students with learning disabilities. Thalamus, 19(1), 20–33.

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Cook, C. R., Fiat, A, Larson, M., Daikos, C, Slemord, T., Holland, E. A., Tha er, A. J., & Rensha , T. Positi e greetings at the door: E al ation of a lo -cost, high- ield proacti e classroom management strateg . J P B I , 20, 149-159. Da idson, R. (2016). The fo r ke s to ell-being. G :// . . / / / Deci, E. L., & Flaste, R. (1995). Ne York: Peng in Books.

Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & R an, R. M. (2001). E trinsic re ards and e trinsic moti ation in ed cation: Reconsidered once again. R E R , 71, 1-27. Deci, E. L., & R an. R. M. (2000). The the self-determination of beha ior. P D eck, C. S. (2006). M

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Goleman, D. (2006). Social Intelligence. Ne York: Bantam Books. Merrill, S., & Gonser, S. (2021). The importance of st dent choice across all grade le els. https:// .ed topia.org/article/importance-st dent-choice-across-all-gradele els? tm_content= linkpos1& tm_so rce=ed legac & tm_medi m=email& tm_campaign= eekl -2021-09-22 Oettingen, G. (2014). R Ne York: Peng in.

Okonof a, J. A., Pa nesk , D., & Walton, G. M. (2016). Brief inter ention to enco rage empathic discipline c ts s spension rates in half among adolescents. P N A . https:// .pnas.org/content/113/19/5221.short

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den

d Ed

f li e in e ac i n . In man e e in he cla

m hile he

em el . Thi nece i a ed ha eache in e ac in- e he ame ime P blem

ggling

main ain c n ac

lea n ne

echn l gie and

S anne,* in he and

le a a ch

faced in ada ing

he eali ie

in hei

den

nac m

hile a

e c een.

l nge , b

he need f

he e echn l gie

eaching

ac ice .

ch l gi , e e ienced

hand he

e e

gh ab

ebina f

ide , hea d man e am le

h , e e e im e ed b

b ed ca

e ing n me

men al heal h and heal h ca e

n e

ed a h b id

he half e e a ending

fe m n h if n

l ha

n ih

den , a en , fac l , and admini

andemic. B b, in lanning and

e e magni ed, a lea d ing he

ed ca

f he c

na i

a en , ed ca f he

, and

ggle he e

. While he e

ggle

he c ea i i , e e e ance, and e ilience di la ed

mee b h he academic and

cial-em i nal need

den . The ca e ma e ial

e ed h

eng h-ba ed a ba ic ene

ill

ach a e aken f m b h

f he a

ach a e ele an

f midable a COVID-19 le

hi cha e

a e he idea and

a egie

e- andemic and andemic ime . The

he he ed ca

a e facing a challenge a

hile eaching d ing ha migh be e cei ed a calme ,

a ma ic ime . e ill add e

In hi cha e --The c nce

he f ll

f mind e and i a

--The im ac

f ne e

ing

ic :

lica i n in he ch

change a child life f e e ;

--The ie and e ea ch ha highligh he im ac --A f ame

k ih

eci c

in in ic m i a i n, ca ing,

l e ing;

a egie f

f ing

i i e em i n ; i i e em i n , lea ning,

e, and e ilience in ch

_______________________________________________________________________ _ *Since he a h ec nd a h hem, hei

ha e he ame la name and hen efe ing name

ill be

efe n

e he de c i i n

eci c e am le ha in l e he ed.

k f ne f

39 R. B

& S. B

: Sc

C a e

T eC Mind e ma be nde ab

el e and

n, he e beha i ce

i c n an l

ed ca

eaching

d Ed

fM d e

da a e

m i n and a i de ha

ha in

ence

beha i

and kill in

ence

e a ing (B

and he kill

e de el

m i n and a i de

hem el e and hei

den

i h hei

ha a d namic ha

ill de e mine hei e ec a i n ,

den (G ld ein & B

de e mine he di ci lina

. In

k & G ld ein, 2001, 2004). The mind e

ac ice , and ela i n hi

The e mind e al

echni

e ha a e a

k , 2007).

lied in cla

(Ok n f a, Pa ne k , & Wal n, 2016; Ok n f a, Wal n, & Ebe ha d , 2016), Ed ca ih

b ing a

m i n ab

den beha i

den . The m e a a e he a e f he e a

h e belief ha ma

k again

h ea

hich e ma n

m i n ab

all f hei in e ac i n

m i n , he m e he can m dif

he c ea i n f a

i i e cla

m clima e. E en

be c gni an ha e a a

f being e

e ed

den . A an e am le f hi

hen men n, S anne c n l ed i h a eache ab

J na han, an 8- ea - ld a ien c n an l a ked f

e i n in cla , hich igge ed he eache

a i n. In di c

ann ance a

den

ed, in a , in he a

e i n i

in a j dgmen al,

blem . The child ann ance and

ing J na han i h S anne, he eache became a a e ha he

a an in en i nal l fa

h had lea ning and a en i n

m i n ha hi c n an a king f

ac he and he cla . If eache a di

ac hem

me he main

he cla , he a e likel

e f J na han

e i n,

ing

inf ma i n f m he e al a i n he had c nd c ed, incl ding e da a a b e a i n . She highligh ed b h hi an ie

he ma e ial a

ni i e manne .

In he c n l a i n, S anne ef amed he

and eache

e i n

ell a hi im

l i i , hich c n ib ed

The eache di la ed ef e hing J na han beha i , n l nge in e

enne

a he a em ed hi c n an

in m dif ing he a

e ing hi a king

ell a

a en

nde e i n.

m i n ab

e i n a an in en i nal l

and

49 R. B

& S. B

: Sc

C a e

he eaching. Thi change in mind e

ing ha he

an ie f

J na han, he a ked he

hi ma e ial. She al ld

e i n ,a

e abli hed a

li en

ac ice ha ac all dec ea ed he am an i

all

f m a king c n an

h ld

in l ed J na han e ha M

i ing d

e ing

e i n

be e ie ed a

in he f ll

ing e am le:

Pa en c n l an

f a high ch hei

a eg e i n ime, a

li i . a en

ha he h

gh hi

a acc a e gi en he change in mind e

a i n f he a in hich he mind e

hich he n

end i h

e i n ime a ailable, hich

and he acc m an ing im lemen a i n f e ec i e, n nj dgmen al

he e en

a egie .

f ed ca

de e mine

i i e em i n , m i a i n, and e ilience i a

den , J hn, c n ac ed B b and a ked him

g am. An ea lie e al a i n e ealed ha J hn a

e ed ha he

nded i h b i

nm i a ed, i e

ha e hei

ange , J hn i n ible

den

An he eache eemed manne ha main ained e ec ie . I hink J hn i eall da

hen he en e

e e ac all

e en . I

e he

i ed b

de an ,

f he c lleag e

de c i i n e ing

a n

i h J hn

i i nal, la ,

he ha hne

e a e d ing n

he e

he eache

e ha e a hi

e ea a

f him, ne immedia el

ne f he m

f hi a e men . In a

ini n, he aid, I ha e a di e en

l. I hink ha a a a

f eaching him beca e ha In li ening

e ce i n

ggling i h lea ning and he feel

he ch

a en

ggling i h lea ning di abili ie and academic demand . When B b me eache and e

den

e J na han

f ime he had

hen J na han inf med hi

eache eall liked him. In fac , hi a e men

A ec nd ill

e i n in cla . An he

ed e ec i e in managing hi im e ealing a

e a e him in ad ance

and an

ing ha he had hi

ach.

blema ic and

den eache

a ide a fe min e each h

ed him

a hif in he a

e i n ime in hich he

him. J na han fel le

echni

a ed he a f

e en a i n f ne ma e ial a e eciall

king f

eache

d Ed

e h

i a

ld g e

e c i i nf

f he ame e

lne able e e a di e en

fail e.

den , ne migh di e en

e i n if

ini n

ng e , hich f

i ing

di c e ha he e i idl c n a ing

59 R. B

& S. B

ini n

: Sc

C a e

mind e and he c n e

d Ed

en eache beha i

ma kedl di e en mind e and e

c n ib ed

each f he

eache .

Af e he mee ing B b in e ie ed J hn and a ked him n

e ealing ha he had aid ab

him e

him. In de c ibing he eache

n d an

J hn c n in ed, And d n k (he m

and, D . B be g

She j in he cla

eall d n kn ld

d en

gh. She d e n

f cla

he a h

a e f ime. She

hink I c

e ec me

a ,

ibe

me. Righ a a

decided ha I

ld e e ge a g

d n

he eemed

if he a h ne

ang

. I

f he

ld ha e

gh ha he

i h lea ning and hi a

In hea ing J hn

ecia e h he a a di ci line

en e f

eek f ch

den lea n. She al a

mind e

f he e

blem i h he

him. We ec gni e ha i

in J hn b e

c n ming he ed ca

admi ha

lne abili .

ell me he h

gh I

ne f he he e

eache , i i n eache b

hel .

di c l

he ec nd. Hi

i h each f hem e ec ed ha he belie ed e e hei mind e and

e ec a i n f me

hel all

e ce i n

be a

ima

each me. She aid ha

he be a

a I

ld j

he became a eache

a me. I

d g ade in he cla .

ggle

g e

an me

he e a n

ble i h lea ning, b

ma and he had

? He

ld ell he didn

me hing. She aid ha he kne I a ha ing

beha i

d ing

h e en

ldn e en

a he de c ibed he eache

ld be add e ed e e hi

ea n

f m he .

a . S af e a hile I kne

He aid, I l e he . She en

ing m elf b n

n I didn like he . I c

ld me I a la , b

J hn face li ha h

cca i n ). Wha

he fel ang

he fel ha

cceed in he cla

he d e n

ell me ha I m nl h

didn like me and b

a ed

k , i ha in he e e I am a fail e. Wha e e I d in he cla

added ha f m he

h had

k in he cla .

ha e hea d ha ad ice n n me

ne e g ing

de c ibe hi eache ,

nega i el , J hn aid i h n iceable em i n, She ha e me, b

beca e I ha e he . And I

nde

J hn ha ing a

eache

me e

n ibili

icall f

adding f el

nega i e e ce i n

iden if and m dif

h e fea

ake

f him. H

ang he ang

and m

likel

ibe , he eb

e e , i i e en ial f

f hei mind e ha

k again

den

69 R. B

& S. B

m i a i n and

: Sc

C a e

d Ed

den engagemen and e e a ba ie

den bec ming m e

imi ic and e ilien . T e

fM d e

The c nce

f mind e ha bec me a

minen a ea f

d in he eld

ed ca i n and men al heal h d ing he a 25 ea . Se e al ell-kn ac all

ed m e han 60 ea ag , al h

hen he e he ie B

de c ibed (B

e (1954, 1966) in

lined a ib i n he

d ced he he

k & G ld ein, 2012; G ld ein &

f l c

fc n

, Band a (1977, 1997) de ned

Seligman (1975, 1995) hif ed hi f c

elf-e cac

men

h mind e , hich, imila

lea ned

nde

man

anding ab le in ch

he a

hen a

la i

imi m,

, a en , and

child en and ad le cen . e

M de

f eache and

ima il e amine he a

and

h (2016)

f en lacking. F

la a

c ming f

in hich mind e

le in e e

f ad l

anding f he e eek

c e

nal and

in ance, he d n add e h a e e ec i e in

h mind e ? O , ha a e he

he ca egi e a he

ne h

den

c me (e.g., ne g ade

k). A c n ide a i n f he

cia ed i h e ilience? An nde

A Re

ed and

, and D ck

ce . We belie e ha

e i n a : Wha i he mind e and beha i

ed ca

een a

ii e

he eld f ed ca i n ha e c n ib ed

d a achie emen

c m le i n f h me

cial-em i nal fac

lied

in hich he mind e

l and he lea ning

de e mine ha ma be nde

elf-e cac ,

lea ned

f lea ned hel le ne

in a ib i n he

f he e he ie i ha he

n e

, and

f gi.

The e di e en he ie

c i ical

he nde inning

imi m he ie , ha i

a ic la ed he c nce

f he eld f

ch l g . M e ecen l , D eck (2006) di e en ia ed be g

l, Weine (1974)

f m lea ned hel le ne

imi m a he became a d i ing f ce in he de el

a n

k , 2007). R

n he ie

gh he label mind e

k ,B

ch m ing

cial-em i nal

ali ie

ali ie can e e a g ide n

e and e ilience in

79 R. B

& S. B B

: Sc

nen

d Ed d ced he c nce

e ilien

f a e ilien mind e and acc m an ing beha i

emb aced

m f belief and hen mena in b h child en and ad l . The e incl ded

e ec i e g al- e ing, c

ing

a egie , and

can lea n f m a he han feel defea ed b ne

k and G ld ein (2001, 2004) in

mind e . The c m a ide

C a e

eng h

i land

e back and b acle and an a

f c m e ence. B

highligh ed ha ma be nde mind e and beha i

blem- l ing kill , an a i de ha

d a he

ecia i n f

k and G ld ein (2001) al

cial-em i nal c m

nen

f a e ilien

ch a em a h , c m a i n, en iching he li e

he , and

g a i de. B

k and G ld ein (2021) ecen l elab a ed n hei

e ilience b

ing he c nce

f tenacity, hich he de c ibe a c m

e en in inc , incl ding in i i e and i

n ibili

in inc e

b e ed in eci c

ning

f kn

c me i e

a e nde

nda i n f

ajec i i e in ha

f beha i

ime

lace f bi h. In ead, he a e c nce

b h

ha lead a alm n

h and ada a i n.

k and G ld ein (2022) em ha i e change he

f a child life f e e . We a e a a e ha he belief ha

ne can ha e

e e , nlike

ence ha been

ali ed a in i i e a

ng ing g

enaci , B

de el

f ne e

e i ned b ed ca

ch a

d ing he andemic. We

ic ne . T e L fe R bi aille and LeB

ed a e n

ide he eed f

i m,

k , 2021). A he

be inb n a ib e . H

ch a a bi d b ilding a ne f

Whe he de c ibing e ilience a c i ical f

ecie , he a e n

ing and beha ing ha

ed f

imi m, c m a i na e em a h , gen ine al

k , 2022; G ld ein & B

im lie , he instincts f enaci

k in he a ea f

e (2022) e

f O e Pe

ha eaching i

a i n in he Uni ed S a e , hich e belie e ill n

eache . Re ea ch iden i e incl ding a lack f e cei ed ecei e li le, if an ,

e e al ke fac f m ch

ne f he m c me a a

ha c n ib e

l leade hi , man

hem el e , inc ea ing j b demand

e ing and ed ced lanning ime, and a limi ed, if n

e - lled ie

and b n

f h m feel he ch a high ake

n ne i en ,

le in making

89 R. B

& S. B

: Sc

C a e

deci i n ha im ac di ec l b e e, high le el de el

n hei e

cial-em i nal

eng h .

The

and lack f

d Ed

n ibili ie . A R bi aille and LeB

e e ienced b

meaningf l ela i n

eache ad e el a ec hei abili

den and einf ce b h academic and

e e ienced b man ed ca

bef e he eme gence f he andemic, ha e

e ain eache i

cia ed i h c n an l

LeB

im le emedie

and he c n e

ence ha f ll i h ed ca

f hei ca ee . The

den

namel , he

A B

en ich he li e

. Sadl , ha

Imagine if

ha ha he

ibili

nd, lifel ng in

and a lack f j b f ed cing

i h eache

ha e n

ide a en e f

e ha f el

k each da (in e

nha

ine

and em i nal

e ha e hea d a n mbe

ch i h m

a en enj able and f m m ing in an inc ea ing am

e n

all ) belie ing ha

eaching, I

babl

ec i e eem

m ch

i i e in

he . S ch

ence he

e e al ea ag lamen ed, e

e a ing m

he eld.

hing ha

ne e am le, I m

den

hem. If I kne I a g ing

ld ne e ha e g ne in

c n l a i n and

ha e li le al e. A

f ime and ene g kn

ain. In e i n he

den , I feel

a he han eall ge ing

ell-being

den . A eache a ending ne f

I feel ha I m l ing

ake e

and

ence ha he can ha e n he

d ha minimal al e and make li le, if an , di e ence in he li e k i a eci e f

hen he a e in l ed in ac i i ie ha he belie e

f malai e and b n en

k and G ld ein (2001, 2004) ha e em ha i ed, e ilience i

he . Thi belief

and alle ia e feeling

eache

e ha e b e ed in

me, b dened i h an ie

f a eali

e ed in b h child en and ad l

ice

eache (R bi aille &

ed ce he d namic ha c n ib e

i ha

l e igh

einf cing e ilience

lea e he

n man le el , incl ding he high c

ec i ing, hi ing, and aining ne

The e a e n

a i fac i n, begin

e ea

ell

e, 2022).

and c n l a i n

li e

igni can

, e iden

m ed a igni can n mbe

eld f ed ca i n, i h 44% de a ing i hin he f failing

e (2022)

ake high feel hi

99 R. B

& S. B An he

: Sc

C a e

d Ed

b e ed, I

k in a ch

l di

ic ha ha man

le el. The deal e e da

all f he challenge he c nf n ha e in ch In

l, if I can im

ihf

den li ing nde

d in ec i , i lence, and d g . Gi en

n a eg la ba i , I

e hei li e in an

e e ience he di ill i nmen e

nde

ha if an im ac I can

a . e ed b

he e and n me

eache in en i ed d ing he andemic. Man feel di c nnec ed f m hei nable

f ll engage hem in lea ning a k

iden if and e

den ,

nd e ec i el

em i n di la ed n a c m

e c een. I i li le

nde ha hei en h ia m f

eaching ha

e i n he

e ef

an a m

aned and he

he e, nega i e a he han

d mina e he lea ning A C a

e he

hei

i i e em i n a e likel

den . In

e mea e and

ce , in en if ing an al ead challenging i a i n.

a c Ad

Wha can hel

n e ac , a lea in a , hi di ill i nmen ? Cl e e ide in

he feedback B b ha ecei ed f m eache ab andemic. The

a ic la l

cha i ma ic ad l

iced a

in de el

ebina

ince he a

ecia i n f hi me age ab

ing h

ha hel child en and ad le cen nding, e eciall i a i n , i he

hen

and enc

ch l gi J li

fac

hem. One fac ad l

le in n

die c nd c ed a ha enable

a e

e ing ide

k & G ld ein, 2012; B

ing e ilience. He

nd he

be he

i ing n mbe

k & he

d ced he n i n f a cha i ma ic ad l , e:

ld, e ea che ha e di illed a n mbe ne

bea he hea

e ence in hei li e

dd again

f a cha i ma ic

n i h h m he can iden if and f m h m he ga he

eng h. And in a eache . ( . 3)

nde

ef ll m e han ne, h k ,B

ch child en f mi f n

ima

k , 2007; We ne & Smi h, 2001). A n ed b

Segal (1988) h in

l can la a igni can F m

ne ad l , h

k , 1994; B

G ld ein, 2001; G ld ein & B

iden if fac

and bec me e ilien . A

d ing child en h ha e g

agemen (B

e and e ilience in child en.

e c me ad e i

e ence f a lea

f he

Re ea ch c nd c ed d ing he a 30-35 ea ha a em ed

la e

f ca e ha

be a

109 R. B

& S. B

: Sc

Teache a e in a ni

C a e e

ii n

child f an age. E en eemingl lifel ng im ac enc

n he a

f an ed ca

can ha e a

den (e en i

all in he face f

f a cha i ma ic eache .

e and e ilience in eache and le en he

, i i im

an ha ha he

den . T em ha i e hi

ed ca

le f a cha i ma ic ad l f

e e al ac i i ie ha de ne he beha i

fb n

he can ha e n

me he

mee al ne i h a

einf ce a en e f

ibili

d Ed

k , 1991). A mile, a a m g ee ing, a n e f

agemen , a fe min e

mall ge

den (B

he andemic) a e b

l a

in , e

ecia e he lifel ng im ac e e e al

e i n a

. The incl de:

a a cha i ma ic eache in

Wha did ha eache a and d

life hen

e ea

den ?

make he /him a cha i ma ic eache f

? A he e al ih d

ne f

a eache a ked, If he e a e cha i ma ic ad l , a e

an i-cha i ma ic ad l ? When a ked he i a i n and i h m ch feeling, The

n! E e

ne a ending he

ad l , i h man eage

de ne ha he mean , he e lied ck he ene g

ag eed ab

ha e anecd e ab

a an an i-cha i ma ic eache in

Wha did ha eache a

and

he e i ence f an i-cha i ma ic

ch a nega i e e

Gi en he n i n f an an i-cha i ma ic ad l , e added he f ll Wh

life hen

n in hei li e .

ing

e i n: e ea

den ?

ha made he /him an an i-cha i ma ic eache f

? D ha

e mem ie

cha i ma ic and an i-cha i ma ic eache

da ?

Wha ha im e ed

a e he i id mem ie and em i n e ked b

e i n e en hen he ac al e en he a e e eache began ea She a

g ide

ing cc

ed ea ea lie . One

hile ela ing a ainf l igne e f m 40 ea ag

ld. The inciden in l ed a eache h milia ing he in f n ea ed

ea ag and i

i ed b he ha d

c n a , an he ed ca

ng em i nal e

belie e h ec

hen he a

ainf l ha e e ience c n in e cc

f he en i e cla .

n e, b e ing, Thi ha

n ed an in e ac i n ha

he e

ened 40

be. In

ed 30 ea ea lie

iha

119 R. B

& S. B

high ch

l eache . He en

eall d

: Sc

C a e f hi

n. I ne e i e hinking ab

and a

e E

n ch

c mf

be e

enc

aging hen I a feeling

hen he a ked

ing. Beca e f him, I became a high ch ng em i n

l e e ience a a

den e e

a belief ha m

Wha mem ie d

and de c ibing ne

einf ce he belief ha eache ha e a

an he c h

eak i h me

l eache .

hen hinking ab

ide a en e f

a and d each da . Thi

e and meaning

le f den

e i n f

ha ed ca

ed ca

c n ide :

ake a a f m hei e e ience

? Wha d

intentionally a f

belie e ha

be m e in en i nal in

den

ha e he mem ie

in he a

hem iden if g ide f

nd in

n a eg la ba i

ha he a e likel

e he ha e? (We em ha i e intentional ince e d and beha i

if e an

e.)

A g al f a king eache

d Ed

ha m men

e iencing he e

lifel ng im ac

e ec

hei

n all f he e

ac ice

ence he can ha e each da

n hei

e i n i n

den b

hel

emind hem f he

den .

a Cl el

ied

e en ial kill nece a

e i n ai ed ab e a e f ge

i i e ela i n hi

ela ed

and a

em a h , an

me he

cha i ma ic ad l (G leman 1995, 2006). Em a hic eache di la hem el e in he h e e cei e he

f hei

ld h

Em a h i

den

m ed hen ed ca a

he ca aci

n b h a c gni i e and a ec i e le el and

gh hei e e . Em a h f

W ld I an an ne

le f a

e c nnec edne

a k hem el e he f ll me ha I ha e j

aid

een e

ing

le.

e i n:

d ne

den ? In an hing I a Am I a ing and e

nd c n The f ll

an ed ca

d , ha d I h

acc m li h?

d ing i in a in hich m

c i el

den

ill be m

likel

hea

m me age?

ing e am le ca

. A eache ma a em

e he im m i aea

ance f c n ide ing he e den b e h

e i n a

ing he la e

129 R. B

& S. B

: Sc

C a e

d Ed

ha de . While he eache ma be ell-in en i ned, belie ing he c n e enc

agemen , he

illing

e end he ime

en l e e ience

han a

d a e ea il in e ene g

ha de

e med lack f e

f he

den i

nde ha

den

and j dgmen al. In fac , fac

ch a an ndiagn ed lea ning

f an ie , ma be he main

ha de

ming ha he

cceed. I i li le

a acc a

e ed a a

den

blem

e ence

lea ning di c l ie and eeming lack

f m i a i n. Em a hic eache , a em ing migh a k hem el e , If I e e c lleag e

inci al aid

and

ld h

ggling in m

me, If

eache

mile and a

gh ab

ied ha de ,

addi i nal ne J

e i n

highligh he im

ha e

den ha e

den ,

ld I feel if a

ldn ha e hi e i na

e . One eache

ai ed in hi

blem

e en a i n , I ne e eall

ha de can c me ac

e ha e al ead

ec i n, he e a e

ance f em a h :

de c ibe

f hei

eache

. Wha

d d

hen h

den ,

den

? Wha d

e he

intentionally a and d

Wha If

hink he ill

Va i

fe e inciden Pa ke , ci ing he

ill

make

ii e

f mi beha i

n a eg la ba i

ha he a e likel

hink he

die ha e f

den feel m e

e he

d d

e, ha change

eache

ld be

de c ibe

j dgmen al a c mmen like

In addi i n

gh he e e

le a a eache , h

ld be a be e eache . ? When e a k hi

man h

ee he

ld ac all

d ha di e f m he b ing he

nd ha

de c i i n cl e

ge he ?

hen eache a e e e ienced a em a hic,

a d hem, hich lead

m e e ec i e lea ning and

(Ok n f a, Pa ne ki, & Wal n, 2016; Pa ke , 2016).

k f Ok n f a, Pa ne ki, and Wal n, a e ed ha a defa l

e he

ni i e mind e d e in a

den beha i . S ch a nega i e defa l mind e in e fe e

e - le ance

f en licie

i h he e abli hmen

139 R. B

& S. B

: Sc

i i e eache he c

C a e

ni i e mind e

imed

a king a g

f eache

a e c i ical f e

eache a

den

i i e ela i n hi

The e eemingl

eache

ha enc

he a

den ela i n hi

ake c n

l fa

aged an em a hic mind e , n he

mi beha e, hile c mm nica ing em a h and im

den beha i .

im l e e ci e had a igni can im ac

den ; he e l

d in l ed

in hich nega i e em i n

em a hic mind e in eache , hich an la ed in ad

hen

in ance, ne

i i e eache -

ni hmen i c i ical f

l (em a hic mind e ), hile an he g

e ie a icle ab

f eache c ld

hel ed n

ni i e mind e ). In an he

e e a ked

ld cc

mi ing e l

an em a hic mind e . F

lea n elf-c n

i e ab

die indica ed e

i e an e a

den

e ed

cla

de el

nde ed ha

i h an em a hic mind e in eache .

The nding f m n me ee

d Ed

den in e ac i n . The e e ea che

ld e lace a

eache

a an im

n de el ing an

i i e beha i

emen in b h

n hei

den beha i

and lea ning

(Pa ke , 2016). Personal Control and Resilience The

e i n and e ea ch incl ded in he

cce f ll if e a e g ided b a belief in c n

l a a ke ing edien

f ll

ing de c i i n f hi c nce : Taking

ne hi

ec gni e ha a king

beha i

a ec all

change b

ha e faced n e i lence. The e d

l. In iden if ing e

k and G ld ein (2004)

li e . We m

in ead al a A

lied m

nal e ed he

eek

ine

a k, What is it that I can do

ming e

nal c n

l and

i a f ndamen al nde inning f a e ilien mind e , ne ha he fea

f hi mind e . ( . 7)

We n ed ea lie ha a n mbe e ec i ene

nal c n

and bec ming m e e ilien e

e a e he a h

me ne el e

n ibili

ec i n ill be a

f a e ilien mind e , B

diﬀerently to change the situation? e

e i

den . S me h ad e i

f eache ha e ha ed d nde

ch a

b ab

hei

ha im ac he can ha e if hei e

b ha e in en i ed a a e l

ing in ec i , f he di

den

i ne ing

i n ca ed b

149 R. B

& S. B

: Sc

C a e

andemic. The ad e i ie faced b ible e m dange im

c mf

d Ed

ld ne e be minimi ed and a m ch a

den , e eciall

hen he la e a e in

e e , in kee ing i h he ene

an ha eache n den . We m

den

e he afe

i ai n . H

l e igh

ec gni e f

e ide in hei cla

f ha fac

den

f e

nal c n

he can c n

hei main

l, i i

l in he li e

ce f afe , ec i , and

m e e ience . Thei main

i i e ela i n hi

ad l a e i h hei eache . Ad

ing an

k f e

cha i ma ic ad l in he li e einf cing a imila enc h

age

k in hei

age

an i ed in hei li e l

f hei

den

e i hei a i de

nl em al

eache

lace hem in a

den . A f c

n ha

e hile le ening feeling

c n ide ha

a d and e

i h he em i n elici ed b

ii n f l

f hel le ne

and

hile nega i e e en ha e

i h a diagn i

bec me

e ha e c n

hich he ha e had li le, if an , c n

Se h, a nine- ea - ld b ch

den b

blem- l ing kill and h

ele ne . I enc

c n

nal c n

l, ha he d ha e

he e e en . f ADHD, a n

he ecen di

ce f hi

a ed and ang , he a ked B b, Wh did G d ch

e me

ggling in

a en . In ne e i n, be he ne i h

ADHD? I i n

Wh me?

al f

child en

Wh m child? The

c n in e

d mina e ne

hel le ne

and ha ma be nde

fea

fa e

f hei li e had ad

The le

blem eme ge

hinking ea af e

hen he Wh ?

ea . When ha

d a a ic im men ali

nd ha h e h

e em

ed he belief, I had n c n

I d ha e c n

l in e m

cce f l ad l c n in ed

a k,

e i n

he hackle

bec me he d minan

n mind e . Ge be , Gin be g, and Rei (1992), in

i h lea ning di abili ie , f

blem , b

ad l faced i h challenging i a i n

d ing ad l

cce f l in di e en a ena e being b n i h lea ning

e ec i el I c e i h h e

a k, Wh did I ha e

blem .

be b n i h lea ning

di abili ie ? H ch

e me

migh a he a i

eache e

Se h

e i n, Wh did G d

be he ne i h ADHD? When a ked ha he h

gh , Se h c

e n

159 R. B

& S. B

e lana i n

: Sc

he han

a he ha al a

(1992) e ea ch nding eng h-ba ed e

ing: We e n

enc

aging ne

e h

i ha n

hel

nal c n

l and

he in e e and ch

e kn

nal c n

a ha ing a

elf

be m e

einf ce a feeling f

gh he a

ed ha Anna he i a ed

blem , i

illing

i n

alk i h

ned

j in g

nd. A l ng a Anna c n in ed ld be alm

ible f

l and bec me e ilien . ili ed an e ec i e echni

e ell-kn

blem alking i h f iend and a n man

nd i

he child en, m ed in

he e he ha m

E en if Anna had n d ced ha

he a i

ha Anna

alk i h

ied he

hi di lacemen

a i h ea e,

ble.

di ec l

efe ed

he la g

blem a l ng a he igh

nd, S anne c a

en e a f

b i

ld ha e

ha Anna a

nd. She a ked, I he

he child en? E en all , Anna b e ed, I hink he migh be

ill make f n f him.

Once hi

e bali ed, S anne engaged Anna in c n ide ing

hel ing hi b , hich, f c

im lemen

ce ain he be

nd? S anne e lied, Ye , he

eci c a ea i hin he di lacemen . I

di c

ca ed

can lea n

cial an ie . Al h

a king, D e he ha e a ha d ime n he la g

ead

k i h child en. She elied n di lacemen

hel him. Anna, imila

me d n , b

immedia el feel h ea ened. S anne inf med Anna ha he kne a li le

la g

l migh incl de he

ha e ADHD, he e a e hing ha ad l

n he ch l la g

i a i n, S anne

h e h

Se h. A

i h child en h a e e e iencing di c l ie in ch

feel a al ed in c nf n ing he

ld n

nal c n

, he became a al ed hen he di c

m e child en, a ic la l

In hi

e l

ch l gi , S anne eg la l

l. He eache e

a en e f e

lace .

l in he e i n

S anne ab

e eciall

me kid ha e ADHD and

Anna, an 8- ea - ld, a be e

de el

had ADHD. Ge be , Gin be g, and Rei

einf cing e

A a clinical and ch

ela i n hi

d Ed

. And he e a e hing ha

cce f l in ch

me g ide

n e g ided b

f ll

can d

C a e

deal i h he

e, e e he ame

a egie ha Anna c

a egie

blem . In e ence, Anna n l nge fel hel le .

169 R. B

& S. B

Ra he , in a

: Sc

ming a

C a e

d Ed

i i n f e e i e, he fel inc ea ingl c n den in he

blem- l ing kill . T eI Anna im

e e acc m anied and f

i i e em i n

c l

f an

k and ed b

cce f l a lica i n f e ec i e c he eme gence f

a igni can

gani a i n , incl ding ch In ecen

e ce f P

ing

i i e em i n . The

le in einf cing he

cce

e ence

f indi id al and

he e ha been an inc ea ed in e e in

d ing he em i nal

gani a i n (Ba ade & O Neill, 2016). While m ch f hi f c

cen e ed n b ine

gani a i n , he c nce

i e

all

ele an

he ch

e. The de ne c gni i e c l

n m , a ifac , and a c l

e e

ne f

e and

he ha ed intellectual al e ,

m i n ha e e a a g ide f h

en i nmen . Ba ade and O Neill (2016) di ing i h be een c gni i e c l em i nal c l

a egie

he g

em l ee hink and beha e a

h i e. C gni i e k ( . 60).

Ba ade and O Neill (2016) add: C gni i e c l nl

ndeniabl im

f he

. The

an f

a i

gani a i n

e call he g

culture: he ha ed a ec i e al e , n m , a ifac , and a hich em i n

le ha e and e

e ing. . . . Em i nal c l c gni i e c l

and f en i

The de c ibe e e al kind

cce . B

emotional m i n ha g e n

k and hich ne he a e be e

e i a el managed a delibe a el a managed a all. ( . 60).

f em i nal c l

e, incl ding j , c m ani na e

l e ( he deg ee f a ec i n, ca ing, and c m a i n ha em l ee feel and e

a d ne an he ), and fea . Ba ade and O Neill (2016) em ha i e ha an i em i nal c l ell-being, i C e ae

n le

e, e eciall in ligh na e. The em i ical

die

le e f m n a k , h hei

gani a i n lack f a en i n

f he im ac i ha

n he

gani a i n

b e e: h

he igni can im ac

f em i n

engaged and c ea i e he a e, h

gani a i n , and h

c mmi ed he

he make deci i n . P i i e em i n a e

179 R. B

& S. B

: Sc

c n i en l a e ice

C a e

cia ed i h be e

hi h ld

e ac

le el . On he i ch a g

d Ed

e f mance,

le and ind

ide ( i h ce ain h

ali , and c

ie and a

e f mance and high

The e in igh ab gani a i n a allel he

he in

ence f

k f

ch l gi

all lead

ine

cce b d

ha e a a ak

cce

lead

he age f m

i i e em i n Sha n Ach

f e ea ch, Ach

ela i n hi be ha ha

ine

een ine

and

Ach

ine . H

ing in ead ha i i

ine

k he

and ha ec

cce , n

me el

a a

nd. We n

he e l . And ha

imi m ac all fuel e f mance and achie emen ( ine

hel

i he e e ience f f meaning and

cla if

ii e

(2010) ca

hen he

ine

lea

im lie a

e c mbined i h dee e ii em

he f

ince ha

ine

i , ab e all el e, a feeling. (

e am le, h ician einf ced

d in he

e. . . . The chief engine f ha

(2010) ha e maj

a ien di la ed g ea e

eed and acc ac

a e. Simila l ,

imed

feel ha

ii em

i i e em i n ne

d bef e making a diagn i

han h ician in a m e ne i

cce f l in mee ing di e en challenge . A be in a

ine

. 39-40)

im lica i n f

l , namel , ha he e i ence f

le being m e

e he en e f

ie :

en i nmen , incl ding ch

. 3-4).

ha hi em i n in l e m ch

. Ach

e. Ha

Re ea ch nding ci ed b Ach

den

ii e

cce

i i e em i n

nce ain e m ha he

c n ib e

a b ge ning

ing ie :

ine

i i e em i n

i a i n in hich

e e , efe ing

e emb died i hin a feeling f ha

e en and a

ach i hi

en in n

m e han he f en- a ed c mmen , Be ha

feeling

cience ha

de ni i n f ha

ine

(2010), Richa d Da id n

ndb eaking e ea ch in he eld

i he

c me ,

n he ell-being f an

f Ach

ine ,

(2010) ad anced he f ll

ch l g and ne

nega i e

cce . Ce ainl , he e a e man

M e han a decade f g

a feeling f ha

gani a i nal

n e . ( . 60)

(2016), and Ba ba a F ed ick n (2009). A cen al ene e i ning he belief ha

- e m e ce i n ), nega i e em i n

ange , adne , fea , and he like

incl ding

al em i nal

aking ma h achie emen e

did

189 R. B

& S. B

: Sc

fa be e han hei

hen he a e Ach

d Ed al

i i n. I

e f m a hei be n

(2010), in b l e ing hi c ncl i n,

e ed he

ed he b aden and b ild he

ac i n he can ake in an gi en e d

b aden ne

idea . J , f

in ance,

and in eg a e hem in

a k he

a ne

mind e . P i i e em i n

e eni

In F ed ick n (2009)

han e migh eali e b

Pa alleling he

like all em i n ii i

e ha e m e c n ha c ea ing

i i e em i n a e

ld a

and

en ci c m ance

( . 21).

in e ed in

e he eme gence f

e e en and h gh , i i e em i n

in ne life in l e m e han i hf l ill einf ce

i i e em i n .

and F ed ick n i he e ea ch f

i i e em i n de end n ne

nde l

ii i

a i ef mh

ell-being, ne ill ge be e a i . Da id n

he cell . If ne die

ch l gi and

ell-being i ac ice he kill

he belief ha he e i

in he b ain, and a a e l he e a e ac i n b h child en and

ad l can ini ia e

eng hen he e ne al ci c i . A e am le

Da id n

ac icing mindf lne

ligh ed

and di la ing gene

gh ab

a k he

ii i

f ndamen all n di e en han lea ning

la ici

la and be c ea i e. In e e

el e and he

ini n,

k f Ach

cien i Richa d Da id n (2016). The la e a e ed ha

al,

i i e em i n . Ba ed n he

enne

hinking. I in l e in en i nall d ing hing ha

n e

e en ne

blem- l ing kill , and an

a k he

nf ld ( . 49). Since

F ed ick n c n end ha

b ain

k f F ed ick n

f ci c m ance . In c n a ,

lanning and

e l e and lea n, he ea

idea a he

hen he a e nega i e

f e ea ch, he f nd ha nega i e em i n na

nde

i i e ( . 15).

(2009) h b d

ee in an em i nall ne

a e li e all ha d i ed b

C a e

i . He

e ed hi

f he e ac i n ,

medi a i n, engaging in ac e

ef l

f kindne ,

mma i n f hi e ea ch

(2016): The e a e n gene ke

a le h a f da a h

and al f

ing ha

hen indi id al engage in

i ic beha i , he ac all ac i a e ci c i in he b ain ha a e

e ing ell-being. The e ci c i ge ac i a ed in a a

ha i m e

199 R. B

& S. B

: Sc

C a e

end ing han he a game

ea ning a

Simila

e e

ance ha

ac all c ea ing

c l i a e kindne

eng hening, and n

ic l m f

ing a dne

and c m a i n, e e n

ali

e ch

bene ed f m an ac ela , ca e ab

half e

le (Fl

lied hi e ea ch nding

f kindne ; he c

he Kindne d

mi ing. S den

inb n

ii e

ic l m al

de el

a Kindne

ic l m incl ded a hen

den

in l ed hel ing

ed ha 68

ic l m and he

mall in na

e, he e l

h e e ienced he c

den

e f med den

a end,

f gi ene

a ici a ed in he

he half e ing a a c n

f he c

ic l m e e e

ic l m c m a ed i h h e h did n

a ed inc ea ed em a h and kindne , a g ea e ca aci

hen he

ed b G ld ein

i m ha e i f m bi h and d n

k & P age , 2016). Thi c

k and P age (2016) e

gh he

dem n

f enaci

he .

Al h

he , di la g a i de, iden if feeling , and h

hem el e and

e e d ing i

a he e f m he

f h man i al

ga den ha in l ed lacing a icke

dne . When e engage

me hing de novo ha didn al ead e i .

Da id n and hi c lleag e a

kindne

inning a

ing ie :

me hing de novo ha didn al ead e i . Wha

ch a em a h , c m a i n, and al

i e c ea ing

ide he f ll

k (2021) in hei iden if ing he e en in inc

a ib e

ch a

e f m a hei highe

ld i h inna e, ba ic g

The belief in he inna e, ba ic g and B

i i e incen i e ,

b ain a e ha d i ed

ac ice ha a e de igned

ec gni ing,

i i i , Da id n (2016)

H man being c me in in

d Ed

i e.

Ach

le el hen lled i h

e , and an im

emen in hei abili

calm hem el e

hink e ibl and dela

g a i ca i n. The

k and in igh

n he em i nal c l f

e ha i e abli hed in ch

i i e em i n ,

e ec i e eaching den b

hei

f Ach , F ed ick n, and Da id n ha e di ec bea ing l and indica e ha he einf cemen

i i e ela i n hi , and

a egie

a egie ha add e

cial-em i nal de el

men a

e e e a he f n ell.

nda i n f

he academic

cce

209 R. B

& S. B

: Sc

C a e

AF a e

d Ed

G de O

The challenge, e eciall gi en he ng ing di c

na i

,i h

c ea e

i i e em i n and a

ha B b (2006) ha efe ed

in in ic m i a i n, c In

e en a i n f

heal h clinician . I i f

i i e clima e in

a a m i a ing en i nmen

ed ca

in hich

a egie

, e f en a k, Wha he ie g ide

den ? We

belief ha if e a e

den , e m

h le child ha n

e a i n, e ilience, and acc m li hmen h i e.

in e ac i n and lea ning

ed ca

i n ca ed b

e a imila

me he

e abli h g ide

nl emb ace academic

men al

le f a cha i ma ic

di ec cce

e i nf

and add e

cial-em i nal g

(Page , 2019). A f ame

k ha

ad ca e and ca ing, e

e belie e e na e

ide bl e in f

i h he

a egie

eng h-ba ed a

ach e

einf ce lea ning, in in ic m i a i n,

n ibili , and e ilience ha been

ed b

ch l gi

Ed a d Deci

and Richa d R an (Deci & Fla e, 1995; Deci, K e ne , & R an, 2001; Deci & R an, 2000). The ha e labeled hei f ame SDT i be kn

n a a he

ha e de ailed in hi cha e igni cance f in e e ch

elf-de e mina i n he

f in in ic m i a i n, i al ch a

nal ela i n hi

nal c n in in

(SDT). While

incl de

he c nce

i i e em i n , and he

encing di e en

gani a i n and

l. A ba ic

m i a ed

emi e f Deci and R an

engage in a k

emi e i a

lied

cla

m ,i

em i n and ela i n hi

i ha

le ill be in in icall

hen ce ain inne need a e being a i ed. When hi

need f m he m men he

gge

in e ac

ha ed ca ih

ha ec e he f

den

h f c ill hel

nda i n f

n mee ing he e c ea e

academic and

ii e cial-em i nal

cce . F

Need Th e familia

i h Gla e

(1998, 1999) ch ice he

B kenleg, and Van B cke n (1990) Ci cle f C imila i ie be

een hei f ame

k and ha

age a

and B end

ach ill ee he

ed b Deci and R an. All h ee

219 R. B

& S. B

: Sc

C a e

d Ed

he ie a e ba ed n a i f ing a ic la need . The f

need

lined b Deci and

R an (2000) incl de: The Need to Belong and Feel Connected A

e ha e em ha i ed h

eache and

den i e en ial f

and lea ning ill h i e. A edica ed n n

i h ad l , ma be m e di c l

and feel afe in

A n ed ea lie , e en eemingl na

den (B

agemen , lea ning each

den (e en i he beha i

i h ha child. While

den ,

engage han

i h ime, a ience, and em a h e en he e challenging

den can c me

ha e a lifel ng im ac

een

le f a cha i ma ic ad l in a child life i

ing a en e f c nnec edne

den , e belie e ha

i i e ela i n hi be

c ea ing a m i a ing en i nmen in hich eaching

ming he

gi en a nega i e in e ac i n

enc

hi cha e , a

den

e ence.

mall ge

n he a

f an ed ca

can

k , 1991). A mile, a a m g ee ing, a n e f name, mee ing al ne f

all in he face f he andemic) a e b

f a cha i ma ic eache and hel

den

a fe min e

iha

e e al ac i i ie ha de ne feel elc me and c nnec ed

hei eache . Ba ade and O Neill, (2016), hen de c ibing he em i nal c l gani a i n, ha e b e ed he im

ance f eemingl

mall ge

mic m men . P i i e mic m men ha e been labeled mic a nega i e mic m men a e ie ed a mic m men a li le ac

mall ge

f kindne

ha he call ma i n

hile

mic agg e i n . Ba ade and O Neill de c ibe

e a he han b ld decla a i n

and

e f an

can add

f feeling. F

an em i nal c l

e am le,

e cha ac e i ed b

ca ing and c m a i n ( . 61). Ab d

f e ea ch ha f

g ee ing a he d Pak a , 2007; B

nd im e i e e l f m eache di la ing

(PGD ) a he beginning f a cla k , 2019; C

The e e ea che e amined he im ac

den

d , C k and

den in 10 cla

f ce ain eache beha i

m. The PGD incl ded he f ll name.

l da (Alida &

k e al, 2018, Te eda, 2018). In ne

hi c lleag e (2018) in l ed m e han 200 middle ch

den en e ed hei cla

a ch

ii e

a he d

ing ge

m. a

229 R. B

& S. B

: Sc

C a e

d Ed

Make e e c n ac . U e a f iendl , n n e bal g ee ing Gi e a fe A kh

f enc

ch a a hand hake, high

h mb -

agemen .

hei da i g ing.

The eache in l ed in he

ed ha he PGD

a eg

a eali ic

and ea nable gi en he man demand he face. C

k e al. (2018) n ed ha PGD led

and a 9% dec ea e in di im

ed in cla

i e beha i

eache al ead kn

a 20% inc ea e in

. Te eda (2018) b e ed, B h mea

he e eache g ee ed hei

. Mee ing

den engagemen

den

den , c n ming ha man

em i nal need i j

a im

an a mee ing

hei academic need . Ob i

l , he e

i i e ac i n

l da . Mic a

ma i n

l da (and ch

l ea ) and, hen

ha eache

end

A h b id

n he

all

ld n

ld be e

den and hei

beha i /acc m li hmen

eache

ible, e en af e ch a en ab

den

he e ha n

he beginning f he

e ed in a gen ine fa hi n h

n e

e ed

ab ence f in- e

i i e ela i n

ci n

ecial challenge f

e bel nging and c nnec edne . While he

ne ill

ch c ea i i

ai n f

Sch

l. A

c i n, a eam f 8 h g ade

en i nmen ha an i

c mm ni

ld all

den and am ng

n he a

den e en in he

f he c lleag e a We

m ing c nnec edne cial den

e faced in

ia a h b id m del f

die eache c n ide ed h engage in di c

n Middle

ide an

e i h ne an he , deba e

, and bec me m e ac i e a ici an in hei

gh a em e/h b id m del.

Wi h a c i ical f m fg

in hich

n in e ac i n .

S anne i ne ed

he im

ia b ief email

challenge a e f midable, e ha e been im e ed i h he c ea i e a eache ha e f

a .

em e m del f in

c ea e an a m

be c n ned

di c

e iden ial elec i n l i n

ming and a na i n di ided, dial g e in he

a needed m e han e e . H

ic i n , he e e e e e al ba ie

in- e

e e , gi en COVID k. A he beginning f he

239 R. B

& S. B

l ea , Wedne da

( n he

: Sc

he da

C a e

e e f ll

d Ed

em e, i h b h c h

f he eek hen ne c h

a ended in- e

a ended em el a he ame ime). Engaging Z

ded

den

engaging g

fel m e c mf

able and illing

ha e in a la ge g ha ing

f ma h

c nnec

ide addi i nal ide i h e

ed hem e ing man

ld ee each

face . e

helmed, aff f

. The e ffice h

den indi id all ,

ha e c n e a i n

nd a

l ea , hen

al a endance a midda , eache

c nnec and c llab a e i h

. Simila l , d ing in- ch

den

ach a he

each. A he beginning f he ch

ffice h

gh hich

al a

i n . In a mall g

den fel i la ed and

e e di mi ed f m hei

a hel and mall g

f ad le cen

m , hich all

e e able

ne c

hem i h inc ea ed e

he c h

a ici a e and ha e hei idea han he

ha e e

Rec gni ing ha man den

di c

. In addi i n, he

ea ma k

nZ m

ac i i ie . The Z m echn l g

mee in b eak

engage in li el and in e ac i e mall g

ge he

n, he

ch a la ge g

m eemed a da n ing a k. The eache ada ed hei

elec ed and im lemen ed hei m a

c ming

ffe ed 1:1

be an in al able

check in i h hem, and

l ma k b eak , aff

inel

i h hem hile b e ing hei f ll facial

e i n in a m e ela ed e ing. A he a ad i

cla

f he ch ha

eek, a di e en h lida ,

ggling

gh f l hing

c me

been f

a e nd

i h idea

l im lemen ed a em e

cial-em i nal de el men . Each le

nd he Thank gi ing

e e g a ef l f , and m e

me ne did f

eci call , Wha

ecen l . When

n hei

. ). A he end f he le

n in hei life f n

den

ed. In ne ad i

e e a ked ha he

he e h ee eache email

a f c ed n ic a di c

den

ne kind

l ea , he middle ch

m n,

den

e e gi en (e.g., I m g a ef l f den

h m he a e g a ef l. E

e e a ked e i n

e ell-being and e ilience (Teh, 2019; Th m

i e hank f g a i de ha e

n, 2020).

The Need for Self-Determination and A tonom

e en a i n f

feel

a e enc

aged

ed ca

ef e

e mi ed

en l a k, Wha ch ice

make ab

k and

deci i n

249 R. B

& S. B

: Sc

C a e

n ibili ie ? and If e a ked cla

m, h

ld he

in in ic m i a i n, e

den

ha ch ice and deci i n he ha e in

nd? We

nal c n

e he e

(2022) ab

and b n

in he eaching

he ha e c n

nda i n

Deci and R an a i de in hei cla

ha i m

Simila l

hen ad l

eek and ackn

in ended

ill be ea ie f

ha he

na el , hile hi i

iden if fac

eache

i h hei

hich

den . We

i i e,

imi ic

i being hea d and alida ed.

den , in in ic m i a i n and a en e f ledge hei in

minimi e an e en ial nding in

hen he belie e hei in

ng e be e mi ed

eache

a d and in e ac i n

agemen i n

f R bi aille and LeB

m . Unf

age eache

ch a hei a i de

make clea ha hi enc

ne hi

ill be n

(Me ill & G n e , 2021). Thi d e n ha e e he

i hb

a he ha he be

ha e hei idea e en if ad l di ag ee i h hem. S ch an in i a i n

eng hen

blem- l ing and deci i n-making kill .

The e a e man e am le e ing. A

ne ill

f he bene

made deci i n ab ell a

f einf cing elf-de e mina i n in he ch

a i n, B b de c ibed ha ing

ible cha i ie he be

h im

den elec he i

blem ld, I

im le ch ice e l ed in i h a highe

den

elec ed a cha i

ali .

and hen

ai e m ne . The e ac i i ie einf ced academic l, eemingl

mall ch ice

emen in m i a i n and e ilience. Teache k

den c nd c e ea ch ab

k , 2006b). The

cial-em i nal kill . In an he ch

f hich h me age,

me c n

fe i n, man

an i e in hei cla

f en an acc a e a e men , e ill enc

n e

e ha e

e n ed ea lie in ci ing he b e a i n

feel he ha e li le a in ha

in i ed

ince a f

li e .

Sadl , a

im l

e i n

i i e em i n , and e ilience i he belief

ice a e being hea d and e ec ed and ha

an i e in

d Ed

d . F

den a ch ice

in ance, if he e e e eigh

ch ice. Y hink ill hel den n

e ed

ha e

blem

e ie all eigh

lea n be . Teache

nl c m le ing hei h me

d ced a

blem , b b e ed ha hi

he did

259 R. B

& S. B

Di ci lina

: Sc

l ea , Wha

c mf

ne hi . Teache can a k

le d

able and lea n be ? Once

ld like

like me ld like

f ge a

ea ie f

den

de c ibing h

c n ide he

Gi en he an ie

den in

feel and

le. If I d , hi i h ld like

be eminded, h

den inf m eache h

e e ience a eache

eminde a a

a ; in addi i n, i i

f being eminded if eache

e e a m del b

be eminded.)

cia ed i h em e and h b id lea ning d ing he andemic, e

ec mmended ha eache enc

all

ha he eache ha

c n an l h

ld like

likel

hea

ld like

le? (When

be eminded, he a e le

f m f nagging and m e likel

ne I

inci le

den a he beginning f he

eache I ma f ge a

ha I ha e men i ned h

emind

le a e e abli hed i h he eache

be eminded. (Teache can li

eminded.) N

hen g ided b

hink e need in hi cla

g idance, eache can add, E en a I

d Ed

ac ice can ha e m e e ec i e e l

elf-de e mina i n and ch

C a e

age

den

gh eaching and lea ning e e

king and ha he

ide eg la feedback

g e ing, ha he

ld ec mmend changing. The in l emen

iding feedback einf ced a feeling f

ne hi and e

nal c n

den in l and e ed

le en an ie . When S anne in e ie a eemingl fel

im le e

den a

cce f l (ei he in ch

f he e ing

- a

ce , he al a

e i n; In ha i a i n ha e

ide f ch

l)? and In ha i a i n ha e

ggled? When e ing i c m le ed, S anne c nd c a feedback e i n i h he den d ing hich he en eci c a ea

eng h and

e ha he ec mmenda i n and lne abili ie ha he

in e ie . S anne ha f nd ha e cei ed a ea in hei

fb h

hen he ha

m e a i ea

f hi ach

den a ic la ed d ing he

b ained he in

den ab

hei

eng h and challenge , he bec me m e engaged and in e ed

n lea ning and in adhe ing

den a e lef

a egie e ec he

and n

a egie ha a e im lemen ed. T a ked f

lea ning and a e i ance

hei in

f en

, hich can e l in a

acce ing a ailable

269 R. B

& S. B

: Sc

C a e

Pa en in l emen and in 1991). S anne ha f e eciall f

nd ha

h e a en

en ed f e

ill hel

f a 6 h g ade ( h

den , S anne

e an

he ch

in he a en

e ed. She a n ce ain if hi f

den and a en

ackn

ledge

a engaged and ha he fel

e, he m he e

bec ming acc be

med

bene cial, hei

eache

a en

ch c n e a i n i h

l) and lea ning em el , S anne ne f

ice, and in he c mmen , ha

a he

di c l i ha been f

gani ed i h a h b id ched le. S anne hen

ell i h an i i n and ha

a ne

eall

he a a a en and f

ed ha he da gh e d e n d

l, changing ched le , and

ggling back and f

m lea ning ha been e eciall challenging. She added ha

ela i n hi

i h he ch

n, and nce he i m e c mf ,

able i h a eache

he i hen m ch m e m i a ed ha feedback and a ked he

d he

e mi i n

ha e

l Team. D ing he IEP mee ing, S anne efe enced he

eng h and c nce n ha a ed in

he a en h

a ic la l challenging f

S anne hanked hi m he f

hen inc

? Af e S anne aid, Of

and ee he eache a he

he in igh

een li e eaching and

he da gh e i a

icall

a an acc a e ead, and, if

da gh e . The a en e lied, D c

cce

a i n.

S anne decided

a ked he a en

den

e i n . D ing ne

a ne

a i n and nega i i

f hi m he

ma imi e

b aining a en feedback ha been e

e ing a

hei c nce n and

he a en

d Ed

h feel di c nnec ed and lack a en e f a ab

child ed ca i n. P i iden if

e e e ec ed d ing ha ini ial c n e a i n, and he

he ed ca i n lan, m ch

he m he

a i fac i n.

The Need to Feel Competent In he ea l 1980 B b in de c ibed i im

ance and a

ea l in hi ca ee in mee ing ha ha been efe ed

d ced he me a h lica i n in ch

l (B

f i land

f c m e ence and

k , 1991). He b e ed ha

i h a en and eache , he a di ec ed fa

a he medical m del, namel , iden if ing and

a he han f c ing and b ilding n in hi ca ee i eemed ea nable

eng h (G ld ein & B B b

f c

n a child

he ea n a en and eache c n ac ed him. B b had li le a

m ch b ing de ci ,

k , 2021). A ha blem

ince ha

ecia i n ha

in a

ending

279 R. B

& S. B

an in dina e am be in en i n

: Sc n

C a e

f ime iden if ing ha

f hel ing he child

d Ed a

i h a child

e en i h he

einf ced nega i e em i n and e imi m in he

igni can ad l in he child life. A ec gni i n f he nega i e em i n being elici ed in he e mee ing hif hi a

ach. In hi

f he child

child (

den )

di c c

me f

add e

child (

hei m

eache had di c l

di c

gh j he child

e l ing ne

nde

d in e m ing

a egie

e e,n

e e

ld be hel f l if

eng h

ha I call hei

in ance, R

he child in e e

eng h , B b n iced in m

hel

and he

in ance a hif in

imi m a acc m anied b a g ea e he child. Thi

hif in m

he im ac

d ma n

i i e em i n

enabling hem

he clinician and e ea che ha e em ha i ed he

eng h a a

ce f in in ic m i a i n and e ilience.

e (1985), in de c ibing e ilien indi id al , b e ed, E

in ne a ena f life led c

em e

hich e d be ii e eng h

e ience

enhanced elf-e eem and a feeling f elf-e cac , cce f ll

i h he

( . 604). Ka (1994) n ed, Being able

ha e hem al ed b im

i n ab

blem- l ing kill (Ach , 2010; Da id n, 2016; F ed ick n, 2009).

igni cance f einf cing

ada a i n

iden if ing a child i land

f he e ea ch n ed ea lie ab

Deci and R an (2000) and

ha e a

child

he child. Once he igni can ad l in a

d and mind e . A ene ed en e f

enne

n he

den )

me f

iden if

blem . H

ld engage hem in a di c

child life began

ggle , I hink i

child (

ac i i ie ha he n iced b

cce

e e al

f c m e ence.

c m e ence, B b

le ing me kn

he e

den )

ie a

When a en

ecia e

den ). I hink i

blem if e a e

ld ell me ha i land

i h a en and eache , af e hea ing ab

blem , he aid, I a

c nce n ab (

e i n

m ed B b

le in

en life challenge and h

li e , hel

ca e de ne

alen , and iden i ie a

( . 10). ne can be e abli hed a he beginning f he ch den . Teache ha e ha ed i h

lied he c nce

f i land

e am le

f c m e ence in hei ch

l ea b f c ing f he a

l . In ne ch

in he l

289 R. B den

& S. B

: Sc

e e a ked

da a

in he ch ch

l l bb . A

l, he

C a e eng h

ne eache

d Ed

in e e

f hei . Each d a ing a di la ed

b e ed, A

hing e ee a e e am le

den , a ,

f each

den

a en en e he

eng h . Wha a

ii e

ne ha e . In a middle ch da

l, a eache decided n

f ch

iece f a e

a he

den

m ed an en h ia ic di c

enj ed and f ged cl e

den ela i n hi , and ea

An he a

a eg f

den beha i

ach

eache

a i

hel

di c

a e he i land f c m e ence ac i i

den

feel c m e en i

f fail e i

he e

in be e e a ed f

g al b

a elf-f l lling

ld he a

hec f

f h milia i n. One ible mi ake and

k , 2016). A echni

ible b acle ha ma eme ge ibili

ha hinking ab

b acle

fail e, Oe ingen ec mmend ha an c

e i h he e

ea .

nd ha hi echni

e, hich he call

c me han hen ne f c e b acle and e back a

eache di c

e back ha ma a i e, and h

n g al

ell a kn

blem- l ing kill and a en e f e lied in he cla

a he

le en hei fea

ed in a fea

ible i a i n (B

each he e g al . T a id he

Oe ingen (2014) f

ed hen c m a ed

i n f e back be acc m anied i h a c n ide a i n f h

e back

and

ed b Oe ingen (2014). She ad ca e ha in an

e nde ake, e iden if n

migh c n ib e

ac i i ie he

l ea ha in in ic m i a i n,

den deal m e e ec i el

e a e hem f

e a em

ed ha hi

ha ed c mm n in e e

he ch

hen

l ea .

manage fail e ha been

e ed. She

den ab

e e igni can l im

inc

l . We belie e ha fea

e back i

a he

k n he

n n a mall, ci c la

m. She e

i n am ng he

ne m n h in

hen he did n

beginning f he ch

fail e in ch

ied

f he

den ela i n hi

eng h . She c mmen ed af e

ih a

d ce an academic

ha he belie ed a an i land f c m e ence he

laced each ci cle n a la ge b a d a he f n e e ci e

nal c n

ing

men al c n a ing, e l ed nl

n b acle . Being

a egie f

ing einf ce

l. Men al c n a ing can be

ing g al f

lea ning,

e i h he e ad e i ie . In he

ible mi ake and le a a ch

299 R. B

& S. B

: Sc

C a e

ch l gi , S anne eg la l ha enc

n e and he a

di c

c m e encie he

d Ed

den an ici a e ine i able challenge he ma

in hich he

i n einf ce in

ill c nf n he e i a i n . Thi kind f

den a en e f em

e men and an a

ecia i n f he

e .

The Need to E perience a Sense of P rpose Ea lie in hi cha e einf ced hen e (B

e n ed ha in in ic m i a i n and e ilience a e

le a e in l ed in ac i i ie ha en ich he li e

k , 1991) ha efe ed

c n ib

l , ne f he

hei fa

i e mem ie

ad l aid

l hen he

f m he ea l 20

l in

he milk and

en heme ci ed b

me manne . An

I fel eall g

he : A

n m

dee l m i a ed n hei de i e

he e

ne f

me hing a eache

nden , h

anged in age e e a ked

hen a eache a ked me

e and im

a d ma e

me g ea e

nge

ac i i ie , Pink (2007), ci ing he

gh ab

king

hel

a e he lan in he l bb .

ance f c n ib

in he e ice f

ing he li e

e f m a high le el . B

h e

bjec i e can achie e e en m e. The m e

men i n h e h a e m

d c i e and a i ed

hi ch

a ca e la ge han hem el e . ( . 131) c n lai n

ggling in ch

l, e

i h eache ab

belief,

in l ed in c n ib

a ic la

den , e eciall

icall a k, If e in e ie ed hi

ne hing he d a he ch

a ? I i

den ,

de c ibe

I l ed hen a eache a ked me

k f Deci and R an, ha ed hi h

ha i

b ie

e incl ded, I emembe

d hen I a a ked

ing he im

e i nnai e lled

he ea l 70 , in l ed an cca i n hen he

a ch

h d

nden

did ha einf ced hei elf-e eem, m i a i n, and digni .

One f he m

child.

e i n he a ked e f ch

he , ha B b

cha i able ac i i ie . Thi i

b h child en and ad l . In e ea ch ha B b c nd c ed ia a an n m

l ha hel

ed b n me ac i i ie

a ch

den and a ked hem

den

e ea ch nding , ha l

h e

ch in l emen n

a , ha hen

ld he den a e

e hei en e f

e and bel nging, hich einf ce hei in in ic m i a i n in he ch

l e ing.

309 R. B

& S. B

: Sc

C a e

An e am le f he im ac C

ncil e

f hel ing

d Ed

he in ch

(1989). The ci ed The Val e Y

in hich he d

ni ie

n ed ha he l

O he ill

igni can l

nge

hen he

den . The Ca negie e

a ema kable ince all f he

ice and e e eading a lea

ii e e l

blem , an im

a c f

e ing f he d

al ead been lef back g ade. O he

e ea

a n ed in a Ca negie

h Pa ne hi P g am in San An ni

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ide he n m and

gene a i n i

i hmen f

in in ic

ha e a lifel ng im ac

den .

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d g Mea

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Re-

g Sch

Ma He e I d -Ya , Ed.D. Fahm a d D a A allah Chai i H ma i ic P ch l g ; Di ec , USC Ce e f Affec i e Ne cie ce, De el me , Lea i g a d Ed ca i (CANDLE); P fe f Ed ca i , P ch l g & Ne cie ce, R ie Sch l f Ed ca i , U i e i S he Calif ia O e

Solving the Frankenstein Problem: Why all learning is social and emotional to the brain Emotions and social relationships shape our thoughts, actions, and experiences—how we think and who we become—not just personally, but academically. How and why is this the case? And what does this mean for teachers and the design of educational environments and activities? In this presentation, Dr. Immordino-Yang will present her research on emotional engagement in the brain, showing how deep learning relies on executive functions as well as on capacities for reflection, and highlighting the interdependencies of thoughts, feelings and memories as students learn. Her neuroscience studies reveal how effective schooling is not simply about what students know and can do, but about how students learn to learn, and about how they experience the learning process. The findings underscore the necessity of supporting students humanity—their character, citizenship, belonging and purpose—to optimally support their academic growth. The findings also reveal the hidden asset that all students (and teachers!) bring: the power of meaning-making to grow the brain. Re e e ce Gotlieb, R., Yang, X. F., & Immordino-Yang, M. H. (2022). Default and executive networks' roles in diverse adolescents' emotionally engaged construals of complex social issues. S cial c g i i e a d affec i e e cie ce, 17(4), 421–429. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsab108 Immordino‐Yang, M.H., & Knecht, D.R. (2020). Building Meaning Builds Teens' Brains. Ed ca i al Leade hi , 77, 36-43. https://www.ascd.org/el/articles/building-meaning-builds-teens-brains

The b ai ba i f i eg a ed cial, em i al, a d academic de el me . The Aspen Institute. (2020, February 12). Retrieved from https://www.aspeninstitute.org/publications/the-brain-basis-for-integrated-social-emotional-and-a cademic-development/

Immordino-Yang, M.H., & Knecht, D.R. (2020). Building Meaning Builds Teens' Brains. Educational Leadership, 77, 36-43. © 2020 by ASCD. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. Visit ASCD at www.ascd.org.

Building Meaning

Builds Teens’ Brains Connecting adolescents’ concrete work to big ideas may help shape their neural networks over time. Mary Helen Immordino-Yang and Douglas R. Knecht Big understandings are the building blocks of lifeworthy learning. —David Perkins

he science of learning and development is opening up promising lines of educational thinking and practice (Immordino-Yang, 2015). For adolescents in particular, emerging longitudinal research from Mary Helen’s team at the University of Southern California is revealing that the changing connectivity among the brain’s major networks across early to middle adolescence is predictive of success in school, self-actualization, relationship satisfaction, and other positive indicators in early adulthood (Gotlieb, Yang, & Immordino-Yang, in preparation). This raises critical questions: What do these neural networks do? How can we know when young people are building them? What kind of learning experiences strengthen connectivity across these networks? Presently, we (Mary Helen and Doug) are

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collaborating across our institutions to explore these questions by conducting research that bridges dynamic classroom spaces with the controlled settings of the neuroscience lab. This joint project rests on the fundamental premise that human beings construct narratives about the world and their experiences in it—in effect, whether in math class or at the dinner table, people tell themselves stories about who they and others are, how the world works and why. And we are building on a key insight from Mary Helen’s research: Among teenagers, these meaning-making narratives are related to the activity and changing connectivity of the networks in their brains—the very networks that predict long-term outcomes. When the USC team talked to teenagers about how they think and feel about themselves and the things they witness in the world, and asked the kids to think about stories that invoke those big issues during brain scanning, the researchers could make general predictions about the teens’ future development as a

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person and scholar based on the depth and range of what they said and their brain activity. While these findings do not present a silver bullet, the fact that the findings held above and beyond the predictive power of metrics like IQ and family socioeconomic status1 suggests that they reveal something foundational about adolescents’ learning. At first pass, this may seem like sci-fi or developmental determinism, but in fact it is the opposite of deterministic. The conversations with teenagers revolved around important matters like how they choose their friends, think about their parents, and understand their ethnic identity; how they see their current schooling as contributing to their future; what academic subjects they enjoy most and why; why gang violence exists in their neighborhood and what could improve the situation; and how they feel when learning about true stories the researchers shared of teens from around the world (for instance, the story of Malala Yousafzai as a young teen in Pakistan). Over the course of these private conversations, the participating teenagers revealed, through the narratives they told, their dispositions of mind: their inclinations to engage reflectively with issues and ideas, their tendencies to be curious and compassionate, and their proclivities to use what they learn to inform their emerging values. As the research team followed the teens over time into young adulthood, they could see how the patterns of thinking and feeling associated with these dispositions appeared to be influencing the growth of the networks of their brains. What’s more, a related series of studies by Mary Helen’s team (Riveros et al., in preparation) is 38

showing that dispositions toward constructing such narratives can be developed, providing hope that changing educational practices to support the development of these dispositions could positively impact learners across ability levels and demographic lines. The implications for education could be powerful.

It seems to be that the way kids think, more than what they know, grows their brains over time. The Stories Teens Tell Although our coordinated neuroscientific and classroom studies are still in progress, educating for dispositions of mind is not new—in fact it is highly consistent with a century of educational research and theory (for example, Dewey, Montessori, Bruner, Perkins, Gardner), as well as with Doug’s decades of experience working with successful progressive public secondary schools. But tying these dispositions to neural development, life success, and mental health gives this effort new urgency, and points us due north in an attempt to reimagine adolescents’ schooling. Evidence suggests that educators can learn to recognize, model, and support the development of these dispositions if they know what kind of narratives to listen for and what kind of learning experiences lead to these patterns of thinking. Consider the following quotes from young people participating in private interviews in Mary Helen’s research lab, explaining why they

believe there is violent crime in their neighborhood: “Why does it happen? Because they take actions or do things that don’t benefit them. They just get caught up in the moment. . . .” “I guess it’s just bad decisions that they make and they have to suffer the consequences.” “They have, like, a lot of emotions. They’re really mad so they just kill somebody. Like, overly aggressive, yeah. . . .”

Now contrast the previous three quotes with the following three: “. . . [Violence] is a cycle. Like if you really look at it . . . it happens probably because their family is in a gang and they just follow it ‘cause that’s their role models, where they came from. . . .” “Everyone has a history. Like, everybody has an action or a choice, or some sort of history, some sort of thing happened to them that affects how they act in the future. . . .” “. . . Because many people say how Watts [a Los Angeles neighborhood] is really bad, and sometimes people who live there believe it, so they start doing the bad things [people] say they probably do. . . . I think, like, people do what other people think they do.”

Our research suggests that the difference between the first three and the last three quotes is subtle but potentially critical—for psychological growth, social-emotional wellbeing, and for the brain. The first three youths’ statements are correct, reflecting the proximal reasons for criminal acts. However, unlike the second three quotes, the ones in the first set do not reveal awareness of the bigger picture or the broader historical or cultural context in which individuals commit crimes. Yes, at the crime scene, the perpetrator “gets caught up in the moment,”

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is “overly aggressive,” and makes a “bad decision.” But some teens talked also about how this criminal moment doesn’t happen in a vacuum; it is situated in a complex personal and community “history,” a “cycle” that is perpetuated by relationships, expectations, and what people come to “believe.” The subtle distinction is between concrete narratives that address the emotions, actions, and consequences of the “here-and-now” (or “thereand-then”), and abstract narratives that incorporate reflections on the broader systems, processes, and contextual factors that transcend what is directly observable in a situation. This distinction turns out to be key, whether youth are talking about gang violence, school disciplinary practices, their hopes for the future, or what they are learning in academic classes. This is not just about engaging students cognitively to build higherorder thinking skills or to think abstractly and metacognitively, though, of course, these are necessary aspects of deeper learning. Instead, adolescents on the path to higher levels of academic achievement and self-actualization showed cognitive and emotional dispositions toward both concrete and abstract meaning-making in their narratives. They constructed a compelling story for themselves that integrates information about the individual situations, facts, actions, and emotions that seem most salient, and then effortfully deliberated on this story by connecting to larger patterns, systems, beliefs, or values they have been exposed to that seem pertinent. The result is a narrative that explains the here-and-now in terms of a bigger, deeper, personally

relevant, and intellectually satisfying understanding. Make no mistake: It was not enough for participants to just have an emotional response, or to parrot words that indicated some level of interest, empathy, or understanding, saying what one thinks one should say. For kids to show these developmental effects over time, they had to also show the brain activity patterns that suggested they were doing the emotionally driven work of deep thinking for themselves. Whole Brain, Whole Learner Current studies are revealing that adolescents undergo major developmental changes in their brain networks—that is, in how the different regions of their brains “talk” to one another, co-regulate, and coordinate. These developmental changes are shaped by experience and education, and support intelligence and mental health (Immordino-Yang, DarlingHammond, & Krone, 2018). Tighter communication across brain regions during this developmental period is thought to support teenagers’ blossoming abilities to infer, reflect, and make connections, and to enable the higher-level cognition that undergirds abstract narratives, including personal, cultural, and emotional meaning-making. It is important to note that, through their co-regulation and coordination, each of the brain’s networks contributes to social, emotional, and cognitive functioning— there is no one network or region that processes only one of these. It is the networks’ interdependence that strengthens the rationale for a whole

learner approach to education, and likely explains why, when done well, such an approach is so powerful. Why is the narrative building process so compelling to teenagers, and so tied to their growth and wellbeing? In adolescence, the emotional engine that drives the hard work of learning comes from connecting the

goings-on, procedures, and tasks of the here-and-now to newly emerging big-picture ideas that, in essence, become a person’s abstract narratives. Crucially, these stories are connected to individuals’ sense of self and values, and to their scholarly skills, resulting in agentic scholarly identity, durable understanding, and transferable capacities. To get a sense of why, we return to the brain. Changing Neural Networks Mary Helen’s research builds on many others’ work to reveal three main components of narrativebuilding, supported by three of the brain’s major networks: affective ASCD /

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salience, effortful attending, and broader reflection (see fig. 1).

FIGURE 1. Constructing Our Narratives

Affective Salience Whether via concrete or abstract narratives, noticing the emotional implications of the stories and feeling emotionally moved was associated with increased brain activation in regions that communicate sensation in the “guts” and heart and that are involved in sensing internal body states. Among these are the brain regions that tell you when you have a stomachache or that your heart is pounding after running up the stairs, and those that make you feel a jolt of arousal when you notice something you care about, like that a favorite song is playing or that you’ve made an error. These regions together constitute the brain’s Salience Network (SN). The SN weighs the relevance and perceived importance and urgency of information to facilitate further thinking. One can think of the kids’ emotional engagement and SN activity as fueling motivated thinking, either concrete or abstract, like the outboard motor that both pushes the boat and steers it. Effortful Attending Concrete talk was associated with increased activity in the Executive Control Network (ECN). The ECN facilitates attention, allowing people to hold information in mind, shift strategies as necessary, and focus on the completion of goal-directed tasks. This network is important for ignoring extraneous information and distractions, regulating emotions, maintaining goals and focus, and controlling impulses. Tellingly, the results also showed that the more a teen had talked concretely in the interview—understanding the proximal issues at hand and 40

Default Mode Network

Brain Stem

Salience Network

Thinking deeply is essentially telling complex, emotionally engaging stories to ourselves. In research conducted by Mary Helen Immordino-Yang, individuals watched videos depicting true stories while undergoing fMRI scanning. When participants reported finding the story emotionally meaningful and personally relevant, the orange areas in the brain images above showed coordinated activation. These areas fall within the Default Mode Network and Salience Network, in addition to the brain stem, which is critical for consciousness, attention, and basic survival functions like breathing and heartrate. (The Executive Control Network was also involved but isn’t visible in these views.) So, what does this coordinated activity mean? The way individuals make meaning is cognitive and emotional at once—like a good story. And deep, meaningful thinking actually taps into basic survival processes, in essence making the thinker feel more alive, like their work is personal, and like what they think and do matters. No wonder adolescents can become so inspired and motivated when their work feels connected to big, life-relevant ideas! Source: Image adapted from Immordino-Yang, M. H., Darling-Hammond, L., & Krone, C. (2018). Data from Immordino-Yang, M. H., McColl, A., Damasio, H., & Damasio, A. (2009). Neural correlates of admiration and compassion. PNAS, 106(19), 8021–8026.

emotionally empathizing with people’s situations in the “here-andnow”—the better their relationships (such as with diverse peers and teachers). Broader Reflection Building abstract narratives— bringing to bear broader

interpretations and values and invoking systems-level explanations—was associated with increased activation in key regions in the brain’s Default Mode Network (DMN), especially if the teens also reported feeling strongly emotional about the story or issue. The DMN is activated when reflecting, imagining

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hypothetical or possible future scenarios, remembering the past, and processing morally relevant information. It is important for conceptual understanding, reading comprehension, creativity, nonlinear and “out-of-the-box” thinking, for constructing a sense of self, and for feeling inspired (ImmordinoYang, 2016). The most compelling results in Mary Helen’s research involved the changing “cross-talk” among the networks, and only revealed themselves over time. The more adolescents built abstract narratives and deliberated in emotionally motivated ways about the issues and stories we discussed with them (facilitated by the SN), the more growth they showed two years later in the connectivity between the ECN and the DMN. Even when teens just rested and daydreamed in the brain scanner two years later, the network that supports self-directed and regulated behavior and emotion, and the network that supports reflective, big-idea thinking, were better coordinated in teens whose narratives had been not just concrete, but also abstract. This coordination between ECN and DMN, in turn, predicted better personal and scholarly outcomes in young adulthood. In short, though more research is needed and many questions remain, the findings suggest that adolescents grow the power of their brains (and selves) by thinking with and through complexity, cycling between concrete and abstract thought—and that this process both drives and is driven by their emotions.2 Teens’ tendencies to engage empathically in the here-andnow helps them to manage, regulate, and maintain good relationships. But it is their growing dispositions to also transcend the here-and-now,

Effective education supports students toggling between the concrete and the abstract, the here-and-now skills (“fractions”) and the big ideas (“infinity”). to build narratives that connect their skills to big ideas that reflect systems, histories, and values, that enables more fully their brain development and fulfillment in young adulthood. The implication is that educators must create cultures and learning experiences that enable this developmental process. Consistent with a century of progressive educational thinking, it seems to be that the way kids think, more than what they know, grows their brains over time. Relevance Redefined The transcripts and findings from Mary Helen’s research resonate with Doug’s experiences working in schools, including those associated with the New York Performance Standards Consortium, that empower adolescents to build strong relationships with peers, staff, and the content they are exploring together in-depth. These schools engage their students in choosing and pursuing open-ended, projectbased coursework, and then leverage student interest to broaden exposure to new knowledge, concepts, skills, and questions. Ultimately, these schools expect and support their students to make sense of all that they are discovering through writing, problem solving, dialogue, and reflection, culminating in presentations and defenses of extended performance-based assessments in front of panels of teachers, external evaluators, and other students.

This kind of approach—rather than a predominant focus on testing— creates the conditions for adolescents to connect their emotional selves to their burgeoning intellect. Concrete and abstract narrative construction occurs in demanding yet pro-social schoolwide and class-specific cultures. This approach is specifically designed to help students affectively recognize the importance of academic issues and problems (think: Salience Network). It then helps students leverage this affective momentum to iteratively cycle between effortful focus on building-block skills and information (think: Executive Control Network) and effortful (and empowering and often inspiring) abstract reflections that connect the work to big ideas relevant to systems and processes in the world (think: coordinated connectivity between the ECN and the Default Mode Network). Consider the following student’s explanation of a performance-based math task about Zeno’s Paradox that he completed for graduation:3 I want to be the first person in my family to graduate from college . . . [but] I never even imagined I could reach that level of math. . . . Math at [my school] has helped me learn mathematically, learn how to think outside the box, in different strategies. When I was given a problem, I had to think in a new way, research ideas I don’t [sic] know before. I have spent two months working on a problem called “walking to the door.” . . . It led me to think about limits and the idea of asymptotes. I had to study fractions to ASCD /

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The way individuals make meaning is cognitive and emotional at once— like a good story.

be able to think about the problem I had. Through doing the problem I got fascinated by finite and infinite. I was able to connect it to my life.

This student’s narrative cycles in self-directed ways between concrete meaning-making (“I had to study fractions”) and abstract meaningmaking (“I got fascinated by finite and infinite”). Through exploring a big problem, but with support for specific skills as needed, this student felt compelled (rather than forced) to learn the necessary math skills, felt empowered (rather than threatened) to make choices, and felt as though the work “connect[ed] to my life.” He had redefined math as relevant, exciting, and worth spending effort on. Teaching to Transcend the Here-and-Now Today, there is a renewed focus on whole-learner approaches in schools, districts, and philanthropy, though now with explicit commitments to cultural responsiveness, traumainformed practices, and restorative justice. Our findings reinforce the importance of these efforts, which focus on pedagogies that support youth in reworking the kinds of abstract narratives they create to affirm their lives, experiences, identities, values, decisions, and possible futures. By situating daily happenings in systems-level contexts with bigger, personal meaning, these pedagogies support youth learning to engage with, but also transcend and eventually reinvent, the hereand-now. In the spirit of bolstering and broadening the current equity reform agenda, and of reimagining developmentally empowering education for all adolescents, here we outline three processes that educators can use to extend narrative building 42

more deeply into academic content, and help adolescents shape their dispositions of mind. The best education for adolescents: 1 Facilitates students building, sharing, debating, and defending strong, self-generated, and abstract narratives, while integrating core, challenging concrete content and skills. Effective education supports students toggling between the concrete and the abstract, the here-and-now skills (“different strategies,” “fractions”) and the big ideas (“infinity”). Note that this cannot be done in a culture of weak intellectual autonomy or tight social control, or with a focus on memorization/recall and test preparation. In those contexts, knowledge and skills are fragile, nontransferable, and uninspiring because they are overly concrete. 2 Enables students to expand the range of topics, skills, and ideas that they are capable of recruiting in the service of enriching and continually re-envisioning these narratives. A classroom and school culture of sharing and debating narratives about big ideas provides educators the chance to stretch students, and for students to stretch themselves and each other, as they explore less familiar terrain (“I had to . . . research ideas I don’t [sic] know before”; “the problem . . . led me . . .”). The more students can tie big questions and abstract thoughts to the concrete content, procedures, and skills of academic work, the more likely

they will be to: (a) see the concrete content as salient and important (and therefore to work hard); (b) think about learning as a process, akin to a story, that takes time (“I have spent two months . . .”); and (c) begin shifting their dispositions of mind to see the allure and personal relevance of academic knowledge. 3 Provides targeted, situated, differentiated support and instruction for acquiring the building-block skills necessary for accessing information, solving problems, and communicating with others. As adolescents deliberate on big ideas, they come to recognize the salience of concrete problems and tasks that help flesh out these ideas. As this happens, students’ concrete tasks take on a new urgency. Because students are invested in understanding the big idea or problem, they return to the concrete tasks with a new determination (“I had to study fractions to be able to think about the problem I had . . .”). The teacher’s role then is to provide the students the specific supports and resources they need to advance those skills, according to their individual skill levels and profiles. No small part of the teacher’s task here is getting to know each student, and their interests and needs, well. Reinventing Schools for Meaning-Making New research on the connections between adolescents’ narrative building and brain development aligns closely with old lessons from progressive practices. Adolescent learners thrive when provided an environment conducive to building strong, personal narratives that leverage the emotional power of big ideas and abstract meaning-making in the service of motivated work on

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Learn more concrete tasks and skills. Presently, our public school system undercuts much of the approach we outline here, typically focusing on the hereand-now, the what-can-you-recall. Though student-driven approaches are often employed well in extracurricular activities and nonacademic spaces like the arts and afterschool clubs (Mehta & Fine, 2019), success in academics overwhelmingly relies on fast and rote activities. Students build narratives anyway, of course— but these, sadly, do not usually point kids in enlivening and healthy directions. Especially in an era when equity, academic achievement, and adolescents’ mental health are of serious concern, it is crucial to understand that teenagers’ narratives are the means they use to make meaning of their experiences, to invent themselves and their possible futures, and to learn. Although the process will be difficult, impacting all aspects of educational policy and professional training and supports (Forman, Knecht, & FrayOliver, 2020), it is time to enact holistic systemic approaches that make schooling meaningful. EL The findings presented rely on the dissertation research of Rodrigo Riveros, Rebecca Gotlieb, and Christina Krone, and the work of Xiao-Fei Yang. 2 These ideas build on the work of Kurt Fischer, of Harvard Graduate School of Education, Mary Helen’s first mentor in the field. This article is dedicated in his memory (1943–2020). 3 To see this and other students’ presentations, go to https://tinyurl.com/ ubtzh5x. 1

Authors’ note: Special thanks to the National Science Foundation and the Templeton Foundation, key funders of this work. Also, thanks to Intellectual Virtues Academies in Long Beach, CA, Artesia High School in Lakewood, CA, and Elly Katz (sagesandseekers.org), key partners in this research.

References Forman, M. L., Knecht, D., & FrayOliver, T. (2020). Becoming a system of professional learning: Conceptualizing improvement as a throughline of learning. New York: Bank Street College of Education. Gotlieb, R., Yang, X.-F., & ImmordinoYang, M. H. (in preparation). Beyond IQ: Adolescents’ abstract talk predicts subsequent brain development and young adult achievement and well-being. Immordino-Yang, M. H. (2015). Emotions, learning, and the brain: Exploring the educational implications of affective neuroscience. New York: W. W. Norton. Immordino-Yang, M. H. (2016). Emotion, sociality, and the brain’s default mode network: Insights for educational practice and policy. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3(2), 211–219. Immordino-Yang, M. H., DarlingHammond, L., & Krone, C. (2018). The brain basis for integrated social, emotional, and academic development: How emotions and social relationships drive learning. Washington, D.C.: Aspen Institute. Mehta, J., & Fine, S. (2019). In search of deeper learning: The quest to remake the American high school. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Riveros, R., Yang, X.-F., & ImmordinoYang, M. H. (in preparation). Sages and seekers: Intergenerational conversations increase abstract talk and values-oriented purpose among low-SES adolescents.

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Harness the power of parental involvement in diverse classrooms.

Mary Helen Immordino-Yang is professor of Education, Psychology, and Neuroscience at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles, and director of CANDLE (the USC Center for Affective Neuroscience, Development, Learning, and Education). Douglas R. Knecht is vice president of the Bank Street Education Center in the Bank Street College of Education in New York.

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ADHD Symptoms Overlap With “Executive Functions” (EF)

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Organizing, prioritizing, and activating to work

Focusing, sustaining focus, and shifting focus to tasks

Regulating alertness, sustaining effort, and processing speed

Managing frustration and modulating emotions

Utilizing working memory and accessing recall

Monitoring and selfregulating action

1. Activation

2. Focus

3. Effort

4. Emotion

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Brown TE.2005

1. Organize, Prioritize, and Activate

2. Focus, Shift, and Sustain Attention

3. Regulating Alertness, Effort, and Processing Speed

4. Manage Frustration, Modulate Emotion

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6. Monitor and Self-Regulate Action

The Mystery of ADHD: Situational Variability of Symptoms

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TE Brown, Ph.D.,

Emotions Play an Important Role in ADHD

What is emotion? (varieties of pain and/or pleasure) (immediate or anticipated, rarely unitary)

Primary Emotions

Social Emotions

Damasio (2003) Looking for Spinoza: Joy, Sorrow and the Feeling Brain

Emotions and Feelings

Damasio (2003)

Brown Exec Function/Attention Scale-Cluster 4 Managing Frustration and Modulating Emotions

Emotions

Feelings / motivations

Danger at the Curb

Mixed Emotions and a Chocolate Chip Cookie

Bottom-Up Emotion May be too intense or too weak

Emotion energizes Executive Functions (“bottom up” control)

Insufficient ability to “turn on” weaker sensitivity to rewards

“Persistently Bored”

Reward System Impairments in ADHD

(Volkow, Wang, Kollins, et al. JAMA, Sept. 2009)

Increasing Dopamine can Enhance Interest

(Volkow, et al, 2004)

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Parental Temper

Parental Polarization

Burdened, resentful siblings

Safer (2002)

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Self-regulation capacities may be improved by:

Mechanisms of Action of Stimulant Medications Increasing release of dopamine (AMPH)

Slowing reuptake of dopamine (MPH and AMPH)

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References Melt er, L., Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., & Stace , W. (2015). Executive function and peer mentoring: Fostering metacognitive awareness, effort, and academic success. In Harris, K. & Melt er, L.J. (Eds.) T P P :E a L a ,D ,&S a S . New York: Guilford Press. Papert, Se mour. (2002). Hard Fun. Ba Da http://www.papert.org/articles/HardFun.html

Scirri, M. (2021). Homeschooling: How to build executive function strategies, Part 1. SMARTS B . https://smarts-ef.org/blog/homeschooling-a-unique-opportunit -to-build-executive-function-strat egies-part-1/ Singer, B. D., & Bashir, A. S. (1999). What Are Executive Functions and Self-Regulation and What Do The Have to Do With Language-Learning Disorders?. La a , ,a a , 30(3), 265 273. https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461.3003.265 Stein, J. A. (2010). Emotional self-regulation: A critical component of executive function. In L. Melt er (Ed.), P E F Ca (pp. 175 201), Guilford Press. W a E F ?A H D R a C D ? Center on the Developing Child at Harvard Universit . (2020, October 30). Retrieved from https://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/what-is-executive-function-and-how-does-it-relate -to-child-development/

CHAPTER 1

Understanding, Assessing, and Teaching Executive Function Processes The Why, What, and How LYNN MELTZER

John is a puzzle to me. He seems so bright and creative, and he always contributes wonderful ideas to our class discussions. However, he often does not hand in homework, he does not seem to study for tests, and he is usually late with projects. I don’t know if he is just lazy. I wish he was more motivated and invested in his work. —SIXTH-GRADE TEACHER

cademic success in the digital age is increasingly linked not only with students’ technological expertise, but, even more important, with their mastery of such processes as goal setting, planning, prioritizing, organizing, shifting flexibly, holding/manipulating information in working memory, and self-monitoring. Collectively, these are termed executive function processes. Beginning in the early grades, students are now required to organize and integrate a rapidly changing body of information that is available through the Internet and to take greater responsibility for their own learning. Teachers give students lengthy reading and writing assignments, as well as long-term projects, that rely heavily on these executive function processes. Students are also expected to become proficient at note taking, studying, and test taking—all tasks that require the simultaneous organization and integration of multiple subskills. Academic success therefore depends on students’ ability to plan and prioritize their time, organize materials and information, separate main ideas from details, shift approaches flexibly, monitor their own progress, and reflect on their work. As a result, it has become increasingly important for classroom teachers to teach strategies that address executive function processes systematically, in order to help students understand how they think and how they learn. 3

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

This chapter provides a paradigm for understanding and teaching students strategies that address executive function processes. The chapter also begins to describe how to address the needs of the increasing numbers of students who exhibit major weaknesses in such processes. These students benefit from explicit and systematic strategy instruction, as well as from accommodations for classwork and homework. There is a focus on five major themes: 1. What is executive function, and how do selected executive function processes affect academic performance? 2. Why are executive function processes so important? 3. How can teachers begin to understand and informally assess students’ executive function processes? 4. How can teachers address the needs of students with executive function weaknesses? 5. How can core strategies be taught across tasks, content areas, and grades?

WHAT IS EXECUTIVE FUNCTION, AND HOW DO EXECUTIVE FUNCTION PROCESSES AFFECT ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE? I sit down and my mind feels like there’s a hurricane building. I grab an idea . . . if I can think of three good sentences, I go with it. If not, I find another idea. —JOHN, EIGHTH GRADER

Until recently, studies of executive function processes have primarily been the domain of neurologists and neuropsychologists, who have emphasized the importance of the prefrontal cortex in controlling these processes and the behaviors that are affected by them (Anderson, Rani, Jacobs, & Anderson, 2008; Denckla, 1996; Diamond, 2006; Holmes Bernstein & Waber, 2007). Over the past several years, educators have begun to recognize the importance of executive function processes for educational performance. This shift is due in part to clinicians’ efforts to explain why so many extremely bright students fail to perform at the level of their potential, and why certain students present as “poor students” despite their strong performance on short, highly structured, standardized measures (Denckla, 2005, 2007; Meltzer, 2007). In fact, weak executive function processes are often associated with such students’ academic difficulties, and especially with the problems they experience in deploying and coordinating the many skills needed for such tasks as open-ended projects, term papers, and tests. Executive function processes can be explained by using the analogy of a mountaintop view (Meltzer, 2007, 2008a, 2008b) (see Figures 1.1a and 1.1b). A person standing at the top of a mountain has a bird’s eye-view of the entire panorama spread out below—in other words, an overview of the “big picture.” Standing at the bottom of the mountain, the viewer only sees thousands of leaves on individual

Understanding, Assessing, and Teaching

FIGURE 1.1a. The panoramic view from the mountaintop allows students to focus on the major themes or the “big picture.”

FIGURE 1.1b. From the bottom of the mountain, there is only a view of individual trees.

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

trees. Executive function processes allow the viewer to shift back and forth flexibly between the big picture seen from the mountaintop and the numerous details seen from the bottom of the mountain. Just as they do for the viewer on the mountaintop, executive function processes help students to understand the “big picture” or major themes as well as the relevant details and to shift back and forth between the two. In this book, we discuss practical suggestions that teachers can implement to address five key executive function processes: goal setting, planning, and prioritizing; organizing; retaining and manipulating information in working memory; shifting flexibly; and selfmonitoring/self-checking (Meltzer, 2007, 2008a, 2008b; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007). These executive function processes are critically important for all aspects of academic performance.1 Table 1.1 gives both formal and “student-friendly” definitions for several of these processes, as well as examples. Because so many academic tasks require the coordination and integration of multiple subskills, as well as the ability to shift back and forth from the themes to the details, executive function weaknesses can have a significant impact on the accuracy and efficiency of students’ performance. Writing, summarizing, note taking, and reading complex text for meaning may be particularly challenging for students with such weaknesses, whose struggle to produce can be explained by using the analogy of a clogged funnel. This analogy for understanding the impact of weak executive function processes on academic performance is illustrated in TABLE 1.1. Examples of Several Key Executive Function Processes Process

Definition

Example

Prioritizing

Ordering based on relative importance Figuring out what’s most important

Ordering information for written work, projects, and tests Separating main ideas from details on reading and writing tasks

Organizing

Arranging information, systematizing Moving and sorting information

Using charts and graphic organizers for writing Using maps and webs for reading and writing

Using working memory

Manipulating information mentally Juggling information in the brain

Taking notes; completing multistep projects; completing math calculations mentally; thinking about themes while reading.

Shifting

Switching easily between approaches Looking again, in a brand-new way

Predicting different endings for novels Understanding different word meanings in text Applying different problem-solving approaches to word problems

Self-monitoring/ Self-checking

Reviewing work for common errors Recognizing and fixing the most common kinds of mistakes

Using personalized checklists Shifting to a checking mindset and back

Note. Italics indicate “student-friendly” definitions. 1 Strategies

for addressing the other executive function processes such as inhibition, selective attention, and activation, are beyond the scope of this book.

Understanding, Assessing, and Teaching

Figure 1.2 (Meltzer, 2007, 2008a, 2008b; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007). As is evident from this figure, students with executive function difficulties often experience an overload of information, so that input exceeds output. They struggle to plan, organize, and prioritize, with the result that information becomes clogged in the top of the funnel. Because these students cannot process this information rapidly enough and cannot shift approaches flexibly, they cannot easily unclog the funnel to produce finished work. For students with executive function weaknesses, therefore, their conceptual reasoning abilities may be stronger than their output and productivity. Consequently, these students are inefficient with their work and have difficulty showing what they know in the classroom; their study skills and test performance are compromised; and their academic grades may not reflect their actual intellectual ability. As these students enter middle and high school, their difficulties become more evident, due to the mismatch between their skills and the curriculum demands. They have particular problems with academic tasks that involve the coordination and integration of different subskills, such as getting started on writing assignments; summarizing information; taking notes; studying; planning, executing, and completing projects in a timely manner; sustaining attention during long, detailed assignments and remembering to submit their work on time (see Table 1.2 for more specific examples). Furthermore, their problems with attention, working memory, and inhibition create additional challenges, and their productivity with classwork and homework is affected. Students therefore need to understand their own learning styles. This will help them to discover which strategies work well for them, as well as why, where, when, and how to apply each specific strategy. This understanding is referred to as

Accessing working memory

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

TABLE 1.2. Common Difficulties Experienced by Students with Executive Function Weaknesses Planning Planning and allocating time to the many steps involved in different assignments (e.g., writing papers, taking notes for history or science, or completing long-term projects). Prioritizing Prioritizing by allocating more time and effort to major projects and tests. Figuring out which details are critical and which details can be ignored when reading, taking notes, or writing essays. Estimating how much time to spend on reading and research versus output (e.g., writing a paper, editing, and layout). Organizing Organizing ideas, such as summarizing key ideas on strategy cards rather than rereading the text over and over. Organizing materials such as class notes, textbooks, and study guides. Organizing workspace (e.g., reducing distractions and clutter). Shifting Shifting flexibly from the major themes to the relevant details to meet the demands of the reading, writing, or studying task. Using outlines such as graphic organizers or linear outlines to get “unstuck” when writing papers or projects. Shifting between operations and between words and numbers for math computation or word problems. Accessing Working Memory Studying strategically so that complex information is retained over time to prevent the “Friday spelling test effect” (Meltzer et.al., 2006). Here, students remember facts and spelling for quizzes and tests, but do not connect concepts and cannot juggle the information mentally so they can access this information on a long-term basis. Remembering to hand in completed assignments on time (e.g., students with executive function difficulties often leave school with their homework still in their bags). Remembering to bring necessary books and materials from school to home and back again. Keeping in mind the importance of remembering to check and correct “careless errors” when writing papers, taking tests, or doing homework. Performing consistently across situations, content areas, and tasks.

metacognition, or the ability to think about one’s own thinking and learning. Metacognition underlies students’ use of executive function processes and is discussed further in the next two sections of this chapter.

WHY ARE EXECUTIVE FUNCTION PROCESSES SO IMPORTANT? My success is due to the strategies I learned, as well as my self-understanding and the confidence I developed after I used the strategies and got higher grades. —SEAN, 11TH GRADER

Academic success for all students, and particularly for students with learning difficulties, is inextricably linked with their motivation, effort, persistence, academic self-concept, and self-efficacy (Brunstein, Schultheiss, & Grassman, 1998; Helliwell,

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2003; Kasser & Ryan, 1996; Meltzer, Reddy, Sales Pollica, & Roditi, 2004b; Pajares & Schunk, 2001; Sheldon & Elliot, 1999). These cognitive and motivational processes are connected cyclically with students’ use of executive function strategies, as well as with their academic performance (Meltzer et al., 2004b; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007). As is evident from Figure 1.3, strategies that address executive function processes provide an entry point for improving academic performance. When students learn and apply these strategies effectively, they become more efficient and thus begin to succeed academically. Academic success in turn boosts self-confidence and academic self-concept, which results in more focused effort so that students’ hard work is targeted strategically toward specific goals. In this way, a cycle of success is promoted (Meltzer, Katzir, Miller, Reddy, & Roditi, 2004a; Meltzer et al., 2004b; Meltzer et al., 2004c). The learning environment and the instructional methods/materials all play an important role in mediating this cyclical relationship. For all students, but particularly for students with learning and/or attention difficulties, effective strategies and focused effort will help them to bridge gaps between their skills and the academic demands they face (Graham & Harris, 2003; Swanson, Harris, & Graham, 2003; Swanson & Hoskyn, 2001). In other words, their academic performance is often dependent on their knowledge of and willingness to use strategies. Maintaining the effort and hard work needed to master and implement strategies is often a major struggle for students with learning and attention difficulties (Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007). In fact, they may need to work much longer hours than their peers, and their grades may not reflect their effort. When these students use strategies for organizing, prioritizing, and checking, they are often able to bypass their deficits and to shift flexibly among different approaches and mindsets. When they select meaningful and realistic goals, make the effort needed to attain these goals, and self-regulate their cognitive and emotional processes, they

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

usually succeed (Raskind, Goldberg, Higgins, & Herman, 1999) (See Chapters, 3, 4, and 8). To build their motivation, persistence, and work ethic, students need to understand their profiles of strengths and weaknesses. Doing so enables them to determine which strategies work well for them, as well as why, where, when, and how to apply specific strategies. As noted above, this understanding is known as metacognition, or the ability to think about own’s own thinking and learning. More specifically, metacognition, as defined originally by Flavell (1979) and Brown, Bransford, Ferrara, and Campione (1983), refers to each student’s understanding and beliefs about how he or she learns, as well as the strategies that can or should be used to accomplish specific tasks. Students’ metacognitive awareness therefore includes their knowledge and understanding of their own learning profiles, as well as their understanding of those executive function strategies that match their strengths and weaknesses and help them to master different tasks. For example, students like Chace (see Figure 1.4) are aware of their struggles with organization, and they are often frustrated that their academic performance does not match their strong intellectual potential. Students like Chace are more likely to make the effort needed to use strategies that help them to stay organized and focused when they develop metacognitive awareness and are highly motivated to succeed and meet their goals. In other words, students’ understanding of their strengths and weaknesses, as well as their motivation and beliefs, directly affect their selection of specific strategies and their willingness to persist with specific tasks. Beliefs about ability often span a number of areas, as discussed by Reid and Lienemann (2006):

FIGURE 1.4. Chace, an exceptionally bright eighth grader, depicts his daily struggle to stay organized and focused as an ongoing battle because of his executive function difficulties.

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General ability: “How good am I as a learner? How smart am I?” Competency on specific tasks: “How good am I at this specific task (e.g., writing a report about the civil rights movement)?” Control over outcomes: “Can I control how well I do? If I work hard on this task, will I do well?” Causes of failure : “Why did I succeed or fail? Did I succeed because I worked hard and used appropriate strategies on this task?” Understanding the benefits of specific strategies: “Did I do well because I used specific organizational and self-checking strategies?” When students can answer such questions, they reach a better understanding of the match between their own learning profiles and specific strategies, and thus become more likely to persist in acquiring and using these strategies. They are also more likely to make the extraordinary effort needed to apply the strategies to the many open-ended academic tasks that they face in school on a daily basis. Sustaining this major effort is often dependent on students’ passions, as well as their interest in particular subjects. Specifically, interest-based motivation in learning frequently influences the kinds of strategies students use, as well as their learning outcomes (Hidi, Renninger, & Krapp, 2004; Yun Dai & Sternberg, 2004). Students’ interest in school often begins to decrease as early as first grade (Renninger et al., 2004). There is an even steeper decline in middle and high school, when the curriculum content constrains students’ ability to engage their interests and explore new challenges (Gardner, 1983; Hidi et al., 2004). As a result, many bright and talented students with learning and attention difficulties may “give up” and become unproductive in the later grades. At this time, their limited interest in the curriculum content is no longer strong enough to harness their motivation to expend the often superhuman effort needed to master the academic demands. For these students, executive function strategies can provide a lifeline to academic success.

HOW CAN TEACHERS BEGIN TO UNDERSTAND STUDENTS’ EXECUTIVE FUNCTION STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES? I am a hard worker and I am not the best, nor am I a miracle worker. —JAMIE, EIGHTH GRADER My teacher probably thinks I am one taco short of a combo plate, if you know what I mean. —JAMIE, EIGHTH GRADER Jamie is a very bright student who is a puzzle to me. He does well on quizzes and short tests, but he often does not hand in his homework. His performance is inconsistent, and his grades are up and down. —JAMIE, EIGHTH-GRADE TEACHER

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

Teachers are often puzzled by the inconsistent performance of students like Jamie, who attain high grades on specific, short-term tasks (e.g., quizzes), but underachieve on more demanding tasks (e.g., written reports, essays, math problem solving, long-term projects, or tests that span a broad content area). When teachers understand the role of executive function processes, they can more easily recognize the extent to which students like Jamie may struggle to perform adequately on open-ended tasks or tasks that require the coordination and integration of multiple skills and strategies. This context can help teachers to reframe their understanding of their students with executive function difficulties, so that they focus on these students’ strengths and academic potential, rather than viewing them as “unmotivated,” “lazy,” or “not trying hard enough.” Classroom-based assessment measures can help teachers to understand their students’ strengths and weaknesses, and to determine whether students’ difficulties fall within the “normal range” or are problematic and need referrals for assessment. (As shown in Figure 1.5, it is often helpful to compare students’ own descriptions of their learning styles, and their perceptions of how their parents or teachers might describe their learning styles, with the parents’ or teachers’ actual descriptions.) A few specific assessment approaches that teachers can use are discussed below.

HOW CAN TEACHERS INFORMALLY ASSESS EXECUTIVE FUNCTION? Teachers’ insights about students’ specific difficulties and their input into the assessment process are critically important. In fact, teachers are often informal diagnosticians who rely on their observations as well as on a variety of classroom-based assessment methods—a process we (Meltzer, 1993; Roditi, 1993) have referred to as assessment for teaching (AFT; see Figure 1.6). In this regard, informal assessment methods help teachers to understand students’ use of executive function processes and to pinpoint why and how particular students may be struggling. Performance-

Student’s Self-Perceptions How would you describe yourself as a student? “A very organized student and a good listener.” How do you think your teachers would describe you as a student? “Pretty neat and a pretty good listener.” Teacher’s Perceptions What words would come to mind to describe this student (e.g., motivated, hard-working, invested)? “Distracted, curious, eager to please, fidgety, impulsive.”

FIGURE 1.5. Perceptions of Sally, a sixth grader who views herself as a good student, compared with her teacher’s perceptions of her.

Understanding, Assessing, and Teaching

FIGURE 1.6. The Assessment for Teaching (AFT) model.

based assessment and portfolio assessment (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1991) are examples of these types of classroom measures. By implementing an AFT cycle, teachers access baseline information about their students’ learning profiles that helps them to understand each student’s level of metacognitive awareness, effort, and strategy use. Teachers can then introduce specific instructional approaches, assess students’ progress, and modify instruction. The continuous cycle linking assessment and teaching allows teachers to adjust their instructional methods to the changing needs of their students. In fact, many of these principles are incorporated into the response to intervention (RTI) approach that has recently been introduced into schools (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1991; Kame’enui, 2007). Currently, there is a dearth of measures teachers can use to understand their students’ executive function processes, and teachers must often rely on their personal insights as well as information they acquire from their conferences with parents. The Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF; Gioia, Isquith, Guy, & Kenworthy, 2000; Gioia, Isquith, Kenworthy, & Barton, 2002) is a highly reliable and widely used questionnaire system that consists of multiple rating forms, a parent questionnaire, and a teacher questionnaire, as well as a self-rating form for students from 12 years into adulthood. The BRIEF includes 86 items that assess behaviors associated with the core executive function processes, such as “Forgets to hand in homework, even when completed,” “Gets caught up in details and misses the big picture,” “Becomes overwhelmed by large assignments,” and “Underestimates the time needed to finish tasks.” Another criterion-referenced assessment system that compares students’, teachers’, and parents’ perceptions of the students’ metacognitive awareness and

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

strategy use is the Metacognitive Awareness System (MetaCOG; Meltzer et al., 2004b; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007; Miller, Meltzer, Katzir-Cohen, & Houser, 2001).2 The MetaCOG, for use with 9- to 18-year-olds, comprises five rating scales that allow teachers to compare their own judgments with their students’ self-ratings of their effort, strategy use, and academic performance (see Table 1.3). These strategy ratings focus on academic areas that depend on executive function processes, including written language, homework, studying, and taking tests (Meltzer, KatzirCohen, Miller, & Roditi, 2001; Miller et al., 2001). As is evident from Table 1.3 and the descriptions that follow, the three student surveys assess students’ self-ratings of their motivation and effort, as well as their strategy use in key academic areas. The two teacher surveys include similar questions, so that a direct comparison can be drawn between students’ and teachers’ ratings. Teachers can use these questionnaires at the beginning of the school year to gain an understanding of how much effort students think they put into their work, how often they use strategies, and how well they think they perform academically (Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007). Teachers can also discuss students’ self-ratings on these surveys at parent conferences, so that parents and teachers can gain shared insights into students’ views of the importance of hard work and academic success.

MetaCOG Student Surveys Motivation and Effort Survey The Motivation and Effort Survey (ME) consists of 38 items asking for students’ self-ratings of their effort and performance on different academic tasks that depend on executive function processes (alpha = .91) (Meltzer et al., 2004c; Meltzer, Sayer, Sales, Theokas, & Roditi, 2002). Sample items are shown in Figure 1.7. Students rate themselves on a 1–5 scale (from “never” to “always”) in terms of how hard they work and how well they do in selected academic areas, such as reading, writing, math, homework, studying for tests, and long-term projects. They are also required to describe themselves as students. TABLE 1.3. Components of the Metacognitive Awareness System (MetaCOG) Student questionnaires ME—Motivation and Effort Survey STRATUS—Strategy Use Survey MAQ—Metacognitive Awareness Questionnaire Teacher questionnaires TPSE—Teacher Perceptions of Student Effort TIQ—Teacher Information Questionnaire 5-point rating for all surveys 2 For

more information about the MetaCOG Surveys, please contact the Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD) at www.researchild.org.

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I spend as much time as I need to get my work done. I finish my work even when it is boring. I do schoolwork before other things that are more fun.

FIGURE 1.7. Sample items from the Motivation and Effort Survey (ME): Students’ ratings of their motivation and effort on a 1–5 scale.

Strategy Use Survey The Strategy Use Survey (STRATUS) consists of 40 items that assess students’ selfreported strategy use in reading, writing, spelling, math, studying, and test taking (alpha = .945). Items focus on students’ perceptions of their use of planning, organizing, memorizing, shifting, and self-checking strategies for their schoolwork (see examples in Figure 1.8).

Metacognitive Awareness Questionnaire The Metacognitive Awareness Questionnaire (MAQ) consists of 18 items that assess students’ understanding of what strategies are and how they can apply strategies to their schoolwork (see examples in Figure 1.9). Students are also asked what they think a strategy is both before and after strategy instruction has occurred, to provide the teacher with insights about the effectiveness of strategy instruction. As is shown in Figure 1.10, students like these eighth graders have a fairly good understanding of strategies.

When I have to remember new things in school, I make up acronyms to help me. Before I write, I plan out my ideas in some way that works for me (outline, list, map). When I do math, I ask if my answers make sense.

FIGURE 1.8. Sample items from the Strategy Use Survey (STRATUS): Students’ ratings of their strategy use on a 1–5 scale.

When you begin something new, do you try to connect it to something you already know? When you begin something new, do you try to think about how long it will take and make sure you have enough time?

FIGURE 1.9. Sample items from the Metacognitive Awareness Questionnaire (MAQ): Students’ ratings of their understanding of strategies on a 1–5 scale.

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION What do you think a strategy is? A strategy is something that helps you remember something hard, like the Preamble to the Constitution or biology terms. A strategy is a way to help people order and organize things to prepare for a test. Also, it’s a good shortcut because it helps, but it isn’t cheating and it’s fun. A strategy is something to help you write a long paper where you need to brainstorm to figure out what is most important.

FIGURE 1.10. Examples of eighth graders’ definitions of a strategy.

MetaCOG Teacher Surveys Teacher Perceptions of Student Effort The Teacher Perceptions of Student Effort (TPSE) survey consists of 38 items that assess teachers’ ratings of students’ effort in different academic domains (alpha = .980) (Meltzer et al., 2004a, 2004b, 2004c). Teachers rate students’ effort and performance in reading, writing, math, homework, tests, and long-term projects—all academic tasks that rely on executive function processes (see Figure 1.11 for sample items). Teachers also rate students’ overall strategy use and academic performance in response to this question: “If you had to assign a grade for this student’s overall academic performance, what would this be?”

Teacher Information Questionnaire The Teacher Information Questionnaire (TIQ) assesses teachers’ understanding of the terms metacognitive, strategy, and effort, as well as their understanding of effective ways for promoting students’ strategy use and executive function processes in the classroom (see Figure 1.12 for sample items). Completion of this survey at the beginning of the school year helps teachers to reflect about their teaching philosophy and practices, and to develop an awareness of the importance of addressing executive function processes.

S/he spends as much time as needed to get his/her work done. S/he does not give up even when the work is difficult.

FIGURE 1.11. Sample Items from the Teacher Perceptions of Student Effort (TPSE): Teachers’ ratings of students’ effort and strategy use on a 1–5 scale.

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Students use strategies effectively without being taught these strategies directly. Teaching the curriculum is more important than teaching strategies. It is possible to motivate every student to work hard.

FIGURE 1.12. Sample Items from the Teacher Information Questionnaire (TIQ): Teachers are asked their views about ways of teaching strategies effectively in the classroom (a 1–5 scale assesses the extent of their agreement or disagreement).

In summary, teachers can use survey systems such as the MetaCOG for a variety of purposes over the course of the year: To understand students’ views of their own effort, use of strategies, and academic performance in the classroom. To develop a system for teaching strategies that help students plan, organize, prioritize, shift flexibly, memorize, and check their work. To help teachers understand their students’ perceptions and judgments, and to compare their own views with their students’ self-perceptions so that they can reach all their students and teach them to learn how to learn over the course of the school year.

Comparisons of Students’ versus Teachers’ Perceptions As is evident from Tables 1.4a and 1.4b, teachers can directly compare their own perceptions with the views of their students, to help them plan their teaching and connect with each of their students. Students’ perceptions of their own effort and strategy use are often very different from their parents’ and teachers’ perceptions, as has been shown in a number of studies (Meltzer et al., 2004a, 2004b, 2004c; Stone & May, 2002). For example, Figure 1.13a (page 19) shows the self-ratings of John, a fifth grader. John rates himself as a strong student who works hard, with the goals of “getting a second master’s degree” and “making the world a better place.” When asked how his parents would describe him, his response reflects his parents’ emphasis on the importance of working hard in school. When John’s teacher is asked to judge his effort and performance, her comments reflect her perception that John has difficulty sustaining his attention and that his academic performance would be much stronger if he could focus. A sixth-grade student named Lucy (whose self-ratings are shown in Figure 1.13b on page 19) views herself as very bright and hard-working, as does her teacher. However, her teacher also recognizes that Lucy’s performance may be compromised by her organizational and attention difficulties.

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

TABLE 1.4a. Students’ versus Teachers’ Ratings of Their Motivation and Effort on Academic Tasks That Involve Executive Function Processes ME—Students Doing well in school is important to me. I spend as much time as I need to get my work done. I keep working even when the work is difficult. I work hard on: Homework Long-term projects Studying for tests Other activities (sports, music, art, hobbies)

TPSE—Teachers Doing well in school is important to this student. S/he is a hard worker. S/he does not give up even when the work is difficult. Please judge how hard this student works: Homework Long-term projects Studying for tests Other activities (sports, music, art, hobbies)

Note. The ME and TPSE each comprise 36 items, which are rated on a 1–5 scale.

TABLE 1.4b. Students’ versus Teachers’ Ratings of Their Performance on Academic Tasks That Involve Executive Function Processes ME—Students

TPSE—Teachers

Please judge how well you do on: Organization Long-term projects Making a plan before starting work Using strategies in my schoolwork Checking my work Homework Tests Long-term projects

Please judge how well this student does on: Organization Long-term projects Making a plan before starting work Using strategies in his/her schoolwork Checking his/her work Homework Tests Long-term projects

These examples reflect the discrepancies between students’ self-perceptions and their teachers’ judgments. In fact, students frequently overrate their level of academic performance in comparison with their teachers’ ratings, as documented in many of our own studies and those of others (Meltzer et al., 2004a, 2004b; Stone & Conca, 1993; Stone & May, 2002). This discrepancy between teachers’ and students’ judgments is often linked with students’ poor metacognitive awareness and with teachers’ limited understanding of the extent to which executive function weaknesses are detrimental to students’ performance. When teachers understand these discrepancies and the reasons for them, they can use the MetaCOG questionnaires as a starting point for an important set of discussions with students and parents, so that they can all set common goals for the school year and can work toward these goals with similar expectations and objectives. Goal setting and prioritizing—two of the core executive function processes—can help students and teachers plan and reevaluate performance over the course of the school year (see Chapter 3).

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Teacher Ratings and Comments: Inconsistent effort, has trouble focusing; his work would be so much better if he could focus.

FIGURE 1.13a. Comparison of a student’s versus a teacher’s ratings of the student’s school performance and effort.

Teacher Ratings and Comments: She is a bright student who has difﬁculty listening and is disorganized.

FIGURE 1.13b. Comparison of a student’s versus a teacher’s ratings of the student’s school performance and effort.

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

HOW CAN TEACHERS ADDRESS THE NEEDS OF STUDENTS WITH EXECUTIVE FUNCTION WEAKNESSES? I could use the crazy phrases strategy for other things in school, because, you know, it’s fun. Your mind is basically going to go for the fun stuff. . . . If it sounds like fun, it will help you remember more. —LEVON 11TH GRADER

Teachers can establish a strong foundation for executive function strategies when they teach their students to become metacognitive learners—that is, to think about how they think and learn. The questionnaire systems discussed above, such as the BRIEF and the MetaCOG, provide entry points for this process and help students to begin to reflect about the learning process and their specific learning styles. When instruction emphasizes metacognition and continually empowers students to use strategies, then students like Levon develop control over the learning process. As they begin to understand their learning profiles, they learn when to use strategies, as well as which strategies to use for what tasks. This self-awareness not only helps them understand their ongoing struggle to stay organized, but motivates them to learn and use executive function strategies for their academic work. To meet the needs of students with executive function weaknesses such as Levon, a culture of strategy use should be created within every classroom and across the entire school. Teachers need to develop a systematic, strategic cycle of change that extends from school to home and back to school. When teachers stress that students’ use of strategies is as important as accuracy, then strategy use becomes a habit of mind. This ensures continuity across the grades and generalization across content areas, so that students can understand and apply the strategies they learn on a continuing basis. Table 1.5 provides a few guidelines for creating a strategic classroom culture; more specific and detailed suggestions are given in Chapter 2. Students’ use of strategies occurs in stages, and they may initially use strategies incorrectly or unsuccessfully. For example, an early difficulty is reflected in TABLE 1.5. How to Create a Classroom Culture That Promotes Executive Function Teach students to become metacognitive learners who think about how they think and learn. Make strategy use count by grading students on the basis of their use of strategies as well as their final answers. Use strategy reflection sheets for homework and tests, and give credit when students take the time to think about and explain how they have completed tasks. Strategy reflection sheets ensure that students allocate homework and study time to the processes as well as the strategies that work, rather than focusing on only the end product or content of learning. Create daily 5- to 10-minute strategy-sharing discussions for the class. These discussions are important opportunities for students to share their strategies with one another, as this process helps students to understand how they learn and think. Use peer tutoring to help students brainstorm with one another about whether or not an approach is an effective strategy for a specific task. Implement a peer-mentoringprogram to promote self-understanding, effort, persistence, and resilience in students with learning and attention difficulties.

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FIGURE 1.14. Self-reflection of Jay, a sixth grader, about the flaws in his approach to memorizing information such as lists of terms.

the comment of Jay, a sixth grader, that “I don’t think my trick works very well” (see Figure 1.14). However, through self-reflection and self-regulation, students can eventually refine and apply these strategies to all the domains. Doing so will enable them to master more complex integrative tasks, such as writing, summarizing, note taking, and studying (Harris & Pressley, 1991).

HOW CAN CORE STRATEGIES BE TAUGHT ACROSS TASKS, CONTENT AREAS, AND GRADES? The way my mind works with that liquified gobble of dots, my notes would look scattered on a page. One of the most useful strategies I learned was three-column notes. With this system, I learned to make a hierarchy of notes and have it structure around itself and relate to things. This structure helped me to study and to write long papers. —BRANDON, COLLEGE GRADUATE

As noted above, students need to learn when to use which strategies and in what contexts. In particular, students need to recognize that not all strategies work for all tasks and all content areas all of the time. In other words, strategies need to be matched not only with the student’s learning style, but with the task content and the context. Once students recognize the purpose and benefits of using strategies for tasks that are heavily dependent on executive function processes, they can be encouraged to personalize specific strategies, many of which can then be applied to different academic tasks across content areas and across the grades. As Table 1.6 demonstrates, strategies in each of five selected executive function processes can be embedded in the curriculum at different grade levels. Students

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

TABLE 1.6. How to Scaffold Executive Function Strategies into the Curriculum across the Grades Common Classroom language: Grades 1–8

Metacognitive questions (for students to ask themselves)

Remembering/Acccessing working memory Acronyms Crazy phrases Cartoons

Chunk Attach Meaning Rehearse

Can I review? Can I recite? Can I record? Can I picture it?

Organizing Triple Note Tote Mapping and webbing Strategy cards

S²: Sort and Sequence or 4C’s: Cluster, Categorize, Color, Chart

Can I sort into categories? Can I make a chart? Can I use color? Can I cut and paste the material?

Shifting Shifty accents Shifty images

“Let Go and Shift Gears”

Can I try another way? Can I make Plan A and Plan B?

Checking Personal checklist RE-view

“Top Three Hits” “Switch Pens”

What are my common mistakes? Did I switch pens?

Executive function strategies a

aThese

strategies are all from BrainCogs (ResearchILD & FableVision, 2003).

can become metacognitive learners and can begin to understand when and where to use these strategies by asking themselves structured questions that help them to reflect. Selected strategies that help students to organize, prioritize, and check can be taught in the first few grades in school and modified slightly for more complex tasks in the higher grades (see later chapters for more examples). For instance, the STAR strategy (see Figures 1.15a, 1.15b, and 1.15c) is a useful and very versatile strategy for summarizing reading material, organizing ideas for writing, taking notes, and studying in a variety of content areas (Meltzer et al., 2006). It helps students to plan, organize, prioritize, and shift between the main ideas and the details—whether they are reading for meaning or writing book reports in the first few grades (see Figure 1.15a), preparing complex science reports in the middle school grades (see Figure 1.15b), or completing challenging history assignments in the high school grades (see Figure 1.15c). For essay writing or book reports, strategies like the STAR strategy can be used to help students focus on the major themes or main ideas. They can then use more detailed three-column note-taking systems to add relevant details to the paragraphs they write (e.g., the Triple Note Tote strategy from BrainCogs; see Chapter 2 for a fuller discussion). When all students—and particularly students with learning disabilities—use effective strategies such as these to develop their executive function processes, their academic performance often improves, which in turn enhances motivation and effort. This in turn results in more efficient and successful academic performance (Meltzer, 1996; Meltzer et al., 2001, 2004c), as

FIGURE 1.15a. The STAR strategy: An organizer for a fourth grader’s book report about Hatchet by Gary Paulsen. From Meltzer and Krishnan (2007). Copyright 2007 by The Guilford Press. Reprinted by permission.

FIGURE 1.15b. The STAR strategy: An organizer for a seventh grader’s science project about space travel to Mars. From Meltzer and Krishnan (2007). Copyright 2007 by The Guilford Press. Reprinted by permission.

FIGURE 1.15c. The STAR strategy: An organizer for a 10th grader’s history paper about the French Revolution.

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

described earlier. All these interconnected processes are essential for helping all students attain the academic success of which they are capable and deserving.

DRIVE TO THRIVE: A MODEL PROGRAM FOR INTEGRATING STRATEGIES INTO THE DAILY CLASSROOM ROUTINE Drive to Thrive is a model program that integrates strategy instruction focused on executive function processes into the school curriculum (Meltzer et al., 2004b, 2007a; Meltzer, Sales Pollica, & Barzillai, 2007b; Noeder, 2007). The program creates a school and classroom culture where general and special education teachers have a shared understanding of the importance of nurturing efficient executive function strategies, focused effort, and positive academic self-perceptions in their students. Drive to Thrive incorporates the same philosophy as Graham and Harris’s self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) (Graham & Harris, 2003; Harris & Graham, 1996; Reid & Lienemann, 2006), namely, that effective strategy instruction depends on student–teacher collaboration, and that strategies need to be personalized for each student, domain, and setting. Within a Drive to Thrive classroom, classwork and homework focus consistently on the how of learning, rather than only on the final product. As a result, students begin to value the process of learning. Students are taught how to remember and recall previously learned information, and how to plan, organize and prioritize information for assignments and tests. There is an emphasis on flexibility and the ability to shift approaches in all learning and problem-solving situations. Independence is supported as students become increasingly aware of the benefits of using executive function strategies and are motivated to make the effort to continue using strategies that work for them. Over time, students begin to view themselves as capable learners; this results in positive mindsets and a willingness to make the effort needed to apply strategies to a wide array of tasks in different content areas. Drive to Thrive focuses on building a cycle of academic success in all students through teacher training, use of multimedia software (BrainCogs), and peer tutoring (BrainCogs Squad). Participating teachers are trained to create a culture of strategy use in their classrooms, and to promote metacognitive awareness and strategy use in their students by embedding executive function strategies in their curriculum and daily teaching practices (see Chapters 2–7 for more detailed discussions). The following principles are emphasized (Meltzer et al., 2004a, 2004b, 2004c; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007): Teachers foster metacognitive awareness and strategic mindsets in their students. Students and teachers view themselves as part of a community of learners who help each other to succeed and thrive.

Understanding, Assessing, and Teaching

Students accept that hard work and focused effort are critically important for academic success, and that they will thrive if they have the drive. Teachers acknowledge that effort is domain-specific, and that students may sometimes need to work harder in one content area (e.g., math) than in another (e.g., language arts). Students recognize that persistence and determination are critically important for fostering academic and life success. Teachers gain an understanding of the close interactions among effort, strategy use, academic self-concept, and classroom performance, as well as the cycle that builds persistence, resilience, and long-term academic and life success. In a series of 10 studies over the past decade, we have evaluated the efficacy of our Drive to Thrive program in six school systems with over 100 teachers and over 1,000 students (Meltzer et al., 2004a, 2004b, 2004c, 2006, 2007b). We have shown the importance of teaching strategies that strengthen the key executive function processes. We have also demonstrated that students’ use of strategies in general and executive function strategies in particular, plays a critical role in school performance, and that it influences their perceptions of themselves as competent learners and good students (Meltzer et al., 2004b). For students with learning and attention problems, our findings have indicated that their self-perceptions often frame their willingness to work hard and to use strategies to compensate for or bypass their difficulties and to achieve greater success in school (Meltzer et al., 2004b). Students who develop an understanding of their learning styles, and of the importance of applying strategies to their schoolwork, begin to recognize that their struggles are not insurmountable. They also begin to recognize that they can be more successful academically when they learn and apply executive function strategies to their schoolwork (Meltzer, 2007; Meltzer et al., 2004b; 2007b; Noeder, 2007). As displayed in Figure 1.16, our overall findings have shown that executive function strategies, in combination with effort, influenced students’ performance on homework, and long-term projects, as well as their overall academic performance. It should be noted that R2 refers to the amount of variability that can be explained by students’ use of strategies as well as their effort. Developmental differences, as well as shifts in the complexity of the school curriculum, frequently affect students’ performance in ways that need to be understood by teachers and other school professionals (see Chapter 2 for more examples). In particular, changes in students’ self-concepts and self-efficacy between the elementary grades (grades 3–5) and the middle and high school grades often affect their effort and academic performance. This is particularly evident in students with learning difficulties who are struggling academically. In one study of over 380 students, we identified changes between elementary and middle school that have important implications for the classroom (Meltzer et al., 2004b). In grades

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

Executive Function Strategies

Homework

R2 = .347

DomainSpecific Effort

Long-Term Projects

Overall Performance

FIGURE 1.16. Combined effects of executive function strategies and domain-specific effort on academic performance.

3–5, regardless of whether students with learning difficulties judged themselves as good students or poor students, they still viewed themselves as hard workers who used strategies in their schoolwork (Meltzer et al., 2004b). They also judged themselves as working exceptionally hard in all academic areas—namely, reading, writing, spelling, math, science, and social studies. In contrast, at the middle school level, differences in academic self-concepts influenced students’ judgments of themselves as good or poor students, as strategic learners, and as hard workers who were willing to make the effort to learn. Academic self-concepts particularly affected the effort and performance of students with learning difficulties: They were not as willing to work extremely hard in challenging academic areas that demand sustained effort and use of executive function strategies, such as writing, mathematics, science, social studies, homework, long-term projects, and studying for tests. These findings have important implications for classroom teachers, given that written work, long-term projects, and assignments in content area subjects (e.g., science and history) often require students to write multiple drafts and exert maximal effort to revise, edit, and improve their work. Furthermore, as we have shown in our Drive to Thrive studies, successful strategy use mediates the relationship between students’ self-reported levels of effort and their academic self-concepts (Meltzer et al., 2004a, 2004b, 2004c) and produces significant improvements in students’ completion of homework and long-term projects, as well as in their overall academic performance.

Understanding, Assessing, and Teaching

CONCLUSIONS The digital age has had a significant impact on the pace and efficiency of the workplace and there is greater demand for individuals who can solve problems efficiently and can develop and implement complex plans efficiently and accurately. As discussed in this chapter, because executive function processes have assumed increasing importance over the past decade, they need to be introduced into the classroom curriculum and taught systematically. Specifically, students need strategies for learning how to learn by shifting flexibly from the big picture (seen from the top of the mountain) to the numerous and often confusing details that need to be prioritized and organized (at the bottom of the mountain). In the next six chapters, we discuss specific strategies that teachers can implement to help their students become successful learners who can master the challenges of 21st-century society, with its emphasis on executive function processes as well as rapid and efficient output. It should be emphasized that teachers are not expected to master all of the suggestions provided in this book, but rather to select those strategies and approaches that fit their own and their students’ needs, and that can be integrated into the curriculum at appropriate times.

Copyright © 2010 The Guilford Press. All rights reserved under International Copyright Convention. No part of this text may be reproduced, transmitted, downloaded, or stored in or introduced into any information storage or retrieval system, in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereinafter invented, without the written permission of The Guilford Press. Purchase this book now: www.guilford.com/p/meltzer2

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O er ie An ie problem in o h are highl pre alen and on he ri e. The e problem can re l in beha ioral and emo ional d reg la ion in he cla room. For na el , decade of re earch on rea men for childhood an ie ha e iden ified core ra egie ha can ignifican l decrea e an ie and re . Child ed ca or , along i h paren , can be pi o al in red cing an ie and promo ing children elf-e eem. In he fir par of hi alk, Dr. Pinc ill de cribe he na re of an ie in childhood and adole cence and ill highligh he ign of an ie in den . The econd par of he alk ill co er pecific de elopmen all ailored gge ion for decrea ing re and promo ing den elf-e eem in he cla room. E ample of kill o be co ered incl de a o crea e con i en and predic able en ironmen , crea i e a o each re and emo ion managemen in he cla room, a ell a ho o help o h o approach ne i a ion and challenge confiden l and grad all . Eq ipping ed ca or , paren , and clinician i h e idence-ba ed ool for red cing an ie ha he po en ial o grea l decrea e re and impro e children elf-e eem and o erall ell-being. Reference Comer, J. S., Darling, L. N., del B o, C., M er, E. D., & Pinc , D. B. (2021). S re re managemen in children and adole cen . In P. M. Lehrer & R. L. Woolfolk (Ed .), P c e a d ac ce f e a a e e (pp. 93 125). The G ilford Pre . ISBN-13: 9781462545100 Pinc , D.B. (2012). G U B a e: E e S a e e f Fea , S e , a d A e . Ne York: Li le, Bro n and

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Compan . h p://book .google.com/book ?id=c2ddh Uh7aYC&prin ec=fron co er# =onepage &q&f=fal e) Pinc , D.B., Madigan, R., Kern , C., Hard a , C., & Comer, J. (2014). Managing maladap i e mood and aro al. In E. Sb rla i, H. L neham, C. Schniering, & R. Rapee (Ed .) E de ce Ba ed CBT f A e a d De e C d e a d Ad e ce : A C e e c e Ba ed A ac . Chiche er: John Wile & Son , L d. Pinc , D.B., Ehrenreich, J.T., & Ma i , S.G. (2008). Ma e f A e a d Pa c f Ad e ce : R d e Wa e, T e a G de. Ne York: O ford Uni er i Pre . h p://book .google.com/book ?id=Drp89S JbHcC&prin ec=fron co er# =onepage&q& f=fal e) Pinc , D.B., Ehrenreich, J.T. & Spiegel, D. (2008). Ma e f A e a d Pa c f Ad e ce : R d e Wa e, Pa e W b . Ne York: O ford Uni er i Pre . h p:// .ama on.com/Riding-Wa e-Workbook-Trea men -Tha /dp/0195335813/ref= r_1_3? =book &ie=UTF8&qid=1374687871& r=1-3 Pinc , D.B. & Friedman, A.G. (2004). Impro ing children coping i h e er da ran por ing rea men in er en ion o he chool e ing. C ca C d a d Fa Re e , 7(4), 223-240. DOI: 10.1007/ 10567-004-6087-8; PMID: 15648277 h p ://link. pringer.com/ar icle/10.1007%2F 10567-004-6087-8

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C 2004) Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, Vol. 7, No. 4, December 2004 (!

Improving Children’s Coping With Everyday Stress: Transporting Treatment Interventions to the School Setting Donna B. Pincus1,3 and Alice G. Friedman2

Children are continuously confronted with everyday stressors in their daily routine, and their ability to deal with these stressors has been found to be significantly related to their psychological adjustment. In fact, numerous studies have indicated that having a repertoire of coping skills at a young age can be a “buffer” or moderator” of the effects of negative life stress on the development of psychological maladjustment. Because of the importance of developing adequate skills to navigate life’s daily challenges, a number of school-based interventions have been designed with the goal of teaching children specific “problem-focused” skills that are presumed to enhance coping, yet fewer programs have taught children “emotion focused” skills such as cognitive restructuring or emotional regulation to deal with more uncontrollable stressors. This paper begins with a review of the theoretical and empirical literature on children’s coping with everyday stress and then provides a description of several existing coping skills training programs for children, highlighting those that are school-based interventions. A description is provided of a brief, school based intervention that was recently implemented to determine the differential effects of teaching young children “problem-focused” skills and teaching “emotion-focused” skills on children’s subsequent use of specific coping strategies. The study and its outcomes are reviewed. The final section of the paper focuses on issues related to conducting intervention research in the schools, and specific suggestions for researchers are delineated for every stage in the process of school based research, to best assure that the research program can be implemented in the schools efficiently and effectively. KEY WORDS: children; coping; coping-skills training; school-based intervention; prevention.

The ability to deal purposefully and effectively with the wide-ranging demands and stressors that are part of everyday life is a critical skill for healthy functioning. Interest in the processes and strategies that people utilize to cope with stressors has existed for several decades, yet this interest has grown substantially during the past years (Bernzweig, Eisenberg, & Fabes, 1993; Eisenberg, Fabes, & Guthrie, 1997; Rudolph, Dennig, & Weisz, 1995). Recent studies have made considerable progress in refining theoret-

ical conceptualizations of coping, improving assessment methodologies, and in exploring the various personal and contextual variables that affect the coping process (Altshuler, Genevro, Ruble, & Bornstein, 1995; Sandler, Wolchik, MacKinnon, Ayers, & Roosa, 1997; Weisz, McCabe, & Dennig, 1994). Although the process of coping and utilization of coping strategies has received widespread attention in the adult literature, one of the areas of greatest growth in the coping literature in recent years has been the investigation of the process of coping in children. Children are continuously confronted with interpersonal problems in their daily routine. Children’s ability to deal with these common everyday stressors has been found to be significantly related to their psychological adjustment (Rutter, 1994; Stark, Spirito, & Stamoulis, 1988). In fact, some studies have indicated that children’s ability to deal with these minor

1 Department

of Psychology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts. 2 Department of Psychology, Binghamton University, Boston, Massachusetts. 3 Address all correspondence to Donna B. Pincus, PhD, Center for Anxiety and Related Disorders at Boston University, 648 Beacon Street, 6th Floor, Boston, Massachusetts 02215; e-mail: dpincus@bu.edu.

223 C 2004 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 1096-4037/04/1200-0223/0 !

224 problems is a better predictor of concurrent and subsequent psychological symptoms than their ability to deal with major life events (Compas, Malcarne, & Fondacaro, 1988; Weisz & Dennig, 1993). Children’s effective coping with daily stressors can mediate the impact of major life events and is associated with positive behavioral and emotional adjustment (Compas, 1987b; Eisenberg et al., 1997). Further, children who are able to adapt their coping strategies to fit the situation and who are flexible in their use of coping strategies appear to have the best outcomes (Weisz et al., 1994). Numerous studies have indicated that having a repertoire of coping skills at a young age can be a “buffer” or moderator” of the effects of negative life stress on the development of psychological maladjustment (Dubow & Tisak, 1989; Spivack, Platt, & Shure, 1976). Thus, it is not surprising that the advancement of theory and research related to coping processes in children would be a high priority for the fields of pediatric and child clinical psychology. Because of the importance of developing adequate skills to navigate life’s daily challenges, a number of interventions have been designed with the goal of teaching children specific skills that are presumed to enhance coping. This approach is predicated on the assumptions that (a) the inability to cope with everyday problems leads to emotional dysfunction, (b) coping skills can be taught, and (c) learning these strategies can promote health and resilience and reduce maladaptation (Masten, Best, & Garmezy, 1990; Weissberg & Elias, 1993). There currently are a variety of interventions that were designed to teach problem solving coping skills to children. Evaluations of these interventions tend to provide some support for the notion that children can learn a series of steps to approach conflicting or problematic situations. Most of these programs have included multiple components and global measures of outcomes, precluding the ability to examine which part of the intervention was effective or whether certain interventions lead children to use specific types of coping strategies. Further, although many intervention programs have examined the effects of coping skills training on the number of strategies a child can produce in response to a challenge or stressor, few have examined the effects of skills training on children’s subsequent use of particular types of strategies. Additionally, although flexible use of both “problem-focused” and “emotion-focused” strategies have been shown to be associated with positive outcome in young children (e.g., Weisz et al., 1994), the majority of existing intervention programs have focused on teaching children

Pincus and Friedman problem-focused skills. To date, no known schoolbased intervention programs have examined whether teaching young children to employ emotion-focused coping strategies such as emotion regulation, cognitive distraction, or cognitive restructuring affects the frequency of their use of these coping strategies. It is possible that even young children can be taught emotion-focused coping skills, and that the addition of these skills to their behavioral repertoires could significantly improve their ability to cope effectively with a variety of stressors. This paper begins with a brief review of the theoretical and empirical literature on children’s coping with everyday stress, and then provides a description of several coping skills training programs for children, highlighting those that are school-based interventions. A description is provided of a brief, school based intervention that was recently implemented to determine the differential effects of teaching young children “problem-focused” skills and teaching “emotion-focused” skills on children’s subsequent use of specific coping strategies. The study and its outcomes are briefly reviewed, with focus on the impact of training on children’s utilization of coping strategies and on the efficacy of their coping strategies after a brief treatment session. Finally, the last major section of the paper focuses on issues related to conducting intervention research in the schools, and specific suggestions for researchers are delineated for every stage in the process of implementing school based research, to best assure that the research program can be carried out efficiently and effectively. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND: COGNITIVE APPRAISAL THEORY OF STRESS AND COPING The well documented “cognitive appraisal theory of stress and coping”/“ways of coping” model (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980; Lazarus and Folkman, 1984b) has been central to most current investigations of the coping process in children. One of the most important contributions of this theory to the general coping literature has been the introduction of the view that coping is a multidimensional process affected by personal, temporal, and situational-specific variables. Through Folkman and Lazarus’ (1980) model, coping was described as a multidimensional process involving cognitive appraisals, a coping response, and a coping outcome. This distinction between various aspects of

School-Based Coping Skills Training Intervention the coping process had not been considered by previous, more “static,” simplistic models. According to the cognitive appraisal theory, persons engage in a “coping process” which consists of two distinct components that can mediate the effects of this stressor: (1) cognitive appraisal and (2) coping response. In the cognitive appraisal process, a person makes both primary appraisals of the significance of a stressful event to his or her personal well-being (e.g., how challenging, threatening, or harmful the situation is judged to be) and secondary appraisals of the availability of coping resources and options (e.g., answering the question “What can I do?”) The coping response is defined as “an intentional physical or mental action, initiated in response to a perceived stressor, which is directed toward external circumstances or an internal state” (p. 223). Although there are feasibly numerous potential coping responses to any stressor, Lazarus and Folkman propose a typology of coping responses that distinguishes between two fundamental types of coping. These coping responses differ on the basis of the function or intention of the coping strategy. The first type of coping response has been labeled “problem-focused coping” and refers to efforts to directly change or master the source of the stress. This is accomplished by altering either the environment, changing external pressures, or finding resources so that the distressing situation is made less threatening (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984b). The second type of coping has been labeled “emotion-focused coping” and refers to efforts to manage or regulate the negative emotions associated with the stressful episode. Emotion-focused strategies that may alleviate distress include cognitive distraction, seeking emotional support, emotional regulation, emotional expression, cognitive restructuring, positive self-statements, thought-stopping, or selective attention. There are many examples of situations in which both problem-focused and emotion-focused strategies might be used, although certain strategies may be more adaptive in some situations than others. For example, for children coping with a painful medical stressor, a function of problem-focused coping would be to decrease or eliminate external demands such as the painful stimulus itself or to change the environment in which the stimulus is embedded. A function of emotion-focused coping would be to deal with internal demands, including the perception of pain and the thoughts or feelings generated by the painful situation. Research has suggested that emotion-focused coping strategies are typically more adaptive when an

225 appraisal leads to the conclusion that nothing can be done to modify difficult conditions. Problem-focused coping, however, will be more adaptive when the situation has been appraised as amenable to change (Hillson & Kuiper, 1994). RELEVANT EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATIONS ON CHILDREN’S COPING WITH STRESS For clarity of presentation of this section, the empirical research on children’s coping will be consolidated by reviewing studies that have been influential in their contributions to our current knowledge of children’s coping. The review will be subdivided into four major areas: (1) children’s coping with different types of everyday stressors, (2) coping efficacy and coping outcome, (3) psychological adjustment and coping, and (4) developmental changes in children’s coping. Children’s Coping With Different Types of Everyday Stressors There is some evidence that children and adolescents change their coping efforts as a function of situational demands. Campbell (1995) analyzed coping in older children and adolescents aged 11–14 by having them generate coping strategies to two different stressful situations: a medical stressor (getting a shot at the doctor) and an academic stressor (getting a poor grade on a test). Results indicated that children’s coping strategy use differed between the two stressors. Children reported using primarily problem-focused strategies to cope with the academic situation, and primarily emotion-focused strategies to cope with the medical situation. Folkman and Lazarus (1980) found a similar pattern of coping use in a study of the influence of contextual variables on adults’ coping responses. Adult subjects tended to use problem-focused coping strategies in work contexts and emotion-focused coping strategies in health related contexts. Follow-up studies indicated that this contextual shift in coping strategies was related to the adult’s control appraisals of the situations, such that they used more emotion-focused coping in situations perceived as uncontrollable (health context) and more problem-focused coping in situations perceived as controllable (work context). Another study expanded the range of stressors used to investigate contextual changes in children’s

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coping. Band and Weisz (1988) analyzed coping in a sample of 73 children aged 6, 9, and 12 years, by having them generate coping strategies to six potentially stressful situations: (1) separation from a friend, (2) conflict with a parent, (3) getting a shot at the doctor, (4) conflict with a peer, (5) physical injury, and (6) receiving a poor grade in school. Results showed that children’s styles of coping differed across situations, with school failure evoking high levels of primary coping (problem-focused) and medical stress evoking high levels of secondary coping (emotion-focused). Older children appeared better able to change and shift their coping strategies according to the demands of the situation. As age increased, self-reports of primary (problem-focused) coping declined and reports of secondary coping increased, such that older children reported using more secondary coping than younger children in parent conflict, medical, and physical injury situations. Younger children used more primary (problem-focused coping) overall, especially in peer conflict, school failure, parent conflict, and loss/separation situations. These studies provide initial evidence that children’s coping is contextually dependent, as children seem to shift their strategy use depending on the situational demands. It appears that older children, however, are better able to shift their coping strategy use according to the type of situation they encounter.

future studies include ratings from “experts” (parents, mental health specialists, etc.) of the efficacy of children’s responses. One recent study (Dubow, Schmidt, McBride, Edwards, & Merk, 1993) investigated the effectiveness of children’s coping by having adult raters judge children’s coping responses to various stressful situations depicted through hypothetical vignettes. Dubow et al. scored the efficacy of children’s responses both before and after implementing a coping skills training program. Following a procedure used previously by Lochman and Lampron (1986) and Dubow and Tisak (1989), two graduate students were trained to rate the effectiveness of each solution children generated, based on a 5-point scale ranging from (1) negative action that makes the situation worse to (5) positive action that improves the situation with a future orientation. Effectiveness ratings of the two students were correlated (r = .87). Raters were uninformed of the child’s group classification and to the time of testing (preintervention, postintervention, or follow-up.) Several investigators have demonstrated the need to consider the effectiveness of children’s solutions, in addition to the number of solutions generated, in studies on children’s coping (Fischler & Kendall, 1988; Richard & Dodge, 1982). Although studies such as Dubow et al. (1993) have begun to make some progress in this area, further research is still needed in this area.

Children’s Coping Efficacy and Coping Outcome

Children’s Psychological Adjustment and Coping

Conceptualizations and methods of assessing children’s effective coping have varied considerably, as “coping efficacy” and “coping outcome” have been defined in diverse ways. Methods of assessing coping efficacy and outcome have ranged from subjective reports (e.g., Brown, O’Keeffe, Sanders, & Baker, 1986), objective indexes of behavior (e.g., Hubert, Jay, Saltoun, & Hayes, 1988), informant ratings of adjustment (e.g., Worchel, Copeland, & Barker, 1987), measures of cooperation or compliance with medical staff (e.g., Siegel, 1983), to more long-term, global measures of adjustment (e.g., Weisz et al., 1994). According to Rudolph et al. (1995), the success or failure of a coping outcome should be defined in terms of whether an intended goal was attained. However, they argue that judgments of the efficacy or adaptiveness of a coping outcome must be judged by taking into account others’ viewpoints, as different person’s perspectives may lead to different assessments of coping effectiveness. It has been suggested that

Some studies have shown that use of multiple coping responses (flexibility) is a predictor of positive psychological adjustment (Caplan, Bennetto, & Weissberg, 1991; Holahan & Moos, 1987; Siegel, 1983). One of these studies (Caplan et al.) showed that children who evidenced greater flexibility in alternating between problem-focused and emotionfocused strategies were also more socially competent. Siegel (1983) indicated that persons rated as successful copers reported using a greater variety of strategies than did unsuccessful copers. D’Amico (1994) also indicated that children rated high in social competence were less rigid in their coping responses than children rated low in social competence. The question of whether type of coping response predicts a child’s adjustment to a stressful event has been explored in the child-coping literature. In general, study findings indicate that children who are able to use both emotion-focused coping strategies and problem-focused coping strategies when

School-Based Coping Skills Training Intervention they are appropriate have more favorable emotional and behavioral adjustment than children who rely solely on one type of strategy. For example, Weisz et al. (1994) showed that young children’s (aged 6 and 9 years) reports of increased secondary coping (emotion-focused coping) in response to relatively uncontrollable stressors were consistently related to more favorable adjustment, as reflected in parent ratings of overall behavioral and emotional problems. Additionally, children who showed increased reports of primary coping (problem-focused coping) in response to relatively controllable stressors were shown to have better adjustment. Compas et al. (1988) and others have shown that problem-focused strategies used for controllable, interpersonal stressors were negatively related to emotional-behavioral problems, whereas the emotion-focused alternatives used were positively related to emotional/behavioral problems. However, Spivack and Shure (1982) have shown that even for relatively controllable interpersonal stressors, coping strategies aimed at emotional regulation may also be useful and important for positive adjustment, as children may not be able to effectively employ a problem-focused technique until they are able to regulate their emotions. Taken together, these studies seem to suggest that those children who are able to utilize emotion-focused coping strategies when they are appropriate have more favorable behavioral and emotional adjustment and are judged to be more effective copers than children who rely solely on problem-focused coping strategies (Altshuler & Ruble, 1989; Brown et al., 1986; Weisz et al., 1994). Developmental Changes in Children’s Coping Although there is relatively little research available on the development of children’s coping skills, the general literature on children’s and adolescent’s coping has begun to identify some important developmental patterns. One group of studies focuses specifically on the development of children’s coping with medical stressors (Altshuler & Ruble, 1989; Band, 1990; Band & Weisz, 1988; Brown et al., 1986). Findings indicate that older children (approximately aged 10 and older) are more likely to generate a greater overall number of coping strategies, and to use more cognitively based strategies (e.g., cognitive distraction) than younger children. Furthermore, older children are shown to be more effective than younger children at implementing these strategies. For example, in a study of children’s coping in dental situations,

227 Curry and Russ (1985) reported that in comparison to 8-year-olds, 10-year-old children used a greater number and variety of cognitive coping responses, tended to focus on more positive aspects of the situation, sought less information, and were rated as more effective copers. Overall, there seems to be a developmental progression toward increasing sophistication and efficacy of coping responses as children grow older. There also appears to be age differences in the types of “everyday events” that children of different ages find stressful. Stark, Spirito, Williams, and Guevremont (1989) provided the first study with a normative sample identifying common stressful problems reported by adolescents. In general, results showed that adolescents aged 14–17 years most commonly report four types of problems: school, parents, friends, and boyfriend/girlfriend problems. Boys reported more school problems and girls reported more interpersonal problems. In an extension of this work, Spirito, Stark, Grace, and Stamoulis (1991) explored the specific, everyday events that children aged 9–14 perceive as problems and the methods they use to cope with these problems. Results indicated that, across age, children most frequently reported experiencing problems with school, siblings, parents, and friends. Comparison of the two studies indicates that problems with boyfriend/girlfriend relationships increase and problems with siblings decrease as the child enters adolescence. Related to children’s social functioning, common stressors for school aged children include academic demands, fear of success, fear of failure, friendship initiation, and peer conflict (Sears & Milburn, 1990). Such findings are highly useful normative data, especially because studies with adults (e.g., Vitaliano, DeWolfe, Maiuro, Russo, & Katon, 1990) have shown that minor problems (“hassles”) are better predictors of concurrent and subsequent psychological symptoms than major life events. Developmental changes and stabilities have also been found in children’s use of problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies. In studies covering a wide range of stressors, including medical stressors, academic stressors, dental stressors, and interpersonal stressors there is consistent evidence that younger children rely more heavily on problem solving skills and that the use of emotionfocused strategies increases with age and with development. Emotion-focused strategies appear to naturally emerge in late childhood and increase with age, leveling off by late adolescence (Band & Weisz, 1988,

228 1990; Compas, 1987a; Compas et al., 1988; Compas & Worsham, 1991; Wertlieb, Weigel, Springer, & Feldstein, 1987). Numerous other studies confirm this finding, indicating that young children aged 6–9 years rely heavily upon problem-focused strategies to cope with a variety of stressful situations, whereas older children show greater flexibility in alternating between problem-focused and emotion-focused strategies (Caplan et al., 1991; Compas, Malcarne, & Banez, 1992; Compas, Worsham, & Ey, 1992; Wertlieb et al., 1987). Findings from several studies have demonstrated that even young children have the ability to use emotion-focused types of strategies and actually do use them (Altshuler & Ruble, 1989; Weisz et al., 1994). Typically, these strategies are utilized in order to cope effectively with relatively uncontrollable situations in which the use of direct action strategies would be ineffective. For example, Altshuler and Ruble (1989) compared 5–6-, 7–8-, and 10–11-year-old’s coping with both negative stressors (getting a cavity filled or getting a shot) and positive stressors (delay of gratification tasks). Although use of emotion-focused strategies was greatest in the oldest children, a few of the youngest children did use cognitive strategies, suggesting that they are within the capability of at least some 5–6-year-olds. Recent research on the development of children’s metacognition and “theory of mind” supports this finding, indicating that children as young as 5 or 6 years are capable of thinking about their own and other’s thoughts, strategies, emotions, beliefs and desires (Astington & Jenkins, 1995; Flavell, 1992). Thus, from quite an early age, children may also be capable of understanding the concept that they have access to and control over their emotions and thoughts, a concept that is central to many emotion-focused approaches. However, children may not have knowledge of these specific strategies, nor have the behavioral skills necessary to execute these strategies when faced with a stressful situation. Taken together, these studies suggest that although many young children may have the ability to think about and utilize emotion-focused strategies, many may not have acquired the skills necessary to do so. Because many young children have not acquired these skills, they are afforded considerably less flexibility in their options for coping with stress. Thus, it may be useful to teach young children to use emotion focused coping skills in addition to problem-focused coping skills, so that they have more skills in their behavioral repertoires for dealing effectively with a variety of everyday situations.

Pincus and Friedman BRIEF, SKILL-FOCUSED COPING SKILLS INTERVENTIONS WITH CHILDREN Brief Interventions in the Laboratory or Clinical Setting Several studies have suggested that brief interventions can be effective in teaching children skills that would be useful when coping with stressful situations. For example, studies have shown that children as young as age 5 can be trained to use guided imagery, distraction, and counting in several brief instruction sessions to cope with stress in medical situations (Jacobsen et al., 1990; Jay, Ozolins, Elliott, & Caldwell, 1983). Further, in one brief laboratorybased training session, Kanfer, Karoly, and Newman (1975) taught dark-fearful children ages 5–6 verbal coping responses (e.g., competence-related positive self statements), which had immediate effects on increasing children’s tolerance of the dark. Despite the brevity of the training, children’s gains were maintained during two subsequent posttest trials of a behavioral avoidance test. In one early study, Meichenbaum and Goodman (1971) were successful in training impulsive second grade children selfcontrol strategies (cognitive self-instruction skills) in four 1/2 hour treatment sessions over a 2-week period. Additionally, Sheslow, Bondy, and Nelson (1983) successfully trained 4- and 5-year-old normal children in verbal coping skills training procedures for three 20–30 min treatment sessions on 3 consecutive days. Overall, these findings provide evidence that various appropriate coping skills can be effectively taught to children using relatively brief, skill-focused interventions. Brief School-Based Intervention Programs and Curricula Teaching Problem-Focused Coping Skills Various researchers have also developed and implemented school-based primary prevention programs and curricula designed to teach children skills to help them cope more effectively with school and life problems (Cowen, Wyman, Work, & Iker, 1995; Kendall & Braswell, 1993; Spivack & Shure, 1974). These programs are based on numerous studies across diverse age groups, socioeconomic groups and clinical samples showing that children who have better problem-solving skills are more well-adjusted (e.g., Spivack et al., 1976). If, as has been argued, the inability to cope with everyday problems leads to emotional

School-Based Coping Skills Training Intervention dysfunction, then teaching children such skills should promote health and resilience and should reduce maladaptation (Masten et al., 1990). Most of these school-based intervention programs focus primarily on teaching children about the problem solving “process” or about “direct action” types of problem solving strategies. These strategies may focus on how to directly alter the objective circumstances of a situation, how to generate numerous solutions to problems, and how to effectively implement these solutions, rather than teaching them emotion-focused types of strategies (such as how to think differently about a situation, how and when to just try to calm oneself, how to adjust oneself to better fit with the demands of the environment, etc.) Many of the current “problem solving” training programs are based on concepts from the extensive work of (e.g., Spivack & Shure, 1974, 1982) on the assessment and training of interpersonal cognitive problem solving skills in children. The Interpersonal Cognitive Problem-Solving Curriculum The Interpersonal Cognitive Problem-Solving curriculum for children (ICPS; Spivack et al., 1976; Spivack & Shure, 1974; Shure & Spivack, 1979) is based on the assumption that effective social behavior and positive social and behavioral adjustment are dependent upon the ability to generate many and varied solutions to interpersonal problems (D’Zurilla & Goldfried, 1971). During the intervention program, children are taught a set of interrelated skills that are seen as crucial for effective problem solving: (1) the ability to generate multiple alternative solutions to an interpersonal problem, (2) the ability to consider the consequences of possible solutions, and (3) the ability to implement a chosen solution to reach a specific goal. Studies evaluating this program have demonstrated a significant relationship between this educational classroom training program and improvements in both preschool and elementary school-aged children’s “means ends thinking,” generation of multiple solutions, knowledge and performance of problem solving skills, and classroom ratings of behavioral adjustment (e.g., Cowen, Wyman, Work, & Parker, 1990; Weissberg & Elias, 1993). Further, there is evidence that acquisition of social problem solving skills and adjustment gains are maintained at both 1- and 2-year follow-ups (Shure & Spivack, 1988). The ICPS approach has been recommended

229 as among the most promising formats for preventive intervention, thus, it is not surprising that multiple training programs have been developed using variations on Spivack & Shure’s approach. These intervention programs have differed widely in their length of training, ranging from teaching problem-solving skills in as few as three sessions, to as many as 52 sessions (Cowen et al., 1995; Dubow et al., 1993). Interestingly, evaluations of even the briefest of these various SPS interventions have shown statistically significant improvements in second- to fifth-grade children’s SPS skills as compared to control groups (e.g., Weissberg, Caplan, & Harwood, 1991). Overall, evaluations of these programs have found social problem solving skills to be positively related to improvements in children’s peer acceptance, resilience (Cowen et al., 1995), behavioral adjustment and children’s social competence (D’Zurilla & Goldfried, 1971; Richard & Dodge, 1982; Spivack et al., 1976; Urbain & Kendall, 1980). Other studies of problem solving programs have demonstrated positive effects for reducing specific problems of childhood, such as impulsive behavior, antisocial behavior, depression and aggression (Kendall & Braswell, 1993; Lochman, Lampron, & Rabiner, 1989). Although many of the skills taught in the ICPS training programs seem especially relevant to children’s effective coping, few studies to date have explored the direct effects of teaching such skills on children’s use of coping strategies when dealing with problematic situations. Brief, School-Based Intervention Programs and Curricula Teaching Emotion-Focused Coping Skills Only a few school-based programs have focused specifically on teaching children “emotion-focused” types of coping strategies, such as how to change or modify one’s thoughts or feelings, how to reduce one’s tension, or how to adjust oneself to fit the demands of an situation. This is surprising, considering that the child-coping literature consistently suggests that optimal adjustment to many stressors may require adjusting oneself to the stressors rather than trying to alter them directly. Further, this is surprising, considering that young children who do utilize emotion-focused strategies in addition to problem-focused strategies exhibit better overall adjustment than children who rely solely on problem-focused tactics. Several recent intervention programs now incorporate lessons on emotion-focused skills in addition to problem

230 solving skills. However, to date, there are still very few programs that have been implemented in the school setting that are focused entirely on teaching emotion focused strategies. The skills taught in the lessons described below have helped lay the groundwork for designing a new brief treatment teaching children emotion-focused coping strategies in the school setting. Rochester Child Resilience Project In a preventative program designed to enhance resilience in urban children, Cowen et al. (1995) taught fourth- to sixth-grade urban children various skills for coping with life stress. Their 12session program curriculum was based on findings from the Rochester Child Resilience Project (RCRP; Cowen et al., 1992; Parker, Cowen, Work, & Wyman, 1990), which identified five variables that most sensitively differentiated stress-resistant (SR) from stress-affected (SA) children: perceived global self-worth, empathy, realistic control attributions, social-problem-solving skills, and self-esteem. Although sessions of the program were similar in content to most other problem-solving programs (e.g., teaching children steps of problem solving, teaching children to apply these skills to various problemscenarios), two sessions were incorporated which aimed at teaching children the distinction between solvable and unsolvable problems and for teaching children specific strategies for dealing with unsolvable problems (e.g., redirecting energy toward ageappropriate tasks, ways for children to help themselves feel better, etc.). Further, a third session of the program was devoted to teaching children to identify feelings in themselves and in others, and to teaching children how feelings relate to experiences. A major aim of the project was to clarify the types of shortterm gains that children might accrue from such a brief intervention. Overall, outcome data indicated that this skillfocused intervention program had several positive effects. Teachers rated the participants in the program as significantly improved on measures of learning problems and task-orientation. Evidence of programrelated gain was also found on measures of overall perceived self-efficacy and on measures for dealing with difficult problem situations and new situations. Further, children who participated in the program showed more realistic control expectations for dealing with controllable and uncontrollable problems

Pincus and Friedman and also showed reductions on measures of anxiety. However, it is still unknown how such an intervention impacted the strategies children chose for dealing with everyday stress, as this was not specifically measured. Rational-Emotive Education (REE) A few other programs have been developed which incorporate affective and cognitive skills training as part of their intervention. One such “emotional education” program was developed by Vernon (1983, 1989) and is strongly based upon some of the theoretical principles of Rational Emotive Therapy (RET; Ellis & Bernard, 1983). This school-based curriculum, “Thinking, Feeling, Behaving: An Emotional Education Curriculum for Children Grades 1–6” provides detailed, comprehensive lesson plans for educators to teach emotion education, problem solving skills, and decision making skills to children in the regular classroom setting. For example, children are taught how to identify negative feelings, how to change negative feelings by altering their thoughts, how to identify healthy and unhealthy methods of expressing anger, disappointment, fear, worry and sadness, and how to identify irrational thoughts. These skills are taught through brief, 20–30 min lessons that consist of developmentally appropriate activities, role plays, discussion questions, worksheets, and content questions. Specific, clear objectives are presented for each lesson, and activities are all designed to stimulate children’s active involvement and to promote mastery of specific concepts. Numerous studies in the area of children’s cognitive and affective development have indicated that the cognitive and affective skills such as those taught in Vernon’s curriculum are positively related to social competence and prosocial behavior in early and middle-childhood (Garner, 1996; Garner, Jones, & Miner, 1994). Garner (1996) highlights several practical consequences of these findings for children’s education. First, although schools focus on providing an environment where academic skills are nurtured, it may be advantageous for children to be taught skills in the cognitive-affective domain as well. Despite growing evidence that such “cognitive” and “affective” skills contribute to children’s positive social adjustment, education programs teaching these skills have not been formally integrated in the elementary school curriculum, nor have they been formally tested in the school setting.

School-Based Coping Skills Training Intervention “I Can Do” Program Only one known study to date (Dubow et al., 1993) provides some initial evidence that teaching children general coping skills in a brief intervention program can have a positive effect on their subsequent ability to effectively employ various coping strategies. Unlike the other primary prevention programs reviewed which teach children a wide variety of “core competency” skills, Dubow et al. (1993) designed a short-term classroom-based program that was specifically aimed at teaching children coping skills for dealing with stressful experiences. Their program is the only known study to date that investigates the effects of teaching young children coping strategies on qualities of their subsequent coping. Eighty-eight fourth-grade children received the “I can do” program (Dubow et al., 1993), regardless of whether they had recently been exposed to stressful experiences, and were compared to children in a delayed intervention group. The intervention program had several primary aims: (1) to teach children general problemsolving and coping skills, (2) to give children practice in applying these skills to five specific stressors that commonly occur during childhood (e.g., parental separation/divorce, move to a new home/school, loss of a loved one, spending significant amounts of time alone (self-care), and feeling “different” ethnically, physically, etc.), (3) to increase children’s efficacy to implement effective coping strategies for each stressor, (4) to enhance children’s problem-solving skills in relation to each stressor, and (5) to increase children’s knowledge about the stressors. The 13-session program was divided into six units, and each session of the program lasted approximately 45 min. Program results overall were positive. Children who received the program improved significantly in the effectiveness of their coping solutions, providing initial evidence that teaching children various strategies such as “feeling helpers” and problem solving does facilitate their coping effectiveness. Children also improved in their ability to generate a greater number of effective solutions and in their self-efficacy to cope with three of the five stressors (divorce, moving, and self-care). These effects were generally maintained or strengthened at 5-month follow-up. This program provides promising initial evidence that young children can be taught to implement effective solutions to problems, and that teaching children specific coping skills can improve the rated efficacy of their coping. Although children’s coping “solutions” were reportedly coded into content categories

231 (e.g., seeking social support, problem-focused action, avoidance, etc.), Dubow et al. (1993) did not examine the number or proportion of solutions generated by children in each coping category. Therefore, it is impossible to determine from their results whether such general coping training affected young children’s choice and use of particular types of coping strategies. Further, as all children in the intervention group received general training in both problem-solving and “emotion-focused” types of strategies, the individual effects of teaching children skills in each of these areas remain unknown. Finally, it was not possible to determine whether coping skills training helped children generate a greater variety of coping strategies for each stressor (strategies from several different coping categories), or whether such training had any influence on the variety of strategies generated. In sum, findings from each of these multicomponent, skill focused intervention programs and results from the laboratory based interventions cited earlier suggest that children can be taught “cognitiveaffective” skills and “problem-solving” skills using brief, skill-focused interventions. Existing intervention programs have shown some success in improving the number of strategies children can generate, in reducing some symptoms of behavioral and emotional problems, and in enhancing children’s ability to deal effectively with particular life stressors. However, most of these programs have focused primarily on teaching children problem-solving skills. Much less is known about the effects of teaching children emotion-focused coping skills, as only a few known programs to date have been implemented specifically to teach children these skills. In the next section, a school-based study is described with the primary goal of building upon previous literature on school-based coping skills training programs that incorporate both problem solving and affective training components, to determine the effects of these components on children’s use of coping strategies. DEVELOPMENT OF A BRIEF, SCHOOL-BASED TRAINING PROGRAM FOR INCREASING CHILDREN’S USE OF EMOTION-FOCUSED COPING SKILLS Goals of the Study The primary purpose of the study was to determine whether school-aged children could be taught to generate increased emotion-focused coping strategies

232 after being given a brief training session that teaches children these skills. The second goal was to examine the differential effects of teaching children “problemfocused” skills and teaching “emotion focused” skills on children’s subsequent use of specific coping strategies. Third, the study examined the extent to which children shift their coping strategies and situational appraisals across different types of “everyday” stressors. Although highly detailed description and results of the study can be found elsewhere (Pincus, 1999), the study will be summarized below to highlight the details of the intervention utilized in the school setting followed by a section on the challenges and suggested strategies for conducting a school-based intervention research program. Participants and Study Design Participants were 167 children (85 boys and 82 girls) in third and fourth grades, who were recruited from two public elementary schools in the Binghamton area in New York. A total of 12 classrooms of children participated in the study with six classrooms (3 third-grade classrooms and 3 fourthgrade classrooms) participating from each elementary school. Children’s ages ranged from 8 to 11 years (X = 9.35). Children received one of three brief, 75 min, one-session interventions: (1) problem-solving skills training, (2) cognitive-affective skills training, and (3) discussion group (control group). Overview of Assessment Protocol Children’s coping was assessed by using three measures: (1) a child self-report checklist of coping (Kidcope; Spirito, Stark, & Williams, 1988), (2) a structured coping interview (adapted from Campbell, 1995; D’Amico, 1994; and Dubow et al., 1993) in which children provided coping responses to four hypothetical stressful scenarios shown to be most salient for children of this age group (academic, parent, peer, and medical stressors). Children’s verbatim coping responses to each scenario were later classified according to whether they represent problem-focused, emotion-focused, or avoidant strategies based on the scoring protocol developed by Compas et al. (1988). In addition, parents completed a demographic questionnaire and a general checklist of child psychopathology.

Pincus and Friedman Experimenters and Skills Trainers Thirty-two female undergraduate psychology majors were recruited as research assistants to help conduct the project in the schools to be sure the project was implemented as efficiently as possible. Of the 32 research assistants, 20 were trained as “interviewers” and were primarily responsible for administering assessment procedures. The remaining 12 research assistants were trained as “group leaders” and were responsible for the intervention portion of the study. Group leaders worked in pairs. None of the “interviewers” saw the same child for both their preand postassessment coping interviews, nor did the interviewers administer the skills training sessions. All research assistants were required to attend a series of training sessions where they were trained in general research principles, consent and assent procedures, issues of confidentiality, debriefing of subjects, ethical standards of conduct regarding research with human participants, and in the experimental procedures of the study, and all research assistants were blind to the hypotheses of the study. Assistants received training manuals detailing the specific procedures for data collection and skills training to ensure standardization of protocol. Training sessions involved didactic instruction, role-playing, modeling, and group discussion.

School Approval and Consent Forms In order to recruit study participants, 12 local elementary school principals were sent a personalized letter inviting their school to participate in a study on children’s coping with everyday situations. Principals were also sent a Coping Skills Training Project Description Packet that described the study in detail and provided the principal with copies of relevant study materials. Two principals agreed to participate. After receiving permission from the principal, formal school approval was obtained from the superintendent of the school district and from the school board. The 12 third- and fourthgrade teachers from both schools were invited to participate in the study. Each teacher was given an overview of the study, informed of the time commitment involved, and given a Coping Skills Training Project Description Packet. All teachers consented to participate.

School-Based Coping Skills Training Intervention Procedural Overview of the Coping Skills Training Program The project was divided into three phases: pretreatment assessment, intervention, and posttreatment assessment. During the pretreatment assessment, the Coping Interview was conducted with each child individually and lasted approximately 30 min. Children’s responses and ratings were audiotaped and were also hand-recorded on preprinted coding sheets. In the intervention phase, approximately 1 week later, children were randomly assigned to the three intervention groups and received either (1) cognitive-affective skills training, (2) problem-solving skills training, or (3) discussion group (control group). One week later, the posttreatment assessment was conducted in a similar manner to the initial assessment and lasted 30–40 min. Within each of the participating classrooms, children were randomly assigned to one of the three skills training groups. Thus, each classroom had children participating in each of the treatment groups and in the control group. Treatment groups were run simultaneously, and attempts were made to equate all interventions on time spent, types of activities, number and types of games, discussion questions, degree of “fun,” and structure. Participating children were removed from the classroom during a prearranged time to ensure that the study did not interfere with their academic work. At the end of pretreatment assessment, each child was given a self-addressed envelope containing the parent measures. To determine whether children were attentive to the information presented to them in each condition, all children completed a brief test at the conclusion of their intervention session called the Coping Skills Training Test or “Memory Mania.” This test was administered in order to try to determine whether the training was successful in teaching children the various coping skills. Each question on the test was read aloud to children, and they were asked to record their answers on a preprinted answer sheet. Group One: Cognitive-Affective Skills Training The overall goal of the training was to teach children to recognize thoughts and feelings and to use strategies to modify thoughts and feelings when they are maladaptive. There were three critical aspects to this training: (1) to teach children to identify feelings and thoughts in response to problematic situations, (2)

233 to teach children five specific methods for dealing with emotional aspects of the situation “feeling helpers,” and (3) to apply these new emotion-focused skills to various, everyday stressful situations. Once children understood these core concepts, they were taught to apply them to difficult stressful situations using games and fun activities. Some of the curriculum material for this intervention was adapted from Cowen et al. (1995); Dubow et al. (1993); Mannix (1993); Shure (1992); and Vernon (1989). Group Two: Problem-Solving Skills Training The overall goal of this group intervention was to teach specific problem-solving skills for children. During the skills training, children were taught to recognize problems and to learn to utilize five steps of problem solving. There were three critical aspects to this training: (1) to teach children to identify problems that need solutions, (2) to teach children five specific steps for generating and evaluating solutions to problems (I can do: Identify problem, think of choices, pay attention to each choice, narrow it down to one choice, and do it!), and (3) to teach children to utilize these problem solving skills to generate solutions to various, everyday stressful situations. Children also were taught to apply this skill to different problems through group discussion, games, and fun activities. Some of the curriculum material, which was utilized in this group, was adapted from Cowen et al. (1995); Dubow et al. (1993); Mannix (1993); and Shure (1992). Group Three: Discussion (Control) Group The primary focus of this group was to control for nonspecific treatment effects (attention control). This group followed an identical format to that of groups 1 and 2. Children in this group discussed issues such as children’s everyday problems, children’s feelings, and the things children like to do each day, however, children in this group were not taught specific coping skills. Thus, this group was equated with the other two groups in terms of group format, time spent with group leaders, and number of activities and games, but did not receive what was considered to be the active treatment component, the skills training. Thus, it was possible to determine whether just talking about feelings or problems had an effect on children’s choice

234 of coping strategies. Some of the discussion topics and activities that were used in this group were adapted from Cowen et al. (1995); Dubow et al. (1993); Mannix (1993); Shure (1992); and Vernon (1989). Debriefing Participants Upon completion of the study, principals and parents of children in the study were sent a written summary explaining the hypotheses of the study along with a written summary of the results in an easy-toread format. It was explained to parents that the study aimed at determining which of three brief skills training programs was most effective in helping children generate coping strategies when given hypothetical situations and to determine the impact of skills training on children’s coping.

Pincus and Friedman The study findings merge well with existing developmental literature on children’s coping patterns. Prior to skills training, the third and fourth graders generated primarily problem-focused strategies (65%), some emotion-focused strategies (30%), and a few avoidance/escape strategies (5%) in response to the stressful situations. However, the study sheds new light on the developmental literature, suggesting that children can be taught to increase their generation of particular types of strategies at an earlier age than previously thought. Even the young children in this study were able to increase their use of emotion-focused strategies once they were taught these skills. Unfortunately, without these emotionfocused skills, children are afforded considerably less flexibility in their options for coping with stress. Providing such skills training in the school setting allowed for many children to benefit from learning these emotion-focused skills in a very short time period.

Results Although results of the study are presented in detail elsewhere (Pincus, 1999), they are summarized below for purposes of this paper. Results of the study provided an initial demonstration of the differential effects of teaching young children emotion-focused coping skills and problem-focused coping skills on their subsequent coping strategy use when faced with everyday stressful situations. The main finding of the study was that young, school-aged children could be taught to generate increased emotion-focused coping strategies after being taught these skills in a brief training session. Children who received the 75-min cognitive-affective skills training session showed a substantial increase in their emotion-focused strategy generation after skills training. Children who received this training showed a significantly greater increase in their generation of emotion-focused strategies than children in either the problem solving group or in the control group at posttreatment. Results of the study also indicated that children in both the problemsolving skills group and the cognitive-affective skills group showed significant increases in the total number of coping strategies they generated at posttest as compared to pretest for all four stressful scenarios. Thus, there were differential effects of type of coping skills training on children’s subsequent coping strategy use. This finding is consistent with previous literature that has suggested that even very brief interventions can be effective in teaching children coping skills for use in stressful situations.

CHALLENGES TO CONDUCTING SCHOOL-BASED INTERVENTIONS: STRATEGIES FOR MAXIMIZING SUCCESS Approaching School Boards and Principals Regarding the Intervention Research Project One of the first challenges in implementing the above school-based study was to obtain permission of the school board, superintendent of schools, and the individual school principals. This was perhaps the greatest hurdle in the entire process of implementing the school-based research study. Often it is difficult to determine the appropriate hierarchy regarding who should be contacted first regarding the project, and school officials are typically quite busy with other school related issues. Thus, we implemented strategies to make this initial contact most effective. These strategies could be utilized by future researchers embarking on new school-based intervention research. One suggestion is to begin with calling the school principal directly and to set up an appointment with him or her in person, to present the project professionally, inquire about his or her interest, and to inquire whether there is a specific protocol for obtaining permission in the school district. On the basis of our previous experience, school principals have been more receptive to hearing about research projects when the researcher has taken the time to delineate clearly the project details such as the time involved, how much space will be needed to conduct the study, whether the study can

School-Based Coping Skills Training Intervention be conducted outside of classroom time, how much of teachers’ time will need to be devoted to the project, etc. It is also helpful to offer several “perks” for participation, such as offering to conduct a special free seminar for parents or for teachers/staff on a topic of interest to the principal or school, such as how to help children with anxiety, how to improve behavior in the classroom and at home, or how to help children cope most effectively with everyday stress, to name some examples. Such talks could be advertised in the school newsletter or in local papers and opened up to the community, which could provide good publicity for the school and for its service to the community. In our experience, several principals found this to be a very motivating reward for the time it took them to get their school personnel involved in the research study. Information on school-based research studies should be presented to principals and school boards in a formal, professional manner. It is helpful to have drafted a formal letter addressed to the principal of the school briefly describing the study and the project and a separate letter addressed to the superintendent or other school officials. In addition to the letter, presenting the principal or superintendent with a folder including the approved IRB consent forms, a description to be sent out to parents, a sample letter for teachers, and any other relevant information can be helpful. As this initial meeting is often brief, it is important to present oneself in an organized, professional manner, as this should set an example for how one’s research would be conducted in the school setting. Conducting this initial meeting in person is preferable to simply mailing a letter describing a study as these letters could be easily lost, and a face-to-face meeting provides an opportunity to describe the study in more detail, to respond to principals’ initial questions or concerns, and to help facilitate the school-based research process. It may be necessary to present the project formally at a school board meeting before receiving formal approval to proceed. Getting Teachers “On Board” After receiving permission from the school superintendent and principal, it can be very helpful to utilize specific strategies to help get teachers “on board” before implementing the research project. From our experience, the principal informed teachers about the project and encouraged them to participate, but their participation was not required. Thus,

235 it may be helpful to set up a meeting after school with each teacher separately or in a group format to describe your study and begin to establish rapport with teachers. Teachers are of utmost importance to have “on board” as they can be instrumental in helping children to return consent forms and can certainly help facilitate the practicalities of the research process proceeding smoothly. Having a folder of information about the study along with a personalized letter inviting their classroom’s participation can be instrumental in beginning to establish rapport with teachers. If concerns regarding time commitments or scheduling are raised by teachers, it is helpful to take a flexible, open-minded approach, and to brainstorm ways to problem solve issues as they arise. It is helpful to mention that the project has already received the support of the superintendent and principal, but it is certainly crucial to let teachers know that their support is of utmost importance. In addition, describing to teachers the potential impact the study may have for future child program development might help garner their support. Gaining Students’ Cooperation: Strategies for Maximizing Return Rates of Consent Forms After receiving teachers’ support and consent to participate, there are still further challenges ahead in implementing a school-based research study. Students will need to be given permission slips (consent forms) to participate in the research project, which must be returned. It can be helpful to name the project something that is easy for children to remember. For example, in the study described above, the use of the program name, “I CAN DO IT: Coping Skills Training!,” a special program for third and fourth graders, made it easy to refer to the program in a child friendly way. Teachers can be extremely helpful in encouraging students to return permission slips, and several strategies were implemented in the above study to maximize return rates of consent forms. First, teachers were asked to make announcements in the classroom to remind children to give the permission slip to their parents. The principal investigator of the study also made a “child friendly” presentation in the classroom to describe some of the activities that would be involved in the “I CAN DO IT: Coping Skills Training Program” for kids. Teachers also wrote friendly reminders on the chalkboard to help children remember to bring consent forms back. Second, a “treasure box” technique was utilized with children in the classroom, such

236 that a brightly decorated box filled with small treats (e.g., stickers, fruit snacks, coupons for free movies at the local movie rental store, etc.) was placed on each child’s desk and he or she was allowed to pick a treat when he or she returned the consent form (regardless of whether or not parents gave permission for them to participate in the research). Children were visibly very enthusiastic and excited about the treasure box. Third, an additional strategy for getting high return rates on consent forms that we utilized was a “pizza party challenge” technique, whereby all the third- and fourth-grade classrooms competed to see which classroom could get 100% return of consent forms first, and that classroom won a free pizza party at lunchtime. One third-grade classroom and one fourth-grade classroom were awarded a free pizza party, yet all children in all classrooms were given extra treats from the treasure box for working together to bring back consent forms. This created a very positive atmosphere in the classrooms as all children were rewarded for their efforts. Fourth, another strategy that was suggested by one of the teachers was to have all the children in the classroom brainstorm ways to help their classmates remember to bring back the consent forms. This was especially helpful, as the children would help each other by providing reminder notes and encouragement to each other so that they could win the pizza party. In addition, surprisingly, teachers appeared to be particularly enthusiastic when given the first opportunity to choose a treat in front of the class from the treasure box. It is recommended that researchers embarking on research in the schools make particular efforts to be sure teachers feel rewarded by their efforts, as this also paves the way for future research in the school setting. By utilizing these strategies in our study, we were able to achieve 100% participation from all of the third- and fourth-grade classroom teachers, and we were able to obtain a 94.2% return rate for consent forms in the elementary school in Binghamton, NY and a 90.1% return rate for consent forms in the elementary school in Vestal, NY. Importance of Including the School Social Worker or School Psychologist It is helpful to also meet with the school psychologist or school social worker before conducting the study to be sure that he or she is aware of the project. The school social workers were quite helpful in facilitating the practical aspects of the project by giving us the “inside scoop” about school politics that might

Pincus and Friedman affect the study and about the best places in the school to conduct the study. It is possible that the school social worker or psychologist may also be interested in the research, and forming a relationship with him or her early on in the process will help ensure that further support is obtained for the study from someone who likely appreciates the importance of positive interventions for children and who likely appreciates the broader value of conducting research with children in the school setting. Coping With Practical Challenges in the School Setting: Space and Time One of the difficult challenges with conducting research in the school setting is that space is often very limited. Researchers should consider their basic needs (e.g., how quiet it needs to be, how many rooms required, how much time is needed for the research to be conducted). Furthermore, researchers should also consider that flexibility is extremely important, and although a setting might not be ideal, one might think about whether it is adequate and could work. For example, in our study on children’s coping in the Binghamton Schools, we were offered several options for conducting research: the hallway (while class was in session), the cafeteria (right after lunch), or in the library (while other children were in the library). Although none of the sites were ideal, we were able to find tables in the library that were far enough away from other children so that our coping interview could be administered. Further, we were even able to make use of the hallway by bringing in several chairs and a small table and by agreeing to be as quiet as possible. By enlisting the help of many research assistants, we were also able to utilize the space available in the cafeteria by spacing children with research assistants around different areas of the cafeteria for the most privacy. For the skills training intervention sessions, several teachers were able to brainstorm ways to utilize sections of different classrooms for the intervention while the rest of the class was at art, computers, or gym. One of the most important issues in the pragmatics of conducting research in the schools was the need to “blend in” with the regular flow of the school day. It was especially important to be creative in solving small problems when possible without having to involve the principal as the principals of each school stated that if it were too disruptive to the school, we would have to discontinue the study. Thus, finding space, trying to go with the flow of the school day,

School-Based Coping Skills Training Intervention gaining the support of teachers, and getting permission first for each location at which we chose to conduct the study were some of the biggest challenges faced in the process that researchers will likely need to deal with when conducting research in the schools. In addition to space, there is often limited time to conduct research in the school day so that it does not interfere with essential school subjects. Therefore, it is important to obtain several potential convenient times from teachers for conducting the research. Teachers were often able to offer several time slots, but each of these slots were extremely short and precise (e.g., “You can see the children for your project between 10:50 a.m. and 11:07 a.m. when we break for snack.”) Therefore, it is important to be on time for the allotted time slot, to utilize available time as best as possible, and to be assertive in asking teachers for additional time if necessary. Strategies for Utilizing Research Assistants’ Help Efficiently In order to facilitate the quick collection of data, it is often necessary to enlist the help and assistance of research assistants. In the case of the study described above, 32 research assistants (graduate students and undergraduate students) received academic course credit for their participation. They attended a series of 10 training sessions to educate them on the proper protocols for the research assessments and for the intervention training sessions. In addition to training in the research protocols, research assistants were also educated about the “politics” of conducting research in the school setting. They were instructed to dress very professionally and were educated about ways to establish rapport quickly with children as there was little time allotted for the entire research process. Furthermore, on a logistical note, research assistants were each provided with their own hand-held battery operated tape recorder (allowed for flexibility to tape the coping interview anywhere in the school), blank tapes, and their own clipboards and supplies. All research assistants were provided with typed nametags with the words “Coping Skills Training” project staff written on the nametags, so that school personnel and teachers could readily identify them. Although it may be time-consuming to attend these small details, teachers and principals had very positive feedback about the “professionalism” with which the research was conducted, and reported that research assistants were all well equipped to conduct the research in an expedi-

237 ent, efficient manner. By enlisting the help of a number of research assistants, the data can be collected very quickly and efficiently while allowing research assistants to gain valuable research experience in the school setting. Paving the Road for Future Research in the School Setting Once the research data has been collected, it is important to keep any promises made to the school, teachers, principal, etc., whether it was to provide a free talk or to provide a description of study findings for all teachers and or all parents involved. In addition, it may be helpful to offer to write up a short article on the project for the school newsletter to assist with the school’s publicity efforts and their efforts to work together to conduct the study. Formal thank you letters can be written to the school personnel involved, and short thank you notes might also be delivered to teachers. A summary of study findings should be offered to the school principal, teachers, and parents written in a professional style without being overly laden with scientific jargon. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS In summary, conducting research in the schools can be extremely fruitful, especially given the accessibility of large numbers of children and the opportunity to obtain a large sample of children within a similar age range. In the study described in this paper, it was important to interview large numbers of children to better understand basic coping processes in childhood and to understand the effects that even brief interventions might have on children’s use of coping strategies. The school provided the ideal setting for gathering this type of information. Effects of brief demonstration projects such as the one detailed above may help inform future school-based interventions designed specifically to enhance children’s coping and may help to inform the development of prevention programs to help buffer the effects of stress on the development of psychopathology. By implementing such programs in the schools, it is possible to have an impact on a range of children, not just those children who are reporting to clinics due to interfering psychopathology. In addition, if brief interventions can have a substantial impact, they may integrate well in the classroom setting where time is often an

238 issue. Future school-based coping skills training programs might examine the effects of including a parenttraining component to coping skills training as parents could be taught to reinforce children’s appropriate use of coping skills training. Further, more comprehensive programs aimed at enhancing children’s overall resilience against everyday stressors and improving their overall adjustment could be designed; these programs should likely include both problem solving and emotion-focused coping skills components. By utilizing strategies addressed in this paper, researchers may be better able to cope with the varied challenges of conducting research in the school setting without letting these potential roadblocks deter from the potential gains and positive implications such research could have for a wide range of children.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research was supported by a Binghamton University Dissertation Year Fellowship awarded to Donna Pincus. The authors acknowledge and thank the 32 undergraduate students at Binghamton University who volunteered their time to be research assistants for the school-based intervention study described in this paper.

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Unless each child's capacity to learn is both present and available in the classroom, the school cannot accomplish its mission...to educate. The capacity to learn is diminished whenever children or teens bodies and minds are dysregulated or in survival mode. While most of the origins of this disruption (developmental trauma and toxic stress) occur outside of school, adults in the school community have a natural opportunity to help heal the hurt that is present in so many of our children. To improve learning, mitigate learning struggles, or help calm the mind/body to avoid anger/rage/disruption, the classroom environment is a sacred and safe space for change. How do educators create those environments and teach at the same time? We do this by creating nurturing school environments and healthy relationships with learners and colleagues. Educators can provide children the space and the opportunity to heal and thrive. It IS doable.

Refe e ce Bloom, S. L. (2013). Crea ing anc ar o ard he e ol ion of Sane Socie ie . Routledge. Harris, N. B. (2021). The deepe ell: Healing he long- erm effec of childhood ra ma and ad er i . Mariner Books, an imprint of HarperCollinsPublishers. Maté Gabor, & Maté Daniel. (2022). The m h of normal: Tra ma, illne c l re. Avery Publishing, an imprint of the Penguin Group.

and healing in a o ic

Nakazawa, D. J. (2016). Childhood di r p ed: Ho Yo r Biograph Become Yo r Biolog , and Ho Yo Can Heal. Atria Paperback. Piore, A. (2020, March 9). Ye , re reall i making o ick. Newsweek. Retrieved from https://www.newsweek.com/2020/03/06/yes-stress-really-making-you-sick-1489620.html van der Kolk, B. A. (2015). The bod keep he core: Mind, brain and bod in he ran forma ion of ra ma. Penguin Books.

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Ma i a Ca , Ed.L. I c i a Diag icia , Th ee Vi age Sch Di ic R e Del me Me a e , M.Ed. Di ec , McCa h I i e, B La i Sch Sand V l ai e, M.Ed. S ecia Ed ca i Teache , Ca b idge P b ic Sch

O e ie Ho can e help s den s o engage in he learning process hen he feel o er helmed b fr s ra ion, s ress, and an ie ? This panel ill incl de eachers and adminis ra ors from aro nd he co n r hose inno a i e school programs span general and special ed ca ion classrooms across he grades and con en areas. These e per s ill disc ss he approaches he ha e sed o promo e e ec i e f nc ion s ra eg ins r c ion and social-emo ional learning in heir classrooms. Speakers on his panel ill highligh he impor ance of crea ing classrooms and schools here e ec i e f nc ion s ra egies are a gh e plici l and s s ema icall so ha all s den s can access heir s reng hs in order o s cceed in school and in life.

Each speaker ill respond briefl -

o he follo ing q es ions:

Wha s eps ha e o aken o promo e e ec i e f nc ion and social-emo ional learning in o r schools? Ho can e spread EF across schools and crea e a c l re of s ra eg se ha in ol es all s den s, eachers, adminis ra ors, and paren s? Wha are o r recommenda ions for o her eachers and adminis ra ors ho are in eres ed in eaching EF s ra egies in heir schools?

Refe ence D eck, C. S. (2008). Mi d e : The e Ho se.

Golds ein, S. and Naglieri, J. (2015) (Eds.) E ec i e F Springer. Ka fman, C. (2010). E ec i e f c i i ef a ce a d e ha ci g i f a

cce . Ne York, NY: The Random

i g Ha db

. Ne York:

he c a : P ac ica a egie f i i g de . Bal imore: Pa l H. Brookes P b. Co.

Mel er, L.J. (Ed). (2018) (2nd Ed.) E ec i e F Ne York: G ilford Press.

i Ed ca i

The

P ac ice.

Mel er, L.J. (2018) Crea ing s ra egic classrooms and schools: Embedding e ec i e f nc ion s ra egies in he c rric l m. In Mel er, L.J. (Ed). (2018) (2nd Ed.) E ec i e F c i i Ed ca i : F he ac ice. Ne York: G ilford Press. Mel er, L. (speaker). (2017, Sep ember 26). Projec R na a [A dio blog pos ]. Re rie ed from h p://cerebralma ers.com/podcas /podcas /episode-12/ Mel er, L. (speaker). (2017, Oc ober 3). From Pimples o Projec s: Taking Charge of Ho Learn [A dio blog pos ]. Re rie ed from h p://cerebralma ers.com/podcas /?s=from+pimples+ o+projec s-299.

Mel er, L.J. (2014). Teaching e ec i e f nc ion processes: Promo ing me acogni ion, s ra eg se, and effor . In Golds ein, S. & Naglieri, J.(Eds.) E ec i e F c i i g Ha db . Ne York: Springer, 445-474. Mel er, L. (2010). P f ecia eed ea e

i g E ec i e F c i i he C a e ie ). Ne York: G ilford Press.

(Wha

Mel er, L.J., Greschler, M., K rk l, K., & S ace , W. (2015). E ec i e f nc ion and peer men oring: Fos ering me acogni i e a areness, effor , and academic s ccess. In Harris, K., & Mel er, L. (Eds.) The P e f Pee i he C a : E ha ci g Lea i g a d S cia S i . Ne York: G ilford Press, 1-32. Mel er, L.J. Greschler, M., K rk l, K., S ace , W., Ross, E., & Sno , E. (2015). SMARTS E ec i e F c i a d Me i g C ic , .smar s-ef.org. F addi i nal inf ma i n, i i h :// . e ea child. g f ll nT i e @ e ea child g and @ ma nline Y T be @SMARTS E ec i e F nc i n.

CHAPTER 2

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture That Fosters Strategy Use, Motivation, and Resilience LYNN MELTZER and SURINA BASHO

The students loved the strategies, and they all felt that they benefited from them. Students felt empowered, and I saw their skills become more internalized as they independently created their own organizational and memory strategies to study for their social studies and science tests. —FIFTH-GRADE TEACHER

hildren become strategic learners when the schools they attend teach strategies explicitly and systematically, and require them to approach their classwork and homework strategically. A culture of strategy use in every classroom and across entire school systems ensures that students actively apply executive function strategies to all tasks. Within these types of classrooms, students experience themselves as important and valuable members of a community where they learn strategies from one another. When school systems and families foster the same values and emphasis on learning strategies, students’ persistence, resilience, and academic success are promoted. Each child becomes part of an integrated classroom system, or a “child-in-classroom” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Doll, Zucker, & Brehm, 2004). This chapter provides an overview of the key principles that are important for creating “strategic classrooms” and a classroomwide focus on executive function processes. We expand on the reasons why strategies that address executive function processes should be taught as part of the classroom curriculum. We then focus on how to create strategic classrooms by using key principles and approaches. Within this section, we also take a closer look at peer tutoring and peer mentoring in the classroom as ways of increasing students’ motivation and engagement. Next, we 28

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

discuss what specific executive function strategies can be embedded into content areas such as writing, reading, and math. We also provide a calendar that outlines strategy instruction focused on executive function processes across the school year. Finally, we discuss selected strategies that can be used to teach executive function processes within the context of writing, studying, and test taking.

WHY SHOULD INSTRUCTION IN EXECUTIVE FUNCTION STRATEGIES BE INTEGRATED INTO THE CLASSROOM CURRICULUM? When you go to class, even if you don’t get the way the teacher’s teaching, you might use strategies to turn it around and understand it your way, so you don’t feel as dumb. Some kids, if they don’t know that, they’re just going to assume that they’re dumb. They just might skip and not come to the class. —JOE, 11TH GRADER

As Joe’s comments indicate, many students internalize their struggle with schoolwork as “I’m not smart enough,” “I feel dumb,” or “I’m just lazy.” Classroom teachers can empower students to take control of the learning process and to go beyond the “not smart” or “stupid” label by helping them to understand how they learn and how to apply strategies. In order to achieve this goal, teachers must ensure that strategies are systematic, consistent, and embedded in the classroom curriculum (Deshler et al., 2001; Hattie, Biggs, & Purdie, 1996). In other words, a “culture of strategy use” must be created in their classrooms (see Figure 2.1). Over the past two decades, research has consistently indicated the importance of strategy instruction for enhancing students’ conceptual understanding, their transfer and creative use of knowledge, and their ability to reflect on their own learning processes (Brown, 1997; Deshler, Schumaker, & Lenz, 1984; Pressley & Woloshyn, 1995). Studies have also shown that successful learners use effective strategies to process information (Brown & Campione, 1986; Harris & Gra-

Teach students how to learn

Help students to understand their learning profiles

Increase self-confidence and encourage independence

WHY TEACH EXECUTIVE FUNCTION STRATEGIES?

Empower students to take control over their learning

Promote motivation, focused effort, and hard work

FIGURE 2.1. Why teach strategies that address executive function processes?

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

ham, 1992; Meltzer, 1993; Palincsar, Winn, David, Snyder, & Stevens, 1993; Pressley, Goodchild, Fleet, Zajchowski, & Evans, 1989). In fact, findings suggest that explicit instruction plays a critical role in helping all students to use metacognitive strategies to learn more easily (Deshler et al., 2001; Ellis, 1997; Harris & Graham, 1996; Graham & Harris, 2003; Meltzer et al., 2004a; Swanson, 1999; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). Executive function strategies help students to go beyond the content that is being taught, so that learning is process-based rather than only outcome-based (Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007). Students need to learn how to set goals, plan, and prioritize; how to organize materials and information; how to remember and mentally recall previously learned information; how to “juggle” information in their minds; how to shift approaches in learning and problem-solving situations; and how to monitor themselves and check their work. All these executive function processes can be taught at all grade levels and applied to all content areas. For example, a strategy for writing a social studies report in the fourth grade can also be used for writing term papers in high school and college. In other words, although the content changes across the grades, the process or how of learning remains consistent across grade levels and content areas (Meltzer et al., 2006).

HOW CAN EXECUTIVE FUNCTION STRATEGIES BE TAUGHT IN THE CLASSROOM? Homework and tests are easier if you use more strategies. They help you see what types of things you need to work on a lot and what things you don’t. —LESLIER, NINTH GRADER

As students develop an understanding of their strengths and weaknesses, as well as the demands of each learning situation, they realize the importance of executive function processes for academic success. When they use strategies that address the core executive function processes, they also become independent learners and flexible thinkers, and can more easily bypass their weaknesses while using their strengths to learn efficiently.

General Principles Research on the implementation of strategy instruction has mostly focused on evaluations of students with learning disabilities in one-on-one and small remedial groups, rather than in general education classrooms (see Swanson & Hoskyn, 1998, for a review). Relatively few models exist for integrating strategy instruction systematically into the classroom environment. However, some classroom-based strategy instruction models and programs have emerged, such as the Kansas intervention model (Deshler, Ellis, & Lenz, 1996; Deshler & Schumaker, 1988), the

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

Benchmark model (Gaskins & Pressley, 2007; Pressley & Woloshyn, 1995), the SRSD model (Graham & Harris, 2003; Reid, 1996), the Drive to Thrive program (Meltzer et al., 2004c, 2007b; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007; see Chapter 1), and the SMARTS (Success, Motivation, Awareness, Resilience, Talents, & Strategies) mentoring program (Gray, 2007; Gray, Meltzer, & Upton, 2008; Meltzer, 2007). Although each of these approaches includes a broad range of strategies and systems, a number of them address executive function processes. Several general principles for effective strategy instruction have been revealed through the use of these models/programs and are listed in Table 2.1. More specific principles, important for creating a culture of strategy use in the classroom, are derived from our Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD) findings, as well as the meta-analysis of Swanson (1999). These principles include the following: Direct and explicit explanations of key concepts and vocabulary should be provided, so that students can access the information. The steps involved in learning specific strategies should be modeled. “Think-alouds” can be used to show students how to think about or approach a problem. Information should be broken down into manageable chunks or steps. Background information should be discussed to scaffold new concepts, so that all students have the same level of understanding. The goal of strategy use should be clear to both the teacher and the students (e.g., students should understand and apply at least one memory strategy independently on a test). Teachers should assess whether the goals are being met on a regular basis (e.g., track the number of times students spontaneously use a strategy in class). Teachers should assess whether students are using strategies effectively on a regular basis. TABLE 2.1. Principles of Effective Strategy Instruction Strategy instruction should be directly linked with the curriculum. Strategies should be taught in a structured, systematic way, using scaffolding and modeling. Metacognitive awareness should be taught explicitly so that students develop an understanding of their profiles of strengths and weaknesses. Students’ motivation and self-understanding should be addressed, to ensure that they generalize their use of strategies. Strategy instruction should address students’ individual learning styles, motivation, and willingness to work hard—all critical for building the cycle of academic success. Hard work and effort should be encouraged and rewarded, as students initially need to work extremely hard to learn and use new strategies. Determination, persistence, and resilience are important, so that they do not feel overwhelmed by this initial effort. Time should be provided for practicing and applying strategies. Opportunities should be provided for students to extend and generalize strategies to a range of different tasks.

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

Day-to-Day Practice When introducing a new strategy to students, it is essential to be systematic and to follow the general day-to-day practice guidelines outlined in Table 2.2. To ensure that students understand what, when, and how to use appropriate strategies, each teacher needs to create a classroom environment that is goal-oriented, fosters metacognition, and provides daily opportunities for students to use strategies to maximize their potential. The suggestions given in the next few pages provide a more detailed guide for teachers.

Set Goals for the Year, Month, Week, and Day It is important for teachers to define explicit and measurable goals for strategy instruction. We recommend that teachers create overall goals for the year, as well as monthly, weekly, and daily goals. Setting goals provides a focus for instructional efforts and a framework within which to work. Consider these examples: Goal for the year: To ensure that each student in the class ends the year with at least five strategies he or she uses consistently. This should include one strategy from each of the five core executive function areas (i.e., planning, organizing, remembering, shifting, and self-checking). Goal for the month: To teach one organizational strategy each week. Goal for the week: To integrate a shifting strategy into the lesson plan. Goal for the day: To name and model specific strategies a few times over the course of the day. One way for teachers to monitor whether they are meeting their goals in teaching executive function strategies is to use the Measure of Teacher Practice (MTP) questionnaire (Meltzer et al., 2007b). This questionnaire helps teachers reflect on and assess the extent to which they are teaching these strategies in the different academic areas. Figure 2.2 shows the application of the MTP to writing.

TABLE 2.2. Teaching Executive Function Strategies: General Guidelines for Day-to-Day Practice 1. Ensure that students understand what each strategy is. 2. Ensure that students understand what the strategy is used for. 3. Help students understand when to use the strategy. 4. Help students understand how to use the strategy. 5. Model the strategy for students. 6. Ask students to try using a specific strategy, either as a whole class, in pairs, or in small groups. 7. Have students reflect on how well the strategy worked for them as learners.

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

Measure of Teacher Practice (MTP) Teacher:

Date: Grade:

Please rate the extent to which you teach strategies systemarlcally when you teach writing. Please rate yourself on a 1–3 scale (1 = Seldom taught, 2 = Sometimes taught, 3 = Systematically taught). Planning Break down instruction and assignments into manageable steps.

Provide scaffolding for initiating writing assignments.

Give explicit instruction about organization, relative to genre.

Provide graphic organizers, maps, and webs for teaching organization of ideas.

Provide procedure checklists to prioritize important steps for the writing process.

Offer explicit instruction regarding key elements of writing.

Use mnemonics/crazy phrases to help students remember and juggle key steps in writing.

Encourage the use of strategies to help students to juggle information mentally.

Provide instruction for varied vocabulary use and transition phrases.

Teach shifting strategies for multiple outcomes, audiences, and genres.

Use teacher- and student-made checklists for editing work.

Provide class time and direct instruction for revision of written work.

Organizing

Prioritizing

Remembering/Juggling information mentally

Shifting

Self-checking

Please rate whether or not you include the following in your classroom instruction (0 = No, 1 = Yes). Grading of written assignment includes credit for strategy use.

Visual reminders of strategy use are posted in the classroom.

Time is allocated for discussion of strategy use among students.

Time is allocated for students to reflect on personal strategy use.

Strategy use is personalized to students’ academic needs and learning styles.

FIGURE 2.2. The Measure of Teacher Practice (MTP) in the writing area.

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

Establish a Starting Point for Tracking Progress At the start of the school year, teachers will want to know each student’s level of metacognitive awareness and strategy knowledge. A barometer reading can be taken of how much students know about strategies and what they think of themselves as learners. Teachers can develop their own questionnaires or can use the MetaCOG instruments discussed in Chapter 1 (Meltzer et al., 2001; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007; Miller et al., 2001). As described there, the ME asks students to rate how hard they work and how well they do in selected academic areas, such as reading, writing, math, homework, studying for tests, and long-term projects. On the STRATUS, students are required to reflect on and to rate their use of strategies in the key executive function processes. Once teachers know where students are starting from, it is easier to evaluate and track the students’ progress over time and then adjust the baseline to their learning needs. Teachers can also rate their students’ effort and strategy use on the TPSE (again, see Chapter 1) and can compare their own ratings with their students’ self-ratings on the ME. Establishing a baseline for understanding students’ use of executive function strategies allows teachers to plan instruction more easily. This also helps teachers to determine the consistencies and inconsistencies between their own perceptions and those of their students. As Chapter 1 has shown (see Figure 1.5 there), students and their teachers often have very different perceptions of the students’ performance.

Allow Adequate Time for Strategy Instruction in the Classroom It takes time to teach students what executive function strategies are, why we use them, and what different types of strategies exist. As a result, it may feel as though strategy instruction takes too much time to implement in the classroom, compared to focusing only on the content. However, once the foundation has been laid for strategy instruction, less and less time is needed to integrate strategies into the curriculum. Furthermore, time is saved for teachers as students become more efficient, more accurate, and more effective. Consistency over time, as well as effort on both teachers’ and students’ parts, will ensure that strategy use becomes automatic. The approaches described below provide practical, easy-to-implement systems for making strategy use count in the classroom.

Foster Metacognition in Students Teachers can make strategy use a required part of their curriculum by grading students on the processes and strategies they have used to reach their goals, in addition to the end product. The suggestions listed below provide practical, easyto-implement systems for fostering metacognitive thinking in students and only involve a minimal amount of extra work for teachers.

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

STRATEGY REFLECTION SHEETS

Teachers can require students to use strategy reflection sheets for selected assignments, so that they gradually become accustomed to reflecting about how they learn and documenting their approaches informally (see the examples in Figures 2.3, 2.4a, and 2.4b). Each homework assignment or test should include a strategy reflection sheet at the end, for students to record the strategies they have used to complete assignments or to study for tests. When teachers count students’ strategy use as part of the grade, the students begin to value the reflection process. It should be noted that teaching students to complete these strategy reflection sheets takes a little time, because it requires students to become metacognitive learners by thinking about how they think and learn. As is evident from Figure 2.3, strategy reflection sheets can use a multiplechoice format, so that students do not have to rely on their expressive language skills to explain their thinking. Alternatively, students can be required to explain their thinking in more detail, using the open-ended format of the examples shown in Figures 2.4a and 2.4b. STRATEGY NOTEBOOKS

All students can develop personalized notebooks in which they jot down the strategies that work best for them. These notebooks provide students with a place where they can easily store and refer to their favorite strategies, so that practice is made easier.

Drive to Thrive Strategy Reflection Sheet Check off the strategies you used to study for this test. Flash cards/Strategy cards

Two-column notes

Triple Note Tote (BrainCogs)

Mapping/webbing

Acronyms

Discuss with a parent/friend

Crazy Phrases (BrainCogs)

STAR strategy

Other © Research ILD 2004

FIGURE 2.3. Strategy reflection sheet with multiple-choice format to scaffold and teach strategy use.

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

FIGURE 2.4a. A sixth grader’s strategy reflection sheet to assess strategy use for studying and taking tests.

FIGURE 2.4b. A fifth grader’s strategy reflection sheet to assess strategy use for homework.

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

CHARTS AND GRAPHS OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE

To motivate students to use strategies, teachers can help students track their progress and strategy use by charting or graphing their performance on homework, tests, projects, and writing assignments. PERSONALIZED ERROR CHECKLISTS

Students can also keep personalized checklists on their desks as reminders of the importance of checking strategies. These lists can include steps to check off before turning in a test, before finishing writing an essay, and before completing a math problem. OTHER TECHNIQUES FOR ENCOURAGING STUDENTS’ SELF- REFLECTIONS

Teachers can help students to access previous memories of success by asking leading questions, such as “Do you remember how easy the last vocabulary test was when you used a particular strategy? Why don’t you try that again?” or “Do you remember the last time you made an outline before writing your essay? Wasn’t it much easier to write when your ideas were organized?” All these classroom techniques encourage students to reflect on how well each of the strategies has worked for them, and to review the strategies that best match their individual profiles of strengths and weaknesses.

Create a Strategic Classroom Environment Students learn best when they gain knowledge through exploration, active learning, and visual imagery (Marzano, 2003). They need an opportunity to work through the process of experimenting and assessing the effectiveness of each strategy. They also need time in the classroom to learn and apply different executive function strategies. The following classroom-based systems help students to become metacognitive learners. STRATEGY-OF-THE-WEEK DISPLAY BOARDS

Weekly classroom displays can be created to represent effective strategies used by students. At the start of each week, teachers can introduce a new strategy on the display board and can refer to this strategy throughout the lessons. A STRATEGY WALL

One wall in the classroom can be dedicated to examples of students’ use of executive function strategies. The key here is to make the strategies stand out in the

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

FIGURE 2.5. Example of a strategy wall in a fifth-grade classroom.

classroom, so that the students have daily visual reminders of effective strategies (see Figure 2.5). STRATEGY- SHARING DISCUSSIONS

Teachers can create daily or weekly discussion times where students share their favorite personalized strategies from that week’s classwork and homework. During these strategy-sharing discussions, students can teach other students their own strategies, and this process fosters metacognition and self-reflection. Teachers can also provide numerous examples of ways to apply strategies to everyday life (e.g., mnemonics for remembering a grocery list, crazy phrases for remembering the correct sequence for the months of the year, cartoons for remembering difficult vocabulary).

Practice, Practice, and More Practice! STRATEGY PRACTICE LABS

Practice labs offer a chance for students to apply the different strategies they have been taught. With practice, the use of many strategies will become automatic, and students will also begin to recognize the efficacy of specific strategies for selected tasks. For example, one class period per week can be designated as strategy lab time, and students can experiment with a learning strategy that is useful for the content material.

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

MODELING STRATEGY USE THROUGHOUT THE SCHOOL DAY AND ACROSS SUBJECT AREAS

Once students are able to assess which strategies work for them, they need to practice using the strategies with homework, classwork, and tests. For instance, teachers can create opportunities for students to use the vocabulary related to strategies by requiring that students: Discuss with each other how they can use specific strategies. Organize folders for different subjects. Practice making strategy notecards for new vocabulary. Practice using acronyms to remember important dates and events in history.

Make Strategy Use Count As suggested earlier, strategy use should be included in the grading system across content areas. In other words, a small percentage of the grade should be assigned for students’ use of selected strategies, and the remainder can focus on accuracy as well as content knowledge. HOMEWORK

Homework assignments can include strategy reflection sheets or notecards, where students record the executive function strategies they use when they complete their reading, writing, or math homework, or when they study. For instance, instead of only writing down vocabulary words and their definitions, students could be required to select the five most difficult words and to create a memory strategy such as a Triple Note Tote card (see later discussion). In addition to using strategy reflection sheets or cards, students can be required to prepare a presentation about their favorite homework strategy. A grade can be assigned for how well each student explains the strategy and demonstrates how it works. For example, fifth graders who were involved in our Drive to Thrive study described their uses of strategies as follows: “I have a checklist for what I need to bring home with me.” “I use Triple Note Tote to learn vocabulary and the colonies for social studies.” “For social studies, I use crazy phrases before the test.” “I use ANN E. BOA from BrainCogs.” “I use webbing for the MCAS [Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System] open response.”

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

EFFORT GRADES

An effort grade can be assigned to indicate how frequently students use strategies to prepare and study for their tests. This can also serve as a tracking system for teachers to document whether students’ approaches to studying for tests change and improve over time. TEST PREPARATION AND TEST-TAKING STRATEGIES

Strategies used to study and complete tests should receive additional credit. Students should be required to use strategies to answer selected questions on tests, and part of the grade should be assigned for their use of strategies.

Getting “Buy-In” from Students One of the most important underpinnings of successful strategy instruction is to get “buy-in” from students, so that they feel invested in using appropriate strategies. A powerful approach is to show students how specific strategies can improve their performance. For instance, within the first week of school, students can be given a challenging test that requires the use of working memory strategies to do well. After the test, students can be taught a number of different memory strategies (e.g., the crazy phrases, acronyms, and cartoon strategies from BrainCogs). Students can be required to practice and use the strategies in class. When the teacher feels that students understand the memory strategies and can apply them, then the same test can be given again. After the teacher has scored the second test, students can review their scores on both tests, to compare their performance with and without the use of the memory strategies. Students will then have evidence of how strategies can improve their performance in school and on tests. There are likely to be some students who feel they do not need strategies to help them in school because they already do well. It is important to help them understand that tasks will become more complex and challenging in high school and college, and that executive function strategies are essential for their continued academic success. All students—including high achievers, low achievers, and students with diagnosed learning and attention problems—need to learn strategies, particularly in the earlier grades, so that they can prepare for the fast pace and heavy organizational demands of academic work in the higher grades.

Strategy Group, Pair, Share Strategy instruction should be provided in whole groups, small groups, and pairs. Just as teachers group students carefully for content area instruction, they also need to group students carefully for strategy instruction. Work on differentiated instruction (Tomlinson, 1999; Tomlinson, Brimijoin, & Narvaez, 2008) has shown

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

that grouping students should be a dynamic process that depends on students’ (1) content knowledge, (2) expertise, and (3) strategy preferences. In other words, students can be grouped together flexibly to learn a specific skill or strategy. These groups can be formed and disbanded for a variety of purposes. For instance, a student who is a second-language learner could be paired with a student who is a fluent speaker when the class practices using a specific strategy. The second-language learner then receives one-on-one support when practicing the strategy.

The Power of Peer Tutoring and Peer Mentoring Peer mentoring and peer tutoring are powerful ways of teaching strategies and have significantly more positive effects on students’ academic achievement, selfesteem, social competency, and peer relationships than teacher instruction alone (Mastropieri et al., 2001; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2000). Furthermore, structured peer-tutoring programs have been shown to be extremely effective for students with and without learning difficulties (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Burish, 2000). BrainCogs Squad is one example of an effective peer-tutoring system that is designed to facilitate strategy instruction in groups of students. It has been used effectively with middle school and high school students as part of ResearchILD’s Drive to Thrive and SMARTS programs (Meltzer et al., 2007b). A BrainCogs Squad consists of approximately five to six students who are selected by the teacher to be peer tutors and are trained to navigate the BrainCogs software, apply the learning strategies, work with their peers, and assist teachers in using BrainCogs. BrainCogs is a multimedia system for teaching 13 strategies in the five key executive function areas (ResearchILD & FableVision, 2003) (see Figures 2.6a and 2.6b). The BrainCogs Squad peer-tutoring system helps to create a bottom-up approach for teaching strategies that increases students’ “buy-in,” as well as their willingness to make the effort needed to use strategies in their classwork and homework. Each BrainCogs Squad peer tutor meets with five other students once a week for 1 hour to teach, review, and apply the selected strategy of the week. The 13 strategies are taught by the teacher and the BrainCogs Squad captains over the course of 13–26 weeks, depending on whether or not specific strategies need to be reviewed and practiced. Over these 13 weeks, the “buzz” created by the BrainCogs Squad in the class motivates students to learn and apply executive function strategies to their schoolwork, as the following comments by fifth graders in a Drive to Thrive classroom indicate: “I like BrainCogs Squad because . . . “The people that are teaching you may be your friends, and I think it’s pretty cool.” “It’s very helpful for studying.” “I understood the strategies better when my friend explained them to me.” “I could memorize something easily, using crazy phrases and cartoons.”

FIGURE 2.6b. Thirteen strategies in five executive function areas can be effectively taught using a peer-tutoring model embedded in a strategic classroom culture. From ResearchILD and FableVision (2003). Copyright 2003 by ResearchILD and FableVision. Reprinted by permission of ResearchILD.

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

“When friends are teaching, it is way more laid back.” “You can learn new things about organizing things.” Similarly, the BrainCogs Squad captains who provide the peer tutoring feel empowered, as reflected in these comments: “I like being a BrainCogs Squad peer tutor because . . . ” “I love all of it! Running the program is a lot of fun.” “I like being able to teach others.” “I like getting to help other people.” “Things get taught in a language kids can understand.” “It makes it easier because they’re your friends, so you know how to work with them.” The BrainCogs Squad captains help to spark effort, motivation, and persistence among both themselves and their classmates. The peer-tutoring model increases student engagement, which in turn influences student motivation and achievement of classroom goals (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Furthermore, the BrainCogs Squad program turns the teaching and learning of strategies over to the students themselves. As a result, the students feel more invested in using these strategies and are willing to put forth more effort into learning, applying, and reviewing strategies. BrainCogs Squad has been an extremely successful component of the Drive to Thrive classrooms, and our research findings have demonstrated the sustainability of a classroom program that includes a peer-tutoring component focused on teaching executive function strategies (Meltzer et al., 2007a; Meltzer et al., 2010; Noeder, 2007).

Model Lesson Plans for Creating Strategic Classrooms For teachers who plan their school year with a focus on creating a Drive to Thrive culture in their classrooms, it may be helpful to follow the broad time frame and series of lesson plans in Table 2.3. As this table shows, teachers can focus on each of the five executive function areas for approximately 2 months at a time. Teachers are encouraged to use this table as a guide and to teach these executive function processes flexibly on a continuing basis. A variety of techniques can be used, including software programs such as BrainCogs and Essay Express (ResearchILD & FableVision, 2005), which provide systematic and explicit presentations of strategies addressing the core executive function processes. In addition, teachers can scaffold the strategies and can require students to apply them to a range of tasks spanning nonacademic and academic areas. For instance, one idea is to have students plan and present a “strategy fair” at the end of the year, where they can creatively share with other classes what they have learned about executive function strategies.

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

TABLE 2.3. Timeline for Teaching Executive Function Strategies over the Course of One School Year September to mid-October Overview: Laying the foundation for strategy instruction Barometer reading: Establish where your students are in their understanding of strategies and metacognition (e.g. use the ME and STRATUS from the MetaCOG, as well as reflection sheets). Create buy-in: Give your students a challenging test at the beginning of the first week. A week later, after you have introduced and modeled a memory strategy, give students the same test and require them to use strategies to complete the test. Have them compare their “before” and “after” scores. Introduce strategy language and define the following concepts and terms: Strategies; executive function processes used in the classroom (e.g., organizing, prioritizing, memorizing, checking, shifting); metacognition; self-reflection. Model strategies: Explicitly model a few strategies for the students, to help them understand what they are. Establish a strategic classroom: This includes setting up strategy notebooks, a strategy board at the front of the classroom, a strategy wall, strategy reflection sheet routines, strategy-sharing discussions, and a BrainCogs Squad. Student reflection: Ask students to reflect on what they have learned. For instance, what terms did they have difficulty learning? Are there concepts they did not understand? What can they do to understand the concepts/terms better? Students should be asked to reflect on their learning consistently, to promote metacognition. Mid-October to end of November Overview: Memory strategies Barometer reading: Assess where your students are in their understanding of executive function strategies and metacognition (e.g., give them a test on the concepts and terms, and/or use reflection sheets). Introduce and define memory strategies with an emphasis on working memory strategies: Introduce crazy phrases, acronyms, and cartoons from the BrainCogs software, and/or use the memory strategies from Chapter 5. Model memory strategies: Explicitly model what, when, and how strategies can be used for retrieving information and mentally “juggling” details. Model for students how to be metacognitive learners by demonstrating (e.g., in a think-aloud) how to approach a problem and apply a strategy. Active student learning: Give students time in the classroom to learn the memory strategies and to apply them. Let them individually (or in dyads and groups) work through the process of exploring, experimenting, and assessing the effectiveness of each strategy. Reinforce memory strategies: Embed general and working memory strategies into lesson plans; use practice labs; require evidence of strategy use on homework/tests; have the BrainCogs Squad review and apply the selected strategy of the week with other students. Student reflection: Ask students to reflect on what they have learned. For instance, what memory strategy worked the best for them and why? For what kinds of problems could they use memory strategies? Challenge students: After your students have mastered the different strategies, challenge them to come up with their own strategies. That is, make them think critically about what works best for themselves as learners. Have the students share their original strategies with other students. Beginning of December to mid-February Overview: Organizing strategies Barometer reading: Assess where your students are in their understanding and use of general and working memory strategies (e.g., give them a test on the different types of memory strategies they learned and when/how to use them, and/or use reflection sheets). If you find that the students need more instruction and practice time with the strategies, then do not move on. Once you feel they understand the concepts and can apply them, then move forward. (cont.)

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

TABLE 2.3. (cont.) Introduce and define organization strategies: For example, you can introduce strategy cards, Triple Note Tote, and mapping/webbing from the BrainCogs software, and/or use the organizing strategies from Chapter 4. Model organizing strategies: Explicitly model what, when, and how organizing strategies are used. Also model for students how to be metacognitive learners by demonstrating (e.g., in a think-aloud) how to approach a problem and apply a strategy. Active student learning: Give students time in the classroom to learn the organizing strategies and to apply them. Let them individually (or in dyads and groups) work through the process of exploring, experimenting, and assessing the effectiveness of each strategy. Reinforce organizing strategies: Embed organizing strategies into lesson plans (e.g., Triple Note Tote can be used for taking notes in class); use practice labs; require evidence of strategy use on homework/tests; have the BrainCogs Squad review and apply the selected strategy of the week with other students. Student reflection: Ask students to reflect on what they have learned. For instance, what organizing strategy worked the best for them and why? For what kinds of problems could they use organizing strategies? Challenge students: After your students have mastered the different strategies, challenge them to come up with their own strategies. That is, make them think critically about what works best for themselves as learners. Challenge the students to teach their strategy to other students or to the class. Then have a discussion about what worked and what didn’t. Mid-February to beginning of April Overview: Prioritizing strategies Barometer reading: Assess where your students are in their understanding and use of organizing strategies (e.g., give them a test on the different types of organizing strategies they learned and when/ how to use them, and/or use reflection sheets). If you find that the students need more instruction and practice time with the strategies, then give them more time before moving on. Introduce and define prioritizing strategies: For example, you can introduce 1-2-3 Blastoff!, Red Flag, and ANN E. BOA from the BrainCogs software, and/or use the prioritizing strategies from Chapter 3. Model prioritizing strategies: Explicitly model what, when, and how prioritizing strategies are used. Also model for students how to be a metacognitive learner by demonstrating (e.g., in a think-aloud) how to approach a problem and apply a strategy. Active student learning: Give students time in the classroom to learn the prioritizing strategies and to apply them. Let them individually (or in dyads and groups) work through the process of exploring, experimenting, and assessing the effectiveness of each strategy. Reinforce prioritizing strategies: Embed prioritizing strategies into lesson plans; use practice labs; require evidence of prioritizing strategy use on homework and tests; have the BrainCogs Squad review and apply the selected strategy of the week with other students. Student reflection: Ask students to reflect on what they have learned. For instance, what prioritizing strategy worked the best for them and why? For what kinds of problems could they use prioritizing strategies? Challenge students: After your students have mastered the different strategies, challenge them to come up with their own strategies. That is, make them think critically about what works best for themselves as learners. Challenge the students to teach their strategy to other students or to the class. Then have a discussion about what worked and what didn’t. Beginning of April to mid-May Overview: Shifting and checking routines Barometer reading: Assess where your students are in their understanding and use of prioritizing strategies (e.g., give them a test on the different types of prioritizing strategies they learned and when/ how to use them, and/or use reflection sheets). If you find that the students need more instruction and practice time with the strategies, then give them more time before moving on. Introduce and define shifting and checking strategies: For example, you can introduce shifty words, shifty images, personal checklists, and RE-view from the BrainCogs software, and/or use the shifting and checking strategies from Chapters 6 and 7. (cont.)

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

TABLE 2.3. (cont.) Model shifting and checking strategies: Explicitly model what, when, and how shifting and checking strategies are used. Also model for students how to be a metacognitive learner by demonstrating (e.g., in a think-aloud) how to approach a problem and apply a strategy. Active student learning: Give students time in the classroom to learn the shifting and checking strategies and to apply them. Let them individually (or in dyads and groups) work through the process of exploring, experimenting, and assessing the effectiveness of each strategy. Reinforce shifting and checking strategies: Embed shifting and checking strategies into lesson plans; use practice labs; require evidence of shifting and/or checking strategy use on homework and tests; have the BrainCogs Squad review and apply the selected strategy of the week with other students. Student reflection: Ask students to reflect on what they have learned. For instance, what shifting or checking strategy worked the best for them and why? For what kinds of problems could they use shifting and checking strategies? Challenge students: After your students have mastered the different strategies, challenge them to come up with their own strategies. That is, make them think critically about what works best for themselves as learners. Challenge the students to teach their strategy to other students or to the class. Then have a discussion about what worked and what didn’t. Mid-May to June Overview: Review of all strategies Barometer reading: Assess where your students are in their understanding and use of all the strategies (e.g., give them a test on the different types of strategies they learned and when/how to use them, and/ or use reflection sheets). If you find that the students need more instruction and practice time with certain strategies, then provide classwide instruction as well as BrainCogs Squad peer instruction. Strategy fair: Your students can create a “strategy fair” where they display their favorite strategies and demonstrate their use to other classes in their school. This provides an incentive for the students to review the strategies they have learned over the past year. Student reflection: Ask students to reflect on what they have learned about strategies during the school year. As a class, you can discuss how to continue to use strategies the following school year, so that your students hold onto what they have learned.

WHAT EXECUTIVE FUNCTION STRATEGIES SHOULD BE EMBEDDED IN THE CURRICULUM ACROSS SUBJECT AND CONTENT AREAS? I learned very specific strategies that allowed me to succeed in school and in life today like multicolumn notes. These were a lifesaver for me. My notes would look scattered on a page. With this system, I made a hierarchy of information and had it structured around itself and I could relate it to things. . . . So if I had a history test I could think back to that note page and it all fitted into place—as opposed to remembering a liquefied gobble of notes that I had picked up here and there along the way. —BRANDON, COLLEGE GRADUATE

Reading comprehension, writing, math problem solving, summarizing, note taking, long-term projects, studying, and test taking all require students to integrate and organize multiple subprocesses simultaneously and to shift approaches on an ongoing basis. Success in all these academic areas is dependent on students’ ability to make use of executive function processes in the five core areas. When strategies are embedded in the teaching of reading, writing, math, and content area material, it is possible to address these key executive function processes, as shown in Figure 2.7 and Table 2.4.

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

Reading comprehension

Test taking

Written language

Goal setting Planning/prioritizing Organizing Memorizing Shifting flexibly Self-monitoring

Studying

Math problem solving

Summarizing and note taking

Long-term projects

FIGURE 2.7. Core executive function processes that affect academic performance.

In the section below, we summarize a few of the strategies that can be used to teach writing, the basis for most academic work from the early grades into college. Because our 21st-century schools now emphasize strong writing skills as a requirement for academic success, we discuss strategies that can be incorporated into daily writing instruction as well as note taking, studying, and test taking. Teachers can use this discussion as guidance for strategy instruction in other academic areas (e.g., math, social studies, science). When these strategies are successfully incorporated into instruction, they increase the likelihood of future strategy use and academic success (Graham & Harris, 2003; Harris & Graham, 1996; Harris, Graham, & Mason, 2003; Meltzer et al., 2007b; Reid & Lienemann, 2006; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1985; Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997).

Writing I used BOTEC right now when I was doing my English test. I described it—Brainstorm, Organization, Thesis, Elaborate, Conclusion . . .—you know. Then I just attacked the thesis and examples first, and the rest just came. —LEVON, 11TH GRADER

Not only are writing skills heavily emphasized in today’s schools, but standardsbased tests, including the SAT, now incorporate a required writing section. As a result of this shift, students from late elementary school onward are frequently required to complete lengthy writing assignments, long-term projects, and essay tests that rely on executive function processes. Writing can be an overwhelming process for many students, because it requires the coordination and integration of a broad range of cognitive processes and skills, including memory, planning, generating text, and editing/revising their work (Flower et al., 1990; Flower, Wallace,

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

TABLE 2.4. Embedding Executive Function Processes and Strategies across Curriculum Areas Curriculum area

Executive function processes involved

Reading comprehension

Planning Prioritizing

Organizing Organizing Shifting Written language

Planning

Prioritizing Organizing Self-checking

Shifting Studying and test taking

Planning Organizing Shifting

Memorizing

Self-checking

Strategies Use monthly calendars to plan and break down the reading of longer texts. Have students use active reading strategies that ask them to look for and mark specific aspects of the text (characters, setting, themes, etc.). Require students to use Post-it notes to summarize each chapter of a novel. Have students use story organizers to summarize stories for book reports. Have students predict different endings to a story. Require students to plan long-term writing assignments by using monthly and weekly calendars and setting short-term “due dates” for themselves. Have students use graphic organizers for brainstorming, prioritizing, and organizing ideas. Provide templates or specific guidelines for writing thesis statements, introductions, body paragraphs, and conclusions. Help students develop personalized editing checklists based on previous assignments. Provide a specific rubric for students to check their work. Emphasize how to shift from the main ideas to supporting details when writing. Have students plan their study schedule for upcoming tests. Have students take notes from the textbook in a question– answer or Triple Note Tote format for later use as a study tool. Teach students to rephrase topic sentences as questions, and to use context clues to understand ambiguities and to interpret questions. When requiring students to take notes and to study history or biology, teach them to develop their own acronyms or crazy phrases to help them to retrieve and manipulate the information. Allow students to bring personalized checklists to tests, to remind them to check for their own common errors.

Norris, & Burnett, 1994). Many students also struggle to organize their ideas for writing, and they need the writing process to be broken down explicitly with organizers and templates that match both the goals of the assignment and their learning styles (Graham & Harris, 2003; Harris & Graham, 1996). They benefit when they are systematically taught strategies that address executive function processes (Bruning & Horn, 2000; MacArthur, Graham, & Fitzgerald, 2006; Ransdell & Levy, 1996; Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997). Writing templates and graphic organizers need to be explicitly structured in such a way that students can translate their ideas into paragraph form. These graphic organizers can be used successfully for different content areas and genres

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

of writing, including book reports, persuasive essays, descriptive paragraphs, news articles, summaries, reflections, and narratives (Schunk & Swartz, 1993). Graphic organizers taught in middle school to help students plan and prioritize their ideas for essay writing can be extrapolated to more complex reports and papers at the high school and college levels (see Chapter 1). Rubrics like the one in Figure 2.8, from the Drive to Thrive program, can help teachers and students to analyze the writing process and embed executive function strategies in their teaching. For instance, the Figure 2.8 rubric can be used by teachers to explain, teach, and grade the writing process. In turn, students can use this type of rubric to provide structure when they are required to write a paper or complete an essay question on a test. Students often struggle to break down the writing process into manageable components, and they benefit from strategies that help them to analyze, structure, and remember the steps involved. Strategies that provide such structure help students to plan, organize, prioritize, and check their work, so that writing a paper does not feel as overwhelming. BOTEC, a strategy from Essay Express (ResearchILD & FableVision, 2005), helps students to approach the writing process systematically through Brainstorming, Organizing, generating a Topic sentence (or Thesis), providing supportive Evidence (of Elaborating), and generating a Conclusion. Figure 2.9 illustrates a template for one part of the BOTEC strategy (marshaling evidence). When students experience success as a result of using a strategy such as BOTEC, they are more willing to apply the strategy to more complex writing assignments and projects. As part of their writing assignments, students can also be required to complete and submit strategy reflection sheets. Strategy reflection sheets that incorporate structured questions and a multiple-choice format remind students of the range of strategies they can apply in producing and editing their written work (see Figure 2.10). When students understand the range of appropriate strategies, they can then be required to complete open-ended strategy reflection sheets (see Figure 2.11), which give them opportunities to use strategies creatively. Also, when they are given credit for using these strategies, they are more likely to make the effort needed to continue this process.

Note Taking, Studying, and Taking Tests Summarizing, note taking, and studying are extremely challenging for students with learning difficulties, because all these tasks require the coordination and integration of multiple subskills and processes. On timed tasks, these students experience even more difficulty, and their performance often does not match their intellectual ability. Strategies that help students to streamline and structure a large volume of information can make a significant difference in their performance. Strategies for organizing, prioritizing, and memorizing information are extremely important,

Drive to Thrive: Writing Rubric Executive Function Processes Below Average Needs Improvement Planning 1 point 2 points Little or no evidence A planning sheet is of planning. included, but it is incomplete.

Organizing 1 point Student does not include a rough draft.

Shifting

1 point Student shows no changes from the rough draft to the final draft.

Prioritizing 1 point Essay includes no transition words to show sequence, contrast, or relative importance of ideas.

Checking

1 point Student does not submit a checklist with the writing project.

2 points Student includes a partially completed rough draft that does not follow an organizational plan. 2 points Only slight evidence of improvement is seen between the rough and final drafts.

2 points Essay includes only transition words, such as “and,” “also,” and “but.”

2 points Student checks for a few mistakes but not for others.

Proficient 3 points Student includes an outline or graphic organizer that is partially filled out. Planner is somewhat related to final essay. 3 points Student includes a rough draft that roughly follows his/her outline or graphic organizer. 3 points Student makes at least two changes beyond spelling and punctuation in the final draft.

Exemplary Earned Performance Points 4 points Student includes completely filled-out outline or graphic organizer, and final essay reflects its use.

4 points Student includes a rough draft that is well organized and follows the planning tool. 4 points The student takes a different point of view in the final draft, or makes at least three major improvements between the rough draft and the final draft. 4 points 3 points Essay includes more Essay includes two than two transition more sophisticated transition words that words to connect ideas or paragraphs. indicate sequence, importance, or contrast, such as “however,” “on the other hand,” “another example,” etc. 4 points 3 points Student submits Student checks off checklist indicating the checklist to indicate that he/she that he/she has checked most of the checked for each item on the list. items on the list. Student’s writing reflects no errors that are listed on the checklist. Score:

FIGURE 2.9. A ninth grader in the SMARTS program uses the BOTEC strategy to organize evidence for a project presentation about reducing the homework load in school. The template is from ResearchILD and FableVision (2005). Copyright 2005 by ResearchILD and FableVision. Reprinted by permission of ResearchILD.

Strategy Reflection Sheet What strategies did you use for this writing assignment? BOTEC

Personalized checklist

Mapping and webbing

Sentence starters

Graphic organizer

Introduction template

Linear outline

Other

FIGURE 2.10. Strategy reflection sheet for writing: Structured questions that scaffold the writing process.

Strategy Reflection Sheet What strategies did you use for this writing assignment?

FIGURE 2.11. Strategy reflection sheet for writing: Open-ended questions.

UNDERSTANDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

as these reduce the load on working memory and improve efficiency as well as accuracy. In this section, we briefly summarize a few strategies that are particularly useful for a wide range of academic tasks; Chapters 3–7 describe specific strategies for each of the five executive function areas in greater detail. Graphic organizers and three-column note-taking systems help students to organize and memorize information simultaneously. One example is the Triple Note Tote strategy (from BrainCogs; ResearchILD & FableVision, 2003), which can be used for taking notes, summarizing, and memorizing information in content areas such as key terms or new vocabulary. In all cases, the major concept is written in the first column, important details in the second column, and a paired visual–verbal strategy for remembering the information in the third column (see Figures 2.12a and 2.12b). Students also benefit from memory strategies such as mnemonics and crazy phrases for organizing information, reducing the memory load, and retrieving information for tests or projects. For example, when students are required to study the states and their capitals for a test, crazy phrases and personalized diagrams help them to chunk the information for easier recall (see Chapter 5 for more specific examples). Finally, personalized error checklists help students to edit and correct their written work during homework and tests. Once students analyze their most common errors, they can develop a checklist and an acronym to help them to remember the items on the list, so they can check their work independently. Although general checklists work for many students, personalized checklists help students to be aware of and search for their own most common errors (Dunlap & Dunlap, 1989). One student may consistently make spelling errors but may have no difficulty with organization; another may have the opposite profile. Figure 2.13 illustrates a personalized checking strategy developed by a fifth grader who used a crazy phrase and acronym to remember his most frequent errors and the details he needed to check. Personalized checklists like this one are useful for all students, whether or not they have difficulty completing their homework accurately, make careless errors on tests, have difficulty with the mechanics of writing, or struggle to remember the steps in a math problem.

CONCLUSION When schools build an executive function culture across classrooms, they empower students to learn how to learn and how to solve problems flexibly—processes that are critically important for success in the global world we now live in. When schools and families foster the same emphasis on learning strategies, persistence and a strong work ethic are promoted, and these should lead to academic and life success. As students learn effective approaches to their work, their motivation, selfconfidence, and resilience also increase.

Creating a Classroomwide Executive Function Culture

Triple Note Tote and Cartoon:

FIGURE 2.13. A fifth grader’s personalized checklist for writing. The checklist itself is from ResearchILD and FableVision (2003). Copyright 2003 by ResearchILD and FableVision. Reprinted by permission of ResearchILD.

Copyright © 2010 The Guilford Press. All rights reserved under International Copyright Convention. No part of this text may be reproduced, transmitted, downloaded, or stored in or introduced into any information storage or retrieval system, in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereinafter invented, without the written permission of The Guilford Press. Guilford Publications, 72 Spring Street, New York, NY 10012, 212-431-9800. www.guilford.com/p/meltzer2

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O er ie In this presentation, Dr. Hallowell will draw upon his 40+ years of clinical experience in diagnosing and treating ADHD in people of all ages. Building on his strength-based model which helps people unwrap their gifts instead of treating disorders, he will share what he has found works best. Dr. Hallowell will describe how to help students with ADHD get past the stigma and shame that prevent progress and growth, and instead sense, reveal and tap into the sparkle and strengths of their ADHD. Tho gh s, Images, and Fancif l Tidbi s Cap red hile Da dreaming Untreated, ADHD is like Niagara Falls. It packs titanic power, but it s just a lot of noise and mist, until you build a hydroelectric plant. Then it lights up the state of New York. We who treat ADHD are in the hydroelectric plant business. ADHD is like having a race car brain with bicycle brakes. Medication for ADHD is like eyeglasses for the brain. References Hallowell, E. M. (2004). A a

Mooney, J. and Cole, D. (2000). L a Barkley, R.A. (2020). Ta

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Barkley, R.A. (2014). A -D T a , 4 . Ed.. Guilford.

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. Touchstone. . Guilford. d : A Ha db

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Hallowell, E.M. (2003). T

Hallowell, E.M. and Ratey, J.J. (1994). D

. Pantheon, 1994; Anchor, 2011.

Hallowell, E.M. and Ratey, J.J. (2005). D

. Ballantine.

Hallowell, E.M. and Ratey, J.J. (2021). ADHD 2.0. Ballantine. Wilens, T.E. (2016). S a Guilford.

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Solden, S. (2019). A Rad ca G d Ratey, J.J. (2008). S a : T Brown. Jackson, M. (2018). D Books.

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Reso rces Website: www.Drhallowell.com. Provides many resources containing information and treatment recommendations on ADHD for all ages, genders, and situations in life. @drhallowell on TikTok: Some 75 short video clips on many different aspects of ADHD The Hallowell Centers in Sudbury, MA; New York City; Seattle, WA; and Palo Alto, CA all are listed on Drhallowell.com with contact info and instructions on how to book a consultation ADDA: Attention Deficit Disorder Association: add.org; 800-939-1019 CHADD: Children and Adults with Attention Deficit Disorder: CHADD.org; 301-306-7070 Maga ines: ADDitude Maga ine: additude.com; 888-762-8475 Attention Maga ine: Comes with CHADD membership

From the book ADHD 2.0: New Science and Essential Strategies for Thriving with Distraction—from Childhood through Adulthood by Edward M. Hallowell, M.D. and John J. Ratey, M.D. Copyright © 2021 by Edward M. Hallowell, M.D. and John J. Ratey, M.D.. Published by Ballantine Books, an imprint of Random House, a division of Penguin Random House LLC.

CHAPTER 1

A Spectrum of Traits

ho are we, the people who have ADHD? We are the problem kid who drives his parents crazy by being totally disorganized, unable to follow through on anything, incapable of cleaning up a room, or washing dishes, or performing just about any assigned task; the one who is forever interrupting, making excuses for work not done, and generally functioning far below potential in most areas. We are the kid who gets daily lectures on how we’re squandering our talent, wasting the golden opportunity that our innate ability gives us to do well, and failing to make good use of all that our parents have provided. We are also sometimes the talented executive who keeps falling short due to missed deadlines, forgotten obligations, social faux pas, and blown opportunities. Too often we are the addicts, the misfits, the unemployed, and the criminals who are just one diagnosis and treatment plan away from turning it all around. We are the people Marlon Brando spoke for in the classic 1954 film On the Waterfront when he said, “I coulda been a contender.” So many of us coulda been contenders, and shoulda been for sure.

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4 ADHD 2.0

But then, we can also make good. Can we ever! We are the seemingly tuned-out meeting participant who comes out of nowhere to provide the fresh idea that saves the day. Frequently, we are the “underachieving” child whose talent blooms with the right kind of help and finds incredible success after a checkered educational record. We are the contenders and the winners. We are also imaginative and dynamic teachers, preachers, circus clowns, and stand-up comics, Navy SEALs or Army Rangers, inventors, tinkerers, and trend setters. Among us there are self-made millionaires and billionaires; Pulitzer and Nobel prize winners; Academy, Tony, Emmy, and Grammy award winners; topflight trial attorneys, brain surgeons, traders on the commodities exchange, and investment bankers. And we are often entrepreneurs. We are entrepreneurs ourselves, and the great majority of the adult patients we see for ADHD are or aspire to be entrepreneurs too. The owner and operator of an entrepreneurial support company called Strategic Coach, a man named Dan Sullivan (who also has ADHD!), estimates that at least 50 percent of his clients have ADHD as well. Because people with ADHD don’t look any different from everyone else, our condition is invisible. But if you were to climb up into our heads, you’d discover quite a different landscape. You’d find ideas firing around like kernels in a popcorn machine: ideas coming rat-a-tat fast, and on no discernable schedule. Ideas coming in spontaneous, erratic bursts. And because we can’t turn this particular popcorn machine off, we are often unable to stop the idea generation at night; our minds never seem to rest. Indeed, our minds are here and there and everywhere—all at once—which sometimes manifests as appearing to be somewhere else, in some dreamy state. And that means we often miss the proverbial (or literal!) boat. But then maybe we build an airplane or grab a pogo stick instead. We tune out in the middle of a job interview and don’t get the job, but perhaps we see a poster hanging in the human resources waiting room that sparks a new idea that leads us to a patented invention. We offend people by forgetting names and prom-

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A Spectrum of Traits 5

ises, but we make good by understanding what nobody else has picked up on. We shoot ourselves in the foot, only, on the spot, to devise a painless method to remove the bullet. The great mathematician Alan Turing summed us up when he said, “Sometimes it is the people no one can imagine anything of who do the things no one can imagine.” That sums us up perfectly. Which is to say that ADHD is a far richer, more complicated, paradoxical, dangerous, but also potentially advantageous state of being than the oversimplified version most of the general public takes it to be or than even the detailed diagnostic criteria would have you believe. “ADHD” is a term that describes a way of being in the world. It is neither entirely a disorder nor entirely an asset. It is an array of traits specific to a unique kind of mind. It can become a distinct advantage or an abiding curse, depending on how a person manages it.

THE LUNATIC, THE LOVER, AND THE POET As different as ADHD can be from person to person, there are several qualities that seem nearly universal to people with it. Distractibility, impulsivity, and hyperactivity are the classic descriptors, but they find what we think are richer and more apt counterparts in Shakespeare’s musing about “the lunatic, the lover, and the poet.” Having ADHD doesn’t mean you’re crazy, so admittedly “lunatic” may be too strong a word. But risk taking and irrational thinking go hand in hand with ADHD behavior. We like irrational. We’re at home in uncertainty. We’re at ease where others are anxious. We’re relaxed not knowing where we are or what direction we’re headed in. A common lament we hear from parents of teens with ADHD makes the point: “What was he thinking? He must have lost his mind!” Likewise the spouse who asks us, “Why does he keep doing the same stupid thing over and over again? Isn’t that the definition of insanity?”

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Some people call this being a nonconformist, but that term misses the point. We don’t choose not to conform. We don’t even notice what the standard we’re not conforming to is! People with ADHD are lovers in the sense that they tend to have unbridled optimism. We never met a deal we didn’t like, an opportunity we didn’t want to pursue, a chance we didn’t want to take. We get carried away. We see limitless possibilities where others see just the limits. The lover has trouble holding back, and not holding back is a major part of what it means to have ADHD. Being a poet might best be defined with another trio of descriptors: creative, dreamy, and sometimes brooding. “Creativity,” as we use the term in connection with ADHD, designates an innate ability, desire, and irrepressible urge to plunge one’s imagination regularly and deeply into life—into a project, an idea, a piece of music, a sandcastle. Indeed, people with ADHD feel an abiding need—an omnipresent itch—to create something. It’s with us all the time, this unnamed appetite, whether we understand what it is or not; the act of creation offers the magnet’s north pole to our south and clicks us together. It captivates us, plants us in the present, and sets us transfixed within the creative act, whatever it might happen to be. Even awake we’re dreaming, always creating, always searching for some mud pie to turn into pumpkin apple chiffon. Our imagination fuels our curiosity to find out what that noise was, or what was under the rock, or why the petri dish looks different from when we left it. If we weren’t so dreamy and curious we could stay on track and never get distracted. But we do investigate the noise, the soil, the petri dish. This is why the word “deficit” in the name of our condition is such a misnomer. In fact, we do not suffer from a deficit of attention. Just the opposite. We’ve got an overabundance of attention, more attention than we can cope with; our constant challenge is to control it. As for brooding, this is the special blessing and the bitter curse of ADHD. You have a vision. Maybe you’ve come up with a novel technology for making an unbeatable knife sharpener. Or maybe

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you think you have the plot to the perfect novel. Whatever your vision, you go at it like you never have before. But then, what you’ve created . . . disappoints. It’s not just disappointing, but suddenly you feel it’s terrible, awful, the worst ever, and you plunge into despair. Then, just as unexpectedly, out of nowhere the vision comes back. You get reinspired. You can see it, you want it, you can’t resist. You have to try again. Off you go — dreaming and creating and probably brooding again too. Like all three characters—the lunatic, the lover, and the poet—we have a pronounced intolerance of boredom; boredom is our kryptonite. The second that we experience boredom—which you might think of as a lack of stimulation—we reflexively, instantaneously, automatically and without conscious thought seek stimulation. We don’t care what it is, we just have to address the mental emergency— the brain pain—that boredom sets off. Like mental EMTs, we swing into action. We might pick a fight to create a bit of stimulation; we might go shopping online with manic abandon; we might rob a bank; we might snort cocaine— or we might invent the best widget the world has ever seen or come up with the solution to what’s keeping our business from taking off.

PARADOXICAL TENDENCIES We have printed the formal diagnostic definition of ADHD on page 137 so that you can see what your psychiatrist or evaluator is talking about when throwing around the diagnosis, but in less clinical terms, it helps to think of ADHD as a complex set of contradictory or paradoxical tendencies: a lack of focus combined with an ability to superfocus; a lack of direction combined with highly directed entrepreneurialism; a tendency to procrastinate combined with a knack for getting a week’s worth of work done in two hours; impulsive, wrongheaded decision making combined with inventive, out-ofthe-blue problem solving; interpersonal cluelessness combined with uncanny intuition and empathy; the list goes on.

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8 ADHD 2.0

Here, more formally, are the telltale signs of ADHD that might send you looking for clinical confirmation: Unexplained underachievement. The person is simply not doing as well as innate talent and brainpower warrant. There’s no obvious explanation, like poor eyesight, serious physical illness, or cognitive impairment due to head injury, say. A wandering mind. You’ll get frequent comments from teachers, or, in an adult, supervisors or spouse, that the individual’s mind wanders, that he or she has trouble focusing and staying on task, that performance is inconsistent, good days and bad days, good moments and terrible ones, all of which usually lead the teacher, supervisor, or spouse to conclude that the person in question needs more discipline, needs to try harder, needs to learn to pay attention. No kidding! But such is the ignorance that still surrounds ADHD that people continue to cite lack of effort as the cause of the disorganization and poor attention. The biological fact is that, in the absence of stimulation, they can’t. Not won’t. Can’t. Trouble organizing and planning. In the clinical jargon, this is called trouble with “executive function.” The child, say, has trouble getting dressed in the morning. You can ask your daughter to go upstairs and get dressed only to find her fifteen minutes later still in her nightclothes, lying on her bed engrossed in a conversation with her doll. Or you can ask your husband to take out the trash and in the time it takes him to walk over to the trash container, he forgets what he’s supposed to be doing and slowly ambles right past it. You go ballistic, believing your husband is being blatantly provocative, passive-aggressive, oppositional, or colossally self-centered, all adjectives you’ve applied to him hundreds of times in the past. Before you get divorced, it would be marriagesaving if someone could explain to you both that walking past the trash, like hundreds of other acts of seemingly selfish disregard for others, stems not from selfishness or another character defect but from a neurological condition that renders attention

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A Spectrum of Traits 9

inconsistent and immediate memory so porous that a task can be forgotten in a heartbeat. What compounds these problems, and makes some people doubt the validity of the diagnosis, is that these same people can hyperfocus, deliver a brilliant presentation on time, and be super-reliable when they are stimulated. But, as we’ve said, boredom is kryptonite; the ADHD mind recoils from boredom, disappearing into a fervent search for stimulation while the trash can sits forlornly unemptied. High degree of creativity and imagination. People with ADHD—at any age— often possess intellectual effervescence. Unfortunately, this natural sparkle can be snuffed out by years of criticism, reprimands, redirection, lack of appreciation, and repeated disappointments, frustrations, and outright failures. Trouble with time management, and a tendency to procrastinate. This is another element of executive function, and quite an interesting one. Those of us who have ADHD experience time differently from other people. This is really hard for most people to believe, which is why people are typically unsympathetic to our problem and ascribe it to lack of effort, a bad attitude, or pure obstinacy. But the fact is that we lack an internal sense of the arc of time; we’re unaware of the unstoppable flow of seconds into minutes into hours, days, and so forth. Defying the laws of physics, we change the nature of time in our minds. In our world, we have little awareness of the seconds ticking by; few internal alerts, alarms, or cues; no judicious allocation of chunks of time for this, then that, and then the next thing. We short-circuit all such complexity by slicing time down to its barest bones. In our world, we recognize only two times: “now” and “not now.” We hear “We have to leave in a half hour” as “We don’t have to leave now.” “The paper is due in five days” becomes “It’s not due now,” and the five days might as well be five months. We hear “I’ll have to go to bed sometime” when someone has actually said “It’s time for bed now.” Our truncated sense of time leads to all manner of fights, failures, job losses, disappointed friends, and failed romances, but at the same time to an uncanny ability to work

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10 ADHD 2.0

brilliantly under extreme pressure, as well as to be wonderfully, infuriatingly oblivious to the time pressures that stress most people to the max. Strong will, stubbornness, refusal of help. It can seem stunningly stupid, but many people with ADHD, especially men, state outright, “I’d rather fail doing it my way than succeed with help.” Generosity. As painful as the distortions we carry around can be, we also carry around a pocketful of miracles, a positive energy that comes and goes. But when it comes, we are the most generous people you’ll ever find, the most optimistic, the most enthusiastic. Yes, ironically, although we tend to reject help from others (see above!), we are the ones who offer the shirt off our back to the person who needs it, whether we know them or not. It’s why so many of us excel in sales. We can be charismatic, infectiously funny, persuasive, and just what you need if you’re feeling low. Restlessness, especially in boys and men. Woolgathering, especially in girls and women. Because they tend not to be hyperactive or disruptive, females of all ages remain the most undiagnosed group. You have to be a savvy parent, teacher, spouse, supervisor, or doctor to pick up inattentive, non-hyperactive ADHD in a girl or woman. Unique and active sense of humor. Quirky, offbeat, but usually rather sophisticated too. Many stand-up comics and comedy writers have ADHD, perhaps in part because of our fundamentally different ways of seeing the world. We live outside the proverbial box. In fact, one of us probably invented the psychological test that the phrase “thinking outside the box” comes from. Trouble sharing and playing with others early on, but at the same time, a desire to make friends. As life progresses, social problems can develop, due to trouble reading the social scene and inability to control the impulse to interrupt or butt in. In adulthood, this translates to seeming gruff, awkward, rude, self-centered, unfiltered, or aloof; but it is really just the undiagnosed and untreated

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A Spectrum of Traits 11

ADHD that is causing the problems. This is why we call ADHD such a “good news” diagnosis: Once you know you have it, and you find the right help, life can only get better, often much better. Exquisite sensitivity to criticism or rejection. William Dodson, one of the smartest clinicians ever to write about ADHD, made famous the term “rejection-sensitive dysphoria,” or RSD, which describes a tendency on the part of people who have ADHD to overreact precipitously and disastrously to even the slightest perceived put-down, dis, or vaguely negative remark. They can spiral down to the depths in the blink of an eye and become inconsolable. On the other hand (there’s always an other hand in this syndrome so characterized by pairs of opposite symptoms), we’ve coined another term to describe the opposite of RSD. It is “recognition-sensitive euphoria,” or RSE, which refers to our enhanced ability to make constructive use of praise, affirmation, and encouragement. As much as we can get down in the dumps over a minute criticism, we can fly high and put to great use even small bits of encouragement or recognition. Impulsiveness and impatience. We make quick decisions and have trouble delaying gratification. We flunk the marshmallow test.* We tend to operate on a “fire, aim, ready” basis instead of “ready, aim, fire.” But remember, the flip side of impulsivity is creativity. Creativity is impulsivity gone right. You do not plan to have a creative idea, a eureka moment, a sudden revelation. These all come without bidding or warning. They come to us impulsively. An itch to change the conditions of life. As you get older, this tends to manifest as a general dissatisfaction with ordinary life leading to a need to improve upon it, augment it, supercharge it, ratchet it up several notches. This “itch” can lead to major achievements and creations, or it can lead to addictions of all kinds as well as a host of other dangerous behaviors. Often it leads to both. * In 1972, the Stanford psychologist Walter Mischel devised an experiment using marshmallows to test a child’s ability to delay gratification.

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High energy (hence the use of “hyperactivity” in the disorder name), coupled with a tendency toward lassitude, often mistaken for laziness. Uncannily accurate intuition, coupled with a tendency to overlook the obvious and ignore major data. Transparency, to the point of being honest to a fault. The person who is incapable of “kissing up,” intolerant of hypocrisy, often tactless, politically incorrect, and heedless of repercussions and consequences . . . is often dealing with ADHD. On the other hand, especially in children, this translates into a tendency to lie impulsively when put on the spot. This is not a character defect or a lack of conscience, which we see in a sociopath, but rather a reflexive attempt to change reality, as in wishing it were so. Susceptibility to addictions and compulsive behaviors of all kinds. From drugs and alcohol, to gambling, shopping, spending, sex, food, exercise, and screens, we who have ADHD are five to ten times more likely than the person who does not have ADHD to develop a problem in this domain. This stems from the “itch” mentioned earlier and the need to juice up reality. The upside of this symptom is that if you find the right creative outlet— start a business, write a book, build a house, plant a garden—you can scratch the itch that way, rather than develop a bad habit or an outright addiction. Having a metaphorical lightning rod and weather vane. For whatever reason, people with ADHD often are lightning rods for whatever can go wrong: being the one kid caught with weed when twenty others had it; the adult or kid who gets scapegoated, blamed, and disciplined more than anyone else; the one who disrupts the family event, or business meeting, or class discussion without meaning to. But at the same time, the lightning rod quality can lead the person with ADHD to receive ideas, energies, premonitions, and images from who knows where that lead to amazing success. Similarly, the internal, inborn weather vane leads the person with ADHD to be the first to sense a shift in mood or energy in the group, the class, the family, the organization, the

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town, the country. Before others catch on, the person with ADHD is telling others to watch out, there’s an ill wind brewing; or to get ready, a big opportunity is just around the corner. Like the lightning rod, the weather vane effect can’t be explained on any scientific basis we know of, but we see it in our patients, of all ages, all the time. Tendency to externalize or blame others while not seeing your role in the problem. This is coupled with a general inability to observe oneself accurately, which naturally leads to more externalizing, since you truly do not see the role you play in the problem. Distorted negative self-image. Due to the inability to observe oneself accurately, coupled with the heightened sensitivity to perceived criticism and a record of underachievement, people with ADHD usually have a self-image that is far more negative than is warranted. One of our patients calls the condition “attention deficit distorter” because of how it distorts so many perceptions of reality. While on the one hand, creativity depends upon the ability to imagine a different reality, to “distort” the ordinary into something better, on the other hand, this “distorter” can create one of the most painful aspects of ADHD, which is very low self-regard. We look at ourselves as if in a house of mirrors, not seeing ourselves as others do, seeing only what we regard as failures and shortcomings, all but blind to the upside, which is typically considerable. We suffer shame as we misread ourselves and misread others’ responses to us. We hold back on opportunities and relationships out of that shame, as well as fear and misunderstanding.

BIOLOGICAL OR CULTURALLY INDUCED ADHD? Scientific estimates suggest that between 5 and 10 percent of people are born with some combination of the characteristics we have just listed. This number represents those of us born with ADHD. As such, it is actually recognized as one of the most heritable conditions in the behavioral sciences. “Heritable” means you inherit a collec-

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14 ADHD 2.0

tion of genes that increase the likelihood that you will develop a condition during your lifetime. Though it might be helpful to be able to identify just which genes are involved in ADHD, the reality is that there is no one or two genes for ADHD but an array, which makes sense, given that ADHD is a coat of so many colors. If one parent has ADHD, the risk is one in three that a given child will have ADHD. If both parents have ADHD, the risk is two in three for a given child. However, those are just averages. In Dr. Hallowell’s family, for example, he has ADHD, his wife does not, but all three of their children have it. In addition to genetics, we’ve also known for a long time that certain environmental stressors can cause ADHD, most notably head injuries or lack of oxygen at birth, early infections, or any other brain insult. (A “brain insult,” by the way, is not someone telling you that you have an ugly brain, but your brain’s function being in some way interfered with such as by fever, toxins like lead or mercury, or trauma.) We’ve also known that a mother’s being obese or drinking alcohol, using drugs, or smoking cigarettes during pregnancy can raise the risk of the baby’s developing ADHD. Still unproven, but being studied vis-à-vis neurological functioning, is another risk factor we might add to the list: magnetic field non-ionizing radiation (MFR), which comes in two forms, low frequency and high frequency. Low frequency MFR comes from, among other sources, power lines and kitchen appliances. High frequency MFR, the newer one, comes from wireless networks and cellphones. Stay tuned . . .

Beyond the sources of biologically based ADHD, there are a lot of people who act as if they have ADHD but on close inspection turn out not to have the diagnosable condition. These are the people who have ADHD-like symptoms caused by the conditions of modern life. Their “ADHD” is a response to the massive increase in stimuli that now bombard our brains and our world.

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The massive behavioral conditioning we’ve all been undergoing since the advent of ubiquitous electronic communications technology has changed us radically. But this dramatic, if not epochal, change is underappreciated. It’s underappreciated because we’re living in it as it happens, like frogs in cold water that slowly gets heated up without the frogs trying to jump out, until they’re boiled. Our world has been getting heated up big-time. And while we could jump out, it’s pretty difficult to do so and still function in the modern world. Modern life has trained our brains to go faster and faster, to do more and more, to receive and transmit 24/7, and to require constant stimulation—be it from movies, TV, conversation, even news, as well as the minute-to-minute living of our lives. Most of us can go no more than a few seconds without looking for a screen. Modern life compels these changes by forcing our brains to process exponentially more data points than ever before in human history, dramatically more than we did prior to the era of the Internet, smartphones, and social media. The hardwiring of our brains has not changed—as far as we know, although some experts do suspect that our hardwiring is changing—but in our efforts to adapt to the speeding up of life and the projectile spewing of data splattering onto our brains all the time, we’ve had to develop new, often rather antisocial habits in order to cope. These habits have come together to create something we now call VAST: the variable attention stimulus trait.* Whether you have true ADHD or its environmentally induced cousin, VAST, it’s important to detoxify the label and focus on the inherent positives. To be clear, we don’t want you to deny there is a downside to what you are going through, but we want you also to identify the upside. In the descriptors we offer for VAST below, you will see there is no requirement for impairment, because we are not designating this * Carrie Feibel, a health journalist at NPR, suggested the term and acronym to us. We liked it so much that we adopted it, with her permission.

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16 ADHD 2.0

as a disorder, but as a trait. You will note there is also mention of many strengths. And unlike a formal ADHD diagnosis, for which six out of nine criteria on the axis of inattention or the axis of hyperactivity and impulsivity need to be present (see appendix A for a full listing of these symptoms), there is no set number of descriptors to qualify for the diagnosis, or what we prefer to call the “description” or “self-portrait.” In fact, the diagnostic criteria for ADHD found in DSM-5, the official diagnostic manual, have inadvertently created a lot of confusion. People often ask, “Do I have ADD or ADHD?” Technically, there is no longer any such thing as ADD. You can only have ADHD. But there are qualifiers. If you have at least six out of nine symptoms on the axis of inattention, but not on the axis of hyperactivity and impulsivity, then you have ADHD, predominantly inattentive. This is what used to be called ADD. If you have six out of nine symptoms on both axes, then you have ADHD, combined type. And if you are one of the extremely rare people who has symptoms only on the axis of hyperactivity and impulsivity, then you have ADHD, predominantly hyperactive-impulsive. For the variable attention stimulus trait, we do not call what we offer below “diagnostic criteria” at all. Instead, if you see yourself in the following list of descriptors enough that they describe you and set you apart from others, well, then, VAST fits you, and what we have to say about how to live best with this trait may be useful to you. Last, in the chart we have created in the pages that follow, you’ll quickly see that there is an opposite word to each descriptor. That’s because, like ADHD, VAST is a condition of paradoxical pairs, ups and downs, lefts and rights. That’s why living with it can be such a mishmash, so confusing, but also so exciting and at times groundbreaking. (You’ll also note that there is a lot of overlap among the twenty descriptors of ADHD.)

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A Spectrum of Traits 17

USEFUL

PROBLEMATIC

Passionate; zealous; idealistic; will sacrifice everything for a cause or a friend

Can become rigid in the service of a cause; can become fanatical, strident, irrational; Captain Ahab syndrome

Meticulous at times, especially on projects that matter a great deal

Usually disorganized, even chaotically so; chaos can rule to such an extent that school, job, marriage hang in balance

Can get a lot done in a short amount of time

Fundamentally different sense of time; there is only NOW and NOT NOW in this world, so procrastination rules, and things rarely get done on time

An appreciation of the offbeat, unusual, unconventional

An inability or refusal to conform or get in line when doing so is obviously in his or her best interest

Dreamer par excellence; visionary; lives on wings of imagination, flights of fancy

Sometimes so bored by reality that he or she ignores it and gets into trouble for having done so

Honest to a fault; will say what others don’t dare to say; outspoken; blunt

Can hurt feelings and damage self; can unwittingly be cruel, which is last thing he or she wants to be

Intense desire to be free and independent, own boss; master of own fate

Trouble working on teams; trouble taking orders; trouble with intimacy in private life

Naturally creative; ideas pop all the time like in a popcorn machine

Trouble organizing all the ideas and doing something productive with them

Naturally curious; always wanting to know who, what, where, why, and how; never satisfied until he or she gets the answer

Easily distracted by novelty or any puzzle, conundrum, unsolved problem, or beguiling opportunity, however irrelevant it may be

Enormously energetic; seemingly indefatigable

Impulsive; can’t sit still or linger over a conversation or ponder an idea with a colleague or a relative

Mind like a steel trap; can remember details from years ago

Forgets what he or she went into the next room to get; forgets where he or she put car keys; forgets wallet, glasses, umbrella; leaves groceries on roof of car and drives off

Full of ideas

So many ideas they choke the growth of any single one

Decisive; can make an important, complex decision in a split second

Impatient; hates to wrestle with ambiguity; shoots from the hip

Initial surge of excitement over new plan, deal, idea, project, relationship

Excitement peters out in the middle phase; trouble sustaining interest

Takes responsibility; gets done what needs to get done

Trouble delegating, trusting that others can do it as well as he or she can

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USEFUL

PROBLEMATIC

Tenacious; never gives up; will literally collapse before quitting

Stubborn; would rather fail doing it his or her way than succeed taking advice from someone else; can spend a lifetime trying to get good at what he or she’s bad at

Can act on the spur of the moment

Procrastination can be a huge problem

Original; sees solutions others do not; comes up with novel ideas

Can seem whacky, eccentric, even crazy; can put people off by being too offbeat and arrogant

Confident; self-assured

Insecure; despite confident exterior feels success was all done by smoke and mirrors

Extremely hardworking

Driven; compulsive; can’t let up; maniacal

Lightning-quick mind

Trouble shutting mind down; risk of developing addictions to quiet mind down

Risk taker; focuses and performs best in situations of crisis and danger

Needs danger in order to feel engaged with life and truly alive

Sees the big picture before anyone else

Trouble with implementation and sweating the details

Generous; bighearted; willing to give with no expectation of return

Can give away the store

Funny; the life of the party; can connect with everyone

Secretly lonely; feels no one really knows him

Innovator

Can’t/won’t follow instructions

Pays close attention when interested

Easily distracted; mind wanders when not interested; frequently on electronic devices and difficult to engage

Supremely talented in several domains

Seriously limited in several domains

A life enthusiast; wants to try everything; can’t ever get enough

Overcommitted; about to snap

Strong leader; charismatic

Hates the position of leader; worries he or she will let everyone down; unaware of his or her own charisma

Thrives in highly stimulating situations

Finds contentment too bland and so can disrupt ordinary happiness in order to create high stimulation

Loves debate, conflict, sparring

Intimacy can be difficult unless partner likes these as well

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age

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Rebecca Baelen, Ph.D. P d c a Re ea ch A cia e, U i e i f I i i , Chicag S sannah Cole, M.Ed. E ec i e F c i C ach, Ma agi g Di ec , eFLEXi J lie D nstan, Ph.D Ed ca i a P ch gi , F de , eFLEXi L d.

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Donna Kincaid, M.Ed. A i a Di ec ; each a d P fe i a De e

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Dot L cci, M.Ed., C.A.G.S. Sch P ch gi ; a i a d P ch -ed ca i a Se ice , NESCA Joan Steinberg, M.Ed. Di ec f Ed ca i a The a ; Ed ca i a S ecia i , Re ea chILD

O er ie Executive function strategies are powerful tools for promoting effort, persistence, and resilience in students with learning, attention, and social-emotional difficulties. When students struggle in school, they often believe that their teachers view them as “dumb” or “lazy”. Furthermore, when they feel overwhelmed by the academic and social demands of school, they often give up and develop negative beliefs about their abilities. Executive function strategies, in combination with social-emotional support, can have a dramatic impact on their performance.

In this panel, each speaker will discuss the importance of ensuring that students have opportunities to understand their strengths and challenges, to self-advocate, and to succeed academically and socially. Each panelist will respond briefly to the following question: -

How can we most effectively promote executive function strategies and social-emotional learning at home and in school?

References Dunstan, J. & Cole, S. (2022). F e ib e Mi d e i ch : Cha e i g b ai c i ica hi ki g, c e be i g a d c ea i i . London: Routledge.

e f

Krishnan, K, Feller, M.J.& Orkin, M, (2010). Goal Setting, Planning and Prioritizing: The Foundations of Effective Learning. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), P i g e ec i e f c i i he ca . New York: Guilford Press. Lucci, D. (2014). Developing Self-reflection and Resilience in Adolescents with Asperger s Syndrome and High Functioning Autism. Autism Spectrum News, Winter. https://autismspectrumnews.org/developing-self-reflection-and-resilience-in-adolescents-with-as pergers-syndrome-and-high-functioning-autism/ Meltzer, L.J., & Bagnato, J.S. (2010). Shifting and flexible problem solving: The anchors for academic success. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), P i g e ec i e f c i i he c a . New York: Guilford Press. Roeser, R. W., Galla, B. M., & Baelen, R. N. (2022). Mindfulness in schools: Evidence on the impacts of school-based mindfulness programs on student outcomes in P–12 educational settings. University Park, PA: Edna Bennett Pierce Prevention Research Center, The Pennsylvania State University.

Teaching Executive Functioning Processes: Promoting Metacognition, Strategy Use, and Effort

Lynn Meltzer Mike’s performance has been unpredictable all year! He has many creative ideas and he participates actively in classes. However, he is usually late with written papers and projects and he does not seem to care about his homework. His test grades fluctuate from the 90s to the 60s. His other teachers have told me that they think he is lazy. I think that Mike may have a problem. (8th grade teacher)

Students’ success in the digital age is increasingly linked with their ability to take responsibility for their own learning by organizing and integrating a rapidly changing body of information that is available in textbooks and online. From the early grades, they are expected to work independently to complete numerous multistep projects and writing assignments, all tasks that rely on cognitive flexibility and the ability to shift rapidly between different processes. Students’ academic performance therefore depends on the ease with which they plan their time, organize and prioritize materials and information, separate main ideas from details, think flexibly, memorize and mentally manipulate information, and monitor their own progress. As a result, it is essential that all students develop an awareness of how they think and how they learn and that they master strategies that address these executive function processes. For the purposes of this chapter, “executive function” is used as an umbrella term that is broader than metacognition and incorporates a range of interrelated processes responsible for goal-directed behavior (Anderson, 2002; Gioia,

L. Meltzer (*) Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD), and Harvard Graduate School of Education, Lexington, MA 02421, USA e-mail: lmeltzer@ildlex.org

Isquith, Guy, & Kenworthy, 2001). More specifically, this chapter builds on many of the theoretical models of executive function that have been refined since the seminal work of Flavell on goal-oriented problem-solving (Flavell, Friedrichs, & Hoyt, 1970) and the research on metacognition and self-regulation (Barkley, 1997; Brown & Campione, 1983, 1986; Denckla, 1996, 2007; Gioia, Isquith, Guy, Kenworthy, & Barton, 2002). The approach in this chapter is anchored in Eslinger’s (1996) analyses of multiple definitions and his conclusions that executive function refers to a range of cognitive processes that are controlled by the prefrontal cortex and comprise: • Metacognitive knowledge about tasks and strategies • Flexible use of strategies • Attention and memory systems that guide these processes, e.g., working memory • Self-regulatory processes such as planning and self-monitoring This chapter includes a discussion of a theoretical paradigm for understanding and teaching students strategies that address executive function processes (Meltzer, 2007, 2010). There is an emphasis on the central importance of six executive function processes: goal-setting, cognitive flexibility/shifting, organizing, prioritizing, accessing working memory, and self-monitoring.

S. Goldstein and J.A. Naglieri (eds.), Handbook of Executive Functioning, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-8106-5_25, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014

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The major principles of intervention and treatment are addressed with a focus on the interactions among executive function processes, self-awareness, effort, and persistence. Selected strategies are discussed for addressing the key executive function processes as part of a systematic teaching approach (see Meltzer, 2010, for specific classroom teaching techniques). It should be noted that it is beyond the scope of this chapter to include a description of inhibition, selective attention, and activation, all important executive function processes that are addressed in recent neuroscientific research (Anderson, Rani Jacobs, & Anderson, 2008; Bernstein & Waber, 2007; Diamond, 2006).

Table 25.1 Executive function processes and their impact on academic performance Executive function process Goal-setting

Shifting/cognitive flexibility Prioritizing

Organizing

Using working memory

Executive Function Processes and Academic Performance When I have to write a paper, I sit down at my computer but my mind feels like a bottle of soda that’s been all shaken up. I try to write but I can’t figure how to get my mind unstuck so I can begin. After trying for an hour I have often written only a few sentences and I give up. (Michael, 8th grade)

Students with executive function weaknesses often struggle with academic tasks that involve the coordination and integration of different subskills such as initiating writing assignments, summarizing information, taking notes, planning, executing and completing projects in a timely manner, studying, and submitting work on time (Meltzer, 2010; Meltzer & Basho, 2010; see Table 25.1). These students often have difficulty organizing and prioritizing information and they struggle to shift flexibly to alternate approaches so that they overfocus on details while ignoring the major themes. Furthermore, working memory and self-monitoring processes may also be weak, making it difficult for students to mentally juggle information, self-monitor, or self–check. As a result, information can often become “clogged” and students become “stuck,” so that they struggle to produce academically (see Fig. 25.1). As is reflected in Fig. 25.1, the paradigm that has guided our work on executive function is based on the

Self-monitoring

Definition Identifying short-term and long-term goals Figuring out a purpose and end-point Switching easily between approaches Looking again, in a brand new way Ordering based on relative importance Figuring out what is most important Arranging information systematically Sorting information Remembering “so that it sticks like glue” Juggling information mentally Cementing information in the brain Shifting to a checking mindset and back RE-viewing in a different way

analogy of a “clogged funnel” (Meltzer, 2004, 2007, 2010; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007). Because these students cannot shift flexibly among alternative approaches to unclog the funnel, their written work, study skills, and test performance are compromised, and their academic grades do not reflect their strong intellectual ability. Consequently, they may have difficulty showing what they know in the classroom and other settings. These deficits become increasingly apparent during middle and high school when the volume and complexity of the workload increase and performance is more dependent on executive function strategies (see Table 25.1). During this time, there is also a mismatch between students’ skills and the demands of the curriculum, so that they struggle to perform at the level of their potential. This can be extremely frustrating and can affect students’ self-confidence and longterm performance.

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Executive Function Strategies, Self-Understanding, and Effort: The Underpinnings of Academic Success My success is due to the strategies I learned as well as my self-understanding and the confidence I developed after I used the strategies and got higher grades. (Sean, 11th grader)

Academic success for all students, and particularly for students with learning and attention difficulties, is connected with their motivation, academic self-concept, and self-efficacy (Brunstein, Schultheiss, & Grässmann, 1998; Helliwell, 2003; Kasser & Ryan, 1996; Meltzer, Reddy, Sales, et al. 2004; Pajares & Schunk, 2001; Sheldon & Elliot, 1999). These cognitive and motivational processes are linked cyclically with students’ use of executive function strategies as well as their effort and persistence (Meltzer, Katzir, Miller, Reddy, & Roditi, 2004; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007) (see Fig. 25.2). Strategies that address executive function processes therefore provide a starting point for improving academic performance (see Fig. 25.2). When students use executive function strategies, they become more efficient and they begin to improve academically. Academic success, in

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turn, boosts self-confidence and self-efficacy so that students’ effort is targeted strategically towards specific goals. A cycle of success is promoted when students focus their effort on using executive function strategies in the context of their academic work (Meltzer, 2010; Meltzer, Katzir, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Pollica, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Sales, et al., 2004). To build their motivation, persistence, and work ethic, students need to understand their profiles of strengths and weaknesses, which strategies work well for them, as well as why, where, when, and how to apply specific strategies. This understanding, referred to as metacognition, or the ability to think about their own thinking and learning, underlies students’ use of executive function processes. More specifically, metacognition, as defined originally by Flavell (1979) and Brown, Bransford, Ferrara, and Campione (1983), refers to each student’s understanding and beliefs about HOW she/he learns as well as the strategies that can or should be used to accomplish specific tasks. Students’ metacognitive awareness therefore includes their knowledge and understanding of their own learning profiles as well as their knowledge of the specific strategies that match their strengths and weaknesses and help them to master different tasks. For example, students like Chace (see Fig. 25.3) are aware of their struggle to plan, organize, prioritize, and manage their time, and they are often frustrated that their academic performance does not match their strong intellectual potential. Therefore, students’ understanding of their strengths and weaknesses, as well as their motivation and beliefs, influences their selection of specific strategies and how long they are willing to persist with tasks. This metacognitive awareness usually increases their willingness to make the effort needed to master the strategies needed for the many academic tasks that they face in school on a daily basis. Sustaining this effort is also connected with students’ interests in particular subjects. Specifically, interest-based motivation in learning frequently influences the types of strategies students use as well as their academic performance (Renninger, Hidi, & Krapp, 2004; Yun Dai & Sternberg, 2004). Unfortunately,

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Fig. 25.2 Academic success cycle. Adapted from: Meltzer, LJ., Reddy, R., Pollica, L., & Roditi, R. (2004). Copyright 2004 by the International Academy for Research in Learning Disabilities. Reprinted by permission

students’ interest in school often decreases in middle and high school when the curriculum content constrains students’ ability to engage their interests and explore new challenges (Gardner, 1983; Renninger et al., 2004). As a result, many bright and talented students, especially those with learning and attention difficulties, may “give up” so that they no longer make the extraordinary effort needed to master these strategies. Consequently, they become less productive in the higher grades. For all these students, executive function strategies can provide a lifeline to academic success as they learn to set goals and to shift flexibly from the major themes to the details and back again (Meltzer & Basho, 2010). In fact, success is usually attainable when students use executive function strategies to target realistic goals, they focus their effort on reaching these goals, and they self-regulate their cognitive, attention, and emotional processes appropriately (see Fig. 25.4). Furthermore, as is evident from Fig. 25.4, these processes usually build persistence, resilience, and academic success (Meltzer, 2010: Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, & Basho, 2011; Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, Stacey and Ross, 2011).

Informal, Process-Oriented Assessment of Executive Function My teacher probably thinks I am one taco short of a combo plate, if you know what I mean. (Jamie, 8th grader) Jamie is a very bright student who is a puzzle to me. He does well on quizzes and short tests but he often does not hand in his homework. His performance is inconsistent and his grades are up and down. (8th grade teacher)

Educators are often puzzled by students like Jamie whose performance oscillates between high grades on quizzes to low grades on multistep tasks such as written papers, essays, math problem-solving, or long-term projects. When teachers understand the role of executive function processes, they can reframe their understanding so that they focus on their students’ strengths and academic potential and no longer view these students as “unmotivated,” “lazy,” or “not trying hard enough.” Informal assessment methods can help teachers to understand students’ use of executive function processes

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Fig. 25.3 Chace, an exceptionally bright eighth grader, depicts his daily battle to stay organized and focused because of his executive function difficulties. From

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Fig. 25.4 Academic success paradigm. From Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, and Basho (2011)

and pinpoint why and how particular students may be struggling. Teachers can then introduce specific instructional approaches, assess students’ progress, and modify instruction. The continuous cycle linking assessment and teaching allows teachers to adjust their instructional methods to the changing needs of their students. In fact, many of these principles are incorporated into

the response-to-intervention (RtI) approach that is now being more widely used in US schools to improve early identification of reading and learning difficulties (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1991; Kame’enui, 2007). Currently, there is a dearth of measures that help teachers and other professionals to understand students’ use of executive function strategies. One of

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450 Table 25.2 Metacognitive awareness survey system (MetaCOG) STUDENT questionnaires ME—Motivation and effort survey STRATUS—Strategy use survey MAQ—Metacognitive awareness questionnaire TEACHER questionnaires TPSE—Teacher perceptions of student effort TIQ—Teacher information questionnaire 5-point rating for all surveys

the most reliable and widely used questionnaire systems is the Behavior Rating Inventory for Executive Function (BRIEF) (Gioia et al., 2001, 2002). The BRIEF includes 86 items and comprises a parent questionnaire, a teacher questionnaire, and a self-rating form for students from 11 years into adulthood. The items assess behaviors associated with the core executive function processes, e.g., “Forgets to hand in homework, even when completed; Gets caught up in details and misses the big picture; Becomes overwhelmed by large assignments; Underestimates the time needed to finish tasks.” Another criterion-referenced assessment system that compares students’, teachers’, and parents’ perceptions of students’ metacognitive awareness and strategy use is the Metacognitive Awareness System or MetaCOG (Meltzer, 2010; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007; Meltzer, Reddy, Pollica, et al., 2004; Miller, Meltzer, KatzirCohen, & Houser, 2001). The MetaCOG, for use with 9–18 year-olds, comprises five rating scales that allow educators to compare their own judgments with their students’ self-ratings of their effort, strategy use, and academic performance. These strategy ratings focus on academic areas that depend on executive function processes and include written language, homework, studying, and taking tests (see Table 25.2; Meltzer, KatzirCohen, Miller, & Roditi, 2001; Miller et al., 2001). Systems such as the MetaCOG can be used for a variety of purposes over the course of the year: (a) to understand students’ views of their own effort, use of strategies, and academic performance; (b) to help educators and clinicians to compare their own judgments with their students’ self-perceptions; (c) to develop a system for

teaching strategies to help students plan, organize, prioritize, shift flexibly, memorize, and check their work; and (d) to track students’ understanding and implementation of these strategies over time. The three student surveys assess students’ self-ratings of their motivation and effort as well as their strategy use in key academic areas (see details below). Completion of the MetaCOG surveys helps students to build a self-understanding about their learning profiles. This self-awareness is the foundation for building students’ metacognitive awareness and their use of executive function strategies.

MetaCOG Student Surveys 1. Motivation and Effort Survey (ME). The ME consists of 38 items that assess students’ selfratings of their effort and performance on different academic tasks that depend on executive function processes (alpha = .91) (Meltzer, Reddy, Sales, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Sayer, Sales, Theokas, & Roditi, 2002). Students rate themselves on a 1–5 scale (from never to always) in terms of how hard they work and how well they do in selected academic areas such as reading, writing, math, homework, studying for tests, and long-term projects (e.g., I spend as much time as I need to get my work done; I finish my work even when it is boring; I do schoolwork before other things that are more fun). Students are also asked to describe themselves as learners. 2. Strategy Use Survey (STRATUS). The STRATUS consists of 40 items that assess students’ self-reported strategy use in reading, writing, spelling, math, studying, and testtaking (alpha = .945). Items focus on students’ perceptions of their use of strategies for planning, organizing, memorizing, shifting, and self-checking (e.g., When I have to remember new things in school, I make up acronyms to help me; Before I write, I plan out my ideas in some way that works for me [outline, list, map]; When I do math, I ask if my answers make sense].

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3. Metacognitive Awareness Questionnaire (MAQ). The MAQ consists of 18 items that assess students’ understanding of strategies and how they can apply strategies to their schoolwork (e.g., When you begin something new, do you try to connect it to something you already know?; When you begin something new, do you try to think about how long it will take and make sure you have enough time?).

MetaCOG Teacher Surveys 1. Teacher Perceptions of Student Effort (TPSE). The TPSE is the teacher version of the ME and consists of 38 items that assess teachers’ ratings of students’ effort in different academic domains (alpha = .980; Meltzer, Katzir, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Pollica, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Sales, et al., 2004). Teachers rate students’ effort and performance in reading, writing, math, homework, tests, and longterm projects, all academic tasks that rely on executive function processes (e.g., He spends as much time as needed to get his work done; She does not give up even when the work is difficult). Teachers also rate students’ overall strategy use and academic performance in response to the question: “If you had to assign a grade for this student’s overall academic performance, what would this be?”

MetaCOG Parent Surveys 1. Parent Perceptions of Student Effort (PPSE). The PPSE consists of 38 items that assess parents’ ratings of students’ behaviors when working hard and the effort they apply in different academic domains that require the use of executive function processes. Items are identical to those used on the student self-report survey (ME) and the teacher survey (TPSE). As was discussed above, student, teacher, and parent reports can be directly compared to determine overall consistency in their ratings of many of the core components of executive function processes across different settings (Tables 25.3 and 25.4).

451 Table 25.3 MetaCOG sample items: students’ vs. teachers’ ratings of their motivation and effort on academic tasks that involve executive function processes ME-students TPSE-teachers • Doing well in school is • Doing well in school important to me is important to this student • I spend as much time as I • S/he is a hard worker need to get my work done • I keep working even when • S/he doesn’t give up the work is difficult even when work is difficult I work hard on Please judge how hard this student works • Homework • Homework • Long-term projects • Long-term projects • Studying for tests • Studying for tests • Other activities (sports, • Other activities (sports, music, art, hobbies) music, art, hobbies) Note: The ME and TPSE each comprise 36 items using a 1–5 rating scale

Table 25.4 MetaCOG sample items: students’ vs. teachers’ ratings of their performance on academic tasks that involve executive function processes ME-students Please judge how well you do on • Organization • Long-term projects • Making a plan before starting work • Using strategies in my schoolwork • Checking my work • • •

Homework Tests Long-term projects

TPSE-teachers Please judge how well this student does on • Organization • Long-term projects • Making a plan before starting work • Using strategies in his/her schoolwork • Checking his/her work • Homework • Tests • Long-term projects

Students’ perceptions of their own effort and strategy use are often very different from their parents’ and teachers’ perceptions, as has been shown in a number of studies (Meltzer, Katzir, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Pollica, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Sales, et al., 2004; Stone & May, 2002). For example, Fig. 25.5 shows the selfratings of John, a fifth grader, who rates himself as a strong, hardworking student with the goal of “getting a second masters degree and making the

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world a better place.” When asked how his parents would describe him, his response reflects his view that his parents would emphasize the importance of working hard in school. In contrast, John’s teacher’s comments are very different and reflect her perception that John has difficulty sustaining his attention. In fact, she comments that John’s academic performance would be much stronger if he could focus more easily in class. In other words, survey systems that raise teachers’ awareness and understanding of their students’ effort, strategy use, and possible difficulty with executive function processes can help them to understand why and how these students may be struggling. These systems can also help teachers to implement and monitor the effectiveness of specific instructional strategies, as will be detailed in the remainder of this chapter.

Intervention Strategies That Address Executive Function Processes The strategies I learned from my tutor changed my life. When I was failing in tenth grade, I became the class clown because my teachers told me I was lazy and nobody taught me how to use strategies

for remembering, organizing, and checking my work. (Max, 12th grader)

Students need to learn when to use which strategies and in what contexts. They also need to recognize that not all strategies work for all tasks and all content areas. In other words, strategies need to fit well with the student’s learning style as well as the task content and the context. For example, students study differently for a math test that emphasizes procedural knowledge, as compared with a Spanish test, which emphasizes memorization of vocabulary. When students recognize the purpose and benefits of using strategies for multistep tasks, they are more willing to personalize strategies so that they can apply these to different academic tasks across content areas and across the grades (see Table 25.5). Intervention research has shown that explicit and highly structured metacognitive instruction benefits all students and is essential for the academic progress of students with learning and attention difficulties (Deshler, Ellis, & Lenz, 1996; Deshler & Schumaker, 1988; Meltzer, Katzir, et al., 2004; Paris, 1986; Pearson & Dole, 1987; Rosenshine, 1997; Swanson, 2001; Swanson & Hoskyn, 1998, 2001). Comparisons of different

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Table 25.5 Executive function processes and academic performance Goal-setting • Identifying short-term and long-term academic goals • Planning and allocating time to the many steps involved in meeting these goals (e.g., completing daily homework, studying for tests systematically) Shifting flexibly/cognitive flexibility • Shifting flexibly from the major themes to the relevant details when reading, writing, or studying • Using outlines such as graphic organizers or linear outlines to get “unstuck” and to focus on the major concepts when writing papers or completing projects • Shifting between operations or between words and numbers for math computation or word problems Organizing • Organizing concepts using strategies (e.g., summarizing key ideas using strategy cards, graphic organizers, or Triple Note Tote) rather than rereading the text over and over • Organizing materials such as class notes, textbooks, study guides • Organizing work space to reduce distractions and clutter Prioritizing • Prioritizing by allocating more time and effort to lengthy papers, major projects or studying • Figuring out which details are critical and which details can be ignored when reading, taking notes, or writing essays • Estimating how much time to spend on reading and research vs. writing for papers, projects Accessing working memory • Chunking information to memorize and mentally manipulate it for multi-step tasks e.g., mental computation, note-taking • Studying strategically to connect concepts so that critical information is retained over time • Accessing critically important details for solving complex math problems • Remembering key concepts while taking notes during classes • Remembering to bring necessary books and materials from school to home and back again Self-monitoring • Using personalized error checklists to correct errors when writing papers, taking tests, or doing homework Adapted, Meltzer (2010). Copyright 2010, The Guilford Press. Reprinted by permission

interventions highlight several important principles of this instruction: • Strategy instruction should be embedded in the curriculum (Deshler et al., 1996; Ellis, 1993, 1994).

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• Strategies should be taught explicitly and systematically, using scaffolding and modeling, while providing time for practice. • Students’ motivation and self-understanding should be addressed to ensure generalized use of strategies (Deshler & Shumaker, 1986; Deshler, Warner, Schumaker, & Alley, 1983; Meltzer, 1996; Meltzer, Roditi, Houser, & Perlman, 1998; Paris & Winograd, 1990; Pressley, Goodchild, Fleet, Zajchowski, & Evans, 1989). Systematic and consistent strategy instruction should address the core executive function processes (see Table 25.5). The following sections focus on specific strategies for addressing each of these executive function processes, namely, goal-setting, cognitive flexibility/shifting, organizing and prioritizing, accessing working memory, and self-monitoring/ self-checking.

Goal-Setting Goal-setting refers to the ability to set specific, realistic objectives that can be achieved within a defined period of time. Goal-setting also involves the selection of goal-relevant activities, effective and efficient strategy use, focused effort, as well as persistence. Goal-setting and planning help students to understand the task objectives, visualize the steps involved in accomplishing the task, and organize the time and resources needed to complete the task. When students set their own goals, they show greater commitment and are more motivated to attain these goals (Schunk, 2001; Winne, 1996, 2001; Zimmerman, 2000; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). Goal-setting also enhances selfefficacy, achievement, and motivation (Schunk, 2001). Krishnan, Feller, and Orkin (2010) emphasize that goal-setting requires students to: • Understand their learning strengths and weaknesses as well as their learning profiles • Understand the “big picture” and envision the end point of a task • Value the task • Recognize that goals need to be attainable Students who are able to set goals and to shift from “the top of the mountain to the bottom and back” (Meltzer, 2007) are usually more successful

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with the complex tasks that are typical of our 21st century schools. In contrast, students with poor self-understanding of their learning profiles often fail to set short-term and long-term goals. This lack of direction often compromises their academic performance (Krishnan et al., 2010; Stone & Conca, 1993; Swanson, 1989; Torgesen, 1977).

Teaching Goal-Setting and Planning Strategies Beginning in the early grades, students can be taught effective goal-setting and planning strategies. Teachers and parents can model the planning process by making daily schedules, using calendars, and setting agendas. Younger students can be taught strategies for planning their homework, long-term projects, study time, and activities. These strategies are even more important in the middle and high school grades. In these higher grades, students are required to understand the goals of their assignments and to plan their study time, as well as their approach to long-term projects and papers. Time management is also critically important, as students are required to juggle multiple deadlines for different ongoing assignments and projects. They often underestimate the amount of work involved in major projects and open-ended tasks, and they need strategies for breaking down tasks into manageable parts. Time management strategies also help students to build goal-oriented schedules by planning their homework and study time after school when there is less structure. Weekly and monthly calendars help to impose structure and build selfmonitoring strategies so that students can track deadlines for long-term projects and can pace themselves to complete their assignments. These goal-setting and time management strategies are critical for promoting independent learning (Hughes, Ruhl, Schumaker, & Deshler, 2002; Krishnan et al., 2010; Sah & Borland, 1989).

Cognitive Flexibility/Shifting Cognitive flexibility, or the ability to think flexibly and to shift approaches, is a critically impor-

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tant executive function process that is often challenging for students, and is especially difficult for students with learning and attention difficulties (Meltzer, 1993; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007; Meltzer & Montague, 2001; Meltzer, Solomon, Fenton, & Levine, 1989). The ability to adapt to unfamiliar or unexpected situations, to shift mindsets and problem-solving approaches, and to integrate different representations, develops across the lifespan and varies across individuals (Brown, 1997; Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c; Deák, 2008; Dweck, 2008; Elliot & Dweck, 2005). In fact, developmental changes from childhood into adulthood influence children’s ability to manage the cognitive complexity of academic tasks and to process different components simultaneously (Andrews & Halford, 2002; Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b; Zelazo & Müller, 2002). Typically, students in the early elementary grades have a more limited understanding of the importance of using a range of different approaches than do middle and high school students. As students advance into the higher grades, their ability to learn new concepts is often connected to their willingness to abandon previously successful approaches and to shift flexibly to alternative methods (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b). Across all the academic domains, students’ motivation, interest, passion, and emotional mindsets also influence their willingness to try using different approaches and to shift flexibly from one approach to another, rather than continuing to rely on the same approach to tasks (Alexander, 1998; Paris, Lipson, & Wixson, 1983; Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008). Motivation, topic knowledge, and strategy use interconnect to produce improvements in content areas such as history or science (Alexander, 1998). For example, as students learn more about a topic (e.g., the Iraq War), they may be more willing to make the effort to use a three-column note-taking strategy to separate main ideas and details; in turn, flexible strategy use increases students’ interest in completing the many different steps involved in creating an outline and then writing a long paper (e.g., a paper about the Iraq War). In this regard, Zelazo and colleagues have differentiated between purely cognitive or “cold” tasks that

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have no emotional content (e.g., math computation) and tasks that are affected by the student’s social and emotional mindset or what they term “hot” tasks (e.g., remembering information about the Iraq war by linking it with a personal experience such as the memory of a friend or relative who was wounded fighting in Iraq) (Zelazo & Müller, 2002; Zelazo, Müller, Frye, & Marcovitch, 2003). They emphasize that students’ cognitive flexibility is frequently linked to their success on “hot” and “cold” tasks. Overall, this ability to shift approaches and to synthesize information in novel ways is essential for effective reading, writing, math problemsolving, note-taking, studying, and test-taking. Accurate and efficient reading decoding requires students to flexibly coordinate the letter-sound relationships with the meanings of printed words (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c). In other words, students need to recognize the importance of what Gaskins (2008) refers to as “crisscrossing the landscape” in order to select decoding approaches that fit the text. Reading comprehension requires students to process the meaning of text, flexibly access their background knowledge, recognize the purpose or goal of reading (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c), and monitor their own comprehension (Block & Pressley, 2002; Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995). When reading text that incorporates complex or figurative language, students must shift between the concrete and the abstract, between the literal and the symbolic, and between the major themes and relevant details. Furthermore, reading for meaning taxes students’ ability to flexibly manage many different types of linguistic information at the word level, sentence level, and paragraph level (Brown & Deavers, 1999; Goswami, Ziegler, Dalton, & Schneider, 2001, 2003). Similarly, when writing, students must shift between their own perspective and that of the reader and between the important concepts and supporting information. In the math domain, students’ understanding of concepts, computational procedures, and word problems depends on their cognitive flexibility. Students are required to shift from the words and sentences in math problems to the numbers, operations, algorithms, and equations

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needed to solve the problems (Roditi & Steinberg, 2007). They also need to learn how and when to shift problem-solving schemas so their final calculations are accurate and logical (Montague & Jitendra, 2006). In content area subjects, including science and history, students are required to differentiate main ideas from details in their textbooks. Students’ understanding of the material in these textbooks depends on their use of context clues to shift flexibly among the different possible meanings in the words and phrases. Similarly, learning a foreign language requires a significant amount of flexible thinking, as students are challenged to shift back and forth between their native language and the language they are learning. Finally, studying and test-taking require students to shift among multiple topics or problem types as they are often presented with information that is formatted differently from the way in which they learned or studied. For students who struggle to shift flexibly between perspectives and to process multiple representations easily, academic tasks often become progressively more challenging as they advance beyond the first few grades in school. Furthermore, these students experience mounting difficulty as the curriculum demands increase in complexity and require them to interpret information in more than one way, change their approach when needed, and choose a new strategy when the first one is not working (Westman & Kamoo, 1990).

Strategies for Improving Cognitive Flexibility As was discussed above, students need a variety of opportunities to shift mindsets, to think flexibly, and to use their knowledge in a number of different ways (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993; Dweck, 2008). Therefore, it is important to embed strategies for teaching cognitive flexibility into different facets of daily life and to create classrooms where students are given opportunities to solve problems from different perspectives across the grades and content areas. This ability to approach situations and tasks flexibly helps students to shift more easily from the “big picture” to the details in social and academic settings.

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A variety of instructional approaches can be used to promote flexible thinking across different settings and content areas. First, when teaching emphasizes problem-solving and critical thinking, students are required to think flexibly about ways in which their solutions could lead to different possible outcomes (Sternberg, 2005). Secondly, when teaching encourages peer discussion and collaborative learning, students are exposed to multiple viewpoints (Yuill, 2007; Yuill & Bradwell, 1998). Students can therefore be challenged to approach problems from the perspectives of their peers. Strategies for shifting flexibly can also be embedded into daily activities at home and in school. Activities with jokes, riddles, word categories, and number puzzles can help students to practice using flexible approaches to language interpretation and number manipulation. The efficacy of using jokes to teach flexible thinking to students in the early grades has been demonstrated in an interesting series of studies (Yuill, 2007; Yuill & Bradwell, 1998). They found that an explicit focus on the ambiguous language in jokes generalized to reading comprehension as students were required to think about and analyze language in different ways. In the area of reading comprehension, selected strategies can be used to teach students to shift flexibly between and among major themes and relevant details based on the goals and content requirements of the reading tasks (Meltzer & Bagnato, 2010; see Table 25.6). As one example, students’ interpretations of text can be improved by presenting different scenarios that teach them to analyze language and to shift among different interpretations. When they come across words or sentences that do not make sense to them, they can be taught to stop reading and to ask themselves the following questions: • Does the word have more than one meaning? • Can the word be used as both a noun and a verb? • Can I emphasize a different syllable in the word to give it a different meaning? • Can I emphasize different parts of the sentence to change its meaning?

L. Meltzer Table 25.6 Flexible thinking strategies for reading comprehension Reading comprehension Shifting between Strategies for differentiating main “big ideas” and ideas vs. important details vs. less supporting details relevant details. Critical for summarizing and studying Strategies for identifying multiple-meaning words using context clues, noun-verb clues and syllable accents to shift flexibly among the different possible meanings Three-column notes (e.g., Triple Note Tote) which requires shifting from main ideas or core concepts to supportive details From Meltzer and Bagnato (2010). Copyright 2010 by The Guilford Press. Reprinted by permission

• Does the passage contain any figurative language, such as metaphors or expressions that may be confusing? Similar shifting strategies can be used to improve written language. Three-column notetaking systems and graphic organizers which make explicit connections between the main ideas and supporting details, often help writers to shift more fluidly between the two. Students record the major themes, core concepts, or key questions in the first column, the relevant details in the second column, and a memory strategy in the third column. The last column can also include a picture to help students memorize the information. A range of templates and graphic organizers can also be used for helping students to shift flexibly between the main ideas and the supporting details (see Table 25.7). Flexible thinking can also be promoted by teaching students to incorporate a counterargument when they summarize text. Introductory or concluding statements that challenge an argument, but are weighted more heavily in the direction of the writer’s opinion, also encourage flexible thinking. In the area of math, students often get stuck trying to solve math problems in one way, when there may be an easier or more efficient way to find a solution. Similarly, students may have learned a particular format for math problem-

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Table 25.7 Flexible thinking strategies for written language Written language Shifting between “big ideas” and supporting details Shifting from the top to the bottom of the mountain and back again

Graphic organizers for sorting main ideas vs. supportive details Templates for focusing on major themes or thesis statements, relevant details and conclusions Models for shifting from the main ideas to supporting details Personalized checklists for differentiating between relevant and irrelevant details

solving while in class, but they may have trouble recognizing similar problems when these are presented differently on tests. Furthermore, while students can often solve problems of the same type that are grouped together for homework practice, they may have difficulty shifting among multiple problem types in test situations. Cognitive flexibility can be enhanced when students recognize that specific problems require them to shift from one operation (e.g., addition) to a different operation (e.g., subtraction) (see Table 25.8 for strategies). Similarly, they can ask themselves specific questions: • Do I know more than one way to solve the problem? • Does this look similar to anything I have seen before? • Is this problem the same or different from the problem before this? Studying for tests and quizzes requires flexible thinking on many different levels. Students need to extract information from a variety of sources, including textbooks, homework assignments, and class notes (see Table 25.9). Memorizing the specific details and integrating them with the larger concepts also requires cognitive flexibility. Students also need to study differently for different kinds of test formats, even within the same subject area. For example, for a multiple-choice test in history, students need to focus on details and facts. For an essay question, students need to shift away from the facts and details to the topic

457 Table 25.8 Flexible thinking strategies for math Math problem-solving Shifting from the math concepts to computational details & back

Generate math language for each operation (i.e., difference, less, take away = subtraction) Shift from the language embedded in word problems to computational details and back again Focus on the meaning of math problems vs. the operations and calculations Within operations (e.g., long division), shift from division to subtraction, etc. Estimate the answers to word problems (big picture) and compare their solutions with their estimates Ask themselves: “Does this make sense?” by comparing their final calculations with their estimates

Table 25.9 Flexible thinking strategies for studying and test-taking Summarizing, note-taking, long-term projects Using concept maps to focus on the Shifting from major concepts or “big picture” by concepts to visualizing themselves standing at the details & back “top of the mountain” and then shifting to the bottom of the mountain for the details Triple Note Tote strategy or strategy Shifting due cards for use in each chapter/unit to dates shift from main ideas to details and back again to create a study plan for tests Monthly and weekly calendars to shift between short-term homework due immediately vs. long-term projects From Meltzer and Bagnato (2010). Copyright 2010 by The Guilford Press. Reprinted by permission

or major concepts and to “tell the story” embedded in the content rather than simply cramming hundreds of factual details. Finally, students need to learn the importance of using different study

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strategies in different subject areas. For example, reviewing the major ideas in the class textbook will help students to prepare for a history test, whereas it is often more beneficial to review classwork and past homework assignments for math. Thus, students need to be flexible in the study strategies they select for tests and quizzes.

Organizing and Prioritizing The way my mind works with that liquefied gobble of dots, my notes would look scattered on a page. One of the most useful strategies I learned was multi-column notes. With this system, I learned to make a hierarchy of notes and have it structure around itself and relate to things. This structure helped me to study and to write long papers (Brandon, college graduate).

Organization, or the ability to systematize and sort information, is an executive function process that underlies most academic and life tasks. Students need to learn strategies for systematically organizing their time, their materials, and also their ideas. They also need to learn how to apply these strategies to their writing, notetaking, studying, and test preparation. These executive function strategies assume greater importance in late elementary school when students are presented with an increasingly large volume of detailed information that they are required to organize for effective learning. How well they learn and remember this information depends on how effectively they use strategies for organizing and prioritizing the concepts and details so that working memory is less cluttered (Hughes, 1996). While many students successfully participate in class lessons and accurately complete structured homework assignments, they may have more difficulty with independent, open-ended tasks. Reading and note-taking tasks, studying for tests, and completing writing assignments all require students to impose their own structure on the information. When organizational strategies are taught systematically in the context of these school assignments, students are more likely to generalize these strategies and to succeed academically (Krishnan et al., 2010).

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Success, in turn, increases students’ motivation to use these strategies independently and to generalize across different contexts (Meltzer, 1996, 2010; Swanson, 1999).

Teaching Organizing and Prioritizing Strategies Strategies for organizing and prioritizing information underlie efficient reading comprehension. Strategies such as templates, thinking maps, and graphic organizers provide a structured format for helping students to read for meaning, extract major themes, and relate new with known information (Kim, Vaughn, Wanzek, & Shangjin, 2004; Mayer, 1984). Graphic organizers are also effective for improving students’ reading comprehension across a wide range of subject areas including language arts, science, and social studies (Bos & Anders, 1992; Bulgren, Schumaker, & Deschler, 1988; Ritchie & Volkl, 2000). Most importantly, these organizational strategies can be taught across multiple grade levels from elementary school through high school (Krishnan & Feller, 2010; Ritchie & Volkl, 2000; Scanlon, Duran, Reyes, & Gallego, 1992; Horton, Lovitt, & Bergerud, 1990). Similarly, reading comprehension and written language can be improved using two- or threecolumn note-taking systems instead of the traditional, linear format. The structure imposed by a three-column note-taking system guides students to ask themselves active questions about the text they are reading. This format also encourages students to find the main ideas, “chunk” information into manageable parts, predict test questions, and develop strategies for memorizing the information (see Fig. 25.6). As is evident from Fig. 25.6, the Triple Note Tote strategy (BrainCogs, ResearchILD & FableVision, 2003) helps students to organize information by differentiating the major concepts and details. The student records the main idea or a key question in the first column, summarizes the important details in the second column, and records a memory strategy in the third column. In our 21st-century schools, written language is heavily emphasized and standards-based tests, including the SAT, now incorporate a required

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Fig. 25.6 The triple-note-tote strategy: a system for organizing, prioritizing, and memorizing information (BrainCogs, ResearchILD & FableVision, 2003)

writing section. As a result of this change, students from late elementary school onwards are given lengthy writing assignments, long-term projects, and essay tests that rely on executive function processes. For many students, writing can be an overwhelming process because it requires the coordination of numerous cognitive and executive function processes including organization, planning, memorizing, generating language, and editing (Flower et al., 1990; Flower, Wallace, Norris, & Burnett, 1994). Many students struggle to organize their ideas for writing, and they need the writing process to be broken down explicitly with organizers and templates that match both the goals of the assignment and their learning profiles (Graham & Harris, 2003; Harris & Graham, 1996). These strategies help students to break down writing tasks into manageable parts so they can monitor their own performance (Bruning & Horn, 2000). For example, the BOTEC strategy (Essay Express, ResearchILD & FableVision, 2005) uses a mnemonic and visual image to jog students’ memory about the steps in the writing process

when they are completing homework, studying, or taking tests (see Fig. 25.7). In other words, they are required to Brainstorm, Organize their thoughts, generate a Topic sentence or Thesis statement, Elaborate by providing Evidence, and draw a Conclusion. Figure 25.7 illustrates a template for using the BOTEC strategy to organize and prioritize ideas during the writing process. Similar organizational strategies are also critically important for note-taking. This is a complex process that requires students to focus on multiple processes simultaneously including listening, organizing, and prioritizing the information while they write down the critical ideas (Kiewra et al., 1991). Many students read their textbooks and articles without taking notes, or they take notes in a random, scattered way that does not reduce the information load. Other students have difficulty deciding which information should be recorded and they struggle to separate the key concepts from the supporting details (Hughes, 1991; Hughes & Suritsky, 1994; Suritsky, 1992). Students’ academic performance generally improves when they use the organizational strate-

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Fig. 25.7 The BOTEC strategy for generating written language (Essay Express, ResearchILD and FableVision, 2005)

gies discussed above for taking notes, studying, or completing tests (Boyle, 1996, 2001; Boyle & Weishaar, 1999; Katamaya & Robinson, 2000; Lazarus, 1991). Organization and planning improve when students are required to complete strategy reflection sheets that incorporate structured questions and a multiple-choice format. These strategy reflection sheets promote metacognitive awareness, encourage students to use strategies systematically, and remind them to check and edit their work (see Fig. 25.8a, b). When students are given credit by their teachers for using these strategies, they are more likely to make the effort needed to continue this process. For example, when grades for homework and tests include points for completing these strategy reflection sheets, teachers promote these habits of mind. In other words, metacognitive awareness and effective strategy use are promoted when teachers make strategy use count in the classroom.

Accessing Working Memory Working memory refers to the ability to store information for short time periods while simultaneously manipulating the information mentally,

(e.g., holding the main themes in mind while sorting through the details, or calculating a math problem mentally). Working memory is a critically important process that helps students to focus, direct their mental effort, and ignore distractions in order to accomplish tasks (de Fockert, Rees, Frith, & Lavoie, 2001; Swanson, 1999; Tannock, 2008). In fact, Baddeley (2006), Swanson & Sáez (2003) have proposed that working memory often functions as the central executive that directs all other cognitive processes, including the student’s ability to inhibit impulses, shift attention, and direct effort to the task. Working memory, therefore, plays a critical role in listening comprehension, reading comprehension, oral communication, written expression, and math problem-solving, as well as efficient and accurate long-term learning (Swanson & Sáez, 2003). From fourth grade onwards, academic tasks rely increasingly on these working memory processes. Consequently, strategic students are generally more successful with tasks that require them to focus on multiple processes simultaneously such as following directions, responding to oral questions, and completing multistep instructions (Kincaid & Trautman, 2010). Reading comprehension and written language are also heavily

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Fig. 25.8 (a) Strategy reflection sheet for writing: structured questions that scaffold the writing process. (b) Strategy reflection sheet for writing: open-ended questions

dependent on working memory. In these areas, students need to remember and manipulate multiple details such as spelling and punctuation while simultaneously focusing on remembering the main ideas, organizing ideas in their minds while they read, prioritizing important information, and figuring out which details to ignore. Young students may also need to think about handwriting and accurate letter formation, skills that may not yet be automatic for them. Similarly, summarizing, taking notes, and studying for tests all require students to focus on multiple processes simultaneously and to remember key ideas, formulate notes while listening, and identify major themes while writing (Kincaid & Trautman, 2010). Memorizing information in the classroom is heavily dependent on students’ ability to focus and sustain their attention in order to make connections, retain information, and retrieve relevant details (Tannock, 2008). In fact, attention and

memory are so strongly linked that the two processes are often viewed as part of the same executive process (Swanson & Sáez, 2003; see chapters in this volume). To remember, retain, and retrieve information, students benefit from learning strategies for sustaining their attention, attaching meaning to information, chunking information to reduce the memory load, as well as rehearsal and review (Kincaid & Trautman, 2010). When students are able to make meaningful associations, they are more successful with transfer of information into long-term memory and later retrieval (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1998).

Teaching Working Memory Strategies Working memory strategies are interconnected with strategies for organizing and prioritizing complex information by reducing the memory load. Mnemonics comprise one of the most effective methods for chunking information and retaining

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important details so that information can be mentally manipulated in working memory (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1991, 1998; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 2000). Mnemonics help students to connect new information to what they already know and to make meaningful connections to seemingly unconnected information (Carney, Levin, & Levin, 1993). Different types of mnemonics improve retention of information and enhance working memory, in particular, keywords, pegwords, acronyms, acrostics, and visuals (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1991, 1998; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 2000). For example, when students are required to remember the states and their capitals by region, crazy phrases help them to organize, sequence, and chunk the information so that there are fewer details to memorize. Some students prefer to use visual strategies, such as personalized diagrams, cartoons, graphic organizers, and templates (Kincaid & Trautman, 2010). Mnemonics are often embedded within these organizers to further enhance their effectiveness. Chants, rhymes, and songs are effective for those who rely on verbal or auditory strategies to memorize. Students need time to practice and rehearse their memory strategies (Harris, Graham, Mason, & Friedlander, 2008). As students learn and practice memory strategies that are modeled by adults, it is important to encourage students to create their own memory strategies that match their individual learning styles (see Kincaid & Trautman, 2010, for more details and specific memory strategies in different academic areas). Given the heavy learning memory load imposed in our 21st-century information-driven schools, and the emphasis on working memory and mental manipulation, it is particularly important to teach memory strategies explicitly to improve students’ ability to retain and retrieve facts, processes, and concepts. As is emphasized by Kincaid and Trautman (2010), educators need to help students to learn how to prioritize and select information to be memorized to reduce the load on working memory. Most importantly, students need to be given sufficient time to process and practice memory strategies, and to develop their own personalized strategies for remembering challenging information.

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Self-Monitoring and Self-Checking Self-monitoring refers to the ways in which learners manage their cognitive and metacognitive processes to track their own performance and outcomes (Zimmerman, 1998, 2000; Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 1997; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). When students self-monitor, they review their progress towards their goals, evaluate the outcomes, and redirect their efforts when needed. The ability to self-monitor depends on students’ metacognitive awareness as well as their flexibility in shifting back and forth from the end product of their efforts to the goals of the tasks. Therefore, students’ use of self-monitoring strategies depends on their ability to recognize when, how, and why to use specific strategies, to evaluate and revise their strategy use, and to continually adjust their use of strategies based on the task demands (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). Many students, especially students with learning and attention problems, have difficulty reflecting, monitoring their own learning, and evaluating the connections between their effort, strategy use, and performance. As they focus their effort on reading, writing, math problem-solving, and content learning, they may struggle to monitor their attention and performance and may have difficulty shifting among a range of problem-solving approaches or strategies that are available to them (Klingner, Vaughn, & Boardman, 2007; Montague, 2003). Students therefore need systematic, structured, and scaffolded instruction in using self-monitoring strategies flexibly so that they can become independent learners who do not need the assistance of others to complete reading, writing, math, or related tasks successfully (Graham & Harris, 2003; Reid & Lienemann, 2006).

Teaching Self-Monitoring and Checking Strategies Numerous studies have shown that teaching selfmonitoring strategies systematically to students can improve their performance significantly (Graham & Harris, 2003; Harris & Graham, 1996; Reid, 1996; Reid & Harris, 1993; Shimabukuro, Prater, Jenkins, & Edelen-Smith, 1999). Explicit, structured teaching encourages students to slow down and to allocate the necessary time to spiral back and

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463 Table 25.10 Guide for making revisions to a five paragraph essay Yes or No? Action steps Add 1–2 sentences that summarize your viewpoint or main idea Is the essay organized Divide essay into into paragraphs? introduction, 3 body paragraphs and conclusion Is there an Write a paragraph that introduction? introduces your topic and includes a thesis Does each body Add a sentence that paragraph have a topic introduces the topic of sentence? each paragraph Does the essay contain Add more quotes, facts sufficient supporting or specific examples to details? body paragraphs Is there a conclusion? Add a paragraph that summarizes your opinion or main idea Does the essay flow Use transition words to well and read link sentences and smoothly? paragraphs Does the essay contain Replace common words colorful and interesting with ones that are more vocabulary? vivid and unique Question Is there a thesis statement?

Fig. 25.9 STOPS: a personalized editing checklist for upper elementary and middle school students. Reprinted with permission

forth so that they can check the task demands and their own output (Meltzer, Sales-Pollica, & Barzillai, 2007; Reid & Lienemann, 2006). In the writing domain, self-monitoring strategies are essential as students need to shift mindsets from that of the “writer” to that of the “editor” so that they can identify their own errors. A “one size fits all” generic editing checklist is often not effective, as different students make different types of errors in their writing (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). While one student may consistently make spelling errors but have no difficulty with organization, another may have the opposite profile. By developing personalized checklists and acronyms for checking particular types of assignments, students know what to check for and make fewer errors (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). For example, the acronym “STOPS” was developed by a sixth grader to help check his writing for errors he commonly made (see Fig. 25.9). This acronym reminded him to check his written work for Sentence structure, Tenses (i.e., not using present, past, and future tenses in one paper), Organization of ideas, Punctuation, and Spelling. Self-monitoring and checking are often easier if students edit their work using a different

colored pen, read their written work aloud, or if they write the original draft on a computer, print it out, and edit a hard copy. For example, for persuasive writing, students often benefit from explicit instruction to monitor their inclusion of the basic structural components of writing, such as topic sentences, supporting details, and paragraph endings (Graham, 1990). Students often realize that their writing is weak but they do not know how to revise their writing to improve the content, structure, and organization. Even when they are given a rubric which outlines the expectations for the assignment, they may have difficulty determining whether their writing meets the criteria. They benefit from a guided process for analyzing several of their writing samples to determine their most common mistakes and using this process to develop personalized editing checklists (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). They also need general systems that help them to improve (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). Table 25.10 provides

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Fig. 25.10 Self-checking strategy for tests. From Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, and Basho, 2011. Reprinted with permission

one possible essay revision guide to help students evaluate their writing with respect to content, structure, and organization as well as ideas for editing and correcting their work (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). In the math area, when students are given a word problem to solve, they benefit from comprehensive instructional routines such as Montague’s “Solve It!” (Montague, Warger, & Morgan, 2000). This teaches them strategies for estimating the answer, computing, and checking to verify the solution. Students also need to be taught self-regulation strategies such as asking themselves questions as they go through the steps of problem-solving as well as monitoring their own performance systematically (Meltzer & Montague, 2001; Montague, 2003; Montague et al., 2000). Explicit and systematic instruction therefore helps students to access, apply, and regulate their use of strategies. Finally, self-monitoring and checking strategies for tests are critically important. Students benefit from developing personalized strategies and checklists for editing their work before handing in their tests. Most students, and especially students with learning and attention difficulties,

need explicit instruction focused on how to check their work and what errors to check for. Figure 25.10 illustrates a general strategy for checking tests that incorporates a visual image for those who more easily remember visual information as well as a “crazy phrase” for those students who more easily remember verbal information. Students can use this strategy as a model for developing a personalized checking strategy. Personalized self-checking cards and mnemonics to remember the core ideas are most beneficial when students embrace these as their own (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010) Overall, effective self-monitoring requires students to reflect on their progress towards a goal, to select strategies that work, and to alter strategies that are not working (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010). The overall quality of students’ academic work improves when they are able to recognize the value of reviewing their work and shifting mindsets so that they know what to look for and how to shift flexibly from the major themes to the details (Bagnato & Meltzer, 2010; Meltzer & Basho, 2010). As will be discussed in the next section, students’ motivation and emotional mindsets frequently affect their willingness

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to make the often superhuman effort needed to stop, reflect, check, and correct multiple drafts of their work, processes that are critically important for long-term academic and life success.

Emotional Self-Regulation Students’ attention and their ability to engage actively in the learning process are associated with their ability to regulate their emotions in and outside the classroom (Brooks, 1991; Stein, 2010; Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2004). The effects of emotion on the learning process range along a continuum. Specifically, extreme emotional reactions (e.g., anxiety, anger) often disrupt students’ attention and ability to stay on task as well as their ability to learn and remember new information (Goldberg, 2001; Stein, 2010). In contrast, moderate emotional arousal has a positive influence on students’ attention and executive function processes including working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibition (Gross, 2007; Stein, 2010). More specifically, the relationship between anxiety and performance is characterized by an inverted U-shaped curve, e.g., test performance is often poor when students either are not anxious and have consequently not studied or are excessively anxious which interferes with attention, working memory, and overall performance (Goleman, 1995). Similarly, negative moods disrupt attention, concentration, memory, and processing speed. In the classroom, students’ self-understanding as well as their ability to regulate their emotions are important processes underlying efficient learning. As students develop strategies for regulating their emotional responses in the classroom, they more easily attend to instructions, sustain their effort, and curb their frustrations in response to difficult tasks (Stein, 2010). They also learn how to collaborate with peers and to adjust their behavior to fit the classroom’s “culture” and routines. When students regulate their emotions, they can more easily focus attention on the academic content rather than their feelings. More specifically, they can use self-talk to encourage themselves when anxious, ask for help when

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needed, and express their feelings in socially acceptable ways (Stein, 2010). As is discussed by Stein (2010), a proactive approach to addressing students’ emotional regulation in the classroom involves three critical components: 1. Understanding each student’s learning profile and emotional vulnerabilities 2. Understanding what kinds of triggers may upset each student 3. Developing individualized prevention and intervention plans for vulnerable students. Prevention approaches for teachers and parents focus on helping students to avoid frustration and get started by providing structure, breaking down tasks into smaller steps, giving alternative assignments or test formats if needed, or providing flexible due dates (Stein, 2010). In addition, these students benefit from being told ahead about upcoming changes, transitions, challenges, or requests for participation in classes. Intervention approaches focus on avoiding judgment, anger, or blame, providing a supportive; collaborative perspective; and offering choices to students (e.g., safe place to reduce stress, quiet room for taking tests; see Stein, 2010, for more details). Self-regulatory strategies such as these are particularly important for students with attention problems and nonverbal learning disabilities. These students depend on structured approaches and routines that help to reduce their emotional distractibility and impulsivity so that they can sustain their motivation and manage the many simultaneous demands of the classroom (Stein & Krishnan, 2007).

The Drive to Thrive and SMARTS Programs: Strengthening Executive Function Strategies with Peer Mentoring The Drive to Thrive and SMARTS programs create a school and classroom culture where there is a shared understanding of the importance of building students’ emotional self-regulation and executive function strategies, while promoting their effort, persistence, and self-understanding (Meltzer, Katzir, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy,

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Sales, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Pollica, et al., 2004; Meltzer, 2010; Meltzer, Sales-Pollica, et al., 2007; Meltzer, Noeder, et al., 2007; Noeder, 2007). Classwork and homework consistently focus on the how of learning rather than only the final product. Students begin to value the process of learning as they are taught to shift flexibly during problem-solving and other academic tasks. As a result of using executive function strategies, students’ grades gradually improve and they begin to view themselves as capable learners. Over time, there is an increase in students’ willingness to use executive function strategies in different content areas. The Drive to Thrive and SMARTS programs focus on building a cycle of academic success in all students through teacher training supplemented by a peer tutoring and peer mentoring system. Teachers are trained to create a culture of strategy use in their classrooms and to promote metacognitive awareness and strategy use in their students by embedding executive function strategies in their curriculum and daily teaching practices. The following principles guide the program (Meltzer & Basho, 2010; Meltzer, Katzir, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Pollica, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Reddy, Sales, et al., 2004; Meltzer, Sales-Pollica, et al., 2007): • Teachers understand and acknowledge the interactions among effort, strategy use, academic self-concept, and classroom performance as well as the cycle that builds persistence, resilience, and long-term academic success. • Teachers foster metacognitive awareness and strategic mindsets in their students. • Teachers acknowledge that effort is domain specific and that students may sometimes work hard in one content area (e.g., math) and not another (e.g., language arts). • Teachers acknowledge the importance of peer mentoring and peer tutoring and they build time and resources into the school day for the purposes of implementing a program such as SMARTS (see below). • Teachers acknowledge that peer mentoring and peer tutoring provide a powerful forum for helping students to understand their learning profiles, to develop metacognitive aware-

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ness, and to recognize the important roles of executive function strategies as well as effort and persistence. • Students view themselves as part of a community of learners who can help one another through peer mentoring and peer tutoring (see below). Emotional self-regulation is also strengthened as part of this program. • Students understand that executive function strategies and focused effort are important for academic success. • Students recognize that persistence and determination are critical for fostering academic and life success. One example of a school-based peer mentoring program is the recently developed SMARTS program (Gray, Meltzer, & Upton, 2008; Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, & Basho, 2011; Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, Stacey, & Boss, 2011). SMARTS is an acronym for Success, Motivation, Awareness, Resilience, Talents, and Strategies and each of these strands is a core component of the program. The SMARTS program focuses on promoting resilience and academic success by teaching executive function strategies and building metacognitive awareness and persistence in all students, and particularly in students with learning difficulties. Teachers are trained to implement the SMARTS curriculum which comprises three major components: the executive function strand, the motivation strand, and the self-concept strand. Thirteen strategies in the core executive function areas are taught over the course of the school year with an emphasis on: • Increasing students’ metacognitive awareness, self-understanding, and academic selfconcepts • Increasing students’ effort and persistence in school as well as their motivation to engage in the learning process and to improve their academic performance • Improving students’ understanding and use of executive function strategies in six broad areas: goal-setting, organizing, prioritizing, using working memory, shifting flexibly, self-monitoring • Promoting students’ mentorship and leadership skills through peer mentoring

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In addition, mentor-mentee pairs work together to learn and practice these executive function strategies, with mentors coaching their mentees and helping to build their self-confidence. To reinforce learning and application of these strategies, the SMARTS curriculum culminates in a project that focuses on improving students’ engagement, motivation, strategy use, and effort (Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, Stacey, et al., 2011). Findings from our recent SMARTS intervention studies with middle and high school students have highlighted the importance of strengthening students’ self-understanding, cognitive flexibility, and awareness of the importance of shifting strategies (Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, & Basho, 2011; Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, Stacey, et al., 2011). Specifically, in one of our school-based studies, SMARTS students with higher cognitive flexibility scores were more goal-oriented, more persistent, and made greater effort in school (Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, & Basho, 2011; Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, Stacey, et al., 2011). These more flexible students also used more strategies in their schoolwork and were more organized. Classroom teachers rated these students as having stronger academic performance and as checking their work more frequently (Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, & Basho, 2011; Meltzer, Reddy, Brach, Kurkul, Stacey, et al., 2011). The social connections provided by peer mentoring increased students’ engagement in the learning process as well as their goal orientation and motivation. Overall, students’ cognitive flexibility, academic selfconcepts, and goal orientation interacted to influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. These findings have relevance for teachers and emphasize the importance of increasing students’ self-understanding, knowledge of executive function strategies, and academic self-concepts. Together, these initiate a positive cycle in which students work harder, focus their effort, and use strategies effectively, resulting in improved academic performance (Meltzer & Basho, 2010; Meltzer, Sales-Pollica, et al., 2007). Stronger academic performance helps students to feel more engaged and therefore more invested in

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making the effort to use strategies in their classwork, homework, and long-term projects, the foundations of academic and life success.

Conclusion Technology has had a significant impact on the pace of the classroom curriculum and there is greater emphasis on teaching students to problem-solve flexibly and to organize, prioritize, and self-monitor. As a result, executive function processes have assumed increasing importance over the past decade and need to be taught systematically. When teachers and parents build an executive function culture in their classrooms and their homes, they empower students to learn how to learn. When schools and families foster effort, persistence, and executive function strategies, students develop self-confidence, resilience, and a strong work ethic, the gateways to academic and life success in the twenty-first century. Acknowledgments A special thanks to a number of colleagues, staff, and interns for their excellent suggestions and help with the technical details involved in the preparation of this chapter, in particular: Abigail DeMille, Sage Bagnato, Laura Pollica, Ranjini Reddy, Julie Sayer, Anna Lavelle, Lauren Depolo, and Thelma Segal.

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Executive function (EF) processes are crucial for success at home and at school; however, EF expectations and supports can vary, creating a gap that may exacerbate students anxiety and academic difficulties. Parents and guardians are often aware that their children have difficulties in EF but may not understand how these difficulties translate into academic performance in different content areas. At the same time, parents are ideal partners for supporting their children s self-understanding and development of EF strategies. In this workshop, we will explore the impact of differing perspectives between teachers and parents/guardians, as well as practical strategies for collaborating with families to support students. Participants will learn strategies from the SMARTS Executive Function Curriculum, review strategy instruction materials developed to support EF at home and explore hands-on activities for bridging the gap between school and home. Refe e ce Bremers, A. (2022). Parent perspective: The gap between home and school. SMARTS B https://smarts-ef.org/blog/parent-perspective-the-gap-between-home-and-school/ Cook, J. (2015). I ca

a c a aca

! National Center for Youth Issues.

Dawson, P., & Guare, R. (2016). T e a b ca e ed de ba e ec e ee , a ca , a d e a ed a Guilford Press.

cce : H a da

e e. The

Dweck, C. S. (2017). M d e : C a

e a

a . Robinson.

Greschler, M. (2019). Executive function and helicopter parenting. SMARTS B :// a -e . /b /e ec e- c -a d- e c e - a e /

Lavoie, Rick (2007). T e New York: Touchstone.

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Lythcott-Haims, J. (2016). H a e a ad . St. Martin s Griffin. Melt er, L.J. (Ed) (2018). Executive function in education: From theory to practice (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. Melt er, L.J. (2015). Teaching executive function processes: Promoting metacognition, strategy use and effort. In Goldstein, S. & Naglieri, S. (Eds.) Ha db E ec eF c (445-475). New York: Springer. Melt er, L.J., Basho, S., Reddy, R., & Kurkul, K. (2015). The role of mentoring in fostering executive function processes, effort, and resilience. I e a a J a Re ea c Lea D ab e , 2(2), 91-123. Melt er, L.J., Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., Stacey, W., Ross, E., & Snow, E. (2015). SMARTS E ec eF c a d Me P a . www.smarts-ef.org. Scirri, M. (2021). Executive Function at Home: Metacognition. SMARTS B https://smarts-ef.org/blog/executive-function-at-home-metacognition/

Scirri, M. (2021). Homeschooling: How to build executive function strategies, Part 1. SMARTS B . https://smarts-ef.org/blog/homeschooling-a-unique-opportunity-to-build-executive-function-strat egies-part-1/ Scirri, M. (2021). Homeschooling: How to build executive function strategies, Part 2. SMARTS B . https://smarts-ef.org/blog/homeschooling-a-unique-opportunity-to-build-executive-function-strat egies-part-2/

Overview EF Superpowers: Where do kids get them? The Challenge: Phew! I am not wearing those shoes! The Solution: Okay, let me try wearing those shoes! School vs Home: Tasks, Expectations, and Supports EF Strategies at School vs Home: Cognitive Flexibility Three Steps to Collaborating with Families

Thinking about how they think and learn Understanding their strengths and challenges

Executive function processes are adult superpowers!

Think about the role EF plays in your day-to-day life... we couldn’t live without it!

How do kids develop these EF adult superpowers?

Executive function processes develop in context, as children learn to break down the steps needed to succeed.

Both home and school play an important role in EF development.

The gap between home and school has the potential to create a lot of EF difficulties for students (and teachers and parents!)

Both teachers and parents have access to different levels of information when it comes to students’ success (and challenges).

Supporting EF challenges can be very different, depending on your perspective.

Without mutual understand and support, misconceptions will arise.

Home and school are natural partners in supporting the success of students.

How can we help both teachers and families work together to support students' EF needs?

I’m Wearing Your Shoes

I'm wearing your shoes

Recognize the literal and metaphoric meaning of the phrase “I’m wearing your shoes” Understand the concept of perspective-taking Think about how they can use flexible thinking to help them resolve conflicts as well as avoid future conflicts

I'm wearing your shoes

I'm wearing your shoes What does the word “Perspective” mean?

I’m wearing your shoes What does it mean to ‘take’ someone else’s perspective?

I’m wearing your shoes

I’m wearing your shoes When we take someone else’s perspective, we try to see things from their point of view.

I'm wearing your shoes This problem looks very different depending on your perspective... … and the solution may look very different too!

I'm wearing your shoes

I’m wearing your shoes Guess whose shoe this is? What are their strengths? What are their challenges?

I’m wearing your shoes Guess whose coffee mug this is? When it comes to supporting kids and their executive function… What are their strengths? What are their challenges?

I'm wearing your shoes

I’m wearing your shoes

Trace your partner’s shoe, then interview them .

Get ready to share and see if we can guess!

I’m wearing your shoes

I'm wearing your shoes

I'm wearing your shoes When teachers and parents understand each other's point of view, everyone benefits!

Promoting greater understanding and clear communication is key. When it comes to EF, it's important to examine the following areas: what we are asking our children to do : the level of independent performance we are expecting the ways we help our children reach our expectations

The same EF area may look very different from one setting to another.

Organizing materials at school

Organizing materials at home

Look at the tasks, expectations and supports at home and school. What similarities do you see? What differences do you see? Hom e only

School only Navigate the online portal Materials for long term projects Nightly due dates

Both Use different m aterials at different tim es of day Rem inders to organize

W eekly chore calendar Varied m aterials to organize (clothes, toys, sports equipm ent, technology)

For the areas marked “both,” what systems are in place to make sure that supports and expectations are consistently communicated to support student growth? Organize different types of

• What materials travel to and from school?

materials

Use reminders to organize

• How can the same reminders be used at home and at school?

For the areas marked “Home only” and “School only,” what opportunities are there for communication so that both teachers and adults at home are on the same page? Parents navigate the online portal

Students complete chores each week

Your turn! Use the "I'm Wearing Your Shoes" planner to brainstorm ways to build more consistent understanding and supports between home and school.

• How can parents understand how the portal is organized?

• What strategies are students learning that they could apply in school?

Best Practices for EF Instruction

How Do I Think Flexibly?

How do I think flexibly?

BEING FLEXIBLE AND SHIFTING EXPECTATIONS

Being flexible and shifting expectations

Being flexible and shifting expectations A cat chases a lizard. The cat was big. The cat was fat. His fur was thick. The lizard was a chameleon. A chameleon can change color. The color will be whatever the lizard touches. The lizard ran. It ran from place to place. It ran so fast. The colors even became confused. It was green. It should have been brown. It was red. It should have been grey. It was polkadotted. It should have been striped. The lizard ran under the steps. It was safe. It would rest in the shade. The cat was frustrated. He yawned. He stretched. He curled up. He would sleep in the sun. This game would continue. It would continue the next time the cat saw the lizard.

Being flexible and shifting expectations

How do different expectations lead to different analyses of the paragraph? Why is it important to set appropriate expectations for writing?

Cognitive Flexibility at Home

EF Instruction at Home

How do I think flexibly? Analogies: Flexible versus Not Flexible

How do I think flexibly? Analogies: The Goal!

EF Instruction at Home

How do I think flexibly? Shifting Meanings: Jokes and Phrases!

Can you draw a BLUE monster in two different ways?

How do I think flexibly? Shifting Perspectives:

EF Instruction at Home

How do I think flexibly? Shifting Perspectives:

Halfway Helpers

Who Stole My Cheese?

How do I think flexibly? Shifting Strategies to Avoid Clogged Brain Funnels:

How do I think flexibly? Application:

EF Instruction at Home

How do I think flexibly? Application:

More on Cognitive Flexibility?

1. Communicate! EF Newsletters EF Surveys, Reflection Sheets, Strategy Notebooks/Portfolios EF Parent Training Session Parent/Teacher Conferences Report Card Grades/ Comments Bridge to Home Letters (included in the SMARTS Elementary curriculum)

2. Build a Team! Set goals together Decide roles and responsibilities Access other resources as needed Celebrate successes Notify of stumbling blocks Check in frequently Modify the plan together

Involve Students!

Help students set their own goals Make sure students’ voices are included in decision making (with support) Ask students to reflect on their EF strategy use Learn from students Celebrate successes together!

SMARTS@HOME!

Coming soon!

An at-home SMARTS curriculum for parents to do with their children, based on the SMARTS curriculum being used in schools. It contains six units, four lessons each, to help children build a foundation of strategies in executive function at home.

The end… for now

THANK YOU!!! Questions, comments, concerns?

Michael Greschler, M.Ed. mgreschler@researchild.org Mindy Scirri, Ph.D. drscirri@gmail.com www.smarts-ef.org

What is executive function? Executive function is like the conductor of the brain orchestra, managing what we say and do. EF processes include the following: Organizing and Prioritizing Goal setting Shifting flexibly (cognitive flexibility) Accessing working memory Self-monitoring

When do children use executive function? Every task we do involves executive function processes, but some tasks place greater demands on executive function than others. At home, we must be aware of the demands we place on children: how we make requests, the types of tasks required, and the settings where those tasks are completed.

What does it look like when children struggle with executive function? When children have difficulties with executive function, we see behaviors like losing track of belongings, incomplete tasks and assignments, procrastination, inability to change methods or see another s perspective, giving up, and making poor choices. When children struggle with executive function, they do not have the strategies they need to accomplish the task at hand. There is too much information entering their brains at the same time, and their mental funnels get clogged.

How can we help children who struggle with executive function? Our job is to make sure that children have the strategies they need to unclog their funnels. We can t assume that children will figure out the strategies they need on their own. Instead, we need to explicitly teach executive function strategies to our children. We can do this by modeling strategy use for our children and showing them what success looks like; letting them practice independently; and then helping them to reflect on what worked, what didn t work, and what they should do next time.

What is metacognition? There are three key parts of metacognition: Self-understanding understanding our unique strengths and challenges Reflection thinking about what we know about ourselves and what strategies can help us to learn Self-regulation monitoring and adjusting our behaviors (including learning) Together, these important processes help children engage in activities that build on their strengths, choose appropriate challenges, and identify strategies that are likely to work for them.

When do children use metacognition? We may ask children to demonstrate metacognition directly through reflective activities (i.e., making an About Me poster) or discussions about why a behavior occurred. More often, however, metacognition is a behind-the-scenes process that is the basis for our choices, our inner self-talk, and our abilities to be successful and productive.

What does it look like when children struggle with metacognition? Children who struggle with metacognition often find themselves stuck doing a task in an ineffective way, unable to recognize both the lack of success and a better method. For example, a child who struggles with reading may choose to read notes over and over to study for a test. The child may not be aware that such a strategy is less than ideal, may not know of different ways to study, and may simply continue with that method because that s what the child alwa s did or that s what the child s peers are doing.

How can we help children who struggle with metacognition? We can help children develop the habit of thinking about thinking b teaching them to pay attention to aspects of themselves like their strengths and challenges, their behaviors, and their use of strategies (and whether they work or not!). As children develop metacognition, they no longer need to rely on adults to suggest strategies. Children begin to reflect and make connections regarding what works and what doesn t. They are better able to monitor their own behaviors, including academics, and they can make more effective and efficient choices regarding strategy use--all leading to more independence and self-confidence!

What is SMARTS @ Home? “We love SMARTS @ Home! My son is so much better at setting goals and learned that the easy answer isn’t always the best answer.” –Parent of a 4th grade student Does your child lose papers or pencils, have trouble getting started or finishing an assignment, or get stuck doing a problem when one method doesn t work? When faced with one of these challenges, does your child simply give up, waiting for ou to swoop in and do it for them? Many children struggle with executive function related tasks, and parents and guardians are often on the front line of these struggles. How can you help? The SMARTS Approach Children need to be explicitly taught strategies, and the home presents unique opportunities to help their children develop the strategies they need. By following our research based instructional model, SMARTS @ Home provides explicit instruction in strategy use, opportunities to develop greater self-understanding, and boosts students self-esteem and ability to persevere when challenged. WHAT IS SMARTS @ HOME? SMARTS @ HOME is an organized collection of activities designed to help families support students in their development of executive function strategies outside of school. Working directly with an adult, children build self-awareness and come to understand the purpose and benefits of using strategies to overcome challenges. They will begin to set goals, develop a method for organizing materials, and build a foundation for time management and self-regulation of behaviors. SMARTS @ Home contains six units that are specifically designed for homeschool or afterschool use by families. Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Unit 6

How do I think about my thinking? How can I use strategies to help me? How can I think flexibly? I CANDO my goals Organizing your materials (The 4C s Strateg ) Developing an understanding of time

HOW ARE THE LESSONS STRUCTURED? Everything you need for each lesson is included, complete with a script, interactive activities, printable handouts, and more! The lessons can be adapted, allowing you to adjust the level of challenge and providing students with choices on how to complete the activities. In addition, each unit comes with a Bridge Letter that can be shared with the any other adults providing support as well as extension ideas to help connect the strategies to other areas of life. Stay Tuned SMARTS @ Home is the newest program from ResearchILD. We are launching in early 2023! Copyright © 2022 ResearchILD. All rights reserved. No unauthorized use or copying. See Terms of Use. www.smarts-ef.org

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What is the relationship bet een emotion and e ec ti e f nction? Ho can e help st dents o er helmed b feelings of an iet , stress, orr and fr stration to engage in the learning process? Join s to learn ho to se e ec ti e f nction strategies to nderstand the impact of emotion and promote emotional reg lation and e ec ti e f nction strateg se. St dents ho str ggle ith stress, an iet , fear, and depression often str ggle in school. The ma onl make minimal effort as the cling to inefficient strategies and s cc mb to e aggerated fears and orries abo t their abilities. When st dents str ggle ith e ec ti e f nction, the are nable or n illing to ork independentl , and the gi e p easil . In this session, attendees ill e plore the relationship bet een emotion and e ec ti e f nction, as ell as a s of teaching EF strategies in order to promote emotional reg lation. We ill co er strategies for de eloping perspecti e taking, self- nderstanding, and self-management, and attendees ill de elop a more n anced appreciation for the impact of negati e emotions on st dents performance. Attendees ill learn to teach e ec ti e f nction strategies in a a that addresses engagement and moti ation, empo ering st dents to be more independent and s ccessf l. Re e e ce Damasio, Antonio R. (1994). De ca e ' e York: G.P. P tnam.

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Jones, S., Baile , R., & Kahn, J. (2019). The science and practice of social and emotional learning: Implications for state polic making. S a e Ed ca S a da d, 19(1), 18-24.

La ard, R., Clark, A. E., Cornaglia, F., Po dtha ee, N., & Vernoit, J. (2014). What predicts a s ccessf l life? A life-co rse model of ell-being. Ec c a (L d , E a d), 124(580), F720 F738. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12170 McRae, K., & Gross, J. J. (2020). Emotion reg lation. E http://d .doi.org/10.1037/emo0000703

, 20(1), 1-9.

Melt er, L.J., Greschler, M., K rk l, K., Stace , W., Ross, E., & Sno , E. (2015). SMARTS E ec ti e F nction and Mentoring Program. .smarts-ef.org. Pert, C. B. (2003). M ec e Pert, C. B. (2007). E e

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d. Ha Ho se.

Stein, J. A. (2010). Emotional self-reg lation: A critical component of e ec ti e f nction. In L. Melt er (Ed.), P E ec eF c eCa (pp. 175 201), G ilford Press. W a e CASEL F a e ? CASEL. (2021, October 11). Retrie ed from https://casel.org/f ndamentals-of-sel/ hat-is-the-casel-frame ork/ Willard, C., & Rechtschaffen, D. J. (2022). A Tr e.

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Zambo, D., & Brem, S.K. (2004). Emotion and cognition in st dents ho str ggle to read: Ne insights and ideas. Read P c , 25:3, 189-204. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702710490489881 Zela o, P.D., Blair, C.B., and Willo ghb , M.T. (2016). E ec ti e F nction: Implications for Ed cation (NCER 2017-2000) Washington, DC: National Center for Ed cation Research, Instit te of Ed cation Sciences, U.S. Department of Ed cation. This report is a ailable on the Instit te ebsite at http://ies.ed.go /. Re

CASEL Frame ork What Predicts a S ccessf l Life? A Life-Co rse Model of Well-Being

IES/NCER Report on E ec ti e F nction Go Noodle

Go ith the Flo

Snack Attack Video Learning Works for Kids

Games

Mindf l Schools Mindf l.org A Parents' G ide to Disne -Pi ar's Inside O t (Pa l Ekman) Co nt, Breathe, Rela - Sesame Street

E X E C U TIV E FU N C TIO N & M E N TO R IN G P R O G R A M

Executive Function and Social-Emotional Learning: Strategies for Perspective Taking, Self-Understanding, and Self-Management Caitlin Vanderberg, M.Ed. SMARTS Program Associate ResearchILD Educational Specialist, ILD

Shelly Levy, M.Ed., M.S. Director of SMARTS Training ResearchILD Educational Specialist, ILD

AGENDA What are Emotions? Emotions and Learning Social Emotional Learning and Executive Function Strategies to Boost SEL and EF Manage My Mood What Hat Am I Wearing Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations CANDO Goals

E X E C U TIV E FU N C TIO N & M E N TO R IN G P R O G R A M

WHAT ARE EMOTIONS

IDENTIFY THE EMOTION

Happy Angry Excited Sad Tender Scared

IDENTIFY THE EMOTION

Happy Angry Excited Sad Tender Scared

IDENTIFY THE EMOTION

Happy Angry Excited Sad Tender Scared

WHAT IS THE DEFINITION OF EMOTION? “Emotions help keep us on the right track by making sure that we are led by more than cognition.” – Maurice Elias “Emotions are the glue that holds the cells of the organism together.” – Candace Pert “An emotion occurs when there are certain biological, certain experiential, and certain cognitive states which all occur simultaneously.” – Jack Mayer

WHAT IS THE DEFINITION OF EMOTION? Emotions can be defined as... "...time-limited, situationally bound, and valenced (positive or negative) states."

McRae, K., & Gross, J. J. (2020). Emotion regulation. Emotion, 20(1), 1-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/emo0000703 © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG| 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

HOW MANY EMOTIONS ARE THERE? 6 basic emotions Emotions can be powerful and easily recognized (see Pixar's Inside Out)

HOW MANY EMOTIONS ARE THERE? 27+ Complex emotions Emotions can be complicated and hard to define (are you feeling vigilant or anticipatory?)

Thoughts

Bodily Sensation

Emotions © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG| 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Thoughts

Bodily Sensation

Emotions

Slow breathing: 1-2-3 Breathe Breathe in for 3 Hold for 3 Breathe out for 3 Repeat 2 more times

Thoughts

Bodily Sensation

Emotions

Thoughts

Bodily Sensation

Emotions

Mindfulness is being present here and now, paying

attention to our thoughts, bodily sensations, emotions, and external environment with kindness, nonjudgment, and curiosity.

Mindfulness is an umbrella term for the practice of

paying attention on purpose with kindness, which can be done in a formal manner (such as bringing awareness to the body in meditation) or in an applied manner (such as being engaged, open, and curious while in conversation).

Thoughts

-mindfulschools.org Bodily Sensation

Emotions

EMOTIONS ARE UNIVERSAL “Emotions change how we see the world and how we interpret the actions of others. We do not seek to challenge why we are feeling a particular emotion; instead, we seek to confirm it.” -Paul Ekman

Key Takeaways Emotions are powerful! They can vary in terms of intensity, cause, and duration, but they have a universal component. They shape the way we understand each other and ourselves. Our emotions, thoughts, and bodily sensations are interconnected and influence each other. © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG| 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

E X E C U TIV E FU N C TIO N & M E N TO R IN G P R O G R A M

EMOTIONS AND LEARNING

What does learning feel like?

https://www.nytimes.com/games/wordle/index.html

https://www.googlesnake.com/

What does learning feel like?

https://www.playclassicgames.net/impossible-snake https://octordle.com/

Learning is like playing a game... ... It feels good to win.

Learning is like playing a game... ... It feels bad to lose.

These positive/negative emotions can help you learn more efficiently. That felt great! I should do that again.

That felt awful! I should not do that again. © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG| 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Sometimes students can be overwhelmed by emotions.

Emotions have a strong impact on our students (and ourselves). Navigating the emotional roller coaster of learning requires emotional regulation.

There are 3 main components of emotional regulation. Labelling emotions Identifying the cause Reappraising

How can we teach students strategies to boost their emotional regulation abilities? This is one of the core motivations behind the rise in Social Emotional Learning (SEL) programs over the past few years.

E X E C U TIV E FU N C TIO N & M E N TO R IN G P R O G R A M

SEL AND EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

CONNECTING EF AND SEL (WHY) London School of Economics report:

"...the most powerful childhood predictor of adult lifesatisfaction is the child's emotional health, followed by the child's conduct. The least powerful predictor is the child's intellectual development.” Layard, R., Clark, A. E., Cornaglia, F., Powdthavee, N., & Vernoit, J. (2014). What predicts a successful life? A life-course model of well-being. Economic journal (London, England), 124(580), F720–F738. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12170

CASEL FRAMEWORK

What is the CASEL Framework? CASEL. (2021, October 11). Retrieved from https://casel.org/fundamentalsof-sel/what-is-the-casel-framework/

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION PARADIGM

Organizing/ prioritizing:

Selfchecking:

Categorizing and sorting inform ation

Recognizing and one’s m ost com m on m istakes

Remembering /Accessing working memory: Juggling inform ation in the brain

Goal Setting: Setting realistic aspirations

Shifting flexibly: Looking again, in a brand-new way

RESEARCH AND THEORY

There are many reasons why students struggle with executive function and emotional regulation.

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF EF AND EMOTIONS There are brain-based reasons why some students struggle with executive function and emotional regulation: - Exposure to trauma - Fetal alcohol syndrome - Learning or attention challenge (e.g., ADHD)

Other Factors -

Age Genetics Temperament Parenting style Cultural norms

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF EF AND EMOTIONS

The impact of trauma on learning is huge, and in the time of COVID, it’s more critical than ever before. How does trauma impact the brain?

LIZARD BRAIN VS. WIZARD BRAIN Lizard Brain -Acts on instinct -Seat of powerful emotions -Fight, flight, or freeze are the only options

Wizard Brain - Goal-directed - Seat of “reason” or at least self-talk - Planning, problem solving, flexibly lead to many options

LIZARD BRAIN VS. WIZARD BRAIN Both brains are important. They both have their time and place.

LIZARD BRAIN VS. WIZARD BRAIN Repeated exposure to trauma strengthens the lizard brain, making it harder to access the wizard brain. The lizard brain is locked on by default, so even something like “doing your homework” looks like…

CONNECTING EF AND SEL (WHY)

What has COVID taught us? EF and SEL strategies are beneficial for ALL students.

CONNECTING EF AND SEL (WHY) "It will be increasingly important to consider not only the ways in which improvements in EF may lead to improvements in academic ability, but also the extent to which improvements in EF can contribute to the growth of personal responsibility and social-emotional competence that are also highly relevant to the mission of elementary and secondary education." Zelazo, P.D., Blair, C.B., and Willoughby, M.T. (2016). Source: https://ies.ed.gov/ncer/pubs/20172000/

RISE OF SEL IN THE CLASSROOM

RISE OF EF AND SEL SINCE COVID

CONNECTING EF AND SEL (WHY)

Teaching EF strategies boosts emotional regulation and helps students meet the EF demands of learning.

CONNECTING EF AND SEL (HOW) EF and SEL initiatives have to be systematically and explicitly taught. EF and SEL initiatives have to be relevant to students' lives and connected to their context. EF and SEL lessons have to offer modeling, guided practice, and independent practice. © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG| 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Manage My Mood

CASEL FRAMEWORK 7.4 Manage My Mood

Self-Awareness

W hat is the CASEL Fram ework? CASEL. (2021, October 11). Retrieved from https://casel.org/fundam entals-of-sel/what-is-the-casel-fram ework/ © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG| 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Which sheep do you identify most with right now? What emotion would you assign to that feeling? © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG| 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Self-Awareness The abilities to understand one's own emotions, thoughts, and values and how they influence behavior. This includes capacities to recognize one's strengths and limitations with a well-grounded sense of confidence and purpose.

What Is the CASEL Framework? - CASEL © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG| 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Manage My Mood

Learning Objectives Identify different emotions Understand that all emotions are normal, including negative ones Explore how self-awareness of emotions may allow you to stay focused and be flexible when expectations change

Lesson 7.4

Manage My Mood

What Am I Feeling? Match the faces to the emotions! Give an example of what might make a person feel each emotion.

Lesson 7.4

Manage My Mood

Lesson 7.4

Manage My Mood

Lesson 7.4

Manage My Mood

Lesson 7.4

Manage My Mood Module 2

Guided Instruction

Lesson 7.4

Manage My Mood

How is Elena Feeling? What helped Elena manage or change her emotions?

Lesson 7.4

Manage My Mood Module 3

Independent Practice

Lesson 7.4

Manage My Mood

Now we are going to think about our own emotions! Choose one emotion from the list. Describe two situations that made you felt that way and one way you cope with it.

Lesson 7.4

Manage My Mood Module 4

Metacognitive Wrap-up

Lesson 7.4

Reflection

MOOD CHECKERS/CHECK-IN CHARTS

BRAIN BREAK

FOR OLDER STUDENTS

REAL-LIFE EXAMPLES

What Hat Am I Wearing?

CASEL FRAMEWORK 7.5 What Hat am I Wearing?

Responsible DecisionMaking W hat is the CASEL Fram ework? CASEL. (2021, October 11). Retrieved from https://casel.org/fundam entals-of-sel/what-is-the-casel-fram ework/ © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG| 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Sleeping angel or in trouble big time?

Wild child or just having fun?

Not paying attention or on task?

Responsible Decision Making The abilities to make caring and constructive choices about personal behavior and social interactions across diverse situations. This includes the capacities to consider ethical standards and safety concerns, and evaluate the benefits of consequences of various actions for personal, social, and collective wellbeing. What Is the CASEL Framework? - CASEL © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG| 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

What Hat Am I Wearing?

Learning Objectives Identify the different “hats” we wear Know when and where each of these “hats” is appropriate Understand why it is important to be aware of these different “hats”

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing? Module 1

Metacognitive Activator

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing?

Today, we will learn what it means to “wear different hats.” “Wearing a hat” means that you can play different roles. What are some different “hats” you can think of?

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing?

Now we will take a look at how one person can wear many different “hats.” Think about who the person might be and where they are wearing this “hat.”

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing?

Who? Where?

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing?

Who? Where?

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing?

Who? Where?

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing?

Who? Where?

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing?

Even though this might be the same person, they may act or speak differently depending on the situation. It is important to wear the right ”hat” at the right time!

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing?

What Hat Am I Wearing? Module 2

Guided Instruction

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing?

For our next activity, we need to learn a little bit about…

Emma Watson

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing?

Emma Watson Harry Potter – Hermione Granger Attended Brown University UN Women Goodwill ambassador

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing?

Now that we know about some roles Emma Watson might lead, let’s think about the different ways she may present herself.

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing?

Acting Hat

Things she would say? Clothing?

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing?

UN Ambassador Hat

Things she would say? Clothing?

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing?

Fun Hat

Things she would say? Clothing?

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing?

Student Hat

Things she would say? Clothing?

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing?

What would happen if Emma Watson wore her “Fun Hat” when she should have been wearing her “Professional Hat”? Why is it important to wear the proper “hat” for each occasion?

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing? Module 3

Independent Practice

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing?

Now we will think about the different “hats” that we wear! What are some examples that you can think of?

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing?

Pick 4 different hats and draw pictures that represent those hats. What are things you would say and what clothing would you wear while wearing this hat?

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing? Module 4

Metacognitive Wrap-up

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing?

Think of a time when you wore the wrong hat. What happened? How could wearing the right hat have helped? What could you have done differently?

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing?

Do you know what caused you to wear the wrong hat? What are some clues that you are wearing the wrong hat? How can you prevent yourself from doing the same again in the future?

Lesson 7.5

What Hat Am I Wearing?

Adapted to Middle and High School

What "Hat" do you wear on social media? Choose a person on social media and determine what message(s) that person is sending Instagram Twitter Facebook YouTube

For example, look up your favorite singer What are the different hats they wear?

Think about your presence on social media What are the different hats you wear? How do you want to present yourself? © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG| 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

What Hat Am I Wearing?

Learningworksfor kids.com

Reflection

Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations

CASEL FRAMEWORK 3.1 Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations

Relationship skills W hat is the CASEL Fram ework? CASEL. (2021, October 11). Retrieved from https://casel.org/fundam entals-of-sel/what-is-the-casel-fram ework/ © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG| 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Poll: What color is the dress?

Poll:

https://www.centervention.com/perspective-taking-activity/ © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG| 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Poll: What's the right temperature?

Poll: Should students have cell phones in school?

Relationship Skills The abilities to establish and maintain healthy and supportive relationships and to effectively navigate settings with diverse individual groups. This includes the capacities to communicate clearly, listen actively, cooperate, work collaboratively to problem solve and negotiate conflict constructively, navigate settings with different social and cultural demands and opportunities, provide leadership, and seek or offer help when needed. What Is the CASEL Framework? - CASEL

Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations

Learning Objectives Define cognitive flexibility Understand how to shift between multiple perspectives

Lesson 3.1

Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations Module 1

Metacognitive Activator

Lesson 3.1

Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations

Do you remember what it means to shift and think flexibly?

Lesson 3.1

Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations

Today, we’re going to read a funny story. See if you can think flexibly in order to make sense of it!

Lesson 3.1

Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations

What did you notice about this story? What made it funny? How were you able to understand the story? What strategy did you use to figure out the meaning of the words of the story? How did thinking flexibly help you to understand the story? Lesson 3.1

Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations

We just practiced being flexible with sounds. Now we’ll practice shifting word meanings! Try to come up with two different meanings for your word and draw or act them out.

Lesson 3.1

Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations Module 2

Guided Instruction

Lesson 3.1

Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations

What do you think Carson is thinking when it begins to rain? What does Jill think?

Lesson 3.1

Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations

The Soccer Game

Lesson 3.1

Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations

Why did the same event lead to such different feelings? Why did each character act differently? How does thinking about two different perspectives demonstrate cognitive flexibility? Lesson 3.1

Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations Module 3

Independent Practice

Lesson 3.1

Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations

Now it’s your turn to try! Write an ending of Carson’s and Jill’s stories from each of their perspectives.

Lesson 3.1

Being Flexible and Shifting Expectations Module 4

Metacognitive Wrap-up

Lesson 3.1

Reflection

E X E C U TIV E FU N C TIO N & M E N TO R IN G P R O G R A M

IDENTIFYING CANDO GOALS

CASEL FRAMEWORK 2.1 CANDO Goals

Self-management

If you asked your students what their goals are, what would they say? Are these goals motivating? Why or why not?

“A dream written down with a date becomes a goal. A goal broken down into steps becomes a plan. A plan backed by action makes your dreams come true.” Greg S. Reid

Self Management The abilities to manage one's emotions, thoughts, and behaviors effectively in different situations and to achieve goals and aspirations. This includes the capacities to delay gratification, manage stress, and feel motivation and agency to accomplish personal and collective goals. What Is the CASEL Framework? - CASEL © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG| 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Objectives Recognize why it may be difficult to achieve goals Understand the importance of setting CANDO goals

CANDO Goals are: Clear Appropriate Numerical Doable Obstacles considered

CANDO Goals Help make your goal clear by making it more specific. “I want to be a better student.” “I want to get A’s and B’s this semester.”

CANDO Goals Help make your goal appropriate by making it realistic. “I want to get an A this year in math.” “I want to become a professional hockey player.” “I want to keep my grade above a C in math.” “I want to join the hockey team this year.” © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG| 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

CANDO Goals Help make your goal numerical by making it measurable. “I want to get a better grade on my math tests.” “I want to get A’s and B’s in math.”

CANDO Goals Help make your goal doable by listing 3 steps needed to achieve it. “I want to improve my score on the next math test by 10 points.” Steps for reaching the goal:

This goal is doable because there are 3 steps listed to help achieve it.

Study 30 minutes a day

Make flash cards to practice 4x/week

Review my notes from class every night

Improve math score by 10 points!

CANDO Goals What are some obstacles that might get in the way of reaching your goal? “I want to improve my score on the next math test by 10 points.” Potential obstacles:

What are some obstacles that might get in the way of reaching the goal? I couldn’t do the HW because I didn’t I got busy with other work and understand it! Review m y didn’t review my notes from class every flash cards. night

Improve math score by 10 points!

Make flash cards to practice 4x/week

I left my notes at home. Study 30 m inutes a day

CANDO Goals Potential obstacles: 1.

I forgot my notes at school.

2. I couldn’t do the homework because I didn’t understand. 3. I was too busy with other work. Ways to overcome obstacles as they occur:

What are some ways to overcome obstacles ? I forgot my notes at school.

• Spend extra time studying the next night. • Study during a free block.

I didn’t understand the • Talk to the teacher the next day. lesson and couldn’t do • Ask a friend or parent for help. my HW. I was too busy with other work.

• Make up studying time on the weekends, in the morning before school, or during a free block. © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG| 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Your turn! Make your own CANDO goal that you can share with your students.

Reflection

E X E C U TIV E FU N C TIO N & M E N TO R IN G P R O G R A M

WRAPPING UP

“In the process of learning, affective and cognitive streams flow together...” -Katrina de Hirsch

KEY TAKEAWAYS Emotions are powerful! They shape the way we understand each other and ourselves. Teaching EF strategies boosts emotional regulation and helps students meet the EF demands of learning. EF and SEL initiatives have to be systematic, explicit, relevant, and connected to students' lives. EF and SEL lessons have to offer modeling, guided practice, and independent practice.

Let's Reflect What do you think of the activities today? What did you like or not like about them? When and where could you implement them? Remember to help students: Understand their strengths and challenges Reflect on their performance Make plans for next time © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG| 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

Thank you!

Questions, comments, or concerns? slevy@ildlex.org cvanderberg@researchild.org © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG| 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

From

CHAPTER 8

Emotional Self-Regulation A Critical Component of Executive Function

JUDITH A. STEIN

Jacob, a 13-year-old seventh grader, proudly presents his original rap song, which he spent many hours creating for a social studies project. Another student sings a well-known song to the class for her project. When his teacher gives Jacob a lower grade on the assignment than she does to the second student, Jacob is devastated and infuriated. As a result, he withdraws from the teacher and loses interest in the class. For the rest of the year, his motivation, his effort, and the quality of his work decline precipitously. Jessica, an 11-year-old fifth grader, has always struggled with math. She is unable to pass the “mad minute” multiplication tests that are given every Friday. At the end of each week, she is flooded with worry, often has a stomachache, and is on the verge of tears. No matter how hard she studies the night before, she cannot remember her multiplication facts. In fact, her math test scores have steadily declined throughout the year. Rachel, a 15-year-old ninth grader, works hard to do well on every test. Because earning a high grade is so important to her, she becomes very anxious before every exam. Despite her long hours of preparation, Rachel often “freezes” when she sees a question or problem on a test for which she does not know the answer. At times, her mind goes blank and she is unable to finish the exam. In each of these situations, students’ difficulties in managing their emotional reactions to school-related events have dramatically negative effects on their academic performance. Like these students, many children and adolescents struggle with the stresses and the emotional ups and downs associated with the academic and 175

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social demands they face at school. As many as 17% of young people in the United States suffer from learning, emotional, or behavioral disorders that underlie their difficulties with emotional regulation (O’Connell, Boat, & Warner, 2009). In addition, many more students may have difficulty with emotional regulation when they are faced with stressful situations at home or school, such as illness, divorce, academic failure, or social isolation (Vail, 1994). In particular, students with learning and attention difficulties are at risk for becoming overly frustrated or anxietyridden by challenging academic tasks (Hallowell & Ratey, 1994; Rourke, 1995). At the middle and high school levels, some students may even “shut down” when their resources for regulating their emotions are depleted or overwhelmed (Goldstein & Brooks, 2005). In this chapter, I discuss the components of emotional regulation, its importance as an executive function process, and its relationship to the other core executive function processes discussed in this book. A theoretical framework for understanding emotional regulation is presented, as well as specific strategies that teachers and other professionals can use to help their students develop more effective ways of managing their emotions and behavior. It should be noted, however, that a detailed discussion of impulse control and behavioral regulations is beyond the scope of this chapter. Most of the suggested strategies and interventions in this chapter have been widely used in both clinical and educational settings and have been found to be effective with specific students or in particular classrooms. Some of the recommended practices are evidence-based (i.e., their effectiveness has been substantiated by findings from experimental research), whereas others are based on clinical evidence or best practice. Those interventions that have been empirically supported are denoted as such in the discussion.

WHY IS EMOTIONAL REGULATION SO CRUCIAL FOR ACADEMIC SUCCESS? Mental health clinicians, researchers, and educators have long recognized that students’ ability to regulate their emotions (and emotion-driven behavior) is an important factor that contributes to effective learning in a classroom environment (Brooks, 1991; Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2004). The evidence accumulated by the expansion of brain-based research and neuroimaging studies has supported the observations of generations of teachers that children’s capacity to pay attention for sufficient periods of time, engage actively in educational activities, and sustain their effort and motivation to tackle challenging tasks is associated with their level of emotional development (Gross, 2007). Success in the classroom depends upon students’ ability to manage their emotions in appropriate ways. Either excessive displays of emotion or overly controlled affect can disrupt or impair the quality of teacher–student communication as well as interactions among peers. Emotional responses at either end of the continuum can also have a negative impact on the

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acquisition of new information, retrieval of learned material, and creative problem solving within the classroom. A growing number of studies have found that levels of emotional arousal, as well as positive and negative mood states, affect brain functions that are critical for academic performance; these include attention, concentration, memory, and other executive function processes, such as inhibition, shifting, and strategy use (Begley, 2007; Gross, 2007; Phillips, Bull, Adams, & Fraser, 2002). Cognitive scientists and psychologists have shown that moderate levels of anxiety optimize performance on many tasks, such as oral presentations, competitive activities, and test taking. On the other hand, high levels of anxiety often impair concentration, memory, language, organization, and impulse control (Begley, 2007; Goleman, 1995). Negative moods have also been found to disrupt attention, concentration, memory, and processing speed. Although positive moods are reportedly beneficial for some cognitive processes, such as creative problem solving, they can also diminish specific executive function processes, such as planning, set shifting, and the retrieval of information (Gross, 2007). One explanation provided by Phillips et al. (2002) is that both negative and positive mood states can lead to distractions and thereby decrease students’ concentration and ultimate efficiency in performing a complex task. Therefore, in order to optimize their learning in the classroom, students need to be aware of their emotions and to use effective self-regulatory strategies. Students’ emotional states and their success in regulating their emotions have a significant impact on their cognitive functioning, especially in the areas of planning, organizing, self-monitoring, and shifting. In turn, students who have difficulty with these executive function processes are often emotionally vulnerable (Stein & Krishnan, 2007). For example, some students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or nonverbal learning disabilities are easily frustrated, overwhelmed, and flooded with anxiety (Hallowell & Ratey, 1994; Rourke, 1995). One way of conceptualizing the interconnecting relationships between emotional regulation and other executive function processes is illustrated in Figure 8.1. All these processes are interdependent and can influence, as well as be influenced by, one another. Emotional regulation Goal setting/planning/prioritizing Organizing Accessing working memory Self-monitoring/self-checking Shifting/thinking flexibly

FIGURE 8.1. The interlocking relationship of emotional regulation to other executive function processes.

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WHAT IS EMOTIONAL REGULATION? Researchers and theorists have proposed various definitions of emotional regulation. Although most scientists agree that emotional regulation involves the internal processes by which an individual experiences an emotion, maintains it, and/or modifies it, there is some controversy concerning its definition. Some theorists, who take a broader view of this concept, include in their definition such factors as (1) the antecedents to emotional experience (e.g., personality traits, emotional well-being, and previous experiences); (2) the behaviors that are triggered by emotions; and (3) any external controls imposed by others to enhance self-regulation (Bridges, Margie, & Zaff, 2001; Gross, 2007; Macklem, 2008). For example, Macklem (2008) describes the process of emotional regulation as all of the actions an individual might take to control which emotions are experienced, how and when they are felt, and the ways in which they are expressed. Other theorists, who take a narrower view, focus primarily on the emotional changes that occur when an individual is affected by a specific event (Cole, Martin, & Dennis, 2004). For the purposes of this chapter, emotional regulation is defined rather broadly as a multifaceted, complex process in which each individual’s experience and expression of emotions are self-controlled (either consciously or unconsciously) or controlled by others (intentionally or unintentionally) (Gross, 2007). The ability to delay, fine-tune, modify, or shift one’s emotions comprises an important and distinct executive function process (Hongwanishkul, Happaney, Lee, & Zelazo, 2005). The skill sets involved in emotional regulation include the ability to recognize and label one’s own emotions, to understand one’s emotional triggers, to manage the intensity of one’s emotions, and to know when and how to express one’s emotions in various social contexts. According to Gross (1998), emotional regulation can be understood as a series of five steps: (1) situation selection (the ability to interpret the context one encounters); (2) situation modification (the ability to use one’s thinking and problem-solving ability to change the emotional impact of the situation); (3) attentional deployment (the ability to shift one’s focus from the emotional trigger); (4) cognitive change (the ability to use one’s thinking to reinterpret the situation and thus change one’s emotional response); and (5) response modulation (the ability to use strategies to diminish the emotions one feels at the time). Emotional responses can be modified along multiple dimensions, including timing, intensity, duration, and behavior (Gross & Thompson, 2007). Gross and Thompson’s model further delineates the steps involved in the formation and modulation of emotions (see Figure 8.2). According to this model, emotions

Situation

Attention

Cognitive Appraisal

Emotional Response

FIGURE 8.2. A model of emotional regulation. Based on Gross and Thompson (2007).

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develop when an individual pays attention to a situation that is relevant to him or her, attributes a positive or negative meaning to the situation, and then responds accordingly. An emotional response encompasses a person’s subjective experience, physiological reaction, and behavior. This response cycle is a recursive and flexible one, in that the emotional experience and expression change as the situation unfolds and/or the meaning of the situation shifts. The triggering event can either be an interaction occurring in the environment or an internal experience (e.g., a sensation, thought, image, or memory). An individual’s previous experiences, family and cultural background, emotional well-being, and many other variables affect which situations may trigger an emotional response. According to many social-cognitive theorists, an individual’s emotional and behavioral reaction to a situation will in part be determined by the models the person has observed, as well as the reinforcement he or she has experienced in the past (Bandura, 1986; Dweck, 2006). Temperament and other personality characteristics, the presence or absence of an emotional or behavioral disorder, and previous conditioning will also influence what events and what circumstances will elicit a flood of emotions. In Gross and Thompson’s model of emotional regulation, these factors, often known as antecedents, are reflected in the appraisal stage. In other words, how a person perceives and interprets an event encompasses all the antecedents and related factors that shape his or her appraisal of the situation.

The Development of Emotional Self-Regulation Like other components of executive function, the emotional domain develops through the lifespan of the individual, beginning during the preschool period (Hongwanishkul et al., 2005). Preschoolers begin to accumulate a fund of knowledge about the range of emotions, the recognition and names of basic feelings, the skills for modulating their feelings, and the appropriate ways to express their feelings within the cultural context of their environment (Stegge & Terwogt, 2007). As children mature, their ability to reflect on their own and others’ feelings becomes more sophisticated and enables them to respond in a more flexible and adaptive manner. By the age of 6 years or so, children understand that emotional responses are related to their own internal beliefs and intentions, as well as to aspects of the triggering events. For example, if Jennifer believes that Emily is a friend, she will be kind and friendly toward her even if Emily really dislikes Jennifer. In the early elementary grades, however, children’s understanding of aspects of their emotions is still somewhat simplistic. For instance, many 6-year-olds believe that their reactions to emotionally charged situations involve only one emotion, rather than the multiple emotions that may be elicited by a single interaction. Moreover, with respect to modifying their emotions, early elementary students are likely to believe that if they want to feel better in a distressing situation, they will need to change the situation in some way or refocus their attention on something else. They are unlikely to understand

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that they can alter their views of the situation or their emotional responses (Stegge & Terwogt, 2007). By the time children reach the age of 10 years, they understand that they can experience multiple and sometimes conflicting feelings in a given situation. They also develop the ability to adjust their emotions according to the standards or cultural norms of their environment. For example, a child who gives an incorrect answer to a teacher’s question may feel mildly uncomfortable or extremely embarrassed, depending on the teacher’s expectations as well as on peers’ reactions. As their mastery of emotional regulation grows, many children understand that it is important to disguise or withhold their feelings in certain situations. For instance, a student who is asked to evaluate a peer’s project will understand that he or she should not express negative feelings about it. Furthermore, in the preadolescent period, children learn to regulate their negative feelings by understanding the situation from a different perspective (i.e., reappraising the situation) or finding an effective solution to the set of circumstances (Stegge & Terwogt, 2007). Table 8.1 summarizes the sequence in which emotional self-regulation develops.

Variability in Emotional Regulation Although many children develop some competence in the area of emotional regulation by the early elementary grades, a significant number of children may be lagging in the development of this executive function process (Cole et al., 2004). Variations in emotional regulation among children may be due to a number of factors, including differences in age, genetics, temperament, parenting style, maturity, and cultural norms (Hongwanishkul et al., 2005; John & Gross, 2007; Zelazo et al., 2003). Some children may be genetically predisposed to experiencing heightened anxiety, irritability, depression, and impulsivity (Kagan, 1989; Ruf, Goldsmith, Lemery-Chalfant, & Schmidt, 2008; Tsai, Levenson, & McCox, 2006). In some cases, temperamental differences among children may account for various levels of emotional control, since one component of temperament is the intensity with which emotions are felt and expressed (Thomas & Chess, 1977). Still other children may TABLE 8.1. Development of Emotional Self-Regulation Ages

Skills

Preschool (3–5) years

Recognition and identification of feelings; an emerging understanding of appropriate ways to express and regulate emotions

Early elementary (6–9) years

Increased self-reflection; recognition that emotions stem from internal beliefs as well as external situations; simplistic belief in one emotion per situation; reliance on changing the situation or shifting attention to modify emotions

Late elementary (10–12) years

Increased understanding of the complexity of emotional responses; more sophisticated knowledge of cultural/situational norms for expressing emotions; enhanced ability to withhold/hide emotions; emerging ability to reappraise the situation and solve problems

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lag in their development of emotional regulation because of poor parenting practices: Their parents are either overly controlling, unpredictable in their emotional responses, or unresponsive. Each of these parenting styles may contribute to a child’s sense of insecurity and a limited sense of control over the environment. This diminished sense of control may leave children more vulnerable to anxiety when faced with stressful, novel, or unexpected events (Barlow, 2000). Furthermore, children of parents with more aggressive and coercive parenting styles are more likely to display excessive anger and aggression (Patterson, 2002). In another domain, children’s varying levels of language competence (i.e., their ability to label emotions, talk about their feelings, and use self-talk strategies) can also result in a range of emotional control capabilities. Finally, the cultural or social context that children encounter will influence the range and intensity of emotional regulation. For example, some parents, teachers, and peer groups have a greater tolerance for and encourage a broader range and intensity of emotional expression, while others impose restraints on the expression of emotions at home or at school. Although many students may have occasional difficulties controlling their emotions especially when they are excessively stressed or fatigued, students who have chronic problems with emotional regulation may be at greater risk of or more likely to have an emotional or behavioral disorder. Difficulties in regulating negative emotions (such as worry or sadness) may indicate the presence of an internalizing disorder (such as anxiety or depression), whereas problems with anger and impulsivity suggest the possibility of an externalizing or behavioral disorder (such as ADHD or oppositional defiant disorder). On the other hand, some children may struggle with symptoms of both internalizing and externalizing disorders. In fact, Marmorstein (2007) discovered that there is a strong association between social phobia and aggression, as well as between overanxious disorder and oppositional defiant disorder. In the same vein, children with ADHD often experience considerable anxiety and may be at greater risk for obsessive– compulsive disorder as well (Hallowell & Ratey, 1994).

Emotional Regulation in the Classroom In the classroom, the ability to modulate and shift emotions is a critical component of effective and efficient learning. As students develop strategies for monitoring and modifying their emotional responses to the social and academic demands of the classroom, they are better able to attend to instruction, sustain their effort, and work through their frustrations when faced with challenging tasks. They also learn to resolve conflicts with peers, collaborate with others, and adjust their behavior to fit the classroom’s “culture” and routines. More specifically, students who are skilled at emotional regulation can avoid emotionally triggering situations when needed, ignore critical or hurtful comments from others, focus their attention on the material rather than their inner feelings, use self-talk effectively to encourage themselves when anxious or discouraged, ask for help when needed, and express their feelings

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in socially acceptable ways. Given this skill set, these students can solve problems more creatively (sustaining their interest and motivation); work more efficiently (without the distraction/burden of strong emotions); and manage the multidimensional demands of advocating for themselves, meeting teacher expectations, and working collaboratively with peers (by keeping their emotions “in check”). However, even students with highly developed emotional control may at times have difficulty when they are faced with an overwhelming academic load or an emotionally laden situation at home (e.g., an abusive home, a chronically sick or dying parent, parental alcoholism or other substance abuse, an impending or recent divorce) or at school (e.g., bullying, rejection, academic failure). Therefore, it is essential that teachers understand how to help all students, and especially those who are struggling, to improve their strategies for regulating their emotions.

HOW CAN WE HELP STUDENTS TO DEVELOP STRATEGIES FOR SELF-REGULATING THEIR EMOTIONS? Implementing a Formal Emotion-Based Curriculum Many systemwide programs with the goal of preventing social-emotional difficulties among students have been developed, implemented, and evaluated across the United States. Studies have shown that these social-emotional education programs have resulted in better impulse control, improved problem-solving and conflict resolution skills, decreased aggression and depression, and higher standardized achievement scores (Greenberg, Kusche, Cook, & Quamma, 1995; Hawkins & Catalano, 1992). In fact, “programs that improve students’ social and emotional competencies play “a critical role in improving children’s academic performance and lifelong learning” (Zins, Bloodworth, Weissberg, & Walberg, 2004, p. 3). Moreover, such programs “foster the development of emotional self-regulation, persistance, cooperation, and goal setting in the classroom and beyond” (Zins, Weissberg, Wang, & Walberg, 2004). One exemplary program that has been effective in the New England area is the Open Circle curriculum (www.open-circle.org), which was designed for kindergarten through fifth grade. This curriculum consists of 35 basic lessons for each grade level, which are presented in a preestablished developmental sequence from kindergarten through fifth grade. The program is designed to provide a forum for open, nonjudgmental discussion of social-emotional issues and to teach specific social-emotional skills within an “open-circle” format. Some of the topics common to all grade levels include listening, cooperating, understanding others’ feelings, expressing feelings appropriately, responding to difficult behaviors, and problem solving. Individual lesson plans are tailored to 30-minute discussions. Teachers are encouraged to present two lessons per week and to reinforce the concepts and specific skills throughout the year. A newsletter for parents is also provided so that the lessons can be further discussed and reinforced at home.

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In-house evaluation studies (Black, 1995; Timko, 1998), as well as an experimental study (Hennessey, 2007), have documented the program’s effectiveness in improving students’ social-emotional competence—including an increase in cooperation during academic tasks, a decrease in problematic classroom behaviors, and a decline in peer-related conflicts. When compared to controls, fourthgrade students in both urban and suburban schools made significant gains in their social skills (as rated by their teachers) during the course of a 1-year exposure to the Open Circle curriculum (Siegle, Lange, & Macklem, 1997). In another study, middle school students who had participated in at least 2 years of the Open Circle program in elementary school had better social skills and a higher level of psychosocial adjustment than peers who had little or no exposure to the program (Taylor, Liang, Tracy, Williams, & Seigle, 2002). In general, teachers who have implemented this curriculum in their classrooms have reported that the program has improved student behavior, fostered an acceptance of individual differences, and helped to create a caring classroom environment (Koteff & Seigle, 2006).

Providing Explicit Instruction for Specific Emotional Regulation Skills Even if teachers are working in schools that have no explicit social-emotional learning program, they have multiple opportunities to make a significant impact on children’s emotional development. On a macro level, teachers can play an important role in supporting skill development by providing appropriate modeling (e.g., explicitly sharing their emotions and ways to manage them), strengthening awareness and acceptance of emotions (e.g., empathic listening and reflecting of students’ feelings), sharing relevant information that might ease students’ distress (e.g., “The highest score on this test was a 75”), and coaching students through difficult situations (e.g., “Why don’t you take a break, then try using the strategy we discussed yesterday when tackling that problem?”). At the elementary level, and even at the middle school level, teachers can effectively prompt the kind of emotional control that is desired in the classroom by using verbal as well as visual reminders. Posters and cue cards that explicitly remind students to think through their actions before impulsively responding can help to guide and reinforce student behavior. Practicing impulse control and other emotional regulation skills is critical for learning. For example, when rules are established in a classroom, they can be first modeled by the teacher, practiced by the class as a whole, and then reinforced by having students role-play situations in which the rules play an important part. If the rule is to refrain from criticizing others’ ideas or calling each other names, a teacher might first discuss the negative behavior and its impact on others, demonstrate the desired behavior accompanied by encouraging self-talk, and then have the class practice in pairs or small groups. If the rule is to ask appropriately for help, students can be taught the steps presented in Figure 8.3.

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SCAFFOLDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION PROCESSES If you think you need help with your work: 1. Think for yourself: Have I ever done this before? What do I already know about this topic or task? What can I try to get started? What can I do if I get stuck? 2. Ask a friend for help. 3. If you still need help, then come see me.

FIGURE 8.3. Steps in asking for help.

Impulse Control One particularly effective impulse control strategy that has been widely used in clinical and classroom settings, and has empirical support, is the turtle technique. This intervention is a cognitive-behavioral strategy that was first developed to teach adults anger management skills and then was adapted for school-age children (Robin, Schneider, & Dolnick, 1976; Schneider, 1974). The turtle technique has been reported to be especially effective in reducing the frequency of aggressive behaviors when taught to aggressive and impulsive children (Robin et al., 1976). To implement this strategy, children are taught four basic steps (see Figure 8.4): 1. Recognize when you are angry (i.e., know the physical signs of anger, such as a clenched jaw, feeling hot in the face, etc.) or otherwise emotionally out of control. 2. Stop and think. 3. Go into your “shell” like a turtle, take three deep breaths, and think calming thoughts. 4. Come out of your shell when you are calm, and think of a solution to the problem. Other evidence-based cognitive-behavioral interventions for children who struggle with anger management problems, impulsivity, and/or ADHD in the classroom have generally focused on teaching children to be more aware of their attention, emotional state, and behavioral responses, and/or helping them to learn specific self-control strategies or problem-solving steps. For example, Barkley, Copeland, and Sivage (1980) found that the use of taped auditory signals was effective in reducing off-task behavior for children with ADHD. Videotaping both positive and negative responses to anger-provoking situations proved to be effective for some individuals (Booth & Fairbank, 1983). Problem-solving approaches

Emotional Self- Regulation Step 1. Recognize your feeling.

Step 2. Stop and think.

STOP

Step 3. Go into your shell and take three deep breaths.

Step 4. Come out of your shell and think of a solution.

FIGURE 8.4. The turtle technique.

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to teaching better self-control have also been shown to be moderately effective in the short run, but less effective over long periods of time (Barkley et al., 1980). For instance, Kendall and Zupan (1981) discovered that their Stop and Think program, a 12-session problem-solving intervention for problem children in grades 3–5, produced significant improvements in self-control among their experimental groups when compared to controls immediately following the treatment; however, at the 2-month follow-up, there were no significant differences among the children in the study. On the other hand, these intervention strategies and problem-solving approaches would probably be more effective if they were taught within the classroom setting, where the emotional triggers and problem situations are more likely to occur. In addition, if children were frequently reminded of the problem-solving steps, prompted to use them in certain situations, and frequently reinforced for doing so, then they would be more likely to internalize the self-control strategies and be able to access them when needed.

Transitions Although many challenging or emotionally laden situations can derail a student’s emotional state, among the most common triggers for emotional upsets at the elementary and middle school levels are transitions during the school day. Therefore, teachers can be most helpful to students by proactively planning activities that target emotional regulation at the beginning and end of the day, as well as during other key transition times. Many elementary teachers have found that implementing a “morning meeting” is a time to introduce emotional learning concepts and to encourage discussion of related issues and problems that students may be experiencing. Morning meeting activities often start with a fun greeting, provide opportunities for children to express their opinions or feelings about an activity or topic, and prepare students for the activities of the day. Many creative suggestions for morning meeting activities are available through the Responsive Classroom Newsletter, which is published online (www.responsiveclassroom.org). In addition, transitions between classroom activities/classes, or other breaks in the day, often challenge students to wait patiently and shift their activity level and frame of mind. When teachers explicitly address these issues in the classroom, they are much more successful in helping all students improve their impulse control and other aspects of emotional regulation. For example, if teachers want their students to be able to wait quietly and peacefully in the hallway for the next class, in the classroom for the next lesson, or in the cafeteria line for lunch, then teachers can explicitly teach them a variety of techniques and fun activities to facilitate their ability to wait. Some creative games and activities that can especially help with this issue are presented by Kwane-Ross (2003). Some ideas include having students brainstorm activities they can do while waiting and posting them on a bulletin board; teaching students a number of activities, such as hand-clapping rhymes,

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“Rock, Paper, Scissors,” “Simon Says,” and string games; and reminding students that they can read a book, draw, or practice skills (such as learning new vocabulary, spelling words, or math facts). Kwane-Ross (2003) emphasizes the importance of explicitly discussing the concept of waiting, involving students in generating ideas, modeling the strategies, practicing the wait activities in class, and cueing the students to use these strategies on a consistent basis. Some ideas for activities that could help students learn to wait are presented in Figure 8.5. Teaching students how to pace themselves appropriately during transitions is another way to maintain an emotionally calm, less stressful classroom environment. One seasoned teacher and consultant has described her method for helping her students manage transitions in the classroom by using a metacognitive strategy (Valentine, 2007, p. 12). My observations told me I couldn’t assume students knew how to best use the time between the warning and the beginning of cleanup. So I set up a table as if I were in the middle of a project and role-played what I might do after hearing I had five minutes before cleanup. I thought out loud about my stopping place, how I’d organize my cleanup, and how long I estimated things would take. I asked the children to help me problem solve. Then I had volunteers role-play how they would handle the same situation, showing there could be more than one approach. Waiting Task Waiting in line

Possible Activities Play a hand game with a friend. Imagine that you’re in a favorite place or are your favorite character. Practice your spelling words for the week. Play a guessing game with a friend, such as “20 Questions,” “I Spy,” or “Geography.” Play a string game with a partner. Start a round of “Telephone.”

Waiting at your desk for the next activity

Read a book. Draw a picture. Play solitaire. Work on a crossword puzzle or word search. Write a poem or short story. Practice spelling words or math facts. Make a card for a good friend or family member.

Waiting in a lunch line Decide what you want for lunch. Look for friends to sit with. Think about what you want to do during recess or free block. Use your imagination to create an idea for a short story, poem, movie, or play. Play a guessing game with a friend.

FIGURE 8.5. Waiting activities.

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SCAFFOLDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION PROCESSES For a while, we practiced in “real life” situations by stopping after the five-minute warning and asking a few students to share their wrapping-up plans. Then we’d proceed, and they’d try out their plans. After cleanup, they’d report on what worked, what didn’t, and what they might do differently next time.

Providing Appropriate Academic Supports to Decrease Emotional Triggers Accommodations Facing an overwhelming or challenging academic task is another stressful situation for many students, especially those with learning or attention difficulties. They may be easily frustrated, overcome by anxiety, or so discouraged that they avoid the assignment altogether. In fact, the phrase “Your homework assignment is on the board” may send some students into a panic as they conjure up images of endless hours of tedious worksheets. They may be flooded by overwhelming feelings of confusion and frustration as they try to recall how to finish their math homework, or imagine the pressure and stress associated with evenings that include no “down time” for e-mailing or texting friends, relaxing with a book, or playing a game. Some children are exhausted by the academic and social demands of the school day and have had years of experience struggling to complete assignments within a reasonable time frame. Teachers can effectively assist such students in coping with academic challenges by ensuring that they have the necessary supports and accommodations in place. Teachers can also ensure that assignments are designed appropriately, so that students can rely on their strengths and be rewarded for their efforts. In addition, students can be specifically taught how to use self-talk and self-reflection strategies to help them cope with the pressures of their schoolwork. When students are given the accommodations and extra help that they need on a consistent basis, their stress levels can become much more manageable. However, some teachers feel uncomfortable with providing accommodations all the time. Perhaps they want to challenge students occasionally or test the continued need for an accommodation. Consider Jack, for example, who depended on using a calculator or math fact chart to complete his fifth-grade in-class math assignments and tests. Sporadically, his teacher would decide that “no calculators” were allowed to be used that day. This decision would send Jack into a panic not only for that day but for many mornings, as he anxiously wondered whether his teacher would make the same decision again. Similarly, Annie, a high school sophomore with poor executive function skills, depended on extended deadlines for major written assignments in order to manage her workload. If it was unclear to her whether she could have an extension in a particular class, Annie would often become paralyzed with anxiety and sometimes would end up with a migraine, both of which further impaired her ability to complete her assignments. Given the fact that anxiety and

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executive function processes are inversely related—that is, one cannot efficiently deploy these processes and be highly anxious at the same time—students need the safety and security of knowing that they can consistently rely on their needed accommodations in order for them to perform at their best.

Rubrics Sometimes anxiety and confusion among students can be reduced when teachers offer clear assignments that are broken down into manageable steps, and when they provide opportunities for students to choose the topic, modality, or format of the finished product (Stein & Krishnan, 2007). Studies of achievement and motivation have identified students’ choice, control, and confidence in their ability to accomplish tasks as important factors that enhance their motivation and performance (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Dweck, 2006; Vansteenkiste, Simons, Lens, Sheldon, & Deci, 2004). Teachers who know their students’ strengths and abilities can more effectively plan assignments that will enhance students’ motivation and success while minimizing their stress level. Students’ ownership of their work, and hence their motivation, can be improved by offering a variety of options with respect to assignments and by providing very explicit expectations and criteria for the quality of work desired. When students have an opportunity to choose the format of their work and know how to meet the teacher’s expectations for an assignment, they will probably be more motivated to perform at a higher level.

Self-Talk and Self- Reflection Strategies Another effective way that teachers can improve students’ ability to master the emotional aspects of learning within the classroom is to explicitly teach and reinforce the use of self-talk and self-reflection strategies. A research-based model for embedding self-talk strategies into the classroom curriculum has been described by Graham, Harris, and Olinghouse (2007a). They have developed and implemented a strategic approach to writing that incorporates a self-regulation component. In their program, students are taught effective strategies for writing (e.g., POW: Put down your ideas, Organize them, and Write/write more), as well as specific ways to use self-talk to manage their anxiety, self-doubt, and frustration while composing an essay. Specifically, students are guided to create a list of self-statements to address any emotional responses that might impede their progress, as well as to reinforce the effort and strategy use that they are expending to complete the assignment. As with any effective instructional program, the self-regulation strategies are first modeled by the teacher multiple times as he or she works through planning and writing an essay; are then practiced in small groups with teacher support; and are finally implemented individually with prompts (cue cards or teacher reminders) that are faded over time.

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HOW CAN WE TAKE A PROACTIVE APPROACH TO HELPING STUDENTS WITH THEIR EMOTIONS? A proactive approach to addressing emotional regulation in the classroom involves three critical components: (1) knowing the students, (2) understanding what kinds of triggers may upset each student, and (3) developing an individualized prevention and intervention plan for the most vulnerable students.

Knowing the Students At the beginning of each academic year, teachers can get to know their students by scheduling brief conferences with each individual to review his or her strengths, challenges, interests, goals, and expectations for the class. By discussing each student’s learning style and his or her academic goals, teachers can assess what kinds of assignments would be most appropriate and anticipate what kinds of academic tasks might be most frustrating. In this way, teachers can identify those students who are most vulnerable to becoming overwhelmed, easily frustrated, or emotionally distraught. Teachers will need to pay particular attention to those students who have a known diagnosis (ADHD, a nonverbal learning disorder, an anxiety disorder, a bipolar disorder, obsessive–compulsive disorder, an autism spectrum disorder, a seizure disorder) or have experienced significant trauma (living in an orphanage, deaths, accidents, violence, parental depression, or parental substance abuse). In addition, teachers might notice which students are most reluctant to participate in classroom discussions, are slow in completing their work, ask for help frequently, give up easily when facing challenges, and have difficulty with transitions and adapting to change.

Understanding Each Student’s Triggers Although understanding each student’s triggers may seem like an overwhelming endeavor, it is necessary to identify those tasks and situations that are most likely to create distress, in order to facilitate a safe and positive learning environment. For example, a student who has difficulty working in a group should be given a chance to work alone or with a carefully selected partner. If test taking is a common trigger for anxiety or distress, then problem solving with the student before a test to develop a plan will be an important step in alleviating the anxiety. For some students, a change in routine or an unexpected challenge could set off a “false-alarm” panic-stricken reaction. For example, if a student is reliant on having extra time for tests, being asked to do “fast math” on the computer may trigger an intense emotional reaction. This bout of anxiety may then create a vicious cycle of anticipatory anxiety, test anxiety, poor performance, and eventual shutdown. By talking with parents and previous teachers, carefully observing students for signs

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Date/time

Situation

Trigger

Emotional response

Monday 10:00

Math test

Forgot calculator

Put head on desk, didn’t start test

Tuesday 2:00

Group project

Partner shot down idea Angry outburst, left room

Wednesday 3:00 Wrap-up of school day

Homework announced

Panic-stricken face, groans, complaints

Thursday 9:00

Substitute teacher

Teacher changed morning routine

Refused to follow instructions, started doodling

Friday 11:00

Learning center

Accused of writing in textbook

Loud denial, agitation, crying

Friday 1:00

Cafeteria

Peer moved as she sat down at table

Walked out of cafeteria, head down, without eating

FIGURE 8.6. Record of emotional triggers for a student.

of emotional distress, and charting each episode of emotional overload, teachers can identify the most common triggers. An example of a list of triggers that upset one student is provided in Figure 8.6. If there are more than one or two students in a class who are having significant difficulty regulating their emotions and executive function processes, then assistance from the special education team and/or guidance department to observe and record problematic incidents occurring in the classroom or on the school grounds may be necessary.

Planning Ahead Once the common triggers have been identified for the most vulnerable students, then an individualized plan of prevention and intervention can be developed for each student.

Prevention Every prevention plan will need to incorporate these components: Identify ways to avoid known triggers as much as possible. Develop a plan with the student for handling unavoidable triggers.

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Inform all teachers, helpers, substitutes, and aides of the student’s specific triggers. Embed self-regulation strategies into lesson plans (e.g., demonstrate positive self-talk, discuss what to do if the student gets stuck, normalize mistakes as part of the learning process, explain a variety of ways to approach a new task). Ensure that necessary accommodations are in place at all times. Make sure that the student understands assignments and due dates. Help the student get started before frustration sets in: Model the task or break it down into smaller steps. Offer an alternative assignment, test format, or second chance if the student is having a “bad day.” Provide flexible due dates as needed (within reason—i.e., 1 or 2 extra days). Warn the student of upcoming changes, transitions, new units, challenges, or requests for participation. Positively reinforce successful and improved attempts at self-regulation. Provide explicit guidelines and study tips; talk through assignments; and provide models for homework, novel tasks, projects, and upcoming tests.

Intervention In order for an intervention plan to be effective, the following guidelines may be helpful: Intervene quickly at the first signs of distress. Have a written plan for intervention accessible to all staff members and the student. Have a backup support person a teacher or other staff member can call if the situation becomes unmanageable. When a student is upset, listen empathically first, and then reflect back what the student has said. Keep the conversation calm and friendly; avoid judgment, anger, blame, and impatience at all costs. Be respectful and supportive, maintaining a collaborative frame of mind: “let’s figure out what’s wrong and see if we can find a solution together.” Offer choices (e.g., destressing, going to a safe place, taking a test in a quiet room, working alone). Teachers must keep in mind that the main goal is to diminish the level of distress and to reengage the executive function system (controlled by the brain’s frontal lobes). Little learning or production will occur until both tasks are accomplished. (See “Calming the Emotional Brain” and “Firing Up the Frontal Lobes,” below, for specific strategies.)

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HOW CAN TEACHERS BE EFFECTIVE WHEN STUDENTS BECOME EMOTIONALLY DISTRAUGHT? When teachers are faced with emotionally laden or highly stressful situations in the classroom, they have multiple opportunities to intervene in an effective way. As illustrated by Gross and Thompson’s (2007) model of emotional regulation, an intervention can be targeted at each of the steps in the development of an emotional response (see Figure 8.7). That is, when a vulnerable student is facing a potentially stressful task or interaction, a teacher can decide to intervene by changing or eliminating the situation, directing the student to modify his or her attentional focus, suggesting an alternative interpretation of the situation, or guiding the student to express his or her feelings appropriately. In some cases, teachers may choose to intervene at the situational level so that a student is less likely to react in a negative or maladaptive way. For example, if a student becomes highly anxious and dysfunctional when given “mad minute” math assessments, a teacher may choose to eliminate this kind of assessment for this individual. For another student with a similar issue, a teacher may choose to modify the test so that it covers only those facts that the student has mastered. A teacher may also intervene at the attentional level by either distracting a student who is overly upset about a situation or prompting the student to focus more intently on a particular aspect of his or her reaction. If a student is ruminating about his or her poor performance on a test and getting increasingly upset, a teacher may choose to distract the student by asking about an upcoming sports event in which he or she is participating. Or the teacher may try to focus the student’s attention on the test questions that were answered correctly. Alternatively, a teacher can intervene at the stage of cognitive appraisal of the situation. That is, the teacher can help the student modify or reframe his or her assessment of the situation. If a student is experiencing “writer’s block” and becoming extremely frustrated, a teacher might point out that all skilled writers have writer’s block on occasion, and then congratulate the student on “joining the ranks” of the very best authors. Or the teacher might ask the student what he or

Eliminate or Modify

Distract or Refocus

Reframe or Shift Perspective

Apply Calming Strategies

Situation

Attention

Cognitive Appraisal

Emotional Response

FIGURE 8.7. A model of intervention. Based on Gross and Thompson (2007).

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she might say to a friend who was experiencing a similar paralysis. By helping the student shift his or her perspective and role (from those of a writer to those of a friend), the teacher can help him or her to reframe the situation and thus to gain more effective emotional control. Finally, if all else fails, or the opportunity to intervene earlier has passed, teachers can help students modulate their emotional responses. For instance, a student who is already very angry at a peer for teasing him or her can be reminded of the rules (“Use your words, not your fists”) and coached to take a walk, count to 10, use an “I” statement, or express his or her feelings in a calm voice. Moreover, teachers can significantly influence their students’ level of distress and emotion-driven behavior by encouraging and reinforcing appropriate emotional responses (e.g., “I’m so impressed by the way you handled that difficult essay question. You stayed calm and kept working until you were finished”). The power of positive reinforcement is often underestimated by teachers, but it has repeatedly been shown to be an important component of highly effective classrooms (Reynolds & Teddlie, 1999). In the next section, we offer some general suggestions for helping students deal with anxiety—an emotion that can have a particularly devastating effect on their efforts to attain academic success.

WHAT ARE SOME GENERAL STRATEGIES FOR HELPING ANXIOUS STUDENTS TO CALM THEMSELVES? Labeling and Normalizing Anxiety Almost everyone feels anxious at times. In fact, it is the human body’s natural reaction to stress. When our minds perceive a threat, our bodies becomes prepared to fight, flee, or freeze in order to protect ourselves from danger. Unfortunately, sometimes our brains perceive a situation as dangerous when it really is not. In such cases, the anxiety works against us, shutting down the thinking parts of our brains when we may need our cognitive functioning to be at our best. The goal is to maintain a useful level of anxiety and not let it take charge. Students also need to know the typical course for anxiety. Teachers can explain that anxiety will generally be short-lived. It will increase gradually, reach a peak, and then diminish over time. Teachers can compare the experience of having an anxiety reaction to the experience of riding a wave or riding a bicycle up and down a hill (see Figure 8.8). In other words, anxiety will often build when a difficult situation arises, but if a student can sit with the feeling and continue doing the task, the anxiety will diminish and the student will feel relief. To help students experience the ups and downs of their anxiety, it’s helpful to have them map it out during a day. Teachers can suggest that students rate their level of anxiety from 1 (“little or no anxiety”) to 10 (“out of control—panic city!”).

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Anxiety peaks t xie An yd in im es ish

ty xie An

s se rea c in

Ride out the feeling until it passes . . . I beat it!

Figure 8.9 is Mark’s anxiety chart, which shows that each of the peaks occurred during a math lesson or homework time.

Reminding Students of Their Past Successes Another clinically useful strategy is to remind students of their past successes (see Figure 8.10) and/or help them to imagine future successes when they confront a difficult situation or perform an especially challenging task. Visualizing the situation and their desired response is likely to enhance their confidence and their ability to handle the anxiety-provoking endeavor. 10

Math class

Afternoon math class

Math homework

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

9:00 AM

9:30 10:00 12:00 1:00 AM AM PM PM

2:00 PM

3:00 PM

4:00 PM

5:00 PM

FIGURE 8.9. Chart of a student’s anxiety level.

6:00 PM

9:00 PM

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FIGURE 8.10. Reminders of past successes.

Teaching Effective Self-Talk Strategies As described previously, teachers have many opportunities to model and teach positive self-talk strategies that will help students cope with stressful situations. It may be important for teachers to verbalize self-statements first, encourage students to generate their own, and then instruct them to write them down. Students will then have to be reminded and cued to use their self-talk when they are facing an emotionally or academically challenging task. Again, for example, consider Mark, who had struggled with math anxiety for a long time. As soon as math class began and he was asked to work on problems independently, his mind immediately shifted into negative thinking (e.g., “I can’t do it. I’ll probably get stuck. I won’t finish. It’ll take forever!”). With coaching and practice, however, Mark was able to learn how to modify his thinking so that he could tackle his math assignments without excessive anxiety. Some of the more positive self-statements he generated are listed in Figure 8.11.

Calming the Emotional Brain All students will experience times in their school careers when their anxiety (or some other emotion) overwhelms them and interferes with their performance in the classroom or elsewhere. Therefore, it is important for all students to learn some basic skills in coping with stressful situations. At the elementary school level, teachers might choose to allocate some time each week (or even daily) to learn and practice calming techniques. Others may choose to have a guidance counselor or psychologist present a series of workshops or meetings to discuss these coping strategies. At the middle school and high school level, instruction can take place during guidance groups, health/wellness classes, or homeroom periods. Classroom teachers can then be mindful of these coping methods and cue their students to use them as needed.

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1. I’ve tried these kinds of problems before. I can do them again. 2. I can do the easy ones ﬁrst and then ease into the more difﬁcult ones. 3. If I get stuck, I can ask for help. 4. If I make a mistake, it’ll be OK.

FIGURE 8.11. Examples of a student’s Positive self-talk.

Destressing To help an anxious student destress, a teacher can say something like this: “I can see that you are really worried/upset about this [test or other situation]. Let’s see if you feel better if we take a walk down the hall, get a drink, relax in our cozy corner, and talk about what you’re so worried about, or use our bodies to let go of the stress. We can do push-ups against a wall, press our feet into the floor, or first go stiff like a robot and then go limp like a beanbag.”

Using a Real or Imagined Safe Place Teachers can help all of their students to identify a real or imagined place where they feel perfectly calm, safe, secure, and peaceful. A calm feeling is more easily accessed if the place is a real one—perhaps a place students have been on vacation; a cozy place in their room or home; or a place where they feel most successful, such as the dancing studio, music school, stage, or basketball court. If students cannot identify a safe place, then they can imagine one (see Figure 8.12). Students should close their eyes and bring up a detailed image of the safe place, noticing with all of their senses what the place looks, feels, smells, and sounds, and (if appropriate) tastes like. When the image is really strong, they can “mark” this place on their bodies (by squeezing tightly the area just above a knee, or a wrist, or the upper knuckle of a thumb or pinky) so they can easily come back to it when they need it (Shapiro, 1995).

Surfing the “Worry Wave” Students can be taught that worry and anxiety are normal and that they come and go like a wave in the ocean. The trick is to ride the “worry wave” through to the end until it comes to shore, as if they were riding a surfboard, rather than getting swallowed up by it and knocked off the surfboard. One way of learning to ride the worry wave out is for them to take several deep breaths and reassure themselves

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FIGURE 8.12. Relaxing image of a safe place.

with encouraging self-talk: “This is just a worry wave. I can ride it out and stay on top. It will pass very soon. In the meantime, I can take deep breaths or imagine a peaceful, safe place I’d like to be. (This strategy is based on Wagner, 2005; see Figure 8.9).

Mindfulness Meditation Students can be taught to focus their attention on their breathing. They can be encouraged to place their hands on their stomachs, then their rib cages, and finally their chests, to feel their breath. They can be told to imagine that there is a balloon in their bellies inflating and deflating as they breathe in peacefulness and breathe out tension/stress. Students can be encouraged to let their thoughts gently float in, to notice them, and then to let them float out (like a leaf on the surface of the water, a sailboat crossing a lake, a bird gliding in the sky, or a hot air balloon slowly rising). Then they can return to focusing on their breath.

Focusing: Clearing a Space Students can be taught to relax and to distance themselves from their feelings and stresses by clearing an inner space (see, e.g., Gendlin, 1981). The instructions can be given as follows: “Close your eyes and take a few deep breaths as you settle into your chair in a comfortable position. Notice how your feet feel on the floor, your body feels in the chair, your hands feel on your lap. . . . Focus your attention inside in the center of your body . . notice what’s there. . . . Then you might ask yourself, ‘What’s between how you feel now and feeling really good?’ or ‘What’s getting in the way of your feeling really good right now?’ Let the answers come from your body. . . . As you become aware of any tensions, feelings, or stresses, imagine wrapping them up in a package and putting them outside of your body at just the right distance. . . . Take each feeling or worry or problem, and

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wrap it up and put it outside of you, knowing you can come back to any of these feelings or concerns later if you want to. . . . Now see if there’s any background feeling/tension/stress that you may be carrying around with you, and wrap that up and put it aside. Check your body from head to toe, and make sure you’ve wrapped up every bit of worry or stress. Now that you’ve cleared a space for yourself inside, notice how you feel and spend a moment enjoying you as you are right now . . . just being, not having to do anything. [After a minute or so] Then gently come back to the room.” If there is time, the students can then draw or write down what their worries or concerns were, and what it was like after they cleared a space.

Firing Up the Frontal Lobes When students are already in a panic-stricken state or shut-down mode, they will need to be guided through a process of lowering their level of emotional arousal and shifting their focus in order to reengage the executive function system—a process that can be referred to as “firing up the frontal lobes” (see Figure 8.13). Therapists have developed many techniques that can help highly stressed individuals to set aside their emotions, to think more clearly, and to reconnect with the people around them (Levine & Kline, 2006; Ogden, Minton, & Pain, 2006).

Grounding Students in the Moment Students can be asked what they are feeling in the moment. In other words, teachers can ask them to describe their state of mind, to observe what sensations they feel in their bodies, and to notice how their feelings change.

Widening the Focus/Perspective Students can be directed to look around the room, to take in the “big picture,” to look at a teacher, or to read the situation.

FIGURE 8.13. Firing up the frontal lobes.

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SCAFFOLDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION PROCESSES

Asking a Question with Curiosity Some useful questions include “What’s the crux of this issue?”, “What is the worst part of this situation?”, and “What image or word captures all of this?”

Changing Viewpoint Teachers might encourage students to take the perspective of a good friend or a family member: “What would your best friend say/do in this situation?” or “What would you tell your best friend or little brother/sister to do in this situation?”

Expanding the Time Frame Helping students to get some distance from the upsetting circumstances can diminish the intensity of their feelings. Asking questions about the past or future can redirect the students’ focus and change their emotional response. For example, teachers can ask: “Have you ever felt like this before?” “What happened then?” “What was the outcome?” “What’s a first step you could take now that would help?” By enabling students to refocus their attention, become more aware of their surroundings, and begin to reflect on their experience, teachers can help students to calm down sufficiently that they can return to the academic task that needs to be addressed. Once their level of arousal has returned to an optimal level, students can utilize their cognitive abilities and executive function skills to tackle the problem at hand. For those students who are particularly difficult to calm down, teachers may need to develop a backup plan that involves other professionals. If a student is struggling without success to regain control over his or her emotions, then a teacher will need to call upon a guidance counselor, nurse, psychologist, or administrator to intervene in an appropriate manner.

Helping Students Evaluate the Results of Their Efforts Teachers can help their students to assess their own emotional and behavioral responses to difficult encounters and the effectiveness of their plans. Some of the important questions that students can be encouraged to ask include the following: “Did I get the outcome I wanted?” “Was I less anxious than I thought I would be?”

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“How did others respond?” “What did I do that was most helpful?” “What could I do differently next time?” Finally, teachers should encourage their students to reward themselves for working hard and trying to manage their anxiety while being productive. In this way, students will learn to acknowledge their own successes and to reflect on the process of applying self-regulation strategies. Their efforts can be then be selfrewarded (by giving themselves praise or a concrete reward), or can be reinforced by a special privilege, activity, or treat provided by the teacher. Some useful questions to guide students’ thinking about their ability to use their coping skills are as follows: “Did I face my fears?” “Did I use effective self-talk or other coping skills?” “Did I complete the task or endure the situation?” “What can I say and do to celebrate?”

CONCLUSION As teachers reflect on ways that they can improve executive function processes among their students, it is important that they consult with school counselors or school psychologists who can help them to incorporate preventive and responsive strategies for fostering the development of effective emotional regulation. Research studies have shown that with well-developed self-regulation skills, students can modulate their levels of energy, motivation, frustration tolerance, and anxiety so that they can more readily access their cognitive resources (attention, memory, problem solving, language, planning, organization, and self-monitoring) and direct these toward new learning and stronger academic performance. Teachers have many opportunities to assist their students in acquiring and refinding emotional regulation skills. They can choose to implement a formal social-emotional learning program in their classrooms; incorporate components of emotional intelligence into their regular subject-oriented lesson plans; develop specific behavioral support plans for emotionally vulnerable students; or focus on helping students to negotiate particularly challenging academic tasks, such as taking a final exam or writing a research paper. Ideally, the various ideas and strategies presented in this chapter will provide a foundation as well as a springboard for improving students’ emotional functioning in the classroom.

Copyright © 20 The Guilford Press. No part of this text may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. Purchase this book now:

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O e ie Cognitive flexibility encompasses the ability to think flexibly and to shift approaches easily. During elementary school, children have a limited understanding of the importance of using a range of different strategies for approaching new tasks and completing their schoolwork . However, by late elementary school through high school, students begin to recogni e the benefits of using different approaches for problem solving in school and in life. This session will focus on practical strategies for improving students cognitive flexibility in academic and social situations. A number of effective and easy-to teach strategies will be modeled and their application across academic domains will be discussed. Refe ence Melt er, L.J. (Ed) (2018). E ec New York: Guilford Press.

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P ac ce (2nd ed.).

Melt er, L.J. (2015). Teaching Executive Function Processes: Promoting metacognition, strategy use and effort. In Goldstein, S. & Naglieri, S. (Eds.) Ha db f E ec eF c g (445-475). New York: Springer. Melt er, L.J., & Bagnato, J.S. (2010). Shifting and flexible problem solving: The anchors for academic success. In L. Melt er (Ed.), P g e ec ef c he c a . New York: Guilford Press. Melt er, L.J., Basho, S., Reddy, R., & Kurkul, K. (2015). The role of mentoring in fostering executive function processes, effort, and resilience. I e a a J a f Re ea ch Lea g D ab e . 2(2), 91-123.

Melt er, L.J., Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., Stacey, W., Ross, E., & Snow, E. (2015). SMARTS Executive Function and Mentoring Program, www.smarts-ef.org. Melt er, L., Greschler, M., Kurkul, K., & Stacey, W. (2015). Executive function and peer mentoring: Fostering metacognitive awareness, effort, and academic success. In Harris, K. & Melt er, L.J. (Eds.) The P e f Pee : E ha c g Lea g, De e e ,&S ca S . New York: Guilford Press. Melt er, L., Reddy, R., Greschler, M., & Kurkul, K. (2013, June). In L Melt er (Chair). E ec ef c a d eff : The effec f ee e g de h ea g d ffe e ce . Paper delivered at The 37th Annual Conference of the International Academy for research in Learning Disabilities, Boston, MA. Ritchhart, R., Church, M., Morrison, K., & Perkins, D. N. (2011). Ma g h g b e: h e e gage e , de a d g, a d de e de ce f a ea e . Jossey-Bass. Smith, B., & Griffin, L. M. (2020). M da Boys Town Press.

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Willis, J. (2016, July 22). B d g de ' c g efe b . Edutopia. Retrieved October 27, 2021, from https://www.edutopia.org/blog/building-students-cognitive-flexibility-judy-willis. Winner, M. G., Crooke, P., & Ebbler, J. (2020). Y h g d . Think Social Publishing.

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E X E C U T IV E F U N C T IO N & M E N T O R IN G P R O G R A M

Beyond Jokes and Riddles:

Cognitive Flexibility across the Grades and Content Areas

Donna Kincaid, M .Ed. Assistant Director ResearchILD & ILD Educational Specialist, ILD

Agenda W hat is Cognitive Flexibility W hy is this EF process critical for school and life? W hat evidence-based SM ARTS strategies can be used to prom ote cognitive flexibility in students, reduce stress, and increase success in school and in life?

Cognitive

1. 2. 3. 4.

Solving problem s Thinking critically Connecting ideas Synthesizing inform ation

Flexibility

1. Bending 2. Twisting 3. Thinking about things differently 4. Changing approaches when needed

WHAT IS COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY?

t in g S h if t d se m in

Ta sk Sw itc hi ng

Cognitive Flexibility

in g ift g S h k in in th

Attention shifting

A da pt in g to ne w sit ua tio ns

What does it mean to think flexibly in your daily lives? Name 3 specific tasks/circumstances in which you need to be flexible? What gets in your way?

“To see different points of view.” “To get different strategies for people, like don't just look at your own way because there are different ways it could be true.”

“It's like when you're doing math, there's always

one more way to solve a problem.”

Why is flexible thinking so essential in life?

WHAT IS ADAPTABILITY? “the ability to adjust your emotions, thoughts and behaviors to changing situations and conditions, being open to change, new ideas, challenges and approaches"

DEVELOPING METACOGNITIVE AWARENESS

“That didn’t go as I planned! What should I do now?”

“I don’t know how to do this! What resources do I have?”

“I’m stuck! What can I do? Who can I ask for help?”

“That strategy didn’t “Oops, I got this all wrong! How can I fix them?

work! W hat other one can I try instead?”

SHIFTING FLEXIBLY Use 5-minute warm-ups daily to promote flexible thinking and metacognitive awareness…

Jokes Riddles Puns Ambiguous language

SHIFTING FLEXIBLY:

Teach Multiple Meanings

Have you ever seen… A vegetable stand?

SHIFTING FLEXIBLY: TEACH MULTIPLE MEANINGS Have you ever seen…A home run?

USING MULTIPLE MEANING QUOTES

BEYOND JOKES AND RIDDLES

Strategies for Teaching Flexible Thinking

E X E C U T IV E F U N C T IO N & M E N T O R IN G P R O G R A M

SO, WHAT IS A STRATEGY?

So, what is a strategy?

I-SEE A STRATEGY

I don’t need a strategy. I can just do it. Ugh! Why do I have to do this?!

I-SEE A STRATEGY

The stone statue Patrick Star from SpongeBob™ The smiley face The book The lion The phone

I-SEE A STRATEGY •What strategies did you use to find the objects? •What strategies do you think worked the best? •Why do you think these worked the best? •What strategies did not work as well? Why?

I-SEE A STRATEGY What makes a strategy an “I-SEE” strategy? I-Individualized S-Systematic E-Efficient E-Effective © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

What Hat Am I Wearing?

W hat Hat Am I W earing?

Today, we will learn what it means to “wear different hats.” “Wearing a hat” means that you can play different roles. What are some different “hats” you can think of? Lesson 7.5

W hat Hat Am I W earing?

Now we will take a look at how one person can wear many different “hats.” Think about who the person might be and where they are wearing this “hat.”

Lesson 7.5

W hat Hat Am I W earing?

For our next activity, we need to learn a little bit about…

Emma Watson

Lesson 7.5

W hat Hat Am I W earing?

Emma Watson Harry Potter – Hermione Granger Attended Brown University UN Women Goodwill ambassador

Lesson 7.5

W hat Hat Am I W earing?

Now that we know about some roles Emma Watson might lead, let’s think about the different ways she may present herself.

Lesson 7.5

W hat Hat Am I W earing?

Acting Hat

Things she would say? Clothing?

Lesson 7.5

W hat Hat Am I W earing?

UN Ambassador Hat

Things she would say? Clothing?

Lesson 7.5

W hat Hat Am I W earing?

Fun Hat

Things she would say? Clothing?

Lesson 7.5

W hat Hat Am I W earing?

What would happen if Emma Watson wore her “Fun Hat” when she should have been wearing her “Professional Hat”? Why is it important to wear the proper “hat” for each occasion?

Lesson 7.5

W hat Hat Am I W earing?

Now we will think about the different “hats” that we wear! What are some examples that you can think of?

Lesson 7.5

W hat Hat Am I W earing?

Pick 4 different hats and draw pictures that represent those hats. What are things you would say and what clothing would you wear while wearing this hat?

Le sso n 7.5

W hat Hat Am I W earing?

Think of a time when you wore the wrong hat. What happened? How could wearing the right hat have helped? What could you have done differently?

Le sso n 7.5

W hat Hat Am I W earing?

Do you know what caused you to wear the wrong hat? What are some clues that you are wearing the wrong hat? How can you prevent yourself from doing the same again in the future?

Le sso n 7.5

Let’s Reflect!

HOW DO WE PROMOTE METACOGNITION? Strategy Reflection Sheets Attach them to tests, homework, projects, etc. Use as an Exit Ticket Make strategy use count!

USING STRATEGY REFLECTION SHEETS When should you use a strategy reflection sheet? At the start/end of a lesson After a test or a large assignment After handing out a report card Before a parent conference Don’t forget! Make them count (e.g., extra credit) Use strategy walls and strategy shares © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

PURPOSEFUL HIGHLIGHTING

PURPOSEFUL HIGHLIGHTING Ways to highlight with a purpose: 1. Distinguish between main ideas and details 2. Identify unfamiliar vocabulary 3. Draw our attention to important information (e.g., the sign of an integer, +/-) © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

PURPOSEFUL HIGHLIGHTING

Virtual Tour:

PURPOSEFUL HIGHLIGHTING Real Estate Agent

This is the appearance of the last paragraph when using purposeful highlighting: Upstairs, there were eight bedrooms. Mark showed Pete his mother’s walk-in closet that was filled with furs and a safety deposit box filled with jewelry. His sisters’ room was uninteresting except for the newly installed bathroom, which left the hallway bathroom for Mark alone to use. Mark grabbed the portable Xbox out of his sisters’ room and carried it up to the third floor playroom, where they discovered a hole in the roof near the fire escape.

PURPOSEFUL HIGHLIGHTING Private Investigator

PURPOSEFUL HIGHLIGHTING Discussion

Let’s Reflect!

E X E C U T IV E F U N C T IO N & M E N T O R IN G P R O G R A M

2.1 IDENTIFYING CANDO GOALS

IDENTIFYING CANDO GOALS Objectives Recognize why it may be difficult to achieve goals Understand the importance of setting CANDO goals

IDENTIFYING CANDO GOALS Discussion How many of you… have set goals for yourself in the past? have set school-related goals? How do you stay motivated to achieve your goals?

Students’ Original Goals: 1. To be an amazing student and make my parents proud! 2. Figure out how to remember specifics. 3. To be able to sit down and do my homework consistently. 4. To not lose papers. 5. Staying organized and not falling behind in school. © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

IDENTIFYING CANDO GOALS Short-Term Goals Can be accomplished in the near future. (i.e., in a day, week, or month) Short-term goals may help us achieve long-term goals. Examples: I will spend 20 minutes a day reading my book for ELA. I will get a B or higher in math this semester.

Long-Term Goals Are accomplished over a longer period of time. - (i.e., over several months, a year, or 5 years from now)

Examples: I will finish my book for ELA in 2 months. I will get a scholarship to the college of my choice! © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

IDENTIFYING CANDO GOALS

Short-Term

Long-Term

IDENTIFYING CANDO GOALS Short-term or long-term? To become a professional soccer player. Long-term To improve my next math test by 10 points. Short-term To spend 30 minutes a night doing science homework. Short-term To get a “B” in math. Long-term © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

IDENTIFYING CANDO GOALS Long-term goal: I want to earn a B+ in science this year. Short-term goals: 1.) Study for 30 minutes a day 2.)

IDENTIFYING CANDO GOALS Short-term goals to help us achieve our long-term goals.

Go to my teacher when I don’t Study 30 understand minutes a day

Organize class notes every day

Get a B+ in Science!

IDENTIFYING CANDO GOALS

CANDO Goals are: Clear Appropriate Numerical Doable Obstacles considered

IDENTIFYING CANDO GOALS CANDO Goals Help make your goal clear by making it more specific. “I want to be a better student.” “I want to get A’s and B’s this semester.”

IDENTIFYING CANDO GOALS CANDO Goals Help make your goal appropriate by making it realistic. “I want to get an A this year in math.” “I want to become a professional hockey player.” “I want to keep my grade above a C in math.” “I want to join the hockey team this year.” © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

IDENTIFYING CANDO GOALS CANDO Goals Help make your goal numerical by making it measurable. “I want to get a better grade on my math tests.” “I want to get A’s and B’s in math.”

IDENTIFYING CANDO GOALS CANDO Goals Help make your goal doable by listing 3 steps needed to achieve it. “I want to improve my score on the next math test by 10 points.” Steps for reaching the goal:

IDENTIFYING CANDO GOALS This goal is doable because there are 3 steps listed to help achieve it.

Make flash cards to practice Study 30 4x/week minutes a day

Review my notes from class every night

Improve math score by 10 points!

IDENTIFYING CANDO GOALS CANDO Goals What are some obstacles that might get in the way of reaching your goal? “I want to improve my score on the next math test by 10 points.” Potential obstacles:

IDENTIFYING CANDO GOALS What are some obstacles that might get in the way of reaching the goal?

I got busy with other work and didn’t review my flash cards.

I couldn’t do the HW because I didn’t understand it!

M a ke fla sh ca rd s to p ra ctice 4x/w eek

I left m y notes at hom e.

Re vie w m y notes from cla ss every nig ht

Improve math score by 10 points!

Stud y 30 m inutes a day

IDENTIFYING CANDO GOALS CANDO Goals Potential obstacles: 1.

I forgot my notes at school.

2. I couldn’t do the homework because I didn’t understand. 3. I was too busy with other work. Ways to overcome obstacles as they occur:

IDENTIFYING CANDO GOALS What are some ways to overcome obstacles ? I forgot my notes at school.

• Spend extra time studying the next night. • Study during a free block.

I didn’t understand the • Talk to the teacher the next day. lesson and couldn’t do • Ask a friend or parent for help. my HW. I was too busy with other work.

• Make up studying time on the weekends, in the morning before school, or during a free block. © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

IDENTIFYING CANDO GOALS Metacognitive Wrap-Up Select one of the goals you wrote down at the beginning of class. Using the “My CANDO Goals” handout, make that goal into a CANDO goal.

Students’ Revised Goals: 1. To be an amazing student and make my parents proud! To maintain above a C average in all my classes by meeting with teachers and studying 30 minutes each night. 2. To be able to sit down and do my homework consistently. I will plan on 2 hours daily after school to complete my homework. © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

3. To not lose papers. I will lose less than 5 papers from each class for the entire school year. 4. Staying organized and not falling behind in school. I will stay organized by cleaning out my backpack and binders every week and while keeping extra papers in a drawer to study from so I don’t fall behind. © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION & MENTORING PROG RAM

Wrapping up

Let's Reflect! What do you think of the activities today? What did you like or not like about them? When and where could you implement them? Remember to help students: Understand their strengths and challenges Reflect on their performance Make plans for next time © RESEARCHILD, 2022 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

THANK YOU! Questions, comments, concerns?

CHAPTER 6

Shifting and Flexible Problem Solving The Anchors for Academic Success

LYNN MELTZER and JENNIFER SAGE BAGNATO

Middle school has been especially challenging for Leo. When he’s doing his homework, he seems to understand the concepts and information presented in his science textbook. However, he can’t seem to apply this information on tests and extend it to new scenarios. I try to help him in math, but he gets frustrated when I show him an approach that is different from the way he was taught in school. He gets stuck doing things over and over again the same way, so that homework drags on the entire night, and he gets too little sleep. Even after he works so hard, his grades are still lower than those of his friends, and Leo now tells us that his friends are much smarter than he is. —PARENT OF A SIXTH GRADER Sally’s performance in school is like a seesaw. She is a very hard worker and is diligent with her homework. When taking notes, she spends hours writing down every detail. However, she sometimes has difficulty with broad concepts and struggles to find the main ideas in her English literature and social studies assignments. When writing essays, she frequently includes quotes and specific examples that don’t relate to her thesis. Sally does well on multiple-choice tests and fill-in-the-blank quizzes. I do not understand why she has so much difficulty with short-answer and essay tests, and I wish I knew how to help Sally so that her grades were more representative of the time and effort she spends studying. —11TH-GRADE TEACHER

ognitive flexibility, or the ability to think without rigidity and to shift mindsets easily, is a critically important executive function process that is often especially challenging for students like Sally, Leo, and others with learning and attention difficulties (Meltzer, 1993; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007; Meltzer & Montague, 2001; Meltzer, Solomon, Fenton, & Levine, 1989). Its component processes—which include the ability to adapt to unfamiliar or unexpected situations, to combine concepts 140

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creatively, and to integrate different representations— develop across the lifespan and vary among students (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c; Deák, 2008). Many academic tasks from early elementary school into high school require students to shift flexibly between perspectives and to synthesize information in novel ways (see Chapters 1 and 2). Nevertheless, time is usually not built into the curriculum for teaching students the importance of approaching problem solving and academic tasks flexibly, so they can shift easily “from the top of the mountain to the bottom” as they focus alternately on the major themes and the relevant details (see Figure 1.1 in Chapter 1). In this chapter, we discuss the reasons why cognitive flexibility is so important across the grades, and in all academic domains. We also provide an overview of specific strategies that teachers can implement in their classrooms to help students approach complex problems in a flexible manner, integrate multiple representations of knowledge, and apply learned skills to novel situations. Some of the suggestions discussed in this chapter, like some of those in other chapters, have been evaluated as part of our school-based Gateways to Success and Drive to Thrive studies (Meltzer et al., 2004a, 2004b, 2004c). Others are based on considerable clinical research (Meltzer et al., 2007b) or on best practice. Teachers could use these strategies as guides in devising their own approaches for helping students to develop flexible mindsets in the different content areas.

WHY IS COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY SO IMPORTANT ACROSS GRADES AND ACADEMIC DOMAINS? Children’s ability to think flexibly changes with development and age (Brown, 1997; Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b). Typically, students in the early elementary grades have a more limited understanding of the importance of using different approaches to their work in different situations than do middle and high school students. In fact, recent research has shown that cognitive-developmental changes from childhood into adulthood influence children’s ability to manage the cognitive complexity of academic tasks and to process many different elements simultaneously (Andrews & Halford, 2002; Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b; Zelazo & Müller, 2002). As children enter school, cognitive flexibility plays an increasingly important role in the development of more advanced language and literacy skills (Cartwright, 2002, 2008a, 2008b; Homer & Hayward, 2008). Furthermore, the acquisition of numeracy skills is increasingly linked with students’ ability to process multiple representations flexibly and easily. Acquisition of new concepts is also connected to students’ willingness to abandon previously successful approaches in favor of alternative methods when necessary (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b). This ability to shift approaches and to synthesize information in novel ways is essential for effective reading, writing, math problem solving, note taking, studying, and test taking.

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In the reading domain, investigators have recently emphasized the importance of reading flexibility, or readers’ ability to adapt their reading skills to the demands and purpose of the material (Adams, 1990; Fry, 1978; Cartwright, 2002; Gaskins, 2008; Wagner & Sternberg, 1987). This emphasis on the role of cognitive flexibility in reading decoding, fluency, and comprehension reflects the multidimensional nature of reading (Berninger, Abbott, Thomson, & Raskind, 2001; Berninger & Nagy, 2008; Gaskins, 2008, Gaskins, Satlow, & Pressley, 2007; Pressley, 2006). As reading tasks become more challenging and domain-specific, students need to coordinate multiple subskills, processes, and sources of information. They form mental representations that they need to access flexibly in order to remember, organize, prioritize, and comprehend the information (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008). Accurate and efficient reading decoding requires students to shift flexibly among four different approaches: letter–sound decoding, use of sight word vocabulary, reliance on context clues, and use of analogies (Ehri, 1991; Gaskins, 2008). In other words, they need to recognize the importance of what Gaskins (2008) refers to as “crisscrossing the landscape,” in order to select decoding approaches that fit the text. Specifically, students need to coordinate the letter–sound relationships with the meanings of printed words (Cartwright, 2002, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c). When studies have focused on teaching students to shift flexibly as part of the decoding process, findings have shown improved reading decoding and comprehension in beginning readers, intermediate readers, and adults (Cartwright, 2002, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c). Other studies have shown the efficacy of teaching students different approaches to decoding and fostering flexibility in decoding (Lovett, Lacerenza, & Borden, 2000). Such flexibility helps students coordinate and shift between word-level features on the one hand, and vocabulary knowledge and background knowledge on the other. This flexibility allows students to draw inferences that extend beyond the information given, and thus it facilitates reading comprehension (Adams, 1990; Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c). Reading comprehension requires students to process the meaning of text, flexibly access their background knowledge, recognize the purpose or goal of reading (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c), and monitor their own comprehension (Block & Pressley, 2002; Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995). Reading for meaning taxes students’ ability to manage linguistic information at the word, sentence, and paragraph levels (Brown & Deavers, 1999; Goswami, Ziegler, Dalton, & Schneider, 2001, 2003). In the well-known series of books about Amelia Bedelia, for example, young readers need to use a flexible approach to language in order to understand the multiple meanings of the language embedded in the text and the humor in the stories. This flexibility helps readers to understand why Amelia Bedelia’s employers are surprised when they come home to find a chicken dressed in clothes after they ask her to “Dress the chicken,” and a drawing of their curtains and light bulbs on the front lawn after they ask her to “Draw the drapes when the sun comes in . . . and put the lights out” (Parish, 1963, pp. 47, 48, 59).

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Written language, like reading comprehension, requires students to shift— in this case, between the topic sentences on the one hand, and the supporting details on the other. As students learn to shift approaches flexibly, they are able to interpret information in more than one way, change approaches when needed, and choose a new strategy when the first one is not working (Westman & Kamoo, 1990). There is still a need for longitudinal studies that focus on the impact of cognitive flexibility on the writing process, as there has been very little research in this area. In the math domain, students’ understanding of concepts, of computational procedures, and of word problems is associated with cognitive flexibility from the earliest grades, when one-to-one correspondence rules are taught. Students need to shift from the words and sentences in math problems to the numbers, operations, algorithms, and equations needed to solve the problems (Roditi & Steinberg, 2007). Students also need to learn how and when to shift from one problem-solving strategy or schema to another, so that their final calculations are accurate and logical (Montague & Jitendra, 2006). In fact, recent math curricula that have been based on the National Council of Teachers of Math (2000) report focus on teaching students to switch sets while they connect, communicate, and discuss multiple representations of the same word problems. Students with learning disabilities often struggle to shift flexibly between the numbers and the math questions they are solving (Bull & Scerif, 2001; Roditi, 1993; Roditi & Steinberg, 2007). Therefore, these students need explicit and ongoing instruction in shifting when they approach their math work. In content area subjects, including science and history, students are required to read texts where many words or phrases have multiple meanings; students’ understanding of these words or phrases depends on their flexible use of context clues. Similarly, learning a foreign language requires a significant amount of flexible thinking, as students are challenged to shift back and forth between their native language and the language they are learning. Students continuously need to apply their knowledge of semantics, syntax, and vocabulary in order to translate text or conversation in the foreign language into their native language and vice versa. Spiro and colleagues have stressed the role of flexibility in the acquisition and representation of content area knowledge (Spiro, 2004; Spiro, Feltovich, Jacobson, & Coulson, 1992). Specifically, they have shown that knowledge needs to be flexibly structured and accessed in order to build expertise in different academic domains. Cognitive flexibility and other higher-level thinking skills therefore need to be explicitly taught within specific content domains or disciplines (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008). In fact, in studies of the links between cognitive flexibility and performance in science and history, students across the grades (elementary into high school) have been taught to shift flexibly among texts and to recognize similarities and differences in themes, in order to understand the main ideas or “big picture” (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008; Wolfe & Goldman, 2005).

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Finally, note taking, studying, and taking tests require students to shift back and forth between various subtopics or problem types, which are often phrased differently from the ways in which students have learned or studied the information. In these different academic domains, students with learning difficulties need to learn systematic strategies for interpreting the vocabulary and linguistic structure in multiple ways, so that they feel comfortable taking risks and thinking “outside the box” when they interpret information. Across all these academic domains, students’ motivation, interest, and passion influence their willingness to make the effort to try different approaches and to shift flexibly from one approach to another, rather than continuing to use the same approach to tasks (Alexander, 1998; Paris, Lipson, & Wixson, 1983; Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008). Alexander (1998) emphasizes that intrinsic motivation, topic knowledge, and strategy use interact to produce improvements in domain learning (e.g., history or science). For example, as students learn more about a topic (such as the Vietnam War), they find it easier to use strategies flexibly; in turn, flexible strategy use increases students’ interest in completing the many different steps involved in writing a paper about the Vietnam War. In this regard, Zelazo and colleagues have differentiated between purely cognitive or “cold” tasks that have no emotional content (e.g., math computation) and tasks that are affected by a student’s social and emotional mindset, or what they term “hot” tasks (e.g., remembering information in a social studies text by linking it with a personal experience) (Zelazo & Müller, 2002; Zelazo, Müller, Frye, & Marcovitch, 2003). They propose that success on both types of tasks depends on each individual’s cognitive flexibility.

HOW SHOULD WE TEACH STUDENTS TO THINK FLEXIBLY AND TO SHIFT MINDSETS? As discussed above, classroom instruction needs to include opportunities for students to use their acquired knowledge flexibly (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993). Similarly, students’ cognitive flexibility improves when they are given opportunities to solve problems from a variety of different perspectives (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). Therefore, it is important to embed strategies for teaching cognitive flexibility into different facets of the curriculum, and to create classrooms and school cultures where students are taught strategies that encourage flexible thinking across the grades and content areas. In the classroom setting, cognitive flexibility underlies good teaching as well as successful learning (Cartwright, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c; Massey, 2008). As Massey (2008) emphasizes, “flexible instruction does not mean anything goes” (p. 305). Instead, such instruction provides explicit models of a repertoire of specific strategies, as well as explanations of how and when to use these strategies (Snow, Griffin, & Burns, 2005).

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A broad range of instructional methods can be used to promote flexible thinking across the content areas. Instruction can focus explicitly on problem solving and critical thinking, and can require students to think flexibly about how the solutions they propose could lead to different outcomes under different circumstances (Sternberg, 2005). Instruction can also encourage peer discussion and collaborative learning in order to expose students to many different viewpoints (Yuill, 2007; Yuill & Bradwell, 1998). While working with their peers, students can be challenged to approach problems from the perspectives of their classmates, which may vary significantly from their own. An integrated approach to learning encourages students to make connections between different content areas and also challenges them to think flexibly about the topics. For example, in history, when students are taught about the westward migration in the United States during the 1850s, each student could be required to write a journal from the perspective of a pioneer. In geography or science, students could analyze the topographical features of the area and choose a safe passage through the Sierra Nevada. This integrated approach not only deepens students’ understanding of the time period, but also encourages them to shift mindsets by assuming a number of different perspectives. The following guide can be used as an organizational framework for embedding shifting strategies in the curriculum (see Chapter 2 for details): 1. 2. 3. 4.

Introduce and define the concept of shifting strategies. Model shifting strategies and explain what, when, and how to do this. Provide opportunities for active student learning. Reinforce shifting strategies by embedding opportunities for doing this into the curriculum. 5. Reflect on students’ use of specific strategies. 6. Challenge students and extend flexible strategy use to other academic areas and tasks. To help students develop metacognitive awareness and understand how to shift flexibly in their interpretation of language and approaches to reading, writing, and math, one of the easiest and most enjoyable activities is to implement “5-minute warm-ups” at the beginning of lessons. These activities encourage students to recognize that many different answers can often be generated for the same question (see Table 6.1 for examples). Furthermore, activities with jokes, riddles, word categories, and number puzzles can help students to practice using flexible approaches to language interpretation and number manipulation. Tasks that incorporate jokes and riddles “differentiate between what is said and what is meant, between two different meanings of the same surface form, between joking and literal interpretations of text, and between formal and semantic characteristics of words” (Yuill, Kerawalla, Pearce, Luckin, & Harris, 2008, p. 339). The efficacy of using jokes to teach flexible thinking to students in the early grades has

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TABLE 6.1. Warm-Up Activities That Promote Flexible Interpretation of Language and Flexible Approaches to Reading, Writing, and Math Present ambiguous words and sentences to students in the form of riddles or jokes. This is an enjoyable way of helping students to use context clues to analyze words with multiple meanings. This activity should be linked directly and explicitly with reading comprehension tasks. Encourage students to identify different ways they can use specific objects such as a brick, a cardboard box, or an apple. This encourages them to shift approaches rather than getting “stuck” in one approach, and helps them to understand that objects as well as words can have different meanings and functions. Ask students to categorize weekly vocabulary or spelling words in a number of different ways (e.g., by part of speech, meaning, vowel patterns). Ask students to identify several different ways in which selected multimeaning words can be used (e.g., “cut paper” “cut the line,” “cut class.” Encourage students to write a short story from the perspective of an object, such as a penny or a lost sock. This teaches perspective taking and helps students to shift approaches. Ask students to create different endings for books they have read. This process encourages students to recognize that stories can end in many different ways. Play word and math logic games, such as Boggle, Magic Squares, and Sudoku, to help students to manipulate words and numbers in different ways and to think flexibly about words and math operations.

been shown in an interesting series of studies (Yuill, 2007; Yuill & Bradwell, 1998). Children ages 7–9 years were paired with peers to discuss ambiguities in jokes; they used a joke software program (Joke City) for three 30-hour sessions. Significant gains in reading comprehension were found in these children, in comparison with the control group children, who continued with their daily literacy classes. In other words, an explicit focus on the ambiguous language in jokes generalized to reading comprehension as students were required to think about and analyze language in different ways. Jokes and riddles help students to recognize that ambiguities in language affect meaning, and that looking for context clues is an important reading strategy that improves reading comprehension (see Figure 6.1). Ambiguous sentences, riddles, and multimeaning words can be presented in humorous ways to teach students how to shift flexibly among meanings by using context clues, shifting from noun to verb use, and shifting syllables in words. As Yuill et al. (1998) point out, peer

Think about and illustrate two different meanings for the following: Eye drops off the shelf. Enraged cow injures farmer with axe. Kids make nutritious snacks. Hospitals are sued by seven foot doctors. Include your friends when baking cookies.

FIGURE 6.1. Examples of using humor to promote flexible interpretation of multimeaning words.

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discussion of jokes promotes cognitive flexibility, as joking is a social activity that occurs among peers. Similarly, peer discussions of ambiguous language promotes metacognitive awareness that transfers to reading and writing tasks (Yuill et al., 2008). Students can therefore collaborate with peers to illustrate or verbally explain selected riddles or jokes. They can also work with peers to analyze sentence structure and to identify pronouns, adjectives, and placements of commas or hyphens that change the meanings of words and phrases. Discussing these different meanings often helps students to recognize the importance of thinking flexibly when they complete their homework or study for tests. Activities like these provide opportunities to incorporate cognitive flexibility instruction into classwork and homework through the use of enjoyable and inherently motivating tasks. These activities should be linked explicitly and directly with reading comprehension tasks. Therefore, teachers can present reading tasks that require students to recognize shifts in sentence meanings based on the use of selected words as nouns or verbs. Students can be required to discuss these shifts explicitly. In this way, students can use engaging material to build their metacognitive and metalinguistic awareness. It is important to recognize that students often show marked variability in their cognitive flexibility, and that students may be flexible on some tasks but not on others. For instance, some students may be flexible in their approach to structured verbal or nonverbal reasoning tasks, yet may be inflexible in academic situations that demand the integrated use of a broad range of skills and strategies. Similarly, students may actively use learning strategies on tasks with which they are familiar, but may not access strategies on other tasks that they perceive as too difficult or that require the simultaneous mobilization of multiple processes and strategies. They may also rely inappropriately on strategies that were previously helpful, but are inadequate for dealing with the increased complexity of new tasks. Teachers can differentiate instruction more easily after administering the MetaCOG surveys (see Chapter 1 for a detailed discussion of MetaCOG) to assess all students’ motivation, effort, strategy use, and understanding of their own learning profiles. Students’ motivation and emotional mindsets (e.g., fatigue, anxiety, social awareness) influence their willingness to make the extra effort needed to use strategies for thinking and learning flexibly. In fact, as discussed in detail in Chapter 8, students’ emotional mindsets often serve as “on–off switches” for effective strategy use and learning, particularly their willingness to try new or different approaches. Table 6.2 provides suggestions for teaching students to develop metacognitive mindsets—to shift flexibly “from the top of the mountain to the bottom and back again” (see Chapter 1), and to shift between the main ideas and details in different content areas and domains. These broad ideas are expanded and elaborated in the following section, which focuses on what strategies teachers should use to promote students’ abilities to think flexibly and to shift approaches as needed.

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TABLE 6.2. Teaching Students to Develop Metacognitive Mindsets and Strategies for Shifting Flexibly in Selected Content Areas Oral language Shifting between multiple word meanings Teach students to recognize and analyze ambiguities in words and sentences, and to shift between different meanings. Require students to identify multiple-meaning words by using context clues, noun–verb clues, and syllable accents, and to shift flexibly among the different possible meanings (see the M & M strategy, Figures 6/4–6.5 and Table 6.3). Explicitly link these activities with reading comprehension and writing, so that students will generalize and extend the strategies they learn to the different content areas. Reading decoding and spelling Shifting between different word analysis and blending approaches for decoding and spelling Teach students to recognize which words can be analyzed by using phonics and which words depend on sight vocabulary. Provide sentence-reading tasks where students need to shift between phonics and sight words. Require students to verbalize the difference, so that they develop a metacognitive approach to decoding and spelling. Teach students to access their knowledge of prefixes and suffixes and related words in spelling—for example, music/musical (c at the end, not k or ck); jumped (ed, not t, because of past tense). Note: Students sometimes rely exclusively on phonics if they are not taught how and when to shift strategies. Reading comprehension Shifting between “big ideas” and supporting details Teach students to differentiate among main ideas, important details, and less relevant details. This is an important skill for summarizing and studying. Require students to identify multiple-meaning words, as above. Teach students to use three-column notes (e.g., Triple Note Tote), to ensure that they shift from the main ideas or core concepts to the supportive details (see Chapter 2). Written language Shifting between “big ideas” and supporting details. Shifting “from the top to the bottom of the mountain and back again” (see Chapters 1 and 2) Provide students with graphic organizers for sorting main ideas vs. supportive details. Provide templates that help students focus on major themes or thesis statements, relevant details, and conclusions. Provide models for shifting from the main ideas to supporting details. Help students to develop personalized checklists that help them differentiate between relevant and irrelevant details. Studying and test taking Shifting and organizing Shifting and self-checking Have students create specific study plans for tests in different subject areas and with different formats (e.g., essay vs. multiple-choice). Have students use a question–answer or three-column format (e.g., Triple Note Tote) for studying for tests. Have students shift from writing to editing, using personalized checklists of their common errors on tests. (cont.)

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TABLE 6.2. (cont.) Summarizing, note taking, long-term projects Shifting and prioritizing Shifting and organizing Teach the “big picture” versus the details by using concept maps and reminding students to visualize themselves standing at the “top of the mountain” and then shifting to the “bottom of the mountain” for the details. Teach students to extract the main themes when taking notes and to paraphrase the information in their own words. Require students to use the Triple Note Tote strategy or strategy cards throughout each chapter/unit (see Chapter 2). These require students to shift from the main ideas to the details and back again, so that they have a study plan for tests. Require students to shift between short-term homework due immediately and long-term projects by using monthly and weekly calendars and setting short-term “due dates” for phases of the long-term work. Math Problem Solving Shifting and prioritizing Require students to generate math language for each operation (e.g., difference, less, take away = subtraction). Teach students to shift from the language embedded in word problems to the computational details and back again. Teach students to focus on the meaning of the math problem versus the operations and calculation details by reminding students to visualize themselves standing at the “top of the mountain” and then shifting to the “bottom of the mountain” for the details. Within operations (e.g., long division) teach students to shift from division to subtraction (and the like). Require students to estimate the answers to word problems (“big picture”) and to compare their solutions with their estimates. Teach students to ask themselves, “ Does it make sense?”, by comparing their final calculations with their estimates.

WHAT STRATEGIES SHOULD WE TEACH TO PROMOTE STUDENTS’ COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY? Specific strategies for fostering flexible thinking and set shifting are often embedded in classroom instruction, but may not be explicitly taught. Students are often unaware of the goals of the lessons or activities, and metacognitive awareness is not actively promoted. The following suggestions and strategies should be used as guides for explicitly helping students to develop flexible mindsets and approaches to the different content areas.

Shifting and Flexible Thinking in Reading As discussed above, reading tasks require students to apply and combine different strategies on the basis of the specific goals, text structures, and content requirements of the different tasks (Brown et al., 1983). When reading novels, for example, students are required to shift between the concrete and the abstract, between the literal and the symbolic, and between the major themes and relevant details. Similarly, students regularly encounter ambiguous language when they read poetry,

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and texts in content areas such as biology or history which also require them to think flexibly about the meanings of specific words, phrases, and sentences. There are three major categories of ambiguous language (Spector, 1997): Multiple-meaning words. These include homographs and homophones, such as pair versus pear and weight versus wait. Changing the accent of a word may also vary the meaning of words, as in the example of PROduce versus proDUCE. Multiple-meaning phrases. Ambiguous phrases are often idioms, such as “eats like a bird,” “break a leg,” “follow your heart”, and “off the wall.” Multiple-meaning sentences. To interpret ambiguous sentences, readers must use syntactic information and context clues embedded in the text to infer the correct meaning. For oral language, listeners may also analyze verbal cues (e.g., stress and intonation) and nonverbal cues (e.g., gestures and body language) to understand the intended meanings of the sentences. They also need to identify which specific parts of sentences can be interpreted in two different ways. Examples include “Jane has grown another foot” and “He grimaced when Ralph took his picture.” Students need to learn how to recognize and analyze multimeaning words, phrases, and sentences, and how to use context clues to shift back and forth between the main ideas and the details. As discussed above, many approaches can be used. For example, riddles, multimeaning words, and ambiguous sentences can be presented in humorous ways to teach students how to shift flexibly among meanings by using context clues, shifting from noun to verb use, or shifting accents or syllables in words. Teachers can present students with jokes or riddles such as those shown in Figures 6.2 and 6.3, and can require students to do the following: Read the jokes or riddles. Identify the literal and figurative meanings of the words. Underline the part of the joke with multiple meanings.

What did the ocean say to the shore? Nothing, it just waved. What did the calculator say to the student? You can count on me. What do you get when you eat crackers in bed? A crumby night’s sleep. Why shouldn’t you step on a watch? Because it’s a waste of time.

FIGURE 6.2. Examples of using riddles to promote flexible interpretation of multimeaning words.

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FIGURE 6.3. Teaching cognitive flexibility by illustrating words or phrases in which multiple meanings are associated with verb or noun usage.

Illustrate the two or more different meanings by hand or on a computer. Discuss the multiple meanings with peer partners. Strategies like the multiple-meaning strategy (M & M strategy) can also help students to unlock the meaning of ambiguous language. To use the M & M strategy, students are encouraged to follow the steps outlined in Figure 6.4. As discussed in detail in Chapter 5, students need memory anchors to remember sequences of steps. Crazy phrases that link the steps in a sequence can often help students to recall the order in which they need to analyze the material. For example, to remember the steps involved in the M & M strategy, students could be presented with one of the following crazy phrases: “Mighty Pandas Crave Large Oreos” (see Figure 6.5), “Mean Possums Crush Lollipops Ominously,” or “Mischie-

Multiple-meaning word—Check each unfamiliar or confusing word in the sentence and ask: Could this word have more than one meaning? Could it be used as both a verb and a noun? Can I change the accent or stress of the word? Possible meanings—List all the possible meanings of the word. Context clues—Circle and analyze context clues in the sentences. Logical meaning—Underline the most logical meaning. Cross out meanings that don’t make sense. Own words: Restate the sentence in your own words. Crazy phrase: “Mighty Pandas Crave Large Oreos.”

FIGURE 6.4. The multiple-meaning strategy (M & M strategy).

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FIGURE 6.5. Use of a crazy phrase to recall the M & M Strategy for shifting flexibly among multiple word meanings.

vous Penguins Collect Lopsided Oranges.” Once they have practiced using the M& M strategy, students should be encouraged to make up their own crazy phrases. Table 6.3 demonstrates how students might use the M & M strategy to comprehend the following ambiguous sentence: “The hiker looked at the scale carefully.” While ambiguous language challenges students to think flexibly at the word and sentence levels, students are also required to shift mindsets when reading paragraphs in textbooks and chapters in novels. To comprehend fiction, for example, it is important that readers shift mindsets to think like the characters in a book. Consider the following excerpt from page 1 of The Ballad of Lucy Whipple, by Karen Cushman (1996): It was a hot day in late August, and nothing was moving in the heat but the flies, when our wagon pulled out of the woods and stopped at the edge of the ravine.

TABLE 6.3. Using the M & M Strategy to Comprehend Ambiguous Language Ambiguity The hiker looked at the scale carefully.

Possible meanings Machine for weighing Plate on fish or reptiles Proportion on a map To climb up Series of musical tones

Context clues hiker —suggests that the scale is something one might need in the wilderness the —suggests that scale is a noun carefully —suggests that the scale is important to the hiker; it might be hard to see

Logical meaning Machine for weighing Plate on fish or reptiles Proportion on a map To climb up Series of musical tones

Own words The hiker looked at the proportion on the map carefully.

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When this passage is interpreted from a contemporary perspective, readers might assume that “our wagon” refers to a station wagon (i.e., a car). However, if the readers are able to shift mindsets and leave behind the time and place in which they live in favor of those in the book (California in 1848), it is more likely that they will activate their background knowledge about this time period and visualize a wooden, horse-drawn wagon. Similarly, in order for readers to understand and analyze a character’s actions, they must discard their personal goals/values and temporarily adopt those of the main character. Use of a Venn diagram helps students to make this shift. This approach makes explicit the differences between the readers and the main character, and students need to think about the similarities and differences when they draw the Venn. To help readers change mindsets, students can be encouraged to refer to the Venn diagram before each reading session. Figure 6.6 is an example of a structured and scaffolded Venn diagram that focuses on the setting.

Shifting and Flexible Thinking in Written Language Persuasive and analytical writing requires students to develop an argument or thesis, which is supported by specific evidence and examples. To facilitate planning and organization, writers are often required to complete a linear graphic organizer that outlines their main idea and supporting details. For some students, this is an effective approach. However, for those who have difficulty with flexible thinking, it may be challenging for them to shift fluidly between their main ideas and supporting details. Consequently, they may choose examples (such as quotes or facts) that either lend little support to the main idea or are entirely unrelated. Use of a graphic organizer that makes explicit connections between the main idea and supporting details may help writers to shift more fluidly between the two (see Appen-

My Setting

Time Year: Current events: Popular activities: Place: Where I live: What it is like:

Character‛s Setting Time Year: Current events: Popular activities: Place: Where he/she lives: What it is like:

FIGURE 6.6. Structured Venn diagram to help students think flexibly about a story’s setting.

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dix 11). This graphic organizer can be used as a prewriting strategy for organizing paragraphs or essays. It encourages students to provide specific examples, and it also helps to ensure that the details support the argument and promote the main idea. Another method for promoting flexible thinking when writing is to teach students to develop counterarguments to their theses or main ideas. Introducing a counterargument is an effective technique for an introduction or conclusion to a persuasive essay. Developing an introductory or concluding statement that challenges an argument, but is weighted more heavily in the direction of the writer’s opinion, encourages a student to think deeply and flexibly about the topic at hand. Note taking is another area of written language that requires students to think flexibly. When taking notes during a class lecture, students are required to listen actively to the information, transfer it into their own words, and record important information in note form. Similarly, effective note taking while reading requires students to read the information and paraphrase it in words that are meaningful and familiar to them. However, the act of paraphrasing is extremely challenging for many students, especially those who have difficulty thinking flexibly. As a result, these students frequently resort to copying the exact words that appear in the text; this not only compromises their understanding, but also reduces the likelihood that they will retain the information over time. Thus it is essential to provide students with explicit instruction focused on ways of paraphrasing information for note taking. The following four-step process for teaching paraphrasing is effective (Vener, 2002): 1. 2. 3. 4.

Find the words you want to change. Use a thesaurus to find appropriate synonyms for these words. Replace the original words with the synonyms. Rearrange the sentence so that it makes sense, without changing its original meaning.

Teachers should also explain to students that their notes need to be legible and should contain accurate information, but that they do not have to use perfect spelling and grammar or to write in complete sentences. Instead, students can use bullets or numbers to take notes and can develop personalized systems of abbreviations for common words.

Shifting and Flexible Thinking in Math In math, shifting is essential for efficient and accurate calculations and analyses of word problems. Students often need to shift flexibly between operations (e.g., long division involves shifting from division to multiplication to subtraction). Students

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are also often taught to predict the answers and generate estimates before solving problems. In other words, they need to shift flexibly between the initial “ballpark figure” or estimate and the actual answer. Moreover, when solving word problems, students often need to shift fluidly between numbers and words. For example, they need to know that the key phrase all together indicates addition, whereas the phrase less than calls for subtraction. When asked to “explain their work,” students need to work in the opposite direction and convert their numerical computations into written language. One way to promote flexible thinking in math is to expose students to multiple representations of mathematical concepts and procedures (Roditi & Steinberg, 2007). Many teachers already use multiple representations when teaching fractions, decimals, and percents, all of which can be expressed by using numbers, words, and visual or concrete manipulatives that illustrate part-to-whole relationships. To help students think flexibly about the concepts they are learning, this type of instruction can be extended to many more mathematical constructs. Positive and negative numbers, for example, can be illustrated by using a traditional number line or the analogy of temperature on a thermometer. Similarly, asking students to convert numbers into graphs, tables, and charts helps them to shift from the smaller details to the larger patterns and trends. When learning new concepts or skills, students are frequently required to practice problems presented in a particular format in class or for homework. To promote mastery of mathematical skills, this format is often highly structured and repetitive. For tests or quizzes, teachers often change the format to evaluate their students’ level of comprehension, in addition to their ability to apply these skills. Teachers may also group together different types of problems that students have previously practiced only in isolation. On these tasks, students often have difficulty shifting mindsets and recognizing familiar problems that are presented in a different format. They also struggle to differentiate between mixed problem types (see Figure 6.7).

Example 1: Calculation Homework: What is 20 percent of 80? Test: 16 is what percent of 80? Example 2: Word Problem Homework: John earns the following scores on his English tests: 82, 90, 76, and 87. What is his average test score for the semester? Test: Rachel’s average test score for the semester in history class is an 89. She earned the following scores on three of the tests: 92, 88, and 81. What score must she have earned on the fourth test?

FIGURE 6.7. Examples of math problems with different formats.

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FIGURE 6.8. Suggestions for helping students to shift among problem types.

To address situations such as those in Figure 6.7, it is important to teach students how to shift flexibly from one problem type to another or one format to another. When completing a page of multiple problem types for homework or on a test, for example, students can be encouraged to stop and ask themselves the specific questions presented in Figure 6.8. These questions help them identify the similarities and differences between the problem they are currently working on and the previous problems in that set. These guided questions are intended to help students not to get “stuck” in one approach, but to shift flexibly in order to recognize the differences between problems. Students can then recognize that a different approach or operation may be needed and can generate a more accurate plan of action.

Shifting and Flexible Thinking for Studying and Taking Tests As discussed above, preparing for tests and quizzes is a process that requires flexible thinking on many different levels. Students need to be able to extract information from a variety of sources, including textbooks, homework assignments, and class notes. Memorizing the specific details and integrating them with the larger concepts also require cognitive flexibility. Students with executive function difficulties often experience an overload of information, so that they do not know where to begin; as a result, they often feel as if their minds are like “clogged funnels” (see Figure 1.2 in Chapter 1). Because they do not shift approaches flexibly and cannot sift and sort the information, they cannot unclog their funnels easily. Consequently, their writing, study skills, and test performance are often compromised, and their academic grades often do not reflect their true intellectual ability. Many students tend to use the same study techniques for all subject areas. Although it may be effective to focus on the textbook to prepare for a history test, this may be less helpful in math, where it is often more beneficial to review earlier classwork and homework assignments. Students need to be taught that different subject areas require different study techniques, and that they need to be flexible in their preparation for tests and quizzes. Helping students to develop a systematic study plan for each subject area, such as the one in Figure 6.9, is one way to

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Math Make a flash card for each different type of problem. Each card should include these details: Name of problem How to recognize it Steps to solve it Example Strategy for remembering the information Make a practice test with examples of each type of problem. Check work carefully. Redo the problems that were challenging or incorrect.

English Write a one- or two-sentence summary of each chapter in the novel. Identify important examples and quotes from each chapter. Review the notes from class. Try to predict the essay question. Create an outline for a response.

FIGURE 6.9. Examples of personalized study plans for math and English.

help students recognize this. Students should develop individualized study plans reflecting the study strategies that have proved to be most effective for them. Even within the same subject area, students should also be taught to study differently for tests with different formats. For a multiple-choice format test in history, students are often tested on detailed, factual information. For an essay test in history, however, students need to be taught how to shift away from the facts and details to the topics or major concepts. They need to be able to “tell the story” embedded in the content, rather than simply cramming hundreds of facts/details and then forgetting these immediately after the test. For short-answer and essay tests, students are required to select the most relevant factual information and to connect these details to a larger theme. One effective study strategy for such tests is to review the textbook, class notes, and homework assignments, and them to make strategy notecards with important people, dates, places, and events on one side, and the corresponding descriptions on the other. Students should also write down their personalized strategies for remembering key terms and for shifting from the major concepts to the relevant details, such as a crazy phrases, acronyms, or cartoons (see Chapters 2 and 5 for more details). In fact, it is beneficial for students to create three-column notes, where they record the main idea in one column, the supporting details in a second column, and their memory strategies in the last column. The Triple Note Tote strategy from BrainCogs (ResearchILD & FableVision, 2003) can be used in this way for

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taking notes, outlining, studying, and self-quizzing (see Chapters 2, 4, and 5 for more information).

Helping Leo and Sally to Think More Flexibly As demonstrated by the descriptions of Leo and Sally at the beginning of this chapter, students’ difficulties in thinking flexibly can affect their learning and academic performance in a variety of ways. Therefore, it is important to select the techniques used to promote flexible thinking carefully, in order to match students’ individual learning profiles and address their academic needs. Table 6.4 provides a few suggestions for helping Leo and Sally think more flexibly and for addressing their respective areas of difficulty: in math and science (Leo) and in language arts (Sally).

TABLE 6.4. Suggestions for Helping Leo and Sally to Think Flexibly Difficulty

Recommendations Leo

Applying familiar information to new problems or situations presented on science and math quizzes and tests

For novel problems, teach Leo to ask himself what is the same and what is different or new about this problem versus problems he has completed previously for homework. He should then use this information to create a plan of action.

Shifting approaches when solving math problems

Use multiple representations of information (e.g., algorithms, graphs, diagrams) to teach math concepts and skills. Make the connections between the different representations explicit and clear.

Create a study plan for tests and quizzes, which includes having Leo practice applying the skills and information that he knows to new situations. Develop Leo’s metacognitive awareness by providing explicit examples that emphasize cognitive flexibility. Provide opportunities for modeling, guided practice, and independent practice.

Develop Leo’s metacognitive awareness by providing opportunities for him to reflect on his strategy use. Leo could be given extra credit for completing strategy reflection sheets for his homework or tests. Sally Identifying the main ideas while reading and note-taking

Teach Sally how to change subheadings into questions (see Chapters 4 and 5) to extract the main ideas from each section of her textbook. Encourage her to write down the answer on a Post-it Note that is stuck directly to the book, or to use a three-column note-taking format (see Chapters 4 and 5). For note taking, Sally can paraphrase information and use a personalized system of abbreviations.

Shifting flexibly between the main idea (or thesis) and details in written language

Before writing essays, Sally can use the STAR strategy (see Chapters 1 and 5) or the graphic organizer in Appendix 12, to ensure that the details and quotes she includes in her essay support her main idea. When she studies for essay and short-answer tests, Sally can predict what the questions might be and make a draft or outline of her answers.

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CONCLUSION Cognitive flexibility, or the ability to think flexibly and to shift mindsets, is one of the least understood executive function processes. There is a need for many more studies that systematically evaluate the links between cognitive flexibility and performance in the different academic domains. It is important that teachers build time into the daily curriculum for teaching students to develop metacognitive mindsets and to think strategically about their work. Students need to learn why and how they can approach all academic tasks flexibly, so they can shift easily “from the top of the mountain to the bottom,” as they focus alternately on the major themes and the relevant details (see Figure 1.1 in Chapter 1). In doing so, they learn to prioritize, to sift and sort information, and to “unclog the funnel” (see Figure 1.2 in Chapter 1) so that they can be productive and successful in school and in life.

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WHAT IS EXECUTIVE FUNCTION?

Organizing: Categorizing and sorting information Self-checking: Recognizing one’s most common mistakes

Remembering/ Accessing working memory: Juggling information in the brain

Goal Setting: Working towards desired outcomes

Shifting flexibly: Looking again in a brand-new way

Executive Function components for college Same and Different Organizing: How can I organize my time, papers, information? Self-checking: Self-reflectionhow did my strategy work? What can I do better next time?

Working Memory What memory “strats” work now?

Goal Setting: What will I major in? What’s my purpose in college?

Shifting flexibly: How do I adjust to “freedom” ?

Metacognition - Self understanding- the key to Executive Function Thinking about how we think and learn Understanding our strengths and challenges independent of home and in a different environment

CHAPTER 3

Goal Setting, Planning, and Prioritizing The Foundations of Effective Learning

K ALYANI KRISHNAN, MELISSA J. FELLER, and MELISSA ORKIN

n life, goal setting, planning, and prioritizing are critically important for the successful accomplishment of a wide range of activities. Similarly, in the classroom, a student’s ability to set goals, manage time, plan, and prioritize lays the foundation for success. In this chapter, we discuss the executive function processes involved in goal setting, planning, and prioritizing and suggest strategies for supporting and fostering the development of these processes in classrooms and across grades.

WHY SHOULD WE TEACH STRATEGIES FOR GOAL SETTING, PLANNING, AND PRIORITIZING? Executive function processes pose a unique challenge to educators because of their complex nature. Specific processes such as goal setting and planning are implicit in many of the tasks assigned to students from elementary school onwards. For instance, a third grader who was asked to complete a book report was provided with directions by her teacher as shown in Figure 3.1. In order to complete this task, this third grader needed to set both long-range and short-term goals (i.e., “I need to finish the book report before Halloween and do my best” as a long-term goal, and “I need to read 25 pages every day” as a short-term goal). In order to reach her goals, this student needed to plan her time and to allocate an appropri57

SCAFFOLDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION PROCESSES

FIGURE 3.1. Sample third-grade book report assignment.

ate amount of work to each day. Finally, the student needed to prioritize multiple matters. Of all the books in the library, which one would she choose? Of all the ideas in the book, which one was the most important to include in the summary? Of all the funny and interesting things that happened in the story, which one was her favorite? Thus what appeared to be a simple third-grade project was in fact a multilayered challenge that required this student to use several executive function processes, such as setting goals, planning tasks, and developing priorities in an independent manner. This, along with other such projects that are assigned to children of all ages, provides a powerful rationale for explicitly teaching specific strategies for these processes to children throughout the grades. We devote the first half of this chapter to goal setting, and the second half to planning and prioritizing.

WHY SHOULD WE TEACH EXPLICIT STRATEGIES FOR GOAL SETTING? Goal setting refers to the learner’s ability to identify a guiding purpose for his or her actions, based on an awareness of personal strengths and limitations and a clear vision of the desired final result (Locke, 1968). In order to meet a goal, the student needs to carefully organize his or her approach, both by taking into account the “big picture” and by recognizing the smaller steps involved (see Chapters 1 and 2). Timely and successful execution of tasks also relies on the ability to plan and prioritize.

Goal Setting, Planning, and Prioritizing

In the classroom, there is a need to strike a balance between a curriculumcentered view of education and a student-centered view. Typically, the curriculum is predetermined, and the teacher’s job is to deliver the content to the students. Thus it is the teacher’s job to set the goals and objectives for each lesson, to determine the pace and direction of each lesson, and to mediate the learning experiences of students in a very direct manner. However, as discussed in Chapters 1 and 2, recent changes in education have led to the inclusion of more long-term projects and research papers across the grades, all of which require more independent engagement from students. As a result, teachers need to share the goal-setting process with students, to help the students to become independent learners. The importance of teaching goal-setting strategies is supported by research findings that show a strong cyclical relationship between the ability to set personal goals and sustain higher levels of motivation on the one hand, and the development of positive self-efficacy (which promotes success) on the other (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996; Schunk, 1995). Research evidence also suggests that students may be more energized and interested when they engage in tasks of their choosing, and that they may work harder on self-made goals than they do when they work toward the plans and expectations of others (Linskie, 1977). Our clinical experience suggests that when teachers share the goal-setting process with students and give them appropriate guidance, students can learn how to set reasonable goals, which increases their motivation and willingness to persist. Although most educators begin to think about goal setting as a desired learning outcome in secondary school and when they are planning for students’ transitions to postsecondary education, research has shown that children at much younger ages can set specific and meaningful goals that influence their learning outcomes (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Deno, 1985; Johnson, Graham, & Harris, 1997; Licht, 1983; Missiuna, Pollock, & Law, 2004; Missiuna, Pollock, Law, Walter, & Cavey, 2007). In fact, when children learn to set effective personal goals, and when their learning is supported by meaningful feedback (self-assessment and teacher feedback) as well as by appropriate learning experiences and strategies, they show improvements in their academic performance. For example, given a complex process such as writing, research suggests that children are more easily able to manage the multiple demands of the task when they learn how to self-regulate their efforts through goal setting and planning (De La Paz, 2007; Graham, 2006). Research evidence also shows that this is true both for typically developing children and for students with learning challenges (Carlson, Booth, Shin, & Canu, 2002). Indeed, while all students benefit from learning how to set goals, students who struggle with academic tasks benefit even more. Thus there are compelling pedagogical reasons for teaching students how to set goals and for making goal setting an integral part of the classroom learning experience, beginning in the early elementary grades. In fact, goal setting needs to be taught explicitly, systematically, and across grade levels and curriculum areas

SCAFFOLDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION PROCESSES

(Meltzer, 2007). However, given the pace of the curriculum, the diversity of learning styles represented in the classroom, and the large volume of content, many teachers find it difficult to make the time to teach goal setting, as it is not a component of the content-centered curriculum. Therefore, practical and manageable systems and strategies for embedding goal setting into the curriculum are discussed below.

WHAT FOUNDATIONAL PROCESSES ARE NEEDED FOR SUCCESSFUL GOAL SETTING? In order to set effective and reasonable goals to guide their learning, students need to: Develop an understanding of their learning profiles. Understand the “big picture” or gestalt, and envision the endpoint of a task. Value the task or assignment. Learn to set goals that are proximal, specific, and appropriately difficult.

Self-Understanding Self-knowledge and self-understanding are key essential metacognitive processes for goal setting. Many students with learning and attention difficulties demonstrate weaknesses in their self-knowledge and self-awareness, as well as in their strategy use and their self-efficacy (Stone & Conca, 1993; Swanson, 1989; Torgesen, 1977). Research has shown a strong cyclical relationship among self-understanding, effective strategy use, academic success, the development of beliefs that one can succeed, positive self-concept, and increased engagement with learning (Licht, 1993; Meltzer et al., 2004; Meltzer & Krishnan, 2007). Thus students who know that they learn best when they draw diagrams and visualize information are more likely to use these types of strategies when studying. Students who realize that it is difficult to remember math formulae are more likely to seek out appropriate memory strategies for studying. Therefore, students who are strategic are likely to experience academic success as a result of their proactive and engaged style, which in turn increases their self-efficacy (belief that they will succeed at a task). When approaching tasks from this position of strength, students can also become more engaged with challenging tasks and accept more responsibility for their own learning. In addition, when students self-evaluate their learning, this process also informs their teachers, who can align their classroom practices with the needs of their students (see Chapters 1 and 2; see also Joseph, 2003). Conversely, students who are not self-aware and introspective about their learning, and those who lack

Goal Setting, Planning, and Prioritizing

effective strategies, are at a great disadvantage when coping with the fast-paced and complex curriculum of today’s schools.

Understanding the “Big Picture” Awareness of the “big picture,” and the ability to see it, are important factors that help students to set goals and plan a course of action (see Chapter 1). When students are focused on proceeding from one detail to the next, they often do not have a sense of the final product or goal (Meltzer, 2004, 2007; see Chapter 1). Thus they have a limited ability to take charge of their own learning. Many students with learning and attention difficulties tend to use a sequential, piecemeal approach to learning. Such an approach is tedious and may overload them with many details; at the same time, they lack an understanding of how these details fit together (Stein & Krishnan, 2007). On the other hand, students who are able to move flexibly back and forth between an understanding of a whole task and of its parts, or from “the top of the mountain to the bottom and back” (see Chapter 1), are better able to manage the complex, multilayered tasks typically required of students in our 21stcentury schools. A related skill is the ability to envision the endpoint or final step in a process. When students can do this, they have a clear and well-defined target, which helps them to focus their effort and to allocate their cognitive resources effectively.

Valuing the Task For students to engage actively with a task or assignment, it is important that they value this task. According to expectancy–value theory, individual expectations of success, combined with the value attributed to the goal, influence each student’s level of motivation (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975); see Figure 3.2). Therefore, a child who has a strong expectation of success and values a task will engage with it. If the child either does not expect success or does not value the goal, the child’s motivation will be significantly compromised. Thus teachers need to ensure that students value the tasks they are asked to engage with, so that they will set meaningful and motivating goals (Adelman & Taylor, 1993; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Stipek, 1998).

(the

E V=M represents a multiplication sign)

In other words: Expectation of success

Value of the goal = Motivation

FIGURE 3.2. Expectancy–value theory diagram.

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Setting Proximal, Specific, and Appropriately Challenging Goals Students need instruction focused on how to set goals that are proximal, specific, and appropriately challenging (Harris & Graham, 1996). Research has shown that proximal goals—ones that will be accomplished in the near future, and therefore provide immediate incentives—are more effective than long-range goals in promoting student success (Schunk, 1980). For example, a proximal goal such as “I want to finish reading Chapter 3 today” provides a better incentive than “I have to finish reading this novel by the end of the month.” Similarly, specific goals (e.g., “Make sure all your sentences start with capitals and end with periods”) are more effective than vague goals (e.g., “Do your best!”) on various types of tasks (Locke, 1968; Locke, Shaw, Saari, & Latham, 1981). Finally, the difficulty of a goal is often related to student engagement (Locke, 1968; Locke et al., 1981). However, the relationship between goal difficulty and student engagement can be complex. due to a student’s temperament, self-efficacy, and other factors. Some students are motivated by harder goals, and they are willing to persist and exert great effort in order to succeed. Other students may doubt their ability to achieve a goal, may perceive it as “too difficult,” and thus may not engage with the task. Therefore, while it is important to set increasingly challenging goals in order for students to progress, teachers need to take care that these goals are identified with an understanding of each student’s capacity, as well as his or her tolerance for stress.

HOW SHOULD STRATEGIES FOR GOAL SETTING BE TAUGHT? We can teach students to set goals through classroom accommodations and direct, systematic instruction.

Accommodations Many common instructional accommodations provide students with scaffolds that help them with goal setting. Although these accommodations are often prescribed for students with learning or attention difficulties, they constitute “best practices” in general education. They include the following: Rubrics and samples of finished projects give students an opportunity to “look inside the teacher’s mind.” They help students to envision the endpoint, as discussed above, and make the task requirements explicit for all students. Providing both rubrics and samples also addresses the needs of students with multiple learning styles, including learners who prefer visual, verbal, part-to-whole, and gestaltbased (i.e., top-down) approaches. Visual representations (i.e., pictorial or three-dimensional) often clarify the ambiguities inherent in verbal descriptions (Bransford & Johnson, 1973). Teachers

Goal Setting, Planning, and Prioritizing

can use projects completed by previous students (photographs or actual examples), or can lead them through a sample prior to giving students a similar assignment. Many teachers in the lower elementary grades do this as a matter of routine, but these supports are less common in middle school and beyond. Older students continue to benefit from access to samples of completed projects, as well as from rubrics. When a students are given a comprehensive rubric, they have a clear idea of what the teacher is looking for and how performance may be assessed. A sample rubric for evaluating a student debate is provided in Figure 3.3. The use of calendars and phased timelines also promotes effective goal setting. Calendars provide visual reminders of due dates, as well as schemas for setting and achieving short-term goals that contribute to the successful attainment of the larger, final goal. A sample calendar is presented in Figure 3.4. Teachers and students can use several Internet sources to customize calendars. The Scholastic website offers the option to generate and customize a calendar that can then be printed out and kept in a student’s binder (www.scholastic.com/kids/homework/calendar.htm). Another website that allows students and teachers several options is Calendars That Work, where a variety of calendar styles can be selected and printed so that students can manually fill in their deadlines and schedules (www.calendarsthatwork. com). Calendars and timelines are discussed in further detail later in this chapter. Category 4 Respect for All statements, Other Team body language, and responses were respectful and were in appropriate language.

3 Statements and responses were respectfu I and used appropriate language, but once or twice body language was not. Most information Information All information presented in the presented in the debate was clear, debate was clear, accurate, and accurate, and thorough. thorough. Every major point Use of Every major point Facts/ was well supported was adequately Statistics with several relevant supported with facts, statistics, and/ relevant facts, statistics, and/or or examples. examples. Most Rebuttal All counterarguments counterarguments were accurate, were accurate, relevant, and strong. relevant, and strong.

2 Most statements and responses were respectful and in appropriate language, but there was one sarcastic remark. Most information presented in the debate was clear and accurate, but was not usually thorough. Every major point was supported with facts, statistics, and/ or examples, but the relevance of some was Questionable. Most counterarguments were accurate and relevant, but several were weak.

1 Statements, responses, and/ or body language were consistently not respectful.

Information had several inaccuracies or was usually not clear. Not every point was supported.

Counterarguments were not accurate and/or relevant.

FIGURE 3.3. Sample rubric for evaluating a student debate, created with an online template (rubistar.4teachers.org/index.php). Template used by courtesy of ALTEC at the University of Kansas.

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Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday 24 25 Have the name Begin developing of a person questions in class

Friday 26 Make contact by today and set up interview

March 22 Think about people to inteview

29 Interviews begin Types questions due

April 1

13 12 Write oral Noes from history inteviews due Make outline in class 19 20 Rough draft due Work on ﬁnal draft and illustration

Interviews continue

All interviews done

Final draft and illustrations due on April 26, 2010

FIGURE 3.4. Sample calendar.

Direct and Systematic Instruction In addition to the types of accommodations discussed above, all students benefit from explicitly learning how to set goals. Self-understanding, grasp of the “big picture,” and valuing the task are among the key components of effective goal setting, as discussed above.

Self- Understanding Promoting self-knowledge is a key factor in helping students become effective goal setters. Self-knowledge is an important component of a resilient learning style, which in turns ensures that students set reasonable and appropriate goals (see Chapters 1 and 2). When students receive formal evaluations, their profiles of strengths and weaknesses are clearly defined as a result of the testing. However, it is possible for all learners to reflect on their own learning and arrive at reasonable conclusions about their own strengths and weaknesses, whether or not they

Goal Setting, Planning, and Prioritizing

receive complex evaluations. There are several activities and surveys that classroom teachers can use to initiate discussions about learning styles. One effective way is to use a multiple-intelligences wheel, based on Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1983). This can be adapted to the ages and ability levels of specific students. Teachers and students can color in different sectors to illustrate their own patterns of strengths and weaknesses. A sample wheel representing a fifth grader’s profile is shown in Figure 3.5. Self-assessments are most effectively completed in a nonjudgmental environment that is accepting of all learning styles. It is essential for teachers to begin creating such an environment by introducing students to the notion that everyone has different strengths and weaknesses. Given the widespread use of social skills programs such as Open Circle (a “social and emotional learning program” from the Wellesley Center for Women at Wellesley College; see Chapter 8), many students in elementary schools are familiar with inclusive discussions. These types of discussions help students to develop a rich and well-integrated understanding of their learning styles. Teachers can complete an initial discussion and survey of different types of learning styles at the beginning of the year. Following this, it is important to continue these discussions periodically throughout the year, so that all learners will continue to update their self-assessments. It is often helpful to use outstanding public figures to illustrate different learning styles, so that students can identify with acknowledged leaders. Once the stage has been set, teachers can capitalize on their students’ developing self-awareness by promoting a classroom culture that welcomes multiple learning styles.

FIGURE 3.5. Fifth grader’s multiple-intelligences wheel.

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Understanding the “Big Picture” Teachers can further facilitate goal setting by sharing the “big picture,” or schema, with respect to broad goals for the year or the term, along with more specific content- or lesson-related goals. (A more in-depth discussion of schemas is presented in Chapter 4.) Understanding the broad sweep of the content they will be learning allows students to set their own personal goals more effectively. This also helps them to understand the relationship between the information that they already know and the new content that will be presented; doing so gives them a framework into which they can integrate their new knowledge (Stein & Krishnan, 2007). For instance, it is appropriate for a teacher to make the following types of broad statements at the beginning of the year. A statement to second or third graders regarding the goals or the science curriculum may be as follows: “This year, we are going to learn about the environment around us and how it affects living things. We will study weather, natural resources, and problems like pollution, and understand how plants, animals, and people adapt to their surroundings.” A possible statement to students in an advanced high school level English course may be this: “An essential component of this course is the development of proficiency in the language arts. The guiding principles of Advanced English II are as follows: Speak and write clear, idiomatic English. Engage in the writing process, from prewriting to editing and peer feedback to revision. Develop voice and depth in both personal and literary papers. Develop confidence, independence, and critical judgment relative to your own work. Understand as fully as possible what is read.” Once these goals are articulated and discussed with students, they can set their own personal goals for the class in question, keeping in mind their own strengths and weaknesses, their personal interests, and the stated intent of their teachers. A blank Individual Goal Plan is provided in Appendix 1. A plan such as this can be tailored to meet the “good goal” requirements of proximity, specificity, and difficulty. Teachers and students can further customize these templates to meet their individual needs. In addition to these broad, curriculum-related goals, students benefit greatly when their teachers “set the stage” as a new unit is introduced or when new concepts are encountered in an ongoing lesson. Teachers can use a variety of approaches to

Goal Setting, Planning, and Prioritizing

connect information as they teach and present a bird’s-eye view of the organization of content. Diagrams, maps, and timelines, for instance, provide anchoring organizational frameworks in the humanities. Teachers can also use graphics and organizational tools to synthesize and summarize the key concepts in a curriculum (see Figure 3.6). For instance, many students in grades 6–8 are introduced to the major early civilizations, with the overarching goal of helping them understand the underlying themes and patterns that were the governing principles for the establishment of human civilization. Although this is one of the stated goals for middle school social studies curricula, this information is rarely provided to students in a concise manner. Instead, students often study several ancient civilizations in sequence (e.g., Babylon, Egypt, Indus Valley), but they are left to abstract and synthesize key concepts independently. Students with executive function difficulties often struggle with these implicit curriculum goals. In contrast, when the teacher uses an organizer like the one shown in Figure 3.6, the information is encapsulated for all students so that they can understand the goals and intentions of the course as well as the way information is connected within this subject. Such an approach meets the needs of students with weak executive function processes in particular. This type of synthesis has the added benefit of promoting greater understanding and recall of key concepts in the humanities and sciences. Other opportunities to set conceptual goals are provided by strategies such as K-W-L, which is used during reading activities (Bos & Vaughn, 2002). The K, W, and L stand for “what I Know,” “what I Want to learn,” and “what I did Learn,” respectively. By activating students’ background knowledge and helping them set goals, this strategy promotes better reading comprehension. Similarly, during

FIGURE 3.6. Bird’s-eye view of curriculum content.

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FIGURE 3.7. Template for generating a graphic summary: Causes and effects of the U.S. Civil War.

math problem solving, the practice of estimating an answer to a problem prior to computation is in fact a goal-setting task, whereby students try to limit the parameters of the outcome of their calculations. Teachers can also use graphic organizers, including tools such as Thinking Maps (www.thinkingmaps.com), to establish the big picture and demonstrate the connections between different concepts within a unit. This information can be presented before, during, and after the lesson, and can play an important role in helping students synthesize and summarize information. For example, these types of strategies can be used at the conclusion of units as ways of recalling, integrating, and summarizing key points. The class as a whole can contribute to the summary as the teacher develops it on the board or overhead projector. The example provided in Figure 3.7 shows a template that can be used to generate a graphic summary of the causes and effects of the U.S. Civil War.

Valuing the Task “How can I get my students to care about what I’m teaching?” This is a burning question for many teachers. Teachers are often frustrated with their students’ lack of connection to the subject materials, especially at the upper grades. In order to solve this problem effectively, it is essential to understand that individuals are motivated to achieve goals that are in line with their own strong desires and values (Eccles, 1987; Feather, 1988; Vroom, 1964; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). As White (1959) asserted, individuals have a deep-rooted desire to have an effect on their environment and to obtain results that they value within their own contexts. Furthermore, self-determination theory suggests that people are motivated to act in a manner that

Goal Setting, Planning, and Prioritizing

is consistent with their values (Deci & Ryan, 2000). These are powerful drives that exist in all learners. Traditionally, teachers and parents have assumed that all students in the classroom are inherently motivated to learn. In years gone by, students who did not “fit” into traditional classrooms could achieve their goals through alternate routes, such as apprenticeships to various practical trades. More recently, life success is increasingly dependent on strong performance in secondary school, as well as prolonged engagement with formal learning through college and graduate school. As a result, there is an urgently felt need to engage all learners within the classroom, including those who have attention and learning difficulties as well as weak executive function processes. Teachers can harness students’ drive to learn by helping all students value the work they do. To do this, in addition to including the abovediscussed practices in their approaches, teachers need to show that they value specific strategies by doing the following: Prioritizing highly valued strategies in the curriculum and agenda. Teachers need to put the strategies they themselves value at the top of their “to-do” list, to make sure students know how much they are valued. Providing sufficient time for students to learn and practice these strategies. When teachers state expectations but do not allow time for students to apply strategies to meet these expectations, students get the message that this is not really important after all. Thus teachers need to “build in” time to teach, practice, and use the specific strategies in the classroom. Making it count. As discussed in Chapters 1 and 2, teachers need to hold students accountable and provide incentives for students to use strategies that are valued in the classroom. Students can learn to value tasks by doing the following: Understanding how each specific skill or strategy can help them achieve a goal they value. An Individual Goal-Planning Worksheet is provided in Appendix 2. This worksheet helps students connect short-term objectives to long-term goals. Reflecting on their subjective experience of using a specific strategy and evaluating the impact this strategy has on their ability to succeed with tasks they value. For example, students who discover that setting goals helps them succeed in meeting deadlines may value this process more readily. Hearing from their peers about what they value in a specific strategy. Peer mentoring and peer opinions are excellent motivators for many students, particularly during adolescence (see Chapter 2 for a discussion of the BrainCogs Squad peer-tutoring approach). As students master these goal-setting strategies, they simultaneously learn organizational strategies, all of which help them to succeed with multistep, open-

SCAFFOLDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION PROCESSES

ended assignments in today’s classrooms. These organizational strategies are essential for keeping up with the quickening pace and larger volume of material covered in each advancing grade.

WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO TEACH EXPLICIT STRATEGIES FOR PLANNING AND PRIORITIZING? Planning and prioritizing are essential for success in today’s classrooms. Each time students are asked, “What did you like best in this story?”, “What were the main causes for this historical event?”, or “What is the most important information in this math problem?”, they need to prioritize information. The current emphasis on long-term projects and the expectations for independent homework completion even at the earliest grades have increased the demands on all students for independent planning and prioritizing. Thus students’ ability to arrange tasks in order of importance and to use strategies for timely completion of tasks are directly related to their success and ability to achieve their goals across academic areas. Many teachers devote time to helping their students identify what is important by developing and providing study guides, teaching methods for identifying major themes in literature, or formulating theses for research papers. However, planning and prioritizing strategies also need to be taught explicitly and directly in regard to time and task management in general. Effective planning and prioritization lead to efficient time management, which in turn has been found to increase productivity, alleviate stress, and have a positive effect on students’ learning and achievement (Misra & McKean, 2000). Students who implement time management strategies are often considered to be more selfregulated, more aware of their thinking processes, and more able to manage their learning across contexts than those who procrastinate (Wolters, 2003). Perhaps this is because the facility to structure one’s time, generate an accurate plan for project completion, and prioritize tasks also results in a greater likelihood of goal achievement and academic success. Efficient time management is a combination of inherent abilities and learned strategies. However, the challenges of time management have become increasingly complex. Environmental demands, such as daily schedules packed with activities or “timeless” distractions like video games and social networking sites (e.g., Facebook and MySpace), can easily reduce a student’s task efficiency and productivity. An added challenge lies in the fact that students rarely have control over their own schedules, as many of them rely on their teachers and parents to manage their time. Thus many students struggle to plan their time independently and break down tasks into manageable “bits” when pressured by deadlines. Just as students benefit from learning isolated decoding skills first and then practicing them embedded in context, mastering time management strategies in isolation before applying them in the context of fast-paced and complex curricula is critical. In fact, each compo-

Goal Setting, Planning, and Prioritizing

nent of the complex process of time management can be developed through the use of effective strategies that are practiced and reinforced in the classroom.

WHAT FOUNDATIONAL PROCESSES ARE NECESSARY FOR PLANNING AND PRIORITIZING? Time management involves interactions among several different executive function processes, including goal setting, prioritizing goals, planning goal achievement, and prioritizing tasks to accomplish objectives (Britton & Tesser, 1991). These processes are fairly complex even for older students; therefore, it is important to begin by focusing on the foundational processes involved in time management: Knowledge of time Knowledge of task Prioritizing tasks Monitoring progress

Accurate Knowledge of Time Understanding the passage of time is often referred to as “having a sense of time.” However, unlike the basic five senses, which are innately developed, awareness of time relies on memory to provide cues for future predictions. For example, when trying to guess how long it has been since one has last had something to eat, one might consider all the events that have taken place between the last meal and the present time. If the events included a walk and watching a television program, one might estimate that a few hours had elapsed. However, if no TV program was watched, the estimate might be reduced by an hour. Estimating time is therefore a subjective process rather than an exact science, and a number of factors affect the precision of these estimates. For example, when students are bored, time tends to drag on; when they are actively engaged, time passes quickly. An individual’s emotional state can also cause time to be either over- or underestimated. It is important that students learn to identify the factors leading to over- or underestimations of time, and that they are offered regular opportunities to hone their estimation skills. Overall, an accurate understanding of time provides a strong foundation from which students can begin to predict how different activities will fit into their schedules.

Accurate Knowledge of Tasks Once students possess a sufficient understanding of time, they can move on to estimating the length of time they should allot for given tasks. Perfecting the ability to estimate a task is a stepwise process that improves with practice. It is first neces-

SCAFFOLDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION PROCESSES

sary to divide large-scale projects into small, manageable parts. Next, it is important to accurately predict the length of time it will take to complete each part. The final step in task estimation is perhaps the most important: Incorporating feedback to create a revised and more accurate estimate is critical for improving future predictions. A student’s precision in predicting the duration of an activity depends on that student’s memories of previous experiences. When children are trying to predict how long it will take to make a peanut butter and jelly sandwich, they will have to think back to the last time they made that type of sandwich. It will also be necessary to consider all of the steps involved, from gathering supplies to spreading the toppings. They will have to check to see whether they have all of the needed supplies—and what happens if they have limited experience with sandwich making? How will this affect their predictions? Children with limited knowledge about an activity are likely to underestimate the amount of time needed to complete the task. However, if they break the task down into smaller, sequential steps, there is a stronger likelihood that accurate estimation will occur, even in the face of an unfamiliar task. Adults and children alike often underestimate the amount of time a task will take (Buehler, Griffin, & MacDonald, 1997; Josephs & Hahn, 1995). Therefore, children should be encouraged to overestimate the time needed to complete an unfamiliar task. If they do complete the task in less time, this will allow them to relax between activities.

Prioritizing Tasks After students have estimated the amount of time to devote to each task, they will need to prepare a schedule and arrange the order in which the tasks should be completed. Prioritizing requires an understanding of each task and the role it plays in larger assignments. A student should learn to place tasks into three different categories—obligation, aspiration, or negotiation—based on their importance, time sensitivity, and role in the student’s life. Obligation. These activities are mandatory tasks that are time-sensitive, such as homework, jobs, and chores. For some students, enrichment activities like soccer or violin practice also fall into the obligation category. Aspiration. These activities are enjoyable tasks that are interesting and important but are not obligatory. These types of activities usually include attending a friend’s birthday party, going to a concert, or watching a favorite television program. Negotiation. These activities do not have immediate time constraints and are flexible (e.g., putting together a model robot). These activities are not as critical as either obligatory or aspirational tasks. Categorizing activities is an important part of the prioritization process, because it provides a foundation on which students can build their schedules.

Goal Setting, Planning, and Prioritizing

Once tasks have been grouped according to their importance, students can rely on their knowledge of time and task to allot the appropriate amount of time for each activity. Obligatory tasks should always be accommodated first, followed by tasks in the aspiration category. In order to ensure accuracy, the process of categorizing activities should involve input from multiple parties, including parents and teachers.

Monitoring Progress Perhaps the most important skill under the time management umbrella is the ability to monitor progress. Students who are monitoring their progress should engage in such tactics as rearranging a schedule, identifying inefficient behaviors, and delegating or deleting responsibilities based on progress. Rearranging schedules. If students have a good working knowledge of time, familiarity with the task at hand, and the ability to determine the importance of completing the given activity within a short period of time, then they should be able to rearrange their schedules in light of unexpected occurrences. However, this type of flexible thinking can be the most challenging aspect of time management for many students. Rigid behavioral patterns may be due to inexperience with situations in which a student is solely responsible for planning his or her time. Alternatively, perhaps the student is accustomed to renouncing his or her plan, rather than reallocating time and resources once a schedule disruption occurs. Identifying overcommitments. When students are feeling stressed, they should be given an opportunity to identify a situation in which they have overcommitted themselves. The negative outcomes of an overcommitted schedule include emotional responses such as frustration or disappointment, as well as behavioral responses such as exhaustion, confusion, and outbursts. In order to avoid situations of overextension, students can be introduced to the processes of delegation and deletion. Delegating an activity involves asking another qualified individual to complete a task (e.g., asking siblings to complete chores and giving them a portion of an allowance, or asking a cocaptain to lead swim practice and offering to cover one of his or her team obligations in the future). For younger students, it may be necessary to identify that the act of delegating is appropriate in situations where important tasks need to be accomplished but a student is already overwhelmed. Deleting an activity from a student’s schedule is only appropriate when the activity is not considered an obligation and would not result in undesirable consequences if neglected. Reflecting on current time management strategies. Opportunities to reflect offer students a chance not only to recognize when they have overextended themselves, but also to identify circumstances in which they have not performed at their optimum level because of inefficient time management strategies. Most educators have found that there is a strong correlation between incomplete or poorly executed work and the amount of time a student has allocated for completion. Students who

SCAFFOLDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION PROCESSES

can reflect upon how their strategies for organizing and prioritizing time affect their outcomes will be better equipped to make effective use of time management strategies. For example, a student who receives an unsatisfactory grade on a large social studies project will undoubtedly feel disappointed. However, if that student can identify specific organizational behaviors that led to poor outcomes (e.g., saving work for the last minute), he or she will be one step closer to creating a more efficient plan for the future.

HOW SHOULD STRATEGIES BE TAUGHT FOR PLANNING AND PRIORITIZING? Classrooms in which time management strategies are explicitly modeled and scaffolded by teachers, and then practiced independently by students, can help students become more organized and less stressed. This can be done at all grade levels by skillfully combining these elements: Explicit strategy instruction Systematic reduction of teacher support Making the expectation clear that assignments should be planned and organized, rather than simply completed, by students

Teaching Strategies to Promote Accurate Estimation of Time Most students can improve their sense of time when teachers provide them with opportunities to practice estimating the passage of time in a neutral state, so that they are not stressed by the demands of larger projects or activities.

Elementary School During elementary school, the majority of teachers present their students with highly structured schedules. Most early elementary educators not only post the daily activities for their students to follow, but also take responsibility for ensuring that transitions from one activity to happen smoothly. As a result, although they are operating within a highly structured environment, students are not necessarily provided with an opportunity to understand the mechanisms that underlie the ability to schedule effectively. By making an effort to highlight the strategies that contribute to time estimation, and providing students with opportunities for repeated practice, teachers will assist students in building their time management abilities. Discussing the daily schedule. Previewing the daily schedule not only provides students with the security of knowing what is to come, but also gives them a sense

Goal Setting, Planning, and Prioritizing

of how time can be divided. Expanding on the preview, teachers can discuss the timely features of tasks on the schedule. Activities can be qualified by their length, and compared to a predetermined list of similar-length activities. Perhaps spelling is a long activity like playing a soccer game, while lunch is a short activity like taking a bath. Making explicit connections between various activities in the students’ lives will assist them in developing estimation abilities. Providing visual representations. Because time is an abstract concept, concrete visual and physical representations will assist younger students in their development of time estimation skills. Placing visual cues, dividers, or color-coded sections on clocks will provide tangible representations of the amounts of time remaining for given tasks. Practice in monitoring time usage. Classrooms that display a daily schedule not only provide students with a visual representation of structure, but also offer opportunities for students to become involved in time management activities. Students can take turns being the time monitor for different activities. The monitor, who can wear a clock around his or her neck or carry a timer, is in charge of providing 5-minute warnings and alerting the class about the conclusion of an activity.

Middle School By middle school, students have typically developed a sense of time and can often independently and accurately estimate the amount of time to allot for simple, straightforward tasks. Yet, as their schedules become more demanding and their schoolwork increases in complexity, older students are likely to benefit from support in time estimation. Further practice in time estimation. Although middle school students are more adept than younger learners at estimating time for short activities, once distractions are present or a task increases in length, estimation can become a challenge. Incorporating estimation games like “Guess When a Minute Is Up!” (Figure 3.8) into class time can effectively illustrate the limits of our own estimation abilities and the importance of relying on estimation aids like timers and alarms. Identifying individual strategies. Once students have been made aware of their natural weaknesses in estimation abilities, they should be encouraged to identify the timing aids that best suit their needs. The Time Estimation Worksheet (Appendix 3) will help students to recognize the impact of distractions and their own limitations in tracking the passage of time. A collection of timers in a classroom will provide multiple means of assistance. Egg timers and alarms are perhaps the most widely used tools for tracking time; however, clocks are particularly helpful as well, as they illustrate both spatially and numerically how much time has passed. As students engage in classroom work, teachers can provide a variety of timing devices to choose from and can emphasize the importance of handing in completed assignments on time without prompting.

SCAFFOLDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION PROCESSES

1. Begin by covering all the clocks in the room. Then ask students to sit quietly and then place their hands in the air when a minute has passed. 2. Record their times, and discuss the strategies they used to estimate time. Perhaps some students count, while others sing a quick song—all helpful techniques for estimating time. 3. Now ask the students to repeat the activity, but this time instead of sitting quietly, students should talk to their neighbors. Remind them during the activity to raise their hands when a minute has passed. 4. Record their times again and note the differences. Have students discuss ways in which the activity changed their ability to gauge time, and whether the minute seemed to pass more quickly or more slowly. 5. Discuss the reasons why this might be the case. This type of activity can be practiced regularly by covering all the clocks and incrementally increasing the amount of time that students must estimate (e.g., 3 minutes, 5 minutes, 7 minutes).

FIGURE 3.8. “Guess When a Minute Is Up!”

High School High school students typically make independent choices regarding the order in which they will tackle their tasks and the ways in which they will schedule their time. Although they have usually established routines, high school students often do not reflect on the efficiency of their habits. Teachers can support the ongoing development of accurate estimation abilities by providing structured reflection opportunities following assignments.

Teaching Strategies to Promote Accurate Allotment of Time to Tasks For students to allot adequate time to complex projects, studying for tests, or even accomplishing everyday tasks (e.g., walking the dog before school), they need to learn strategies for doing so. Perfecting the ability to estimate the time required for a task is a stepwise process that improves with practice and age.

Elementary School During the primary grades, the daily schedule—often posted prominently in the classroom—is a wonderful platform for practicing task time estimation. Teachers can begin modeling such estimation for students by first breaking down tasks into smaller parts and then posting a task’s estimated length on the daily schedule. Next, students can take on the role of scheduler. Student schedulers. During the beginning of the year, teachers usually establish and maintain the class agenda. By discussing the nature of each task on the

Goal Setting, Planning, and Prioritizing

schedule, breaking down more complex activities into component parts, and providing time estimates for each component and the total task, teachers model these strategies for the students. As the year progresses, students can take turns acting as the scheduler and filling in estimated times for each of the daily activities. When the students become more adept at estimation, the schedulers can take more responsibility and manage such challenges as revising estimates and rearranging activities.

Middle and High School As assignments increase in difficulty and the volume of long-term projects intensifies, students should be provided with further opportunities to practice their task time estimation abilities. Middle and high school students who are familiar with accurate estimation strategies are more likely to demonstrate their knowledge successfully even in the face of complex, multicomponent assignments. Divide and conquer. In order to become an accurate task time estimator, it is necessary to first divide a large-scale project into its smaller components, and then to estimate the length of time each part will take to complete. For example, conducting a science experiment on plant growth entails multiple steps. First, each step in the process needs to be identified; its length should then be approximated; and finally, the total duration of the project can be estimated. Figure 3.9 is a sample worksheet for breaking a large project down into smaller parts, tracking progress, and making revisions, which will aid in future task predictions. How long will it take? In their daily schedules, students are likely to encounter many activities that require breaking a task down into multiple steps and estimating the length of time to allot to each step. For example, cooking dinner requires skillful task and time estimation in order to get multiple components of a meal on

Assignment Name

Project Breakdown Worksheet Big Parts Details

Essay on themes in To Killa Mockingbird

Reading the book (total 300 pages) Writing the essay

1–100

Predicted Time 2 hours

Actual Time 3 hours

100–200

2 hours

3 hours

200–300 Taking notes

2 hours 2 hours

3 hours 1 hour

Actual writing

4 hours

6 hours

Editing

1 hour 15 hours/ 5 nights

1 hour 17 hours/ 6 nights

FIGURE 3.9. Sample worksheet for breaking down a large project.

SCAFFOLDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION PROCESSES

the table at the same time. Activities that facilitate the rehearsal of such skills can be easily incorporated into the classroom. Teachers should select a fun activity that students are likely to encounter in their daily experience, such as making a sandwich. Working individually or in pairs, the students should break down the activity into smaller tasks. A foodrelated activity works well because it can naturally be structured like a recipe, including gathering ingredients and listing the steps (see Figure 3.10); however, a similar “Recipe for Success” format can be used with an academic assignment such as cleaning up after a science experiment (see Figure 3.11). The students should be asked to predict how long each individual step will take, as well as the total length of the activity. Next, the students should pass their “recipe” to their neighbors, and the neighbors should then follow to execute the activity while keeping track of time. Afterward, the students should be encouraged to discuss their estimates and the consequences resulting from underestimating the actual time needed for completion (e.g., not being able to eat a completed sandwich). This worksheet can be modified and applied to many tasks, including the end-of-the-day packup, transitions between classes via the students’ lockers, and so on. Recipe for Success Title Jam Slam Sandwich

Steps This is how I make it: 1. Get a plate, spoon, banana pieces, and granola. 2. Take two pieces of bread out of the bag. 3. Put two spoonfuls of jam on one slice of bread and spread the jam with the back of the spoon. 4. Use the spoon to put six pieces of banana on the bread. 5. Use the spoon to sprinkle granola on the bread. 6. Put the plain piece of bread on top of the other piece.

Ingredients or materials 2 pieces of bread Jam

Steps Step 1

Estimated time

Bananas Granola

Actual time

Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6

Did I miss any steps? Total

FIGURE 3.10. Worksheet for the Recipe for Success activity, using an actual recipe.

Goal Setting, Planning, and Prioritizing

Recipe for Success Title Pack up and roll out of the lab Steps 1. Turn off burner! 2. Rinse out beakers and test tubes. 3. Return all chemicals to shelves. 4. Wipe down counter. 5. Check and write homework. 6. Turn in lab results. 7. Pack bag.

Ingredients or materials Cleaning supplies

Steps Step 1

Estimated time

Actual time

Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 Step 7

Did I miss any steps? Total

FIGURE 3.11. Worksheet for the Recipe for Success activity, extended to science lab cleanup.

Teaching Prioritizing Strategies Teachers can help students to prioritize activities and efficiently manage time by teaching them the importance of predicting how long an activity will take and deciding how to arrange activities in their daily, weekly, or monthly schedules. By providing students with a clear understanding of the different types of activities (obligation, aspiration, and negotiation) in their daily lives, teachers can offer a method of prioritization that results in the creation of a productive and efficient schedule.

Elementary School Setting priorities can be a difficult task for younger students, who frequently fill their schedules with activities of interest rather than independently incorporating obligatory tasks. Although it may not be developmentally appropriate to expect all elementary school students to prioritize their activities independently, it is appropriate to engage in discussions about the nature of students’ daily activities. Teachers may begin by identifying the qualities that distinguish tasks (i.e., time-sensitive

SCAFFOLDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION PROCESSES

vs. flexible, required vs. optional), and then modeling the application of this knowledge by working with the students to create a productive daily schedule. Obligation, aspiration, or negotiation? Students can expand on their scheduler responsibilities (see earlier discussion) by helping to plan the day’s schedule. Rather than having the agenda on the board when students enter the classroom, teachers can model the way in which they schedule each school day in a stepwise approach as follows: 1. Review the characteristics of each of the three forms of prioritizing: Have to Do, Wanna do, and Trade? (i.e., obligation, aspiration, and negotiation). 2. Next, place each daily class activity into one of the three groups; be sure to clearly state the reason for each decision. 3. Finally, arrange the schedule by placing obligation activities first (e.g., reading circle, math block), then scheduling aspiration activities (e.g., choice time), and lastly filling in with negotiation activities (e.g., extra recess).

Middle School In middle school, teachers can support the development of time management skills by integrating students’ burgeoning knowledge of task time estimation with an understanding of prioritization. By offering students opportunities to practice these skills in isolation before they must apply them to a larger assignment, teachers will provide a platform from which the students can sharpen their planning and prioritizing abilities without the added pressure of academic performance. Obligation, aspiration, or negotiation? In the middle school version of this activity, students can be asked to create lists of daily activities based on (1) their own schedules, (2) the imagined tasks of a historical personality (e.g., Thomas Jefferson), or (3) the responsibilities of a fictionalized character (e.g., Harry Potter). Once the list is complete, students can use the Obligation, Aspiration, and Negotiation Worksheet (Figure 3.12) to divide the tasks into categories and then to estimate the amount of time needed for each task. Scheduling tasks. In order to apply students’ knowledge about prioritization to their own schedules, a calendar activity can be combined with the Obligation, Aspiration, or Negotiation Worksheet. Once activities have been assigned their appropriate level of priority and times have been estimated for each task, a calendar can provide a visual representation of how much time each of the activities will consume. A planner (like the daily schedule shown in Figure 3.13, which is broken down by hours) can be helpful for organizing a student’s day. Students can be given the following five steps to guide them through the process of planning their day:

Goal Setting, Planning, and Prioritizing

Task Soccer practice

Obligation, Aspiration, and Negotiation Worksheet Type Predicted Time Actual Time Obligation 45 minutes

Study vocabulary

Obligation

30 minutes

Watch TV

Aspiration

30 minutes

Math homework

Obligation

45 minutes

Poem for Mom

Negotiation

1 hour

FIGURE 3.12. Sample worksheet for prioritizing tasks.

1. Block off the times for waking up, school, meals, and bedtime for each day during the week. 2. Insert the obligation tasks and their allotted times from the Obligation, Aspiration, and Negotiation Worksheet (see Figure 3.12) completed earlier. It is best to use a red marker for obligation tasks, to emphasize their importance (in Figure 3.13, these tasks are given in boldface). 3. Find times for aspiration tasks. 4. Insert negotiation activities in any available slots. 5. As a last step, use the extra column to check off tasks when they have

7:00 A.M. 8:00 A.M. 9:00 A.M. 10:00 A.M. 11:00 A.M. 12:00 P.M. 1:00 P.M. 2:00 P.M. 3:00 P.M. 4:00 P.M. 5:00 P.M. 6:00 P.M. 7:00 P.M. 8:00 P.M. 9:00 P.M. 10:00 P.M.

Daily Schedule BREAKFAST AND SHOWER SCHOOL

SOCCER PRACTICE TV DINNER MATH HOMEWORK STUDY VOCABULARY POEM FOR MOTHER’S DAY BEDTIME

FIGURE 3.13. Sample daily schedule. Boldface indicates obligation tasks, underlining indicates aspiration tasks, and italics indicates negotiation tasks.

SCAFFOLDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION PROCESSES

been completed. Any incomplete tasks should be moved to the next day’s activities.

High School High school students usually demonstrate a good understanding of how to categorize their tasks, but struggle to create a balanced schedule in which they allot adequate time to complete large-scale assignments. Three weeks may seem like a long time to write a paper, but when a student is faced with a calendar already filled with sports practice, vacation, and additional school responsibilities, it is easy to see how opportunities for homework are limited. Working backward is a particularly effective strategy with longer-term projects, because it provides students with a tangible representation of the steps involved and amount of time available to complete a complex assignment. Working backward. Working backward entails first placing all known obligations for a given month on the calendar (vacations, extracurricular activities, additional academic assignments, etc.). Next, students can focus on the project at hand. They should enter the due date in a way that draws attention and acts as a reminder, and then reverse the steps necessary for completion in order to identify and schedule all of the components involved with the assignment (see Figure 3.14). Most students will benefit from initially completing a Project Breakdown Work-

Monthly Calendar 2 3

To Kill a Mockingbird assigned

Soccer tournament

Read 1 hr

Write 1 hr

Read 2 hrs

Soccer tournament

Read 1 hr

Write 2 hrs

Read 2 hrs

Write 2 hrs, including editing

Trip to Maine

Essay on To Kill a Mockingbird due

FIGURE 3.14. Working backward with a monthly calendar.

Trip to Maine

Goal Setting, Planning, and Prioritizing

sheet (see Figure 3.9) and then working backward to fill in a calendar with the previously identified steps.

Teaching Monitoring Strategies for Time Management One of the most challenging aspects of teaching students time management skills is motivating them to change their current behaviors. One way to do this is by demonstrating to them the ways in which their current organizational choices are negatively affecting their performance. Utilizing activities that scaffold student reflection can be important tools in the behavioral process of change.

Elementary and Middle School The final and most important step in task estimation is the revision process. Even younger students should always be aware of how well their estimated schedule aligns with the actual elapsed time, and should be supported in making any necessary revisions to ensure that they do not run out of time before completing the project. There are opportunities for elementary and middle school students to monitor their developing time managements skills in many of the activities suggested in the planning and prioritizing section of this chapter. For example, students have an opportunity to practice their monitoring skills in the Recipe for Success activity (see Figure 3.10 and 3.11), in which the activity is structured so that the individual or pair who plans the recipe, identifies each step, and estimates the time for each component is not the individual or pair who executes the recipe. (To ensure that the task is developmentally appropriate, elementary school teachers can fill in certain portions of the worksheet.) After the worksheet has been completed, it is passed to another team of students for the recipe to be carried out. In order to convey the importance of revising estimates and monitoring progress, teachers should instruct students to end the task at the estimated time, no matter where they are in the process. This exchange allows dialogue to occur between students about the accuracy of initial planning and estimates. Students can learn how to use the data they collect on their worksheets to revise their estimates.

High School Many high school students struggle with feelings of disappointment or hopelessness over their academic performance. Often they report feeling overwhelmed and distressed as a result of unsatisfactory performance, but are unable to identify how or where to make changes. For students who are disappointed about the outcomes of large-scale assignments, worksheets that highlight where failures in planning and prioritizing occurred will provide insight into the time management skills that need to be refined.

SCAFFOLDING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION PROCESSES

Activity reflection worksheets and rubrics. As students mature, they may no longer utilize graphic organizers. Instead, older students may benefit from special journals in which they can keep organized records of completed tasks, document their satisfaction with the outcomes, and comment about possible areas for future improvement. Ideally, when they maintain these structured records and reflections, the students’ own feedback will be organized in a way that will reveal patterns of behavior and aid them in improving their time management skills over the school year. The worksheets provided in Figures 3.15 and 3.16 constitute a semistructured activity that helps students to analyze how organizational and time management strategies can affect both their academic and nonacademic performance.

CONCLUSION Today, probably more than ever, educators are being asked to respond to rapid changes in the social, economic, and technological arenas by preparing children to solve new problems in our world. As they juggle their many responsibilities and challenges, it is critically important for teachers to systematically teach students strategies for setting goals, planning, and prioritizing. Teachers facing these tasks can take heart: They already know what it takes to be effective in the classroom, since they understand the importance of direct, systematic, explicit instruction. They only need to extend this understanding beyond the traditional areas of reading, spelling, and math. In addition, it is important for teachers to recognize that

Activity Reflection Worksheet

Type of assignment and date History test 10/13/10

Did you accurately estimate how Did you prioritize long each task your taks? would take?

Did you revise your schedule when it was necessary?

Did you delegate or delete less important tasks to accomplish the activities that were most important?

Yes

CHANGES FOR NEXT TIME Please describe why your schedule did not work.

Underestimated the amount of time it would take. I estimated 1 hour and it was not long enough.

Please describe how your schedule can be improved in the future.

Next time I study, I will for 2 hours over 2 days (1 hour per day).

FIGURE 3.15. Sample activity reflection sheet.

Goal Setting, Planning, and Prioritizing

Reflection Rubric Outcome: (Example: grade, performance, etc.)

Name of assigment/task:

How well was your time managed? 1 2 Not Well Sort of Well Did not prioritize Prioritized Did not estimate accurately

Did no estimate accuately

Procrastinated

Ran out of time

Ultimately had to sacrifice many things I wanted to do, because I was overwhelmed by my schedule

Could have done with more time

3 Well Prioritized

4 Very Well Prioritized

Estimated accuately

Estimated accurately

Mostly followed plan Did not revise, delegate, or delete activities when unexpected opportunities arose In the end, still felt stressed and frustrated

Followed through with plan Revised schedule when necessary Delegated/deleted less imp. activites and felt satisfied with use of time

Which area of time management should I concentrate on next time? Prioritizing

Estimating

Revising

Delegating/deleting

Comments: Which areas of time management does my teacher think I should concentrate on next time? Prioritizing

Estimating

Revising

Delegating/deleting

Comments:

FIGURE 3.16. Sample reflection rubric.

they can be highly successful in teaching strategies for goal setting, planning, and prioritizing when they: Embed strategies for goal setting, planning, and prioritizing within the curriculum. Allocate sufficient time for students to learn and practice their strategies. Teach the what, why, and how of using strategies for goal setting, planning, and prioritizing.

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Project-Based Learning and Educational Technology Fostering Creativity, Problem Solving, and Engagement in Students

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What is the Purpose of Education?

What is the Purpose of School?

Prepares students for healthy productive lives

Prepare students for the next grade level or the next test

Hard to Measure

Less Time

More Time Schools Focus

Easy to Measure

Deep Learning

Less Time

More Time Schools Focus

Surface Learning

Schools often focus on… Outdated content and skills such as: Memorization and algorithms Breadth is valued more than depth Content is divorced from real world situations Executive function strategies are done by the teacher not the student Skills and content that are easier to measure are prioritized Technology is used to deliver content not create it

Which Results in… Students unprepared for their future Students aren’t able to apply the skills they’ve learned in theory Students learn content at a surface level Students aren’t able to use executive function strategies independently Students have trouble persisting on more ambiguous long term projects They aren’t ready to invent their future and take a stand in the world

Deep Learning

Can we Make The Shift in Focus

Less Time

More Time Schools Focus

Surface Learning

Yes We Can… “My son didn’t come home from Makerspace feeling like he ‘learned something.’ He came home with his eyes twinkling and his mind racing through the next questions he wanted to answer, the next experiment he wanted to try, the next thing he wanted to build. He came home describing himself as a maker, a coder, a designer.” - Parent

“Kids need the ability to test things out and fail, but learn what they did was wrong and how to fix it. That last bit teaches children at a young age that if they fail they just need to try again.” - Middle School Student

What?

Makerspace & Project Based Learning Program

It’s about the space right?

Yes and … this is not the entire story

Makerspace & Project Based Learning Program Has Students: Expressing their creativity through hands-on projects Feel they are part of a supportive community where mistakes are valued Wanting to learn more and practice more Practicing executive function strategies

Has Educators: Coaching students and providing direct instruction too Building a positive culture Collaborating with other educators Planning and structuring hands-on projects

Stories

All Three Stories Had Students Learning new content and skills Applying those skills to a hands-on project Creating with technology Practicing their executive function strategies Having to work through and learn from mistakes

Makerspace & Project Based Learning Program

How?

The pillars of a successful program

Vision

Curriculum

Culture

Structure

Support

Theoretical Frameworks

Knowing your educational values and philosophy lays the foundation

Your Vision

YOUR WHY Can Align with Your SCHOOL’S FOCUS

Example Guiding Principles Foster students’ strengths while supporting areas of need

“Prepare students for their future not our past” - Daniel Pink

Develop lifelong learners

The pillars of a successful program

Vision

Curriculum

Culture

Adapted from PBLWorks gold standard of project design https://www.pblworks.org/what-is-pbl/gold-standard-project-design

Structure

Support

Tips for Building Curriculum Start small Build off what you already do Collaborate with other educators Continually grow the curriculum

Adapted from PBLWorks gold standard of project design https://www.pblworks.org/what-is-pbl/gold-standard-project-design

The pillars of a successful program

Vision

Curriculum

Culture

Structure

Support

Culture

How to Cultivate Culture Share & Celebrate Community of Learners

Everyone feels Welcome Mistakes are Awesome

Process is Important

The pillars of a successful program

Vision

Curriculum

Culture

Structure

Support

You can have an amazing vision, curriculum and culture, but you still need the proper structure to be successful

We Need More Time?

The pillars of a successful program

Vision

Curriculum

Culture

Structure

Professional Development

Continuous Coaching

Collaboration Sessions

Community of Learning

Key Areas of Support Ideas Learning Implementation

Support

The pillars of a successful program

Vision

Curriculum

Culture

Structure

Support

Deep Learning

Why?

Can we Make The Shift in Focus

Less Time

More Time Schools Focus

Surface Learning

What?

How? The pillars of a successful program

Vision

Curriculum

Culture

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What is the Purpose of Education?

What is the Purpose of School?

Prepares students for healthy productive lives

Prepare students for the next grade level or the next test

Deep Learning

Can we Make The Shift in Focus

Less Time

More Time Schools Focus

Surface Learning

Thank You If you have questions or just want to continue the conversation, reach out to me at cmeltzer@makeshiftedtech.com.

Resources Papert, Seymour. (2002). Hard Fun. Bangor Daily News. Retrieved from http://www.papert.org/articles/HardFun.html

Edutopia Video about Cultivating Growth Mindsets in Classroom Makerspaces https://www.edutopia.org/video/cultivating-growth-mindsets-classroom-makerspaces

Transformative Learning Technologies Lab (TLTL)

The TLTL is a multi-disciplinary group designing and researching new technologies for education. This website has information on how Fab Labs are being incorporated in schools (Fablearn Labs). https://tltlab.org/

Fab Foundation

The Fab Foundation has great resources for digital fabrication.

https://fabfoundation.org/

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O The f t re holds a m ltit de of challenges and opport nities for toda s st dents. For st dents to thri e indi id all and collecti el , e need to eq ip them ith the tools the need to respond resilientl and adapti el to ncertaint and ad ersit . Ed cational s stems and c rric l m objecti es often reflect the nderl ing ass mptions that o ng children are not et read to de elop the capacities that ill e ent all lead them to direct their o n learning jo rne s. Research and e perience tell s a different stor . This session ill highlight the al e of la ing the fo ndation for resilience in earl childhood. We ill present e idence-based strategies that help preschoolers learn abo t metacognition, e ec ti e f nction processes. and mindset messages. What do o ng children kno abo t the brain and learning? What can the learn abo t thinking fle ibl and t rning bl nders into onders? What methods can e se to teach them abo t mistakes and ho to perse ere in the face of challenges? What strategies can o ng children be ta ght to reg late their o n social and emotional f nctioning and prepare their brains to be read to learn? Join s to e plore the potential of literat re and str ct red imaginar pla as the gro nd ork for b ilding resilience and adaptabilit in earl childhood. R Best, J. R., Miller, P. H., & Naglieri, J. A. (2011). Relations bet een e ec ti e f nction and academic achie ement from ages 5 to 17 in a large, representati e national sample. L a a I a D , 21(4), 327-336. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2011.01.007

Center on the De eloping Child at Har ard Uni ersit . (2011). B :H a a Paper No. 11). Cambridge, MA.

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Clark, C. A. C., Sheffield, T. D., Wiebe, S. A., & Esp , K. A. (2013). Longit dinal associations bet een e ec ti e control and de eloping mathematical competence in preschool bo s and girls. C D , 84, 662 677. Diamond, A. (2016). Wh impro ing and assessing e ec ti e f nctions earl in life is critical. In J. A. Griffin, P. McCardle, & L. S. Fre nd (Eds.), E ec ti e f nction in preschool-age children: I a a , ,a a a a a (pp. 11 44). Washington, DC: American Ps chological Association. Diamond, A., & Ling, D. S. (2016). Concl sions abo t inter entions, programs, and approaches for impro ing e ec ti e f nctions that appear j stified and those that, despite m ch h pe, do not. D a C N , 18, 34 48. D ck orth, A. (2016). G : T Sch ster.

D nstan, J. & Cole, S. (2022). F b M a , b a

. Ne York, NY: Simon &

:C a ba . London: Ro tledge.

D nstan-Bre er, J. & Cole, S. (2018). M a a E F P Ea C :B F a A a S P . 42nd Ann al IARLD rd Conference, Ghent, Belgi m, 3 J l , 2018. International Academ for Research in Learning Disabilities. D nstan-Bre er, C. J. & Cole, S. (2018). M a a a [Unp blished instr ment]. Retrie ed from https:// .fle iblemindsets.com/refle ions-research/ D eck, C. (2017). M Robinson.

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Melt er, L.J. (2013). E ec ti e f nction processes: The fo ndation of academic and life s ccess. I a a J a R a L a D ab , 2013, 1(2), 31-63. Melt er, L.J. (2014). Teaching e ec ti e f nction processes: Promoting metacognition, strateg se, and effort. In Naglieri, J. & Goldstein, S. (Eds.) E F Ha b . Ne York: Springer, 445-474. Melt er, L., D nstan-Bre er, J. & Krishnan, K. (2018). Learning differences and e ec ti e f nction: Understandings and mis nderstandings. In L. Melt er (Ed.), E a :F a (2 ). Ne York: G ilford Press (pp. 109-141). Viterbori, P., Usai, M. C., Tra erso, L., & De Franchis, V. (2015). Ho preschool e ec ti e f nctioning predicts se eral aspects of math achie ement in Grades 1 and 3: A longit dinal st d . J a E a C P , 140, 38 55. White, R. E., & Carlson, S. M. (2016). What o ld batman do? Self-distancing impro es e ec ti e f nction in o ng children. De elopmental Science, 19(3), 419 426. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12314 Willo ghb , M. T., K persmidt, J. B., & Voegler-Lee, M. E. (2012). Is preschool e ec ti e f nction ca sall related to academic achie ement? C N , 18, 79 91.

WELCOME TO reFLEXions® DR. JULIE DUNSTAN SUSANNAH COLE

The Wonders of Blunders: Laying the foundation for resilience and cognitive flexibility in early childhood

Julie Dunstan, MA, PhD (Cantab) Consulting Psychologist & Changemaker reFLEXions

Susannah Cole, MEd Executive Function Coach

Was our Brain designed to Think?

Effects Of The Learning Environment On The Brain 1

I. Introduction to Flexible Mindsets

TODAY’S EXPLORATION

II. Literature & Imaginary Play

III. Strategies for Building Resilience & Flexibility

Specific Skills?

WHO ARE WE?

Multiple Disciplines, Multiple Perspectives Created in response to the changing needs of learners in a complex world : To build Flexible Mindsets that equip learners with the tools they need to respond resiliently & adaptively to adversity & uncertainty.

Early Childh ood Learning Difference Executive s Function Mindsets Organisat ional Growth

Julie Dunstan

by it y ts E q u in d s e fo r m in g in g in g S tr iv fo rm a rn n s in g le th a t , tr a to rs ro w e n ts & g o n m e s ti g a e rs ir ir v e n v re in & in s p u n u rt v a to rs o in n

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Studies: family needs , addictions, inmat es’ literacy, early childh ood Programmes: ICAN Math, I-PLAY, Pirates of Pondering, 3C’s Changemakers for

PhD s& g rin T u ft .) M A n ta b d T u to lo g y , e o (C a c ia lis s y c h in g e r: p , le a rn d if f, Sp re h g tu c L e c p s y a rn in d e v . l , le ed na o ry tio th e n is a a o rg

MEd in developmental psychology 25 years working in the field of education: early childhood educator middle school teacher autism therapist learning support teacher college professor managing director of reFLEXions® (speaker & consultant) executive function coach exploring systems, habits and mindsets to learn how to learn.

susannah cole

Co-author of Flexible Mindsets in Schools: Channelling Brain Power for Critical Thinking, Complex Problem-Solving and Creativity.

METACOGNITION

The dynamic and ongoing interaction between self-awareness, adaptive strategy use and perseverance that empowers learners to evolve and become self-directed A Flexible Mindset

TODAY’S EXPLORATION

II. Literature & Imaginary Play

III. Strategies for Building Resilience & Flexibility

Flexible Mindsets in Early Childhood: An anecdote about a preschooler

WHAT WOULD BATMAN DO?

White, R. E., & Carlson, S. M. (2016). What would batman do? Self-distancing improves executive function in young children. Developmental Science, 19(3), 419–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12314

Imaginary Play

TODAY’S EXPLORATION III. Strategies for Building Resilience & Flexibility

A resilient mindset is the product of equipping learners with the necessary tools to work adaptively through the adversity, trauma, threats, challenges and chronic stress that lie in their pathway towards purposeful self-direction

Thinking Flexibly is A learner’s dexterity in shifting perspectives and changing course Imagine how to use or see things in a new way Think of different ways to solve a problem

III. Strategies for Building Resilience & Flexibility

What do young children know about the brain?

METACOGNITION

What strategies can we use to teach metacognition?

Metacognition The awareness of one’s own learning & thinking

Percentage

WHAT DO PRESCHOOLERS KNOW?

Label

Lo cat ion

Fu n ct io n

What Strategies can we use to teach Metacognition?

III. Strategies for Building Resilience & Flexibility What strategies can we use to teach children about mistakes? What strategies can we use to teach children about perseverance?

I can Messages The messages that we hear from others & say to ourselves that tell us: our we are capable of

TEACHING PRESCHOOLERS ABOUT MISTAKES

TEACHING CHILDREN ABOUT PERSEVERANCE

Teaching Children about Perseverance

III. Strategies for Building Resilience & Flexibility Moving feedback beyond encouragement What strategies can we use to teach cognitive flexibility? What strategies can we use to turn Wonders into Blunders? 35

Executive Function Processes The tools we use when we identify a , use to figure out &

Executive Function Processes

Navigational Guide UNIT #6 – THINKING FLEXIBLY THINKING FLEXIBLY HELPS US: Imagine how to use things in a new way Think of different ways to solve a problem

Set Up a Puzzle

WHAT ELSE COULD WE TRY?

IDEAS FOR PONDERING Teach them directly about mistakes by…OR Reframe my feedback by…OR Set up a puzzle that has multiple solutions

FOR MORE INFORMATION julie@flexiblemindsets.com DrJulesBDA

susannah@flexiblemindsets.com @flexiblemindsets

Go to: www.flexiblemindsets.com to subscribe to our monthly digest

CHAPTER

2 What is the mechanism for Flexible Mindsets? Productive Puzzling and curiosity

The thrust of the Flexible Mindsets initiative is to empower people to direct their own learning. Self-directed learners actively focus mental energy on their goals and apply their learning to new and meaningful contexts, even when challenged. To take charge of their own learning, they must be driven by curiosity, a desire to grow and the love of learning. This ability to learn how to learn can be deliberately and consciously grown through direct engagement in active learning. In this chapter, we will introduce the active learning concept of Productive Puzzling: the key mechanism we use to engage learners along the journey of Flexible Mindsets. In the next section of this book, Chapters 3 through 5 will highlight the implications of fixed mentalities and demonstrate how Flexible Mindsets can open the window for learning and provide tools for learning how to learn. Socrates, an ancient Greek philosopher, believed that disciplined practice of thoughtful questioning enabled students to examine ideas logically and to determine the validity of those ideas. Charles Darwin, who illuminated the theory of evolution by natural selection, identified the central role of ‘perplexed reflection’ in science and learning. The Flexible Mindsets model builds upon these historical thinkers and newer ideas by incorporating recent work in mathematics education on the role of Productive Struggle (Warshauer 2015). In mathematics, Productive Struggle occurs in settings where it is safe to take risks, where students can share their struggle and where wrong answers are not seen as failures but rather opportunities to explore, grow and learn. By extension, Productive Puzzling is being engrossed in a perplexing problem that is within your grasp but requires thinking, grappling and reasoning. It is the springboard for Critical Thinking, Complex Problem-Solving and Creativity. Curiosity is both the foundation of and partner to Productive Puzzling. To be curious is to be inquisitive about the environment, an event, an object, a process or a concept. Curiosity drives our desire to investigate and to learn. It is what happens when we encounter something unusual, novel or unexpected and it is marked by questions such as I wonder what would happen if . . . ? How does this work? What could this be 24

DOI: 10.4324/9781003204817-3

Productive Puzzling and curiosity

used for? Productive Puzzling, by definition, must involve a dimension of feeling perplexed, leading us to ask, Does this make sense? What else could we try? What are the possibilities? In this chapter, we will: ■ ■ ■

explain why curiosity is important for deeper thinking and learning; provide straightforward information about what happens in the brain when we are curious; and introduce the five conditions that are necessary for Productive Puzzling.

Why is curiosity so important for deeper thinking and learning? Eating in a diner one day, I overheard a conversation between four college students. There was a ‘machine’ next to their table and one student said, “What’s that?” The four friends then engaged in a collaborative process of examining parts of the object and discussing what each piece actually did. One student inferred that the titles listed along each row were songs from “the 70’s – a long time ago.” Eventually, the group concluded that you put coins in the slot, press a button that corresponds to a particular song and then that song is played by the device. They were satisfied with their answer and moved on to other topics of conversation. I thought to myself: I wonder what would have happened, if, when they first asked the question, I had leaned across and said, “It’s a juke box.” Curiosity is just as important as IQ in determining how well students do in school and beyond. When curious, learners persevere, study and remember more. They read at a more meaningful level and attain higher grades (Silvia 2008). Curious students not only ask more questions and deeper questions, but they are also more active in seeking the answers. Without curiosity, would artist Kareem Abdul Jabbar have had success in such a wide variety of endeavours, from athleticism to film to authorship to global cultural advocacy? Would mathematician Grace Topper have been a pioneer in the field of technology and earned the National Medal of Technology and the Presidential Medal of Freedom? Would explorer Mae Jemison have evolved from a Peace Corps medical officer to become the first female African American astronaut, a founder of a nonprofit, an author and a science ambassador? By motivating people to learn for its own sake, curiosity ensures that people will develop a broad set of knowledge, skills and experiences. When interested, students persist longer at learning tasks, spend more time studying, read more 25

Flexible Mindsets

deeply, remember more of what they read and get better grades in their classes (Silvia 2008). People seem to understand that curiosity enhances their motivation and performance. When faced with a boring task, people will use strategies to make it more interesting, such as working with a friend or making the task more complex (Sansone & Thoman 2005). Curiosity is the motivation for active learning.

What happens in the brain when we puzzle? Trying new things has an adaptive function that has been critical for human evolution. Unfamiliar things often signal something dangerous or harmful. What we learn from new experiences can help us to respond effectively to unexpected circumstances and to counterbalance feelings of uncertainty and anxiety (Kashdan 2004). The brain is wired for the survival functions of surveillance and alert. Curiosity is a response that activates the brain’s arousal network. If the system detects something unusual, it can sound an alarm that is heard brain wide and this is when intrinsic alertness transforms into phasic alertness (Peterson & Posner 2012). Anything that is novel, unusual, unpredictable or distinctive puts our brains on alert and therefore our brains are wired to pay closer attention to them (Medina 2008). In a recent research study, participants rated how curious they were to learn the answers to more than 100 trivia questions. The researchers then used fMRI scans to see what was happening in the brain when participants felt especially curious about the answer to a question (Gruber, Gelman & Ranganath 2014). The results revealed that curiosity prepares the brain for learning by acting like a vortex. The resulting void causes us to seek out stimulation. Thus curiosity puts the brain in a state that allows it to learn and retain new information. The implication of this is that if a teacher can arouse students’ curiosity, they will be more engaged in learning. Another key finding from this research study is that curiosity can make learning a more rewarding experience for students. Researchers found that when curiosity had been sparked, there was increased brain activity in the hippocampus, which is involved in creating memories as well as the circuitry related to reward and pleasure. When these circuits are aroused, dopamine – the ‘feel good’ chemical in our brain – is released. So, piquing students’ curiosity can help them remember lessons and make their learning experiences pleasurable. Educators have long recognised that students learn better when new material is linked to prior knowledge. Existing knowledge, concepts and systems are easier to process than novel material. Activating this base makes it easier to grapple with more difficult cognitive work. There is no thinking without knowing (Willingham 2009). There is no meaningful learning without active engagement. Based on evolutionary theories, scientists can now better explain how our brains are wired to pay attention to information connected to existing memories (Medina 2008). Our 10,000-year old brains were not designed for the world we live in today. They were built when we walked or ran many miles a day. This is 26

Productive Puzzling and curiosity

why our brains crave exercise and we get a brain boost when we get up and move. Our brains are designed to process visual information quickly and can pay attention for about ten minutes. This adaptive function is rooted in evolution. Humans who failed to instantaneously attend to threatening situations did not live long enough to pass on their genes. Thus, we are programmed to use our previous experiences to accurately remember threatening situations and to direct where we pay attention. Thinking, on the other hand, is slow and effortful and our brains are not built for it. It is not efficient and reliable to think. Thinking is hard work so it is not surprising that people have to really motivate themselves to engage in it. Thinking was not evolutionarily helpful (see Figure 2.1). Stop and think and you might end up . . . Wow!

THAT GUY’S IN A HURRY. OH LOOK, THERE’S A TIGER. I WONDER...

Figure 2.1 The evolutionary value of NOT thinking So much of our brain’s real estate is taken up by activities related to seeing and moving. Our brains are not wired to think in the ways that are demanded of us in traditional classroom settings. They are naturally curious and designed to scan the environment, explore and alert us to threats. We are powerful and natural explorers (Medina 2008). Educational practices are not aligned with what we now know about brain development. We are expecting students to exert mental effort for several hours during the school day and then go home and do hours of homework, leaving no time for processing, reflecting, integrating and connecting. When made to perform on traditional school-based tasks, our brains are being asked to do things that run contrary to their evolutionary purpose. Since thinking is such hard work, and does not provide rewards that stimulate dopamine release, children rarely experience joy in academic learning. If we want students to be motivated to engage in thinking, we need to convince them that their mental work will be worth it. One effective way to do this is to use curiosity to engage learners in exploration, invention and improvisation. We all weigh the potential pleasure of solving a problem against the mental effort required. If the challenge is too difficult or too easy, our brains disengage from the process. If the recipe is perfectly balanced, we are tapping into curiosity and ensuring that students enjoy thinking and learning (Willingham 2009). 27

Flexible Mindsets

The potential to pique curiosity lies in experiences that are emotionally laden and meaningful (Medina 2008). Incongruity is particularly effective for engaging our brains. If you want learners to become engaged and ask questions, present something that is unexpected, odd, absurd, juxtaposed or humorous.

Guidelines for piquing curiosity 1 Consider that content and delivery matter A group of students attends a field trip to the science museum, specifically to watch the IMAX film celebrating the 50th anniversary of Apollo 11. This documentary film uses original footage to describe the 1969 Apollo 11 mission, the first spaceflight in which men walked on the Moon. Ciana is an explorer by nature: she loves science, especially astronomy, and has a precise replica of the solar system on the ceiling of her bedroom. Esther, on the other hand, is an artist: she writes beautiful poetry and loves epic shows such as Star Trek: Discovery. The factual style and technical information in Apollo 11 fuse naturally with Ciana’s preexisting scientific knowledge and her head is buzzing with new questions and ideas about future possibilities. Esther has an entirely different experience. She comprehends very little about basic concepts such as gravity and acceleration and can’t access most of the material. The dry style of presentation does nothing to grab her attention and her imagination is stifled. There are aspects of thinking we enjoy because we get a sense of pleasure from finding solutions (solving problems). There are also lots of things that require thinking that we would never choose to do and many others that would simply bore us. While the type of content matters – we are more curious about things that interest us – the delivery of the content is what matters most when it comes to piquing curiosity. When content is presented through a medium we enjoy, is connected to a story or includes an element of surprise, even the most boring topic can spur our curiosity (Willingham 2009).

2 Remember inspiration can’t be forced Salvador Dali, a 20th-century surrealist painter, used to sit in a chair with keys in his hand along with an upside down plate on the floor and let his mind wander until he fell asleep. His hand would release the keys as soon as he slipped into a deeper state of sleep and the sound of the keys clinking on a metal plate would wake him up. This little amount of rest is just enough to awaken creativity. In this state, his mind brought together distant ideas in a new way. He believed that this process led to some of his best ideas.

Productive Puzzling and curiosity

Somewhere deep within each of us is an affinity, something that, when we are in the midst of it, engages us to the point that we don’t even notice what is happening around us. The outside world just disappears. When we are engrossed in an affinity, time moves so quickly that we are unaware that it has passed. All the energy and brain power that we use does not even feel like hard work (Silvia 2006). Inspiration flows from the thinking that we do when our brains are in the diffuse mode. Using the metaphor of a brain as a flashlight, the diffuse mode casts a broad, scattered light whereas the focused mode is concentrated light (Oakley & Sejnowski 2018). Our brains enter the diffuse mode during moments when we are not explicitly thinking, such as when listening to music, exercising, taking a walk, mind-wandering and sleeping (Gkiokas 2018). In contrast to mindfulness which focuses the brain, mind-wandering allows the brain to be more creative (Zomorodi 2017). Purposeful learning occurs when we shift flexibly between focused thinking and meandering. So, when we need to destress, we meditate; when we want inspiration, we daydream.

3 Make it comprehensible There are two types of evaluations that learners make when faced with a challenge (Silvia 2005; 2008). One assessment is the level of novelty: the degree to which something is new, unexpected, surprising or intriguing. Decades of research show that new and unexpected events can pique our curiosity (Berlyne 1960). Secondly, we judge whether or not a challenge is comprehensible. We think about our skills, knowledge and resources to deal with an event (Lazarus 1991). If we perceive a goal as incomprehensible, we give up. In the case of curiosity, we are responding to an unexpected situation. If we perceive an event as both new and as comprehensible, curiosity is activated (Silvia 2008). Perceiving something as being comprehensible is the bridge between feeling curious and feeling bored or discouraged. Feeling lost and confused shuts down our learning. Novelty, coupled with the seeds of comprehension, sparks learning.

4 Build in time off-task (to space out) We often see boredom as a negative state and something to be avoided. Boredom is actually the place we all need to visit as an intermediary between busywork and inspiration. Boredom is a state of mind that happens when we take away distractions such as cell phones, video games and television. It is not enough to simply remove distractions. True boredom happens when we have ‘nothing to do’ and no one is demanding anything of us. Boredom alerts us that we are no longer pursuing purposeful goals. The current goal is no longer satisfactory, attractive or meaningful (Elpidorou 2014). This leaves us feeling restless, agitated and uncomfortable (Zomorodi 2017) and we crave escape. In order to avoid feeling trapped in an unfulfilling state, we begin searching for something to stimulate us, something that

Flexible Mindsets

is not readily available in our immediate surroundings. Boredom is both a warning and a push (Elpidorou 2014). The push of boredom allows us to ‘space out’. Our thoughts don’t stop just because there is nothing to do with those thoughts. It may appear that the brain is shutting down; it is actually digging into a vast trove of memories, imagining future possibilities, dissecting our interactions with other people and reflecting on who we are. “It feels like we’re wasting time when we wait for the longest red light in the world to turn green, but the brain is putting ideas and events into perspective” (Zomorodi 2017, p. 21). Boredom is necessary.

5 Let it be. Don’t give the answer When babies learn to sit up and crawl, they cannot yet walk. Would we carry all babies everywhere with us, rather than watch them repeatedly try to stand up and fall over? How heavy would they get before we decided they were too heavy to carry around? Would it then be too late for them to learn how to walk? Make it comfortable for learners to stop and think. Adults who want to help often do things for a child which can feed into ‘I can’t’ self-perceptions. Try to wait before jumping in, even if it feels uncomfortable. It takes lots of practice to learn to find the perfectly balanced moment to intervene: after allowing time for experiencing challenge, but before a child has become discouraged. Some traditional approaches to education involve three steps in learning: watching a model, being assisted and then doing it on your own. These approaches are effective for a range of learning experiences. What they don’t do is spark curiosity. They are too predictable and we already know what’s going to happen. Developmentally, children also need time and space to explore, make mistakes and struggle. Without struggle, children don’t get to experience the benefits of hard work. They may have started out feeling curious, but if we hand them the answers, then a task appears to be too easy and no longer captures their curiosity. This reinforces beliefs that everything must come to us instantaneously and that struggle is not worthwhile. We must avoid cheating students of feeling capable and learning how to do things on their own. The brain needs to pause to give time for the prefrontal cortex to kick in. This helps us to think and respond, instead of just reacting. Allowing children time to struggle forces them to question, plan, solve problems, organise and grapple with concepts. The more opportunities we give them to tackle appropriately challenging work, the more likely they will be to develop the neural networks to solve future problems. Adults need to be okay with waiting and suspend the instinct to jump in and rescue children with the answers. We have to be able to observe children’s confusion, frustration and discouragement. However, ‘letting it be’ doesn’t mean we should just do nothing. Figuring out when to intervene requires us to take into account the nature of the task, a child’s skill set for solving similar problems and

Productive Puzzling and curiosity

the child’s tolerance for frustration. When you do intervene, don’t do it for them. Rein in your impulse to fix things. Let them know you are there to support them by asking questions such as, “How can I help? Tell me about ____. What have you tried so far? What else could you try?” As Willingham observes, “People are naturally curious, but we are not naturally good thinkers; unless the cognitive conditions are right, we will avoid thinking” (2009, p. 9). In other words, if we always hand out the answer, curiosity will disappear, and with it, Critical Thinking, Complex Problem-Solving and Creativity. When you think about school, what typically comes to mind? Your own experiences when you were in school? Your children’s experiences? Perhaps a particular subject you found fascinating or one that was incredibly boring? The image that comes into my mind is everyday brains doing everyday things. Much of this consists of content download, where students wait to have the teacher tell them what to do or what to think. This type of concrete knowledge is important as the basis for learning, but it is not enough. Beyond concrete learning, effective teachers find creative ways to pique curiosity. They may use novelty to introduce a topic, present problems that are intriguing and design projects that expand our understanding of the world. They may also use predictions to build anticipation and hook learners into wanting to know more. The simple act of starting a lesson with a question such as “What did we learn yesterday?” instead of providing a summary of the previous lesson can make a significant difference (Agarwal & Bain 2019). These instances achieve the goal of opening up neural pathways for learning. Without further intervention, most brains tend to revert to a more passive state of simply trying to absorb information. Piquing curiosity activates the arousal network and signals potential pleasure in the brain. It allows learners to reach a stage where they are becoming increasingly selfdirected, where they can say “get out of my way, but not too far” (Heick 2019). Ultimately, self-reflection empowers learners to effect qualitative changes in their own thinking. Piquing curiosity gets the brain ready for Productive Puzzling and puzzling feeds curiosity.

What are the necessary conditions for Productive Puzzling? Learning activities that promote Productive Puzzling require five conditions (see Figure 2.2). The foundation must be firmly established by designing an environment that builds trusting relationships and encourages taking risks for learning. The second and third conditions operate interdependently: sufficient challenge to spark curiosity, coupled with solutions that are within reach. Ideally, puzzling is set up to ensure that there are multiple strategies for the solution and, preferably, more than one possible outcome. Opportunities for reflection are built into the process and facilitated after the completion of the activity.

Flexible Mindsets 4. Multiple Strategies 5. Opportunities for Ref lection

3. Solutions within Reach

2. Challenge

1. Trusting Relationships

Figure 2.2 The five conditions for Productive Puzzling

Condition 1: trusting relationships for risk-taking Trust arises from a number of factors within a given environment as well as the actions and reactions of other people. To summarise briefly, it is important to: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

set up physical spaces that invite exploration and co-creation; share that the cornerstone of learning is identifying what we don’t know and grappling with it; clarify that our brains learn best through mistakes and trial and error; model the value of mistakes by ‘talking aloud’ through our own errors; celebrate mistakes and their role in creativity, innovation and inventions; communicate in ways that build trusting relationships; and explicitly troubleshoot challenges and obstacles.

Chapter 4 provides more detail on how to open the window for learning and build trusting relationships for students to ask questions, make mistakes and take risks for learning.

Conditions 2 and 3: challenge and solutions within reach Having created an environment characterised by trust, we can then begin to introduce conceptual challenges to learners (see Figure 2.3). A challenge is something difficult that requires mental effort and determination. It is the gap between what is already known and what is yet to be learned. People tend to seek out novelty, but we quickly discard problems that are too easy or too difficult (Willingham 2009). If we start a Sudoku puzzle and solve it quickly and easily, we won’t be interested in another puzzle at the same level of difficulty. Conversely, if we can’t even figure out the first few numbers, then we will become frustrated and give up.

Productive Puzzling and curiosity

WITHIN REACH CHALLENGE

Figure 2.3 Productive Puzzling balances challenge with solutions that are within reach As we strive to change the mindsets of students, we place increasing emphasis on the role of challenge for making brains smarter. Setting goals that are both challenging and achievable is largely a matter of structuring tasks in advance. It is crafted from an educator’s expertise in concert with relationships that build on the knowledge of individual students. Having set up a challenging puzzle for students, the role of the adult is to facilitate deeper puzzling. We express our confidence in learners to solve puzzles by affording them time in which to ponder and by providing specific guiding questions to promote perseverance and flexible strategy use. Effective interventions focus on breaking a puzzle down into smaller, manageable chunks; encouraging learners to ask questions and explain their thinking; and using their responses to guide the type of openended questions you ask next.

Condition 4: multiple strategies There is more than one trail to the top of the mountain. Given the pressures of current-day curricula, speed and accuracy in producing the correct answers are highly valued. There is little time for children to explore and figure things out. IQ tests, which are supposed to measure intelligence, rely heavily on already knowing the right answers and on timed responses. Children who take the time to reason and try different strategies to figure out answers are penalised, often resulting in lower scores than children who are less reflective. We inadvertently reinforce the misconception that knowing is superior to not knowing by only showing excitement and pride in students when they give us the right answers. What would it look like and sound like in classrooms all over the world if teachers gave students a high five every time they identified something they didn’t know? A Flexible Mindset is characterised by the ability to try something out, figure out what works and what doesn’t and then say: Does this make sense? What else can we try? What are the possibilities? These questions encapsulate the ability to shift perspectives and adapt flexibly when learning. Using open-ended prompts and sharing ideas is critical for assisting

Flexible Mindsets

learners to recognise that there are multiple ways to reason, many strategies that can lead to a solution and endless possibilities for what something can become. When learners shift flexibly, they are comfortable with ‘not knowing’ (Duckworth 2006). They take time to generate and evaluate multiple strategies (Meltzer 2010). It is rare that educational practices include direct instruction highlighting the value of different thoughts and strategies. Before selecting puzzles that can be solved using multiple strategies, set the climate in the classroom by building trusting relationships. Ensure that learners feel secure with the sharing of differing thoughts.

Condition 5: opportunities for reflection During Productive Puzzling, children initially are engaged in reflection when they are asked to think about the process. However, the greatest opportunities for reflection often happen at the end of an activity or lesson. Metacognition and reflection work hand in hand. As learners become increasingly self-aware, they are better able to reflect upon ‘What Works When’. Direct strategy instruction has been proven to improve how students transfer learning, use knowledge creatively and reflect on processes (Meltzer 2013). Strategies such as retrieval practice help students to identify what they do and do not know and focus on deepening their understanding (Agarwal & Bain 2019). Students need to ‘go deep’ in reflecting upon their strengths and challenges, as well as the strategies that work best in a given situation. Predicting how they would approach something differently in the future is critical for self-directed learning. Once students have begun to understand and use the language of selfreflection, dialogue in the classroom can explore puzzles at greater depths. To stoke Productive Puzzling, students must learn to ask and answer the kinds of questions that deepen exploration beyond initial curiosity (see ‘Carefully Crafted Questions’ in Chapter 5). Adults are charged with teaching students the language of learning: how to think, listen and speak in ways that facilitate deeper learning (Wilson 2015). Productive Puzzling is the underlying mechanism for Flexible Mindsets. This chapter has defined the five conditions necessary for Productive Puzzling. Applying these principles consistently through the Flexible Mindsets Spiral of Reflective Learning allows educators to take charge in their own classrooms (see Table 2.1). These practices create a culture where students feel comfortable taking learningrelated risks, use strategies flexibly and persevere when challenged. Noticing the incongruous, the unexpected, the unfamiliar and the things that provoke a feeling of discomfort entices us to delve further and sets us on course for developing agency in our own learning. In the next section, Chapter 3 will elaborate on the implications of fixed mentalities in closing the window for learning. Chapter 4 will set the foundation by exploring ways to build trusting relationships so students feel comfortable asking

Productive Puzzling and curiosity

questions, making mistakes and taking risks for learning (condition 1). From this base, we can nurture the capacity for learners to engage in Productive Puzzling. In Chapter 5, we will briefly describe the value of balancing challenges (condition 2) with attainable solutions (condition 3). We then explain how to teach learners about strategies (condition 4) and deliver feedback to engage them in self-reflection (condition 5).

Table 2.1 The Flexible Mindsets Spiral of Reflective Learning: Productive Puzzling

BE METACOGNITIVE

Scan your lesson plans for opportunities to introduce puzzles. How will you help students understand the type of content that is best suited to using thinking and reasoning for Productive Puzzling versus content that is factual and can be learned with more traditional methods? How will you model and encourage the questions that help us to use curiosity to explore new depths? “I wonder what would happen if . . .” “How can we use this new knowledge to imagine a different way of thinking about what we are learning?”

MODEL How will you schedule brief moments for unprogrammed time for students to puzzle, reflect or get bored?

ASK QUESTIONS AND AFFORD TIME How will you build in opportunities for students to share their stories about delving deeply into puzzles and how working hard leads to greater satisfaction?

USE SHARING AS A SPRINGBOARD

“I saw your group had a long discussion when you were struggling with building this robot. Share your challenges with the class and how you were able to work through them and find a solution together. How did you feel in the middle of the difficult work and how do you feel about having made the robot work? How did grappling with the challenges contribute to the process?” How will you respond to unexpected moments by encouraging your students to turn curve balls into puzzles to be explored? “You probably weren’t expecting this to happen. Why do you think it happened and how can you explore it further?”

THINK ON YOUR FEET

Flexible Mindsets

References Agarwal, P., & Bain, P. (2019). Powerful teaching: Unleash the science of learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Berlyne, D. (1960). Conflict, arousal, and curiosity. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Duckworth, E. (2006). “The having of wonderful ideas” and other essays on teaching and learning. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Elpidorou, A. (2014). The bright side of boredom. Frontiers in Psychology [online]. 5, 1245. [Viewed 14 July 2019]. Available from: doi.10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01245 Gkiokas, D. (2018). How to utilize both brain's thinking modes: Focused vs diffuse [online]. The Meta Learners. [Viewed 12 March 2020]. Available from: https:// www.themetalearners.com/how-to-utilize-both-brains-thinking-modesfocused-vs-diffuse/ Gruber, M., Gelman, B., & Ranganath, C. (2014). States of curiosity modulate hippocampus-dependent learning via the dopaminergic circuit. Neuron. 84(2), 486–496. Heick, T. (2019). From procedural knowledge to self knowledge: The 4 stages of curiosity [online]. teachthought. [Viewed 10 November 2019]. Available from: www.teachthought.com/learning/4-stages-of-curiosity/ Kashdan, T. (2004). Curiosity. In: C. Peterson & M. Seligman, eds. Character strengths and virtues. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 125–141. Lazarus, R. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Meltzer, L. (2010). Promoting executive function in the classroom. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L. (2013). Executive function processes: The foundation of academic and life success. International Journal for Research in Learning Disabilities. 1(2), 31–63. Medina, J. (2008). Brain rules: 12 principles for surviving and thriving at work, home, and school. Seattle, WA: Pear Press. Oakley, B., & Sejnowski, T. (2018). Learning how to learn: How to succeed in school without spending all your time studying. New York, NY: Penguin Random House. Peterson, S., & Posner, M. (2012). The attention system of the brain: 20 years after. Annual review of neuroscience. 35, 73–89. Sansone, C., & Thoman, D. (2005). Interest as the missing motivator in selfregulation. European Psychologist. 10, 175–186. Silvia, P. (2005). What is interesting? Exploring the appraisal structure of interest. Emotion. 5, 89–102. Silvia, P. (2006). The psychology of interest. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Productive Puzzling and curiosity

Silvia, P. (2008) Interest – The curious emotion. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 17(1), 57–60. Warshauer, H. (2015). Productive struggle in middle school mathematics classrooms. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education. 18(4), 375–400. Willingham, D. (2009). Why don’t students like school? A cognitive scientist answers questions about how the mind works and what it means for your classroom. New York, NY: Wiley. Wilson, M. (2015). The language of learning: Teaching students core thinking, listening and speaking skills. Turner Falls, MA: Center for Responsive Schools, Inc. Zomorodi, M. (2017). Bored and brilliant: How spacing out can unlock your most productive and creative self. New York, NY: St. Michael’s Press.

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S e e I d, M.S. Direc or and Co-Fo nder, Eas on Co n r Da School; Cons l an , Fairfield P blic Schools Te a Z e a , B.S. Fo nder & E ec i e Direc or, Ups ream Ed ca ion

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The SMARTS program teaches strategies that give students the foundation to develop more skilled performance in areas of executive function, providing the scaffolding necessary for success.

We began with Goal setting. It is necessary to provide a structure and focus for what you want to achieve. In this case, Amelie wanted to maintain her friendships and needed to be more appropriate on social media. SMART Goal: I will monitor my posts on social media by having a trusted person read them for a period of 6 months before I post them.

Time-

Organization and prioritization are essential to a strong executive function foundation. This can help reduce stress and anxiety. Internal disorder can affect our ability to organize, and anxiety and stress can affect our ability to be organized. This becomes the question of what comes first?.....the chicken or the egg. Amilie has ADHD, and it makes organizing and prioritizing difficult for her. We expanded the strategies used for academic organization into the social arena: Making plans specific Using a calendar Setting time constructs Setting priorities on scheduling so that social experiences didn’t come second to higher priority needs such as homework.

Bite-Sized Tools for Student WellBeing

Tessa Zimmerman Founder & Executive Director Anxious since age 3 Attended ECDS starting at age 12

What is Upstream? A Tier 1 Social-Emotional Learning Curriculum Concrete tools rooted in mindfulness, positive psychology, and positive self-talk practices Built by teachers, for teachers Responsive

Our Research 70% of students experienced a reduction in stress and statistically significant reduction in anxiety 1 in 3 students use these tools outside of school The tools are helping teachers Upstream supports student learning

Practice the Tools 1. Mindful Body Scan 2. Permission Slip 3. Go-To SelfCompassion Phrases

Mindful Body Scan

Right Now Tool

Right now, I am feeling… Right now, I am grateful for… Right now, I am wishing… Right now, I am concerned about… Right now, I am loving… Right now, I am frustrated about… Right now, I am excited about… Right now, I am learning… Right now, I am curious about… Right now, I am valuing…

Go-To SelfCompassion Phrases Tool

Write Down the Phrases That Resonate Other people feel this way. We all struggle in our lives. I am not alone. Feeling this way is part of being human. Challenges are a part of life. The darkness helps us appreciate the light even more. Everyone is on their own life journey. Things like this happen, and that’s okay. I make mistakes like everyone else, and I’ll learn from them. I can restart my day over at any time. I am doing the best I can.

How Schools Use These Tools Advisory Department Model Rotating Department Model Opt-In Class Period Post-Safety Drills

Free Sample Pack

Closure Please feel free to reach out: Tessa, tessa@upstreamedu.org (Founder & Executive Director) Gina, gina@asset-edu.org (Director of Programs) Simone, simone@upstreamedu.org (Partnership Development Coordinator)

What is

Executive function?

and How Does it Relate to Child Development? The phrase “executive function” refers to a set of skills. These skills underlie the capacity to plan ahead and meet goals, display self-control, follow multiple-step directions even when interrupted, and stay focused despite distractions, among others.

MAK E DI TAK NNE R OIL E CAR CHA F O NGE R PAY BILL S

Much like an air traffic control system at an airport helps planes on different runways land and take off safely, executive function skills help our brains prioritize tasks, filter distractions, and control impulses.

no one is born with executive function skills, but nearly everyone can learn them. Our genes provide the blueprint for learning these skills, but they develop through experiences and practice. The foundation is laid in infancy, when babies first learn to pay attention. Relationships with responsive caregivers are particularly important at this stage. Something as simple as playing a game of peekaboo can help build the early foundations of working memory and self-control as a baby anticipates the surprise.

Adults set up the framework for children to learn and practice these skills over time by establishing routines, breaking big tasks into smaller chunks, and encouraging games that promote imagination, role-playing, following rules, and controlling impulses. These techniques are known as “scaffolding.” Just as a scaffold supports workers while a building is being constructed, adults can use these activities to support the emergence of children’s executive function skills until they can perform them on their own.

These skills typically develop most rapidly between ages 3-5, followed by another spike in development during the adolescent and early adult years. It takes a long time and a lot of practice to develop them, but, as children’s executive function skills grow, adults can gradually allow children to manage more and more aspects of their environment.

Building Children’s Executive Function Skills Benefits Everyone.

2+2=

The increasingly competent executive functioning of children and adolescents enables them to plan and act in a way that makes them good students, classroom citizens, and friends.

In turn, this helps them grow into adults capable of juggling a multitude of commitments, such as parenting, I Voted employment, continuing education, and civic involvement. Even health is affected, as strong executive function helps people stick to healthy habits and reduce stress. The more a society invests in building the executive functioning of its children, the greater dividends it will see in the future.

For more information: https://developingchild.harvard.edu/ef

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Rebecca Bae e , P .D. a Re ea c A c a e, U e fI

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School-based mindf lness programs (SBMPs) programs ha in ol e he implemen a ion of mindf lness programming i hin he PreK-12 school se ing ha e gro n in pop lari o er he pas o decades, as has he e idence base (Roeser e al., 2022; Zenner e al., 2014). This session ill e plore he follo ing q es ions: Wha are he effec s of SBMPs on s den o comes? Wha fac ors are impor an o consider hen implemen ing an SBMP? Wha sho ld a school and/or eacher consider hen selec ing an SBMP or in egra ing mindf lness-based programming and prac ices in o heir school or classroom se ing? In his session, par icipan s ill be familiari ed i h he research on SBMPs for s den s, and rela edl , he e idence on mindf lness-based programs (MBPs) for eachers. Ne , par icipan s ill learn abo a se of considera ions rela ed o SBMP implemen a ion in he school and classroom se ing. Las l , par icipan s ill gain access o a ne concep al frame ork ha pro ides g idance on SBMP implemen a ion and he repor ing of SBMP implemen a ion. The session ill emphasi e he research on SBMPs and pro ide prac ical ools for in egra ing and implemen ing SBMPs in o school and classroom se ings. Re e e ce Roeser, R. W., Galla, B. M., & Baelen, R. N. (2022). Mindf lness in schools: E idence on he impac s of school-based mindf lness programs on s den o comes in P 12 ed ca ional se ings. Uni ersi Park, PA: Edna Benne Pierce Pre en ion Research Cen er, The Penns l ania S a e Uni ersi . Zenner, C., Herrnleben-K r , S., & Walach, H. (2014). Mindf lness-based in er en ions in schools: A s s ema ic re ie and me a-anal sis. F e P c g , 5(JUN), 1 20. h ps://doi.org/10.3389/fps g.2014.00603

Re e a

Read

Emerson, L.-M., de Dia , N. N., Sher ood, A., Wa ers, A., & Farrell, L. (2020). Mindf lness in er en ions in schools: In egri and feasibili of implemen a ion. In erna ional Jo rnal of Beha ioral De elopmen , 44(1), 62 75. h ps://doi.org/10.1177/0165025419866906 Fel er, J. C., Celis-de Ho os, C. E., Te anos, K., & Singh, N. N. (2016). A s s ema ic re ie of mindf lness-based in er en ions for o h in school se ings. Mindf lness, 7, 34 45. Go ld, L. F., Dario is, J. K., Greenberg, M. T., & Mendelson, T. (2016). Assessing fideli of implemen a ion (FOI) for school-based mindf lness and oga in er en ions: A s s ema ic re ie . Mindf lness, 7(1), 5 33. h ps://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0395-6 Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2009). The prosocial classroom: Teacher social and emo ional compe ence in rela ion o s den and classroom o comes. Re ie of ed ca ional research, 79(1), 491-525. Phan, M.L., Rensha , T.L., Caramanico, J., Greeson, J. M., MacKen ie, E., A kinson-Dia , Z., Doppel , N., Tai, H., Mandell, D. S., & N ske, H. J. (2022). Mindf lness-based school in er en ions: A s s ema ic re ie of o come e idence q ali b s d design. Mindf lness 13, 1591 1613. h ps://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-022-01885-9 Schoner -Reichl, K., & Roeser, R. W. (2016b). Mindf lness in ed ca ion: In rod c ion and o er ie of he handbook. In K. Schoner -Reichl & R. W. Roeser (Eds.), Handbook of Mindf lness in Ed ca ion: Theor , Research, Prac ice and F re Direc ions. Ne York: Springer. T dor, K., Malone , S., Raja, A., Baer, R., Blakemore, S., B ford, S. Crane, C., Dalgleish, T., De Wilde, K., Ford, T., Greenberg, M., Hin e, V., Lord, L., Radle , L., Opale e, E. S., Ta lor, L., Uko m nne, O. C., Viner, R., MYRIAD Team, Mon ero-Marin, J. (2022). Uni ersal mindf lness raining in schools for adolescen s: A scoping re ie and concep al model of modera ors, media ors, and implemen a ion fac ors. Pre en ion Science, 23, 934-953. h ps://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-022-01361-9

e SBMP a d O e Re

ce :

Learning o Brea he (L2B): SBMP incl ded in he re ie b Roeser e al. (2020). Mindf l schools: SBMP incl ded in he re ie b Roeser e al. (2020). MindUP: SBMP incl ded in he re ie b Roeser e al. (2020). Foc s 5: Brief mindf l a areness prac ices ha can be implemen ed in ed ca ional se ings. Transforming Ed ca ion: A oolki for in egra ing mindf lness in o he classroom and school se ing.

School-Based Mindfulness Programs (SBMPs): Exploring the Evidence and Offering Practical Guidance for Implementation Dr. Rebecca Baelen Postdoctoral Research Associate University of Illinois Chicago

Agenda

Background Criteria for study inclusion & guiding logic model Characteristics of included studies & SBMPs Findings Recommendations for implementation Implementation reporting tools and frameworks

Dr. Rebecca Baelen Postdoctoral Research Associate University of Illinois Chicago

What is Mindfulness? A natural mental state Paying attention in a particular way, “on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally.” Self-regulation of attention A balanced mental attitude An educable skill Consistent engagement with mindfulness practices An enduring mental trait

The Neuroscience

Peer-Reviewed Publications on Mindfulness with Youth

Dr. Rebecca Baelen Postdoctoral Research Associate University of Illinois Chicago

What are School-Based Mindfulness Programs (SBMPs)? A program implemented within the school setting (PreK-12) with a central feature of mindfulness and/or contemplative principles and practices (e.g., yoga, self-compassion, loving-kindness)

Criteria for Study Selection Studies conducted between 2000-2019 Selected from recent systematic reviews and metaanalyses AMRA newsletters from 2016-2019 Study Inclusion Criteria: Published in peer-reviewed journals (English only) SBMP conducted during school day SBMP had an explicit mindfulness component Studies used an experimental design Exclusion Criteria After-school, community-based, or clinical mindfulness programs for youth Fewer than 30 students

54 Studies met inclusion criteria

> 13,000 P-12 students represented 89% evaluated universal SBMPs

Characteristics of Included Studies

# of studies by school level: P re -K : 6 (11% of total studies) E le m e n ta ry: 30 (56% of total studies) S e co n d a ry: 18 (33% of total studies)

Studies conducted with…

public school students: 6 5 % majority low-income students: 3 5 % majority minority students: 3 3 %

Dr. Rebecca Baelen Postdoctoral Research Associate University of Illinois Chicago

Program Characteristics

Dr. Rebecca Baelen Postdoctoral Research Associate University of Illinois Chicago

School-based Mindfulness Programs… improve students’ mindfulness and self-regulatory skills (for Pre-K and Elementary students); reduce students’ internalized distress (for Elementary and Secondary students). do not show evidence for reducing students’ externalizing distress (e.g., anger or aggression) or improving well-being (e.g., resilience). show promise for improving students’ physical health and healthy relationships. may improve students’ school behavior and grades, but evidence is limited.

Recommendations & Considerations for Practitioners Ensure that implementing a SBMP is the right approach for the school and for generating the intended outcomes. When selecting an SBMP, consider characteristics and goodness of fit. Assess and determine school’s readiness to implement programming effectively. Consider a range of approaches for assessing program outcomes.

Dr. Rebecca Baelen Postdoctoral Research Associate University of Illinois Chicago

Guiding Framework for SBMP Implementation

SBMP Implementation Elements

Program

Core Program Components

Implementation Support System

Participants

Those who Deliver

Those who Receive

Context

School Level

Implementation

Quality of Implementation (QOI)

Broader Level

Integrity

Competence

Core Components & Hypothesized Core Components

Key Terms

Amount

Adaptations

Dosage

Quality of Implementation

Goodness of Fit

Uptake

Responsiveness

Amount

Feasibility

Acceptibilty

Goodness of Fit

Core Program Components

Integrity

Dosage

Participant Responsiveness

Implementation Support System

Competence

Uptake

Feasibility

Adaptations

Dr. Rebecca Baelen Postdoctoral Research Associate University of Illinois Chicago

Acceptability

Take-Aways SBMPs show promise for promoting mindfulness & self-regulation skills, physical health and positive school behavior/performance, as well as reducing internalizing distress. Difficult to draw conclusions about type of programming that is best due to wide variety of SBMPs and testing settings, as well as poor documentation of implementation elements that influence SBMP outcomes. Consider incorporating SBMPs in a manner that aligns with the culture of the school/classroom and the needs of students. Focus on teacher buy-in and training prior to implementation.

Dr. Rebecca Baelen Postdoctoral Research Associate University of Illinois Chicago

issue brief

Mindfulness in Schools:

Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings

Robert W. Roeser, The Pennsylvania State University Brian M. Galla, University of Pittsburgh Rebecca N. Baelen, University of Pennsylvania This issue brief, created by The Pennsylvania State University, is one of a series of briefs that addresses the future needs and challenges

synthesized current SEL research on early support for parent engagement and its effects on child outcomes; SEL in infancy/toddlerhood, health equity, and school climate. Learn more at:

issue brief

Executive Summary The number of school-based mindfulness programs (SBMPs) for students has been kindergarten through high school (P–12 settings). While the reach of SBMPs is substantial, their introduction has outpaced research on their effectiveness across diverse sociocultural

Recommendations for practitioners considering the use of SBMPs are offered.

issue brief

Introduction School-based mindfulness programs (SBMPs) for students have been proliferating over the

served over one million youth (see www.mindfulschools.org). The appeal of mindfulness The dozens of school-based mindfulness programs that have been developed and implemented across the 1

emotionally, engage in healthy relationships, and perhaps, even do better in school. As the number of programs has increased, so too have the number of research evaluations of their impacts on students.2

evaluation studies of SBMPs to date. school and secondary school settings (P–12 grades).

evidence suggest that SBMPs help students to become more focused and better able to cope

considering implementing SBMPs.

their students.

issue brief

(1) a natural mental state, and also (2) an educable skill enduring mental trait. As a natural mental state, mindfulness has been described as paying attention in a particular interrelated dimensions: (1) the self-regulation of attention and (2) a balanced mental attitude. or forgetfulness. A balanced mental attitude involves taking a curious, open-minded, and

Mindfulness is also considered to be an educable skill consistent engagement mindfulness practices over and over again. skills. physical health, social relationships, and the performance of daily life tasks. education and repeated practice, mindfulness can develop from an intermittent natural mental state to a relatively enduring mental trait.

Describing Mindfulness Practices in SBMPs mindfulness practices and exercises that train attention, curiosity, and non-reactivity is essential. Supplementary Table 1 for fuller description). These practices, by and large, aimed to cultivate

that focused on mindfulness of (d) feelings and (e) thoughts. Applications of mindfulness to

School Behavior and Performance. These outcomes are described more fully in Table 1.

issue brief

TABLE 1

Mindfulness & Self-Regulation Skills

Mindfulness Skills: Mindfulness of sensation, emotion and thought; self-compassion Attention Regulation:

Mental Health

Stress, symptoms of anxiety and depression; negative affect; test anxiety; rumination; reactive responses to stress; somatic complaints; negative coping attention problems Psychological Well-Being: Positive affect; resilience; optimism; positive self-concept

Physical Health

Physiological Indicators: Blood pressure; heart rate; cortisol output (stress hormones); body mass index Behavioral Indicators: Sleep; mindful eating; health care utilization; intention to use substances and abstention from

Social skills; social-emotional competence; empathy; kindness, compassion for others, Cooperation, popularity; positive peer and teacher relations; positive social climate

Academic self-concept, motivation to learn Grades, academic skills

issue brief

and developmental needs and capacities of students, educators, and the school community. program and practices. Student engagement may lead to the development of mindfulness and self-regulation skills. These skills, in turn, may help students manage emotions, reduce stress

others, and academic learning.

FIGURE 1

Distal

Mindfulness

Mindfulness & Self-Regulation Skills

Practices

Mental Health

Physical Heath

Presence of Well-being

Healthy High-Quality

Physical World

School Behavior

Student

issue brief

A Look at the Mindfulness Programs and Research Studies Reviewed for This Brief

the school day. SBMP characteristics included program structure, facilitation, home practice

These program characteristics by school level are presented in Figure 2.

FIGURE 2

Notes: Novel curricular programs

More than 900 minutes

360–900 minutes

Less than 360 minutes

Not reported

Required

Encouraged

Not reported

Both

Classroom Teacher

External Facilitator

Brief Practices

Curriculum (Novell)

Curriculum (MBSR/MBCT Adapted

children or adolescents. Adapted from existing adult Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction or MindfulnessBased Cognitive Therapy programs and practices. Those programs characterized as having a structure involved practices designed for and administered to students, lasting no coding for facilitation, programs

Structure

Facilitation

Practice

program reported different facilitation approaches or if the program administration involved both classroom teachers and external facilitators.

issue brief

studies, students, and schools included in the brief. All studies included an explicit mindfulness

PreK grade students ( th to 12th grade students (Secondary: th

public schools

, a third

issue brief

Outcomes from SBMP Participation . As the light blue bars

Performance.

a particular outcome (compared to the control group) divided by the total number of studies that assessed that particular outcome.

setting (PreK, Elementary, Secondary).

main conclusions. FIGURE 3

Hit Rates

# Studies that Assessed

67%

64% 57%

54%

57%

# Studies

39 35

38%

14 9

Mindfulness & Self-Regulation

Internalizing Distress

Externalizing Distress

Psychological Well-being

14 8

Physical Health

Healthy Relationships

School Behavior & Grades

Note: The hit rate is the percentage of studies that observed an impact. promising evidence that SBMPs impact that outcome.

issue brief

Conclusion 1.

For instance, Quach, Mano, and Alexander8

involving PreK

elementary students

and secondary school

graders into

students found improved

FIGURE 4

Hit Rates

83%

80% 75% 63%

67% 55%

58%

56% 50%

45%

43%

39% 40%

50%

40% 29%

Distress

Physical Health

Healthy Relationships

Secondary

Elementary

Pre-K

Secondary

Elementary

Pre-K

Secondary

No Data Elementary

Secondary

Elementary

Secondary

Pre-K

Psychological Well-being

Pre-K

No Data Elementary

Secondary

Elementary

Pre-K

Secondary

Elementary

Pre-K

Mindfulness & SelfRegulation

Pre-K

No Data

School Behavior & Grades

issue brief

Conclusion 2.

indicating promising evidence that SBMPs reduce elementary and secondary school th through 8th graders in

the control group.17 18

More research is needed to ascertain for secondary school students.

Conclusion 3.

), respectively.

reducing internalized distress, but there is little to no consistent evidence that they reduce

Conclusion 4. and healthy relationships

greater reductions in blood pressure and daytime heart rate in contrast to students in control groups. For healthy relationships, the evidence th th -graders from urban elementary schools in Western

higher than their peers in the control group on measures of prosociality and popularity and

issue brief

kindergarteners found no effects on prosocial behavior,27 nor did an adapted version of MBCT 28

More research is needed to better understand the impacts of SBMPs on healthy relationship outcomes, but the evidence to date is promising.

Conclusion 5.

and grades to the students.

Therefore, although there is some evidence that mindfulness

issue brief

Recommendations

school behavior and performance.

Given this tentative evidence, decisions by educational practitioners to implement SBMPs for students might be best made in the context of four main considerations.

First,

evidence-based programs might accomplish the same aims. For example, are other

Second, Key characteristics for educators to consider include the type of program and practices

requirements), and overall class time required during the school year (brief, average, long). aimed at SEL, equity, and inclusion.

issue brief

Third,

the lessons of the SEL movement clearly point to the concurrent need for professional

naturally integrated. practices in the classroom. Thus, mindfulness programs for teachers may form an important part of any plan to implement student mindfulness programs in a school.

Fourth,

To do so, practitioners might undertake efforts to incorporate assessments of program

university faculty interested in mindfulness in education may also advance this kind of on-

Conclusions

SBMPs has outpaced research on their potential effectiveness across diverse sociocultural contexts, school environments, and student ages and backgrounds. Nonetheless, the past

and self-regulation skills, reductions in feelings of anxiety and depression, and improvements

As the state of the science continues to evolve, and as the use of mindfulness programs in

schools, and communities.

issue brief

Dedication Robert W. Roeser, Ph.D., is the Bennett Pierce Professor of Care and Compassion, and professor of human development and family studies, school-based efforts to help young people become more conscious and self-

areas of research expertise are adolescence and early adulthood, schooling and identity development; and the impacts of mindfulness and compassion The original brief published in 2020 has been changed to include new appendix tables; with this addition, the new publication date is 2022. All other information in this brief is unchanged.

education and compassion in human development. Mindfulness in schools:

Evidence on the impacts of school-based mindfulness programs on student outcomes in P–12 educational settings. University Park, PA: Edna Bennett Pierce Prevention Research Center, The Pennsylvania State University.

Brian M. Galla, Ph.D., is assistant professor of applied developmental psychology, School of Education, and research scientist, Learning Research psychological studies in education from the University of California, Los

About the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation

observational studies and randomized experiments in laboratory, school, and control and mindfulness operate, develop, and can be changed. About The Pennsylvania State University

Rebecca Baelen, Ph.D., is a recent graduate of the University of Pennsylvania. practices and positive psychological interventions in educational settings and

of Pennsylvania, studying approaches to fostering empathy in students. After

and the effects of mindfulness practices in adults and youth. For her doctoral dissertation, she designed and tested a brief self-compassion intervention for

issue brief

Endnotes

References 1

The Triple Focus: A new approach to education. Florence, MA: More Than Sound.

2 The mindful school: Transforming school culture through mindfulness and compassion Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life learning scientists. . Clinical Psychology: Science mindfulness continue to develop (e.g., are relatively malleable or plastic) over the entire

and Practice, 11 Altered traits: Science reveals how meditation

for cultivating them through enrichment efforts like SBMPs. program impacts on student outcomes (e.g., improved teacher-student relationships, increased school belonging).

changes your mind, brain, and body How people learn: Mind, brain, experience, and school. 7

Expert performance: Its structure and acquisition. American Psychologist, 8,

characteristics.

private. not included.

A randomized controlled trial examining the effect of mindfulness meditation on working memory capacity in adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 58 Feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary effectiveness of the OpenMind (OM) program for pre-school children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28

studies and are arranged in the order of most studied to least studied outcomes in these studies.

Mindfulness plus . Frontiers in Psychology, 9 11 Enhancing cognitive and social–emotional development through a simple-to-administer mindfulness-based school program for elementary school children: A randomized controlled trial. Developmental Psychology, 51

th and 8th grade to 12th grade students in the sample. Thus, these grade-level

The effects of mindfulness practice on attentional functions among primary school children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27 Mindfulness training in primary schools decreases negative affect and increases meta-cognition in children. Frontiers in Psychology, 6,

to 8th

Effects of a mindfulness-based program on young children’s self-regulation, prosocial behavior, and hyperactivity. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27 Learning to BREATHE: A pilot trial of a mindfulness curriculum for adolescents. Advances in School Mental Health Promotion, 2 A randomized trial evaluating school-based mindfulness intervention for ethnic minority youth: Exploring mediators and moderators of intervention effects. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47

future research.

School-based mindfulness instruction: An RCT. Pediatrics, 137, 1–8.

targeted studies of secondary school student populations, especially African-American

Effectiveness of the Mindfulness in Schools Project: Non-randomized controlled feasibility study. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 203

and a potential confound in studies done to date. characteristics and number of research studies done on that program.

education in doing this. See https://www.teleadership.org, for example.

A mindfulness enhancement program for 8 to 11 year-old Thai children: Effects on mindfulness and depression. Journal of ealth Research, 28

s. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 1–8. 21

School-based prevention and reduction of depression in adolescents: A cluster-randomized controlled trial of a mindfulness group program. Mindfulness, 5

issue brief

Effectiveness of a school-based mindfulness program for transdiagnostic prevention in young adolescents. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 81, 1–11.

Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy controlled trial with Australian primary school children. Mindfulness, 1–17.

A randomized controlled evaluation of a secondary school mindfulness program for early adolescents: Do we have the recipe right yet? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 99

Reducing Israeli-Jewish pupils’ outgroup prejudice with a mindfulness and compassion-based social-emotional program. Mindfulness, 9

Impact of breathing awareness meditation on ambulatory blood pressure and sodium handling in pre-hypertensive African American adolescents. Ethnicity & Disease, 18

A systematic review of mindfulness-based interventions for youth in school settings. Mindfulness, 7

upon ambulatory blood pressure and sodium excretion among African American adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48 Impact of stress reduction interventions on hostility and ambulatory systolic blood pressure in African American adolescents. Journal of Black Psychology, 37 27

A selforiented mindfulness-based curriculum improves prekindergarten students’ executive functions. Mindfulness, 9

The handbook of mindfulness in education: Integrating theory and research into practice Handbook of Mindfulness in Education: Theory, Research, Practice and Future Directions Teacher stress and health: Effects on teachers, students, and schools. University Park, PA: Edna Bennett Pierce Prevention Research Center, The Pennsylvania State University.

issue brief

APPENDIX

Supplementary Materials: Methodology for Selection of Research Studies

training programs for children and youth Mindfulness Research Monthly Association to notify its readership about recently published studies on topics related to

studies in the English language studies conducted during the school day (excluding studies of after-school, clinical, or community-

only included studies that were peer-reviewed, published, and used experimental designs; only included studies examining the impacts of SBMPs on student outcomes compared to . excluded studies with fewer than 30 total participants so that sample sizes Supplementary Table 2). Supplementary Table 1).

Supplementary Table 3, n

issue brief

Appendix References mental health in schools: A comprehensive meta-analysis. Mindfulness, 9

Psychology in the Schools, 54

of mindfulness-based interventions for youth in school settings. Mindfulness, 7

of group-design studies. Journal of School Psychology, 63 Mindfulness-based interventions for improving academic achievement, behavior and socio-emotional functioning of primary and secondary students: a systematic review. Report for The Campbell Collaboration. Mindfulness, 10

Frontiers in Psychology, 5 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00603. Mindfulness, 6

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings

1-3

SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE 1

Programs in Reviewed Studies Session Length & Frequency

Est. Program Time (mins.)

Program Name

Description of Program Components

Research Studies

Program Type

Adapted MBCT for Reducing Eating Disorders

Adapted MBCT: Mindfulness- and acceptance- based

Atkinson & Wade, 2015

Curricular

Adapted MBSR

Huppert & Johnson, 2010; Quach, Jastrowski, & Alexander, 2016; Tarrasch, 2018

Curricular

Adapted MBSR for Urban Youth

Sibinga et al., 2013, 2016

Curricular

600

Attention Academy

Napoli, 2005

Curricular

540

Bohme et al., 2018

Curricular

Breathing Awareness Meditation

Barnes et al., 2004, 2008; Gregoski et al., 2008; Wright et al., 2011

Brief Practices

Call-to-Care

Berger et al., 2018

Curricular

CBT + Mindfulness Meditation

Patton et al., 2019

Curricular

Compassion and Attention in the Schools (COMPAS)

Terjestam et al., 2016

Brief Practices

BiNKA Training

exercises

270

600

Facilitation

Homework

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings Program Name

Description of Program Components

Session Length & Frequency

Est. Program Time (mins.)

Research Studies

Program Type

Health Education with Mindfulness Training

Salmoirago-Blotcher et al., 2018

Curricular

960

Inner Explorer

Bakosh et al., 2016, 2018

Brief Practices

450

Inner Kids

Flook et al., 2010

Curricular

Integrative Contemplative Pedagogy

Britton et al., 2014

Brief Practices

225

Kindness Curriculum

Flook et al., 2015

Curricular

600

Learning to BREATHE (L2B)

Broderick & Metz, 2009; Fung et al., 2019; Metz et al., 2013

Curricular

445

Master Mind

Parker et al., 2014

Curricular

MindUP

Schonert-Reichl et al., 2015; Thierry et al., 2016, 2018

Curricular

Mindful Education

Schonert-Reichl & Lawlor, 2010

Curricular

Mindful Schools

van de Weijer et al., 2014

Curricular

Fishbein et al., 2015

Curricular

Zelazo et al., 2018

Curricular

720

Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy for Children (MBCT-C)

Wright et al., 2019

Curricular

900

Mindfulness Curriculum (Improving Children’s Eating Behaviors)

Dial et al., 2019

Curricular

225

Mindfulness Emotional Intelligence Training Program

Ricarte et al., 2015

Brief Practices

900

students Mindful Yoga Curriculum

Training

Facilitation

Homework

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings Program Name

Description of Program Components

Session Length & Frequency

Est. Program Time (mins.)

Research Studies

Program Type

Mindfulness Enhancement Program

Raveepatarakul et al., 2014

Curricular

Mindfulness Group Program

Raes et al., 2014

Curricular

Mindfulness in Schools Programme (.b or Paws b)

Campbell et al., 2019; Johnson et al., 2016, 2017; Kuyken et al., 2013; Sanger et al., 2018; Vickery & Dorjee, 2016; Volanen et al., 2020

Curricular

Mindfulness-Oriented Meditation Training (MOM)

Crescentini et al., 2016

Curricular

Mindfulness Skills Training

Long et al., 2018

Curricular

720

Mindfulness Training for Teens

Johnson & Wade, 2019

Curricular

720

MindKinder

Moreno-Gomez & Cejudo, 2018

Brief Practices

No Formal Program Name

Viafora et al., 2014

Curricular

OpenMind

Jackman et al., 2019

Brief Practices

Pause, Breathe, Smile

Devcich et al., 2017

Curricular

Stress Reduction and Mindfulness Curriculum

Mendelsohn et al., 2010

Curricular

YogaKids

Bergen-Cico & Razza, 2016

Brief Practices

Facilitation

Homework

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings

SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE 2

Reviewed Studies and Student Outcomes STUDY

Citation

STUDY CHARACTERISTICS

Program Name

Estimated In-Class Program Time (minutes)

Mindfulness

225

600

Public

Yes

Public

262

975

Yes

Public

Yes

Public

296

720

Yes

Public

MindUP

Mindfulness +

Targeted vs. Universal Program Administration

Facilitation

Majority Racial/ Ethnic Minority or Immigrant Student Sample

Students

Majority Low-Income Student Sample

School Type

School Location Care Centers in

School Level

Average Age (Grade)

Sample Size 52

Measures to Assess Implementation

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings

Student Outcomes, Pre-K STUDY Citation

STUDENT OUTCOMES Reported Measures Assessed

CODED STUDENT OUTCOMES Mindfulness & SelfCompassion

SelfRegulatory Skills

Internalizing Distress

Externalizing Distress

Psychological Well- Being

Physical Health

Healthy Relationships

School Behaviors & Performance

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings

Student Impacts, Pre-K STUDY Citation

STUDENT IMPACTS Reported Program Impacts On Student Outcomes

CODED STUDENT IMPACTS Mindfulness & SelfCompassion

SelfRegulatory Skills

Internalizing Distress

Externalizing Distress

Psychological Well- Being

Physical Health

Healthy Relationships

School Behavior & Performance

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings

Reviewed Studies, K-8 STUDY

Citation

STUDY CHARACTERISTICS

Program Name

Estimated In-Class Program Time (Minutes)

Targeted Vs. Universal Program Administration

Facilitation

Majority Racial/ Ethnic Minority or Immigrant Student Sample

Majority LowIncome Student Sample

School Type

School Location

Public

Suburban

400

500

Yes

Public

600

Public

Suburban Middle

Public

Urban Middle

School Level

Average Age (Grade)

Sample Size

Students CT

Public

225

Mindfulness-

Urban Middle

Public

Students Mindfulness in

Mindfulness in

450

Public

in Adelaide

Public

in Australia

555

Measures To Assess Implementation

Study Follow-Up

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings STUDY

Citation

STUDY CHARACTERISTICS Majority LowIncome Student Sample

School Type

Yes

Public

Yes

Public

Master Mind

Public

Mindfulness

Yes

Public

246

Public

Program Name

Estimated In-Class Program Time (Minutes) 720

Targeted Vs. Universal Program Administration

Facilitation

Majority Racial/ Ethnic Minority or Immigrant Student Sample

School Location

School Level

Average Age (Grade)

Sample Size

Students

and Mindfulness

Students

540

Mindfulness

900

MindUP

Adaptated MBSR

600

Yes

Public

Yes

Public

Students

Adapted MBSR

600

EF Students

Urban

Measures To Assess Implementation

Study Follow-Up

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings STUDY

Citation

STUDY CHARACTERISTICS

Program Name

Estimated In-Class Program Time (Minutes)

Adapted MBSR

450

Targeted Vs. Universal Program Administration

Facilitation

Majority Racial/ Ethnic Minority or Immigrant Student Sample

Majority LowIncome Student Sample

School Type

Public

Mindfulness in

405

School Location

900

: Students

Yes

Public

Yes

Public

Average Age (Grade)

Public

Municipalities Mindfulness

School Level

Yes

Public

Urban and Suburban

Sample Size

Measures To Assess Implementation

Study Follow-Up

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings

Student Outcomes, K-8 STUDY Citation

STUDENT OUTCOMES Reported Measures Assessed

CODED STUDENT OUTCOMES Mindfulness & SelfCompassion

SelfRegulatory Skills

Internalizing Distress

Externalizing Distress

Psychological Well-Being

Physical Health

Healthy Relationships

School Behaviors & Performance

! ! !

! !

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings STUDY Citation

STUDENT OUTCOMES Reported Measures Assessed

CODED STUDENT OUTCOMES Mindfulness & SelfCompassion

SelfRegulatory Skills

Internalizing Distress

Externalizing Distress

Psychological Well-Being

Physical Health

Healthy Relationships

School Behaviors & Performance

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings STUDY Citation

STUDENT OUTCOMES Reported Measures Assessed

CODED STUDENT OUTCOMES Mindfulness & SelfCompassion

SelfRegulatory Skills

Externalizing Distress

Psychological Well-Being

Internalizing Distress

Physical Health

Healthy Relationships

School Behaviors & Performance

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings

Student Impacts, K-8 STUDY Citation

STUDENT IMPACTS Reported Program Impacts On Student Outcomes

CODED STUDENT IMPACTS Mindfulness & SelfCompassion

SelfRegulatory Skills

Internalizing Distress

Externalizing Distress

Psychological Well-Being

Physical Health

Healthy Relationships

School Behavior & Performance

! !

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings STUDY Citation

STUDENT IMPACTS Reported Program Impacts On Student Outcomes

CODED STUDENT IMPACTS Mindfulness & SelfCompassion

SelfRegulatory Skills

Internalizing Distress

Externalizing Distress

Psychological Well-Being

Physical Health

Healthy Relationships

School Behavior & Performance

! !

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings STUDY Citation

STUDENT IMPACTS Reported Program Impacts On Student Outcomes

CODED STUDENT IMPACTS Mindfulness & SelfCompassion

SelfRegulatory Skills

Internalizing Distress

Externalizing Distress

Psychological Well-Being

Physical Health

Healthy Relationships

School Behavior & Performance

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings

Reviewed Studies, High School STUDY

Citation

STUDY CHARACTERISTICS

Program Name

Estimated In-Class Program Time (minutes)

Adapted MBCT

270

600

Targeted vs. Universal Program Administration

Facilitation

Majority Racial/ Ethnic Minority or Immigrant Student Sample

Majority LowIncome Student Sample

School Type

School Location

Public

600

Sample Size

Measures to Assess Implementation

in Suburban

Average Age (Grade)

Students

pressure

Mindfulness in

School Level

Public

Yes

Public

practice

Suburban

practice 600

CT Students

pressure

Adapted MBSR

Yes

Public

Study Follow-Up

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings STUDY

Citation

STUDY CHARACTERISTICS

Program Name

Estimated In-Class Program Time (minutes)

Mindfulness

720

Mindfulness in

Targeted vs. Universal Program Administration

Facilitation

Majority Racial/ Ethnic Minority or Immigrant Student Sample

Majority LowIncome Student Sample

School Type

Yes

Public

Adapted MBSR

Yes

Public

Mindfulness

960

Public

400

600

Yes

Public

Average Age (Grade)

Sample Size

522

Suburban

Students

School Level

Public

CBT + Mindfulness

Mindfulness in

School Location

404

in Flanders

Measures to Assess Implementation

Study Follow-Up

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings

Student Outcomes, High School STUDY

Citation

STUDENT OUTCOMES

Reported Measures Assessed

CODED STUDENT OUTCOMES Mindfulness & SelfCompassion

SelfRegulatory Skills

Internalizing Distress

Externalizing Distress

Psychological Well Being

Physical Health

Healthy Relationships

index

School Behaviors & Performance

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings STUDY

Citation

STUDENT OUTCOMES

Reported Measures Assessed

CODED STUDENT OUTCOMES Mindfulness & SelfCompassion

SelfRegulatory Skills

Internalizing Distress

Externalizing Distress

Psychological Well Being

Physical Health

Healthy Relationships

! ! !

School Behaviors & Performance

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings

Student Impacts, High School STUDY

Citation

STUDENT IMPACTS

Reported Program Impacts On Student Outcomes

CODED STUDENT IMPACTS Mindfulness & SelfCompassion

SelfRegulatory Skills

Internalizing Distress

Externalizing Distress

Psychological Well-Being

Physical Health

Healthy Relationships

! !

School Behavior & Performance

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings STUDY

Citation

STUDENT IMPACTS

Reported Program Impacts On Student Outcomes

CODED STUDENT IMPACTS Mindfulness & SelfCompassion

SelfRegulatory Skills

Internalizing Distress

Externalizing Distress

Psychological Well-Being

Physical Health

! ! !

Healthy Relationships

School Behavior & Performance

Mindfulness in Schools: Evidence on the Impacts of School-Based Mindfulness Programs on Student Outcomes in P–12 Educational Settings

SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE 3

School-Based Mindfulness Programs for Students and Number 1

School-Based Mindfulness Program Name

Number of Research Studies on Program

Mindfulness in School Programme (.b or Paws b)

Breathing Awareness Meditation

Adapted MBSR

Learning to BREATHE (L2B)

MindUP

Adapted MBSR for Urban Youth

Inner Explorer

Mindful Schools

Adapted MBCT for Reducing Eating Disorders

Attention Academy

BiNKA Training

Call-to-Care

CBT + Mindfulness Meditation

Compassion and Attention in the Schools (COMPAS)

Health Education with Mindfulness Training

Inner Kids

Integrative Contemplative Pedagogy

Kindness Curriculum

Kripalu Yoga in the Schools

Master Mind

Mindful Education

Mindful Yoga Curriculum

1 1

Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy for Children (MBCT-C)

Minfulness Curriculum (Improving Children’s Eating Behaviors)

Mindfulness EMotional Intelligence Training Program

Mindfulness Enhancement Program

Mindfulness Group Program

Mindfulness-Oriented Meditation Training (MOM)

Mindfulness Skills Training

Mindfulness Training for Teens

MindKInder

No Formal Program Name

OpenMind

Pause, Breathe, Smile

Stress Reduction and Mindfulness Curriculum

YogaKids

Roeser, R. W., Galla, B. M., & Baelen, R. N. (2020). Mindfulness in schools: Evidence on the impacts of school-based mindfulness programs on student outcomes in P–12 educational settings. University Park, PA: Edna Bennett Pierce Prevention Research Center, The Pennsylvania State University.

C ea

gCa

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b ca

child be lea ning en i onmen . /? =517612& =14

L cci, D. (2014). De elo ing Self- eflec ion and Re ilience in Adole cen i h A e ge S nd ome and High F nc ioning A i m. A i m S ec m Ne , Win e . h ://a i m ec mne .o g/de elo ing- elf- eflec ion-and- e ilience-in-adole cen - i h-a e ge - nd ome-and-high-f nc ioning-a i m/ L cci, D., Le ine, M., Challen-Wi me , K. & McLeod, D.S. (2013). Technologie o in e en ion fo ocial-emo ional in elligence, elf-a a ene , e onal le, and elf- eg la ion. In: Bo e , K.I., Good in, M., & Wa land, S. T c T S d A . Bal imo e, MD: Pa l H. B ooke P b. No bohm, E. (2019). Ten hing e e child i h a i m i he da ed. A in, TX: F e Ho i on . Po N

o kne , 3 d Ed e i ed and

e, J., Pagnini, F. & Lange , E.J. Mindf lne fo A i m. Ad a c a D d 5, 77 84 (2021). h ://doi.o g/10.1007/ 41252-020-00180-9

P i an , B. & Field -Me e , T. (2022). Uni NY: Simon & Sch e .

el H man: A diffe en

a of eeing A i m. NY,

P ice, D. (2020). Unma king A i m (2022). NY, NY: Ha mon Book . Ridde inkhof, A., de B in, E.I., Blom, R. & Bogel , S. (2018).Mindf lne -Ba ed P og am fo Child en i h A i m S ec m Di o de and hei a en : di ec and long- e m im o emen . M d , 9,(3): 773-791. Sadin, M. (2022). T a ma-Info med Teaching and IEP : S a egie fo b ilding e ilience. A ling on, VA: ASCD. Silbe man, S. (2015). Ne o ibe : The legac of A i m and he F NY: A e An im in of Peng in Random Ho e, LLC.

den

e of Ne odi e i . NY,

Smi h-M le , B. (2005). A e ge S nd ome and Diffic l Momen . Sha nee Mi ion, KS: A i m A e ge P bli hing Co.

So a, D. (Ed.). (2010). Mind, B ain & Ed ca ion. Blooming on, IN: Sol ion T ee P e . Vo me , C.R. (2020). Connec ing i h he A i m S ec m: Ho o alk, Ho o li en and Wh o ho ldn call i High-F nc ioning. Eme ille, CA: Rockb idge P e . Wood, R. (2019). Incl i e Ed ca ion fo A i ic Child en. Philadel hia, PA: Je ica King le P bli hing. Wood, R. (2022). Edi ed b Lea ning f om A i ic Teache Ho o be a Ne odi e i -Incl i e School. Pi b g, PA: Je ica King le P bli hing. Resources: Autism Related AANE h :// .aane.o g Social Thinking h :// . ocial hinking.com Ton A ood h :// on a ood.com.a Ca ol G a h ://ca olg a ocial o ie .com G oden Cen e h ://g odenne o k.o g B enda Smi h M le h :// .b enda mi hm le .o g Tem le G andin h :// . em leg andin.com S e hen Sho e h ://d e hen ho e.com William S illman h :// . illiam illman.com In e ac i e A i m Ne o k h ://iancomm ni .o g/c /abo _ian ASAN - A i ic Self Ad ocac Ne o k h ://a i icad ocac .o g A i m Socie h ://a i m ocie .o g Inclusion SWIFT h :// if chool .o g UNH In i e of Incl ion h ://iod. nh.ed /abo -in i e CAST h :// .ca .o g DI h ://diffe en ia ioncen al.com UDL h :// . nde ood.o g/a icle /en/ nde anding- ni e al-de ign-fo -lea ning MTSS h ://m 4 cce .o g RTI h :// . ine o k.o g/lea n/ ha / ha i i

SEL CASEL h ://ca el.o g PBIS h :// . bi .o g T a ma Sen i i e School h :// a ma en i i e chool .o g ; h :// . o be.com/ a ch? = QdOLl6d2c& =648 SEL4MA h :// el4ma.o g Po i i e P cholog h :// c. a . enn.ed Mind U h ://mind .o g Ch i Willa d h :// .d ch i o he illa d.com OTHERS Ro W. G eene, Ph.D. h ://li e in hebalance.o g/ Dan Siegel h ://d dan iegel.com ASCD h :// .a cd.o g Jen en Lea ning h :// .jen enlea ning.com Angela D ck o h h ://angelad ck o h.com Habi of he Mind h :// .habi ofmindin i

e.o g/abo - /

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Creating Classroom Environments that Help ASD Students Thrive not Just Survive Dot Lucci, M.Ed., CAGS Director of Consultation and Psychoeducational Services

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NESCA – Who We Are/What We Do DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria for ASD ASD in Girls Other Diagnostic Considerations/Comorbid Conditions Key Aspects to Consider: Theory of Mind, Context Blindness, Sensory Integration, Executive Functioning, Communication, Stress & Anxiety Strategies Do Not Reprint Without Permission

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Neuropsychological Evaluations Transition Assessments ASD Diagnostic Screening Psychoeducational Counseling Real-Life Skills and Executive Functioning Coaching School Consultations Parent Coaching Occupational Therapy Services Speech & Language Services Yoga Personal & Social Coaching Do Not Reprint Without Permission

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Persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts..., ...restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities....” “ONSET DURING THE EARLY DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD”

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Deficits in Social Communication

◦ Social reciprocity ◦ Deficits in nonverbal communication ◦ Deficits in developing/maintaining relationships

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Deficits in Restricted, Repetitive Patterns of Behavior, Interests, or Activities

◦ Repetitive motor movements, speech, use of objects ◦ Inflexible adherence to routines, ritualized patterns of verbal/nonverbal behavior ◦ Highly restricted, fixated interests ◦ Hyper-reactivity or hypo-reactivity to sensory input or unusual interest in sensory aspects of the environment B a ro n -C o h e n , 2 0 0 4

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Level 1: Requiring Support Level 2: Requiring Substantial Support Level 3: Requiring Very Substantial Support

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ASD has no known etiology Strong genetic basis: A child’s odds of having an ASD diagnosis increases if he/she has a sibling or parent with ASD, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), intellectual disability, schizophrenia, depression, bipolar disorder or anxiety. Perinatal factors (preterm birth, low birth weight) More than 100 genes or gene mutations may increase risk of ASD - 40% - 80% Prevalence 1 in in 44; across all racial, ethnic, SES; 4x more common in boys Do Not Reprint Without Permission

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Anxiety disorders: 42% to 79% of ASD populations 4 x more likely to be diagnosed with depression ADHD/ADD: 14% to 78% of ASD populations Do Not Reprint Without Permission

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Diagnostic criteria for ASD is largely based on research concentrated with male participants

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Girls often present with significant mood, anxiety, and low self-esteem “masking” ASD or “exhaustion” from imitating or intense adherence to social rules

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Restricted, repetitive interests may be less evident or more “socially normative” (e.g. unicorns, magic, barbies, Disney movies, social rules)

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May have strengths in nonverbal communication (eye contact, smiling, gestures) because girls have strengths in imitation and compensation

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History of sensory sensitivities or “meltdowns” at home

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Context Blindness

Central Coherence

Theory of Mind/Perspective Taking/Social Thinking

Executive Functioning

Sensory Integration

Communication/Language

Stress & Anxiety

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Context is: ◦ The elements within an observing person and in the spatial and temporal surroundings ◦ The totality of relevant elements within the surroundings and one’s memory ◦

Details are contextually relevant

◦

An awareness that the shared social situation impacts norms that guide our behavior An ability to discover the contextually relevant information and ignore unimportant information

◦

This capacity begins emerging before age 1 and impacts development throughout the life span Do Not Reprint Without Permission

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Meanings change according to context and more.. ◦ A tear can be because……..

◦ A raised hand can be: pick me, cast a vote, a slap…

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We now believe that we see the trees because we know we are looking at a forest. We see the whole picture first then the details.

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The ability to: } “Get the Big Picture” – to get the most important information from a social situation, story, picture, (add the parts together to create a gestalt)etc. }

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Form concepts and integrate information by noticing/making the links between them – i.e., to relate information to a thought, previous knowledge, idea Create schemas - relate information to a larger pattern of behavior

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NOT get stuck in unnecessary details

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Challenge in knowing what is important and what to attend to

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The ability to appreciate that other people have different mental states: intentions, needs, desires, beliefs that may be different that one’s own Understand that other people have thoughts & feelings and that these people can reflect on their thoughts/feelings and can reflect on other people’s thoughts/feelings and change their thinking and behavior ToM - involves: joint attention, representation, transitioning, inferring, categorizing, abstraction, pretending, etc

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ToM is present in preschoolers

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ToM is the backbone of interpersonal relationships

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Awareness that other individuals have perspectives different from one’s own given their particular experiences, histories, knowledge, interests, desires, intentions, etc. Do Not Reprint Without Permission

D o N ot C opy W ithout P erm ission

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D o N ot U se W ithout P erm ission

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Orchestration of basic cognitive and mental processes that enable us to focus attention, remember, juggle multiple tasks, inhibit impulses, be goal-oriented and problem-solve.

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Many individuals with ASD have some level of sensory and/or motor deficits Contribute to every activity throughout the day Can impact on previous, current and future activities and skills a person can complete Involves: fine/gross motor, body positioning, coordination, strength, bilateral & sequence movements/activities, speed/force, eye-hand and more… Do Not Reprint Without Permission

VISUAL - Processing information about external visual input received through the eyes AUDITORY - Processing information about external audible input received through the ears GUSTATORY - Processing information about external taste and texture input received through the tongue and mouth

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OLFACTORY - Processing information about external smells received through the nose TACTILE - Processing information about external tactile sensations received through the skin (texture, temperature, pain)

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Interoception – ◦ Processes information about our internal body states from organs, muscles, heart about how we are feeling

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◦ Experiences inner sensations (dry mouth, tense muscles, racing heart…)

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PROPRIOCEPTION - Processing information about the body’s position and parts received through muscles, ligaments and joints. Proprioception gives awareness of our body’s position without being vigilant VESTIBULAR - Processing information about movement, gravity and balance. Vestibular sense is located in the middle ear and detects position and movement of the head through space.

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SENSORY INTEGRATION • Is the ability of our senses to work together and interconnect with other systems in the brain • Is the ability to use information gathered from our senses to organize our behavior and interact successfully with the world • Is the ability to filter out unimportant sensory information and organize ourselves for performing meaningful activity • Is the ability to take in and manage information from our internal and external environments

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In NT development it occurs without conscious thought or effort Is developed and/or enhanced by sensory experiences Takes place from infancy through childhood. A child’s sensory system usually matures and is well integrated by 8 – 10 years of age but continues through out life

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People with sensory issues may experience the world as either: Sensory challenges may be misinterpreted as intentional, manipulative or attentional, etc…)

Hypersensitive

Over reactive Sensory Avoidant

Hyposensitive Under Reactive Sensory seeker

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• • • • • • • • • • •

Trouble with transitions Poor emotional regulation Impulsivity Lack of a sense of personal space Difficulty shifting Attention Issues Distractible Tactile defensiveness Eating Challenges Over-Focus (perseveration) Sleep/wake Difficulty Do Not Reprint Without Permission

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Arousal is a state of the nervous system. It describes how alert a person feels. (Asleep, Awake, Alert, Attending) To attend, concentrate and perform tasks in synch with the situation/demands one’s nervous system must be in an optimal state of arousal/Relaxed Altertness Self-Regulation is the ability to attain, maintain and change arousal states appropriately for a task or situation. Pacing is critical to helping attain, maintain and change arousal levels

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Selective Attention Sustained Attention Shifting Attention Breath of Focus Content of Focused Attention Tonic Arousal

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Alarm (What was that?) Orientation (Where is it?) Identification (Oh that’s what it is.) Decision (Should I attend or not?)

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How Self-Regulation Works INNER ENVIRONMENT H U M A N

E N V I R O N M E N T

Arousal

Attention

Activity

Affect

E N V I R H O U N M M A E N N T N O N

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Behavior

} Standard & Non-Standard } Verbal & Non-Verbal

The Function of Behavior/Communication: } Request } Negation } Comments } } }

Feelings Expression Sensory Self

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§ People on the spectrum often have underdeveloped perception, proportion and presentation meters. § This is how they may look to you, and how everyone may look to them.

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Assume a gap in perspective rather than that the student is wrong, obstinate, oppositional or inflexible A concrete, literal mind needs a process for seeing the big picture Information may be miss filed, or not filed in multiple folders

Underdeveloped Skills § Sensory Integration Processing § Emotional Regulation § Self Awareness & Self Advocacy § Social Communication § Planning, Monitoring & Adjusting

Demands (explicit & implicit) § Ignore the tag – I can’t! (It’s just a tag;

tags don’t hurt)

§ Use your words § Take your spelling test (You are such a

good speller!)

§ It’s okay. Don’t worry. It’s not that bad. Sit up. Put your feet on the floor.

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Student-Centered & Strengths Based - Assume Competence AMP - Access, Membership and Participation PEA – Person, Environment and Activity 3 S’s: Self-Awareness, Stress-Management and Social Competency Systems Tools: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦

UDL - Universal Design for Learning DI - Differentiated Instruction RTI: Response to Intervention PBIS – Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports MTSS – Multi-tiered System of Support Trauma Sensitive Schools

A classroom climate where each and every student feels seen, valued, honored and respected Education that values and facilitates the full participation and belonging of everyone When Everyone is included Everyone Wins (Jesse

Jackson)

Educational practices in which learners with significant disabilities have the same learner outcomes as students without disabilities.”

(Kleinert & Kearns, 2001 p. 21)

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§ §

§ § §

Presumes competence and encourages high expectations, so all students reach their full potential. Goes beyond functional skills to help students learn general education curriculum content. Fosters successful collaborative teaming, so the educational team engages in honest and respectful communication, makes sound decisions, and works on adjustments if needed. Can Do vs Can Not Do Yes, And vs. Yes, But Is flexible to meet the needs of the staff and students Do Not Reprint Without Permission

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Membership – class, grade, school Student: I count I'm valued I belong I'm included

Participation - academics/social

I have friends Student: I have ways of participating Teacher: I create belonging I create a sense of fairness & equity

Teacher: I scaffold for all student’s participation

Access - academics/social Student: l have ways of accessing the curriculum/social environment

Teacher: I create ways for student to access academics/relationships

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Fair ≠ Same Fair = Access

Environment

Activity Performance

Person (Law et. al., 1996) Do Not Reprint Without Permission

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Person ´

Subject of situation

Environment ´

´ Student, Staff member, CareGiver/Parent

¤ Classroom, Community, Hallway, bathrooms, Cafeteria etc ¤ Social environment ¤ Time/Political Climate ¤ Time of day ¤ Cultural environment

Personal factors

´ Physical abilities

´ Sensory preferences ´ Cognitive abilities ´ Spiritual aspects ´ Motivation ´ Likes/Dislikes

´ Past experiences

Where and when the situation is taking place

Activity ´

What the Subject is engaging in

´ Math, ELA, SS, Bio class - Writing, discussing, reading, etc

Physical, social and temporal factors considered

Activity demands

´ Skills needed to do the activity

´ R equirem ents of body ´ R equirem ents of brain

´ Length of activity

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Consider:

◦ The Student (Strengths, challenges, ToM, Language, interests…& more) ◦ Physical Environment ◦ Human Environment ◦ Language ◦ Structures ◦ Rules/Guidelines

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◦ General Person Considerations

Neurology/diagnosis Student is sick, tired, hungry, thirsty, hormonal, anxious Upsetting experience earlier in the day Wanting to make a different choice, feel in control Sensory need or overload Cognitive Profile/Learning Style Clueless on what is being asked

◦ General Activity Considerations

Wanting preferred, meaningful or enjoyable activities Activity is challenging: socially, cognitively, physically

◦ General Environment Considerations

Physical setting is uncomfortable Sensory considerations Peers/Teacher not a good match (i.e unfamiliar, history..) Do Not Copy Without Permission

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“Children do well if they can, NOT if they WANT to.”

Ross W. Greene, Ph.D. https://livesinthebalance.org/

And if they can’t it’s up to us to figure out why! §

You can’t expect a colorblind child to see green on Tuesdays. Questioning motivation is distracting, not relevant, and counterproductive. Do Not Reprint Without Permission

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•Recognizes what makes me “me” – what brings me joy, pain, likes,,

dislikes etc •Recognizes values, traits, personality etc.

Self

Awareness • Understands good & bad stress is a part of life • Links thoughts, feelings, behaviors • Recognizes stress response • Recognized mind body connection

Stress

Management • Acknowledges, recognizes and understands internal & external triggers • Improves stress management skills in various contexts • Understands the role of positive emotions in self

Social

Competency

•Improves capacity to notice strengths and develop strategies for challenges •Engages in self advocacy

• Forms positive relationships, works in teams effectively • Deals effectively with conflict • Demonstrates empathy &

compassion for others • Socially observes to enhance social communication • Improves & utilizes V/NV socials skills & thinking in various contexts • Makes ethical constructive choices about personal and social behavior

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•

In order to learn and address the 3S’s students have to feel safe. A school and a classroom should be a Sanctuary

• Place of Safety, promoting pro-social and positive behaviors • Place of Structure and Consistency • Holding Environment • A Place of Acceptance and Belonging where Acknowledgment of Differences is embraced and valued • A Place of authenticity and honesty • A Place of Growth and Change

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ACCEPTANCE See the student as IS Holding/ Containing Anxiety reducing

Growth Seeing the student as COULD BE Challenging Anxiety provoking

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Connection/Relationship 1 Safety

2 Engaged 3 Trusting

Self Growth 4 Managing the self 5 Managing feelings 6 Taking responsibility Self & Other Adaption 7 Developing social awareness 8 Developing reflectivity 9 Developing reciprocity

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We are a Community of Diverse Learners (I think About You and You think about me (ST in Action) We are guided by the 3S’s, Habits of the Mind and the specific principles of: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦

Respect Caring Compassion Thinking Personally and Relationally

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Emotion

The gatekeeper to performance (most powerful)

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Intelligence

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Pattern-Seeking

The brain is a pattern seeking, meaning making device

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Understanding

Using what we understand building mental programs

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Personality

Impact of personality

A function of experience

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Knowledge Understanding Embedded Practice Embedded Experience with Feedback Transfer/Generalization of Skills & Strategies

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Bring the Inside Outside Don’t Presume What is in Your Head is in Their Head l What Does it Look Like, Sound Like & Feel Like l l

Model it. Teach it. l Embed it. l Support it. l l

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Community of Diverse Learners (i.e. Group Matters) – I matter, You Matter and Everyone else does too!

Emotional Memories Matter – Ask your students what has worked/hasn’t worked for them (classroom environments, learning/ teaching style/work, groups etc. Then use this information to circle back to Community of Learners & to Guide your teaching

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Demonstrate Care and Respect – Recognize each child’s strengths & interests. Teach Students how to demonstrate care & respect for each other. Collaborative Guidelines – Create positive behavioral expectations that foster cooperation, caring, respect, helping, inclusiveness, encouragement. Make sure guidelines are clear, fair and consistent and teach rather than punish

Slow Down/Take Time – Establish community, expectations/guidelines, learn about each other Ownership Matters – Give Students a Voice & Responsibility Establish ways that students can demonstrate ownership for their SEL by providing opportunities for learning, leading, reflection, voicing and more. Create Feeling Check-Ins Establish daily (or more often) feeling routines so students and teachers share their emotional states Create Self-reflection Routines connected to academic and SEL

Greet Me By Name – It says, “I matter. You know me

Establish 2 minute Attention/Mindful Routines -

and I’m important to you!”

allow students to get centered, calm & quiet to get the brain ready to learn. Set the Stage – Write down what your goal/purpose is for each lesson and how you will know if the students have achieved it Reflect – Have students reflect on what they learned and what they might want to learn next, how they might apply it

Wrap Up - End each class with a minute of calm & quiet to disengage from current content and prepare brain for next class.

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ØA

certain level of Stress is necessary

Ø Stress

is an interaction between the external environment and the person with past experiences as well as coping style

Ø Fight,

Fright, Flight is a physiological state & response to stress Do Not Reprint Without Permission

Physiological reaction of the body to life situations which can be both positive (eustress) or negative (distress) events

Stressor

Demands placed on the individual that disturb homeostasis and require an adjustment on the part of the individual

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Fight Flight Freeze/Fright D o N ot C opy W ithout P erm ission

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Argumentative Noncompliant Oppositional Impulsive

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Avoidant Distractible Gives up Provides excuses Blames Others

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Problems with: ◦ Initiation ◦ Shifting ◦ Termination ◦ Shut Down

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Emotional Control

Heightened stress can decrease IQ by up to 40 Points

Attentional Control

Executive Function

Moderate Stress Too Little Stress

Alert, Engaged, Challenged Too Much Stress

Low interest Low motivation

High anxiety, Shut down

Dissociation

Hyperarousal

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Be cognizant of our specific Stressors/Triggers so that students can anticipate/plan for, avoid if possible and if not recognize them in realtime and have strategies to cope. Self-Awareness + Self-Control =

Anxiety

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DECLARATIVE

IMPERATIVE } } } }

Directives Prompts Questions Requests

} } } }

Comments Declarations Predictions Reflections

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Clues your partner in to what you're thinking without judgment of the imperative direction.

Increase use of words: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦

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I wonder… I guess… I notice… Is that your intent? Hm… "Hm... I wonder what other students do

when they get stuck on an assignment?” Sometimes there is an awkward silence that follows while the student thinks.

"Don't teach them to DO; teach them to KNOW what to do.” Do Not Reprint Without Permission

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Empathic Social Feedback: } Imagine that you have limited social understanding what it may be like to be the student }

}

When providing feedback try to use language that reduces shame and maintains self-esteem Use language such as: “I noticed…”, “I’m curious about…”, “I’m curious what…”. “I wonder what…” “Was your intent…?” Decrease yes/no questions Do Not Copy Without Permission

Empathic Social Feedback: } Describe Observable Behavior à Provide Suggestive Thought(s) àSuggest a Strategy Describe Behavior: “Nate, I noticed that during class when I was giving directions you were reading your book.” Suggestive Thought: “I thought that was disrespectful. Was that your intent? Strategy: “ Nate, you’re not a disrespectful guy. You like learning and are a good student. I don’t think you want people to think you’re disrespectful. Remember, when I give directions it’s important that I have your attention. You know… eyes on me, brain processing what I’m saying so you know what to do.”

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• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Physical Activity Zones of Regulation Breath 2 Relax Mindshift Breathe Daily Simply Being Headspace Relax Melodies Mindfulness Daily Biodots CBT/DBT/ACT Relaxation Binders Thinking about something else Breathing Laughter Gratitude Positive Self Talk

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●

Provide visuals to help students match their behavior with a feeling ◦ Facial Expression Chart ◦ Zones of Regulation ◦ The Incredible 5 point scale

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Looks Like

Sounds Like

1. Continue to work on a task No put downs only push ups even when you don’t want to, Ask for help don’t like it etc “Can you show me how you did it” “I don’t get it. I need help.” 2. Work through frustration(i.e. Take a break, Breathe Neutral Positive Comments deeply) “I’ll try it again” 3. Make a picture - Visualize “I need a break.” the outcome “I can do it” 4. Encourage each other 5. Help/Teach each other Think positively – I’m learning a new skill

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How will you know when you are ready to begin work? How will you stop yourself from---? What do you want it to look like?

How long do you think it will take you to..? What data do you have that supports your answer? How long did it take you last time? How are you going to know when you are stuck and should take a break, skip it, ask for help? Do Not Copy Without Permission

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Bring the inner world outward - Bring the mental world to the physical Think Out Loud – Model Self Talk Make it visual Make Connections to Improve Generalizations Make it concrete, sequential, scientific, objective Talk out loud – mental processing becomes verbal and at times observable Share your thoughts – Let the students know you have a mental mind and those thoughts create your reality Set clear guidelines/understanding – what does it Look like, Sound like, Feel like Do Not Copy Without Permission

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Use ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦

Social Thinking Tools/Social Behavior Mapping Carol Grey Social Stories Sarah Ward’s Materials Collaborative Problem Solving Visual Cues/Guidelines/Decision Making Trees Create Routines/Processes/Schemas Direct feedback and narration/Sports Announcer

◦ ◦ ◦ ◦

Work environments Situations/Activities/Tasks Social Situations/Roles Behavioral Expectations

Structure:

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Know the particular student with ASD that you work with Students with AS are anxious – Information/ knowledge is a key to decreasing anxiety Don’t presume they know - State the obvious Be precise & direct in your communication – Say what you mean and Mean what you say Inferring may be a challenge – Provide cues Be cautious with patronizing, condescending, sarcastic/humorous language. Provide the Big Picture & Details – Why do you do what you do Teach the obvious- Unwritten Rules/Hidden Curriculum Do Not Copy without permission

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10. 11. 12. 13.

14. 15.

Don’t assume what’s in your head is in theirs – check for understanding –Bring the Inner Mental World Out Be honest You will say things that won’t work or that they won’t understand – It’s okay! What’s obvious to you is not obvious to them Visual Tools/checklists/flow charts/decision trees etc remain constant – your words go in one ear and out the other Describe obvious and unwritten/hidden guidelines and why & how to follow them Think out loud to help them understand your process Do Not Copy without permission

Rules, Expectations & Consequences are clear as these provide

Organization, Safety, and Structure and these lead to

Self-Control, Self-Discipline & Improved Self Esteem

Do Not Copy without permission

Consistency, Structure and Predictability are providers of

Stability & Simplicity

that enable the Child to

Anticipate

which is a means to

Enhance Independence

Do Not Copy Without Permission

10/15/22

A lways means well S pecial Interests P eople seem strange to them E ars hurt when things are loud R ules are very important to them G ets mad when routines aren’t followed E very day tries very hard R emembers things very well S ocial rules are hard

Do Not Reprint Without Permission

Do Not Copy Without Permission

Dot Lucci

dlucci@nesca-newton.com

Re ea chILD Re o ce

THE SMARTS ONLINE EXECUTIVE FUNCTION CURRICULUM OVERVIEW Welcome to SMARTS Online, an evidenced-based curriculum for teaching executive function strategies. The current curriculum is based on ten years of research and in-school studies completed by ResearchILD staff under the direction of Dr. Lynn Meltzer. The SMARTS Online curriculum has been What Is Executive Function? successfully beta-tested in public, private, charter, and home schools across the United States. SMARTS provides you with 30 lessons you can use to teach students strategies for accessing important executive function processes—goal setting, organizing, prioritizing, thinking flexibly, remembering, and self-monitoring. With SMARTS, students develop the self-understanding to know which strategies work best for them as well as why, where, when, and how to use those strategies to complete their homework, to plan long-term projects, and to study for tests. Designed for students in grades 6–12, SMARTS works with existing curricula in general education classrooms, special education classrooms, learning centers and tutoring sessions. You can teach SMARTS in its entirety or select key lessons to reinforce specific strategies. Your SMARTS subscription connects you to:

Executive function is an umbrella term for the complex cognitive processes students use to set goals, plan their time, organize and prioritize, think flexibly, access their working memory, self-monitor, and selfcheck. The model of a funnel helps to explain the importance of executive function processes for learning. When students learn to use executive function strategies, they are able to coordinate (or funnel ) the various processes required to complete complex academic tasks such as taking notes or writing. When students have executive function weaknesses, the funnel becomes blocked and they are unable to produce work that reflects their true potential. SMARTS lessons are grouped by five executive function processes that affect learning: Goal Setting: Identifying short-term and long-term goals

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30 evidence-based lessons with supporting handouts, PowerPoint presentations, and videos.

Cognitive Flexibility: Switching easily between approaches; thinking flexibly

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Surveys to help you and your students understand their learning profiles.

Organizing and Prioritizing: Sorting and ordering information based on relative importance

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SMARTS Digital Training Sessions to help learn more about executive function and your students.

Accessing Working Memory: Remembering and manipulating information mentally

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SMARTS Planning Tools to help you get started and plan your year.

Self-Monitoring and Checking: Identifying and correcting personal errors

By fostering a culture of strategy use in your classroom, you can help your students do more than just improve academically; they will increase their academic self-confidence as well as their effort and motivation to succeed in school. As our research and clinical work has shown, increased self-understanding and use of executive function strategies are critically important for a student s success in school and beyond. SMARTS Overview

Page 1

SMARTS Executive Function Curriculum Unit 1. Introduction to Executive Function Strategies Learning Goals Lessons Outcomes Students will understand their 1.1 What is metacognition? Students will be able to: learning strengths and weakThinking about thinking • Define metacognition nesses and learn about execu1.2 What is cognitive flexibility? • Understand the core executive function processes. Defining how to think flexibly tive function processes • Apply their knowledge of ex1.3 What is executive function? ecutive function strategies to The EF Wheel their understanding of themselves as learners 1.4 I-SEE a strategy: What makes a strategy a strategy? Unit 2. Goal Setting—Identifying short-term and long-term goals Learning Goals Lessons Students will learn to develop 2.1 Identifying CANDO goals appropriate goals with defin2.2 Thinking through individual able outcomes. goals Students will develop strategies for implementing their goals throughout the school year.

Outcomes Students will be able to: • Define CANDO goals • Describe the elements of good goals • Use a rubric to assess goals • Design CANDO goals that demonstrate reflective thinking

Unit 3. Cognitive Flexibility—Shifting problem-solving approaches; thinking flexibly Learning Goals Students will learn that multiple strategies can be used to solve a given problem and will, through repeated practice, develop a variety of strategies to support flexible thinking and problem solving.

Lessons 3.1 Being flexible and shifting expectations

Students will learn how to distinguish the main ideas from the less important details.

3.4 Purposeful highlighting

SMARTS Overview

3.2 Shifting perspectives in writing 3.3 Skim and scoop strategy

Outcomes Students will be able to: • Explain the importance of shifting approaches flexibly • Write according to multiple perspectives • Shift between the main idea and details

3.5 Shifty math

Page 2

Unit 4. Organizing and Prioritizing Materials and Time—Creating categories to work efficiently Learning Goals Lessons Outcomes Students will learn to 4.1 The 4 C s strategy Students will be able to: organize their materials for 4.2 Developing an under• Explain strategies for orgaschool and schedule their time appropriately. standing of time nizing belongings and the importance of planning 4.3 Prioritizing time • Use calendars and tools for daily, weekly, and monthly 4.4 Monthly planning planning • Apply their knowledge of 4.5 Weekly planning planning to breaking down assignments into meaningful parts

Unit 5. Organizing and Prioritizing Ideas and Information— Sorting information based importance Learning Goals Lessons Outcomes Students will gain the knowl5.1 Sorting and categorizing Students will be able to: edge and the strategies necesusing BOTEC • Describe strategies for orsary to organize information for 5.2 Bottom-up vs. top-down reading, writing papers, taking ganizing thoughts for notethinkers taking, essay writing, and notes, and studying for tests. studying 5.3 Note-taking from a lesson • Integrate memory strategies with organizational strategies 5.4 Using the Triple-Note-Tote to enhance understanding of topics 5.5 Studying with the PPCQ strategy Unit 6. Remembering—Manipulating information mentally Learning Goals Lessons Outcomes Students will learn and imple6.1 Why is working memory Students will be able to: ment strategies to efficiently important? • Define memory strategies inand accurately store and recall 6.2 Using cartoons and associaimportant information. cluding acronyms, cartoons, tions to remember and crazy phrases • Apply memory strategies to 6.3 Using funny phrases and important information across stories to remember academic content areas 6.4 Creating strategies for remembering

SMARTS Overview

Page 3

Unit 7. Self-Monitoring and Self-Checking—Identifying errors and self-correcting Learning Goals Lessons Outcomes Students will learn to monitor 7.1 What is self-monitoring? Students will be able to: their behavior in the moment to 7.2 What is self-checking? • Identify strategies for selfensure that they stay on task. monitoring and self-checking Students will become aware of 7.3 The Top-3-Hits strategy • Explain and reflect upon their the types of errors they often use of executive function make and learn strategies to 7.4 Breaking down directions strategies avoid repeating these mistakes in the future. 7.5 Stop, review, reflect: completing checklists of all the executive function strategies

SMARTS Overview

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Elementary School Curriculum Overview

SMARTS Online is an evidence-based curriculum for teaching executive function strategies. The current curriculum is based on ten years of research and in-school studies completed by ResearchILD staff under the direction of Dr. Lynn Meltzer. The SMARTS Online curriculum has been successfully beta-tested in public, private, charter, and home schools across the US. SMARTS provides elementary grade teachers with 30 lessons that they can use to teach students strategies for accessing important executive function processes goal setting, organizing, prioritizing, thinking flexibly, remembering, and self-monitoring. Students develop the self-understanding to know which strategies work best for them as well as why, where, when, and how to use those strategies to complete their work. The SMARTS Elementary School Curriculum works with existing curricula in general education classrooms, special education classrooms, and learning centers and is designed for students in grades 2-5. Since each lesson is divided into four 20-minute sessions, teachers have the flexibility to integrate lessons into the daily practice of their elementary school classroom. Unit 1: Introduction: Building a Community of Metacognitive Learners Lesson 1: How do I think about my thinking? o Students engage in a discussion about metacognition and identif their personal strengths and challenges and the strategies they use in their everyday lives. Lesson 2: How can I manage my work? o Students complete an activity that introduces them to the five executive function processes and helps them to identify their strengths and challenges in three of these processes. Lesson 3: How do I think flexibly? o Students discuss the concept of cognitive flexibility and its importance for strategy use. They complete an activity that illustrates how words can have multiple meanings. Lesson 4: How can I use strategies to help me? o Students identify how to make strategies individualized, systematic, efficient, and effective (I-SEE). Then, they examine their own strategies, refining them to ensure they fit the I-SEE model. Copyright © 2019 ResearchILD. All rights reserved. No unauthorized use or copying. See Terms of Use.

Elementary School Curriculum Overview Unit 2: Goal Setting: Understanding the Big Picture and Breaking it Down Lesson 1: I CANDO my goals! o Students learn to create personalized and achievable goals that are Clear, Appropriate, Numerical, Doable, and with Obstacles considered (CANDO). Lesson 2: Thinking through individual goals o Students review common obstacles that prevent them from achieving their goals. Building off of Lesson 2.1, students take the goals they have already set and develop strategies to achieve these goals (e.g., students break goals into steps and think about the obstacles they may face when trying to achieve their goals). Unit 3: Thinking Flexibly Lesson 1: Being flexible and shifting expectations o Students explore shifting between multiple perspectives in reading and writing. Le on 2: I m ea ing o hoe o Students explore shifting between multiple perspectives in social situations. Lesson 3: Skim and Scoop o Students learn how to comprehend what they read efficiently and how to differentiate between the main ideas and details of a text. Lesson 4: Purposeful Highlighting o Students use highlighting to identify multiple perspectives when reading and taking notes. This strategy also helps students highlight effectively and to avoid over-highlighting (the ello page s ndrome ). Lesson 5: Shifty math o Students identify multiple methods for solving a problem and understand how the same problem can be analyzed in multiple ways. Unit 4: Organizing Materials and Time ● Lesson 1: Organizing your materials (The 4 C ) o Students learn the 4 C s strateg for organi ing and then appl the strategy to the organization of their own belongings. ● Lesson 2: Developing an understanding of time o Students examine their understanding of time and see the importance of measuring time.

Elementary School Curriculum Overview

● Lesson 3: Estimating time o Students learn to improve their ability to estimate time while completing tasks, as well as gain an understanding of the importance of time estimation. ● Lesson 4: Prioritizing time o Students learn to think in terms of Ha e To s (obligations) and Want To s (aspirations) while expressing their intentions visually in a daily planner. ● Lesson 5: Planning production time o Students employ strategies to practice short-term planning and to identify production time then appl them for use in their o n planners/calendars. Unit 5: Organizing Information ● Lesson 1: Sorting and categorizing using BOTEC o Students learn strategies for organizing information to improve their writing. The BOTEC strategy will help students learn to brainstorm, organize, write topic sentences, provide evidence, and reach a conclusion. ● Lesson 2: Note-taking o Students learn why taking notes is important and how to effectively organize information from a text. ● Lesson 3: Triple-Note-Tote o Students learn Triple-Note-Tote, a three-column strategy for note-taking and organizing information, which can be used across content areas. ● Lesson 4: Summarizing stories o Students learn to create summaries using the Star strategy, which helps them to understand the who, what, where, when, why and how of a text. Unit 6: Remembering ● Lesson 1: Why is memory important?

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o Students will identify their own strengths and challenges in working memory and learn how memory connects to following directions and completing school related tasks. Lesson 2: Using cartoons and associations o Students learn two mnemonic strategies that help support working memory, using pre-existing knowledge to create cartoons and associations to remember important information.

Elementary School Curriculum Overview ● Lesson 3: Acronyms and crazy phrases o In this lesson, students learn to use acronyms and phrases in order to lock information into long-term memory. ● Lesson 4: Visualizing and storytelling o Students will practice remembering unfamiliar processes or information through visualization and storytelling. Unit 7: Self-monitoring and checking ● Lesson 1: Focus and distraction o Students discuss and define what it means to be focused and not distracted. They will identify the situations that do and do not help them focus, and they will practice monitoring their behavior to stay on task. ● Lesson 2: Check your sources o Students discuss the danger of using information from unreliable sources and learn the 2 T Test strategy to determine whether a given source is trustworthy. ● Lesson 3: Top 3 hits o Students use their own work to check for their most common errors. Students generate a list of their personal Top-3-Hits for checking their own future assignments. ● Lesson 4: Manage my mood o Students learn to develop an awareness of their mood in different situations and the impact it has on learning. ● Lesson 5: What hat am I wearing? o Students will check their behavior to ensure that it matches the situation they are in and the task at hand. ● Lesson 6: Wrap-Up: Stop, Review, Reflect o Students review the SMARTS strategies they have learned and then they create a Strategies for Success sheet they can use in the future. By fostering a culture of strategy use in their classrooms, teachers can help students do more than just impro e academicall ; the ill increase their students academic self-confidence as well as their effort and motivation to succeed in school. As our research and clinical work has shown, increased self-understanding and use of e ecuti e function strategies are criticall important for a student s success in school and beyond.

Working Memory

SelfMonitoring & Self-Checking

Cognitive Flexibility

Goal Setting

Organizing & Prioritizing

MetaCOG Online helps students develop an understanding of their learning profiles, including their executive function strengths and challenges.

MetaCOG Online is an interactive executive function survey that highlights students’ perceptions of the ways in which they use strategies to plan, organize, memorize, shift, and self-check. MetaCOG Online is the culmination of almost two decades of research completed under the direction of Dr. Lynn Meltzer.

MetaCOG Online Process 1. Students complete the MetaCOG Online survey and instantaneously receive a personalized

list of suggested SMARTS lessons. 2. Students review their

for building students’ metacognitive The Sheet can be used to extend students’ learning

to success. 3. Teachers receive a class summary

Class EF STRENGTHS Summary: Executive Function

SUGGESTED LESSONS

MetaCOG Online

Like a Rubik’s Cube, EF areas are interrelated.

Lessons from different areas of EF focus provide you with many approaches to build on your class’s strengths and help them improve areas of challenge.

Working Memory

The following list of lessons is suggested based on your class’s survey data and represents the interconnectedness of all EF areas. This list is intended as a starting point, and we recommend that you adjust your lessons according to your students’ needs, the time of year, and the amount of time you have available. This list of suggested lessons offers many options and approaches to help build on your students’ strengths and improve their challenges..

Self-Monitoring & Self-Checking Goal Setting Organizing & Prioritizing

and persistence.

CLASS: SUGGESTED LESSONS ARRANGED BY PRIORITY Unit/ Lesson #

SMARTS lessons based on class data.

# Students

Organizing & Prioritizing

Self-Monitoring & Self-Checking

Working Memory

Cognitive Flexibility

Goal Setting

Lesson Title

2.2

Thinking Through One’s Goals

2.1

Identifying CANDO Goals

4.3

Prioritizing Time

4.2

Developing an Understanding of Time

5.1

Sorting and Categorizing Using BOTEC

3.4

Purposeful Highlighting

5.2

Bottom-Up Vs. Top-Down Thinkers

5.3

Note-Taking From a Lesson or Lecture

6.2

Cartoons and Associations

6.1

Why Working Memory is Important

Working Memory

SelfMonitoring & Self-Checking

Cognitive Flexibility

Goal Setting

Organizing & Prioritizing

Class EF CHALLENGES Summary: Executive Function

Cognitive Flexibility

receive an action plan information about students’ use of

CLASS EF PROFILE

MetaCOG Online CLASS’S EF STRENGTHS AND CHALLENGES

# Students

Goal Setting

Working Memory

Organizing & Prioritizing

Cognitive Flexibility

Self-Monitoring & Self-Checking

For more information,visit: www.smarts-ef.org/metacog-online.

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION & MENTORING PROGRAM © RESEARCHILD, 2021 | WWW.RESEARCHILD.ORG | 4 MILITIA DRIVE, SUITE 20 | LEXINGTON, MA 02421 | 781-861-3711

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EXECUTIVE FUNCTION CONFERENCE EXECUTIVE FUNCTION