'Arbeit macht frei'

Batya Brutin ‘Arbeit Macht Frei’

Representations and Meanings in Art

ISBN 978-3-11-115311-7

e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-117582-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2024932866

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.

© 2024 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Cover image: Ayana Friedman, My Gaze at the Horizon, 2021, Digital printing on canvas, 110 × 300 cm.

Collection of the artist, Ramat Gan, Israel.

Cover design: Katja Peters

Typesetting: 3w+p GmbH, Rimpar

Printing and binding: CPI Books GmbH, Leck

www.degruyter.com

Preface 1

ListofIllustrations 3

Introduction 7

About the Book’sChapters 12

Chapter 1: We Were There: Illustrated Testimony 13

Personal Experience 13

Life in the Camp in the Shadow of the Arbeit MachtFrei Sign 15

ViolenceagainstPrisoners 21

ArbeitMachtFrei – EtchedinMemory 24

Chapter 2: Lifeinthe Shadow of the Inscription 35

TheGenerationoftheHolocaust 35

The Generations after the Holocaust 38

Chapter 3: ParaphraseoftheInscription 56

TheParaphraseinHebrew 56

Political Reference 58

MoralValues 61

TheHolocaustandtheStateofIsrael 64

The ParaphraseinOtherLanguages 67

Israeli-PalestinianConflict 67

MedicalIssues 70

PoliticalCrisis 72

Chapter 4: Moral, Political,andUniversalMessages 77

MoralMessages 77

Political Message 80

Universal Imagery 83

Chapter 5: Remembering the Holocaust 89

World WarIIGeneration Remembers 89

The Generations after the Holocaust Remember 99 Christian Remembranceofthe Holocaust 106

Epilogue 110

Bibliography 116

Books and Articles 116

Catalogues 117

Interviews and Correspondence 118

Index 119

Preface

The first time Isaw the inscription Arbeit Macht Frei (Work Sets You Free) was in 1993 when Iinitiallyvisited the Memorial and Museum Sachsenhausen, aformer Naziconcentration camp in Germany, and then, the Auschwitz-BirkenauState Museum, aformerNaziconcentrationcampinPoland,as adelegationmemberofBeit BerlAcademic CollegeinKfarSaba,Israel,whereI workedformanyyears.Several yearslater,while researchingtheartisticpresentationofthe HolocaustintheartofAuschwitzsurvivors’ childrenfor my doctoraldissertation, Irealizedthattheinscription ArbeitMachtFrei appearsinmanyartworks.

Seeingthemanypresentationsofthe ArbeitMachtFrei inscriptioninIsraeliartby thechildrenofAuschwitzsurvivors raisedsomethoughtsandquestionsinmymind: Doesthephenomenonofusingthisinscriptionexistintheartofnon-SecondGenerationartistsinotherplacesaswell?Towhatextent?Whatarethemeaningsandmessagesthey conveybyusing thesloganintheirart? Howdoesitfunction to preservethe memoryoftheHolocaust?Allthesequestionsfascinatedme,so Icontinuedresearchingtheuseofthe ArbeitMachtFrei imageinartworks.Mystudyextendedtothefive chaptersofthisbook.

Thisresearchcouldhavenotbeencompletedwithoutthehelpofmanypeople.I thanktheDeGruyterPublishingHouseinMunich,Germany, inparticularDr.Anja Weisenseel,Arts AcquisitionEditor,forbelievinginmeandmainlyfor understanding theneedtopublish abookofartconnectedtothe Holocaust,and many thankstoLuzie Diekmannforherprofessionalanddedicatedguidanceinproducingthebook. Isincerelythank my editor,Ms.JoanHooper,forherprofessionalismandthoroughness inhandlingthemanuscript.I deeplythanktheindividualartistsforallowingmeto usetheirartworksandforsharingwithmetheirideas,thoughtsandemotions aboutthemeaningsoftheimageofthe ArbeitMachtFrei inscription.Somanyfriends and colleagueshelpedmealongtheway, and Iamprivilegedtothankthemall.I thank Prof.GideonGreif,anIsraelihistorian,educator,pedagogue,andworld-renownedexpertonthehistoryofConcentrationandExterminationCampAuschwitz-Birkenau,for thediscussionsweheldaboutthemeaningsofthe ArbeitMachtFrei inscriptionin generalandAuschwitz Iinparticular.I thankGilFaran,anIsraeliHolocaustresearcher andtourguide to Poland,andTomaszMichaldo,DirectorofEducationalPrograms atAuschwitz-BirkenauState MemorialandMuseum,fortheinformation aboutthe appearanceofthe ArbeitMachtFrei inscriptioninsomeartworksfromAuschwitzI. Ialso thankIsraelihistorianDr. YaacovFalkovfortheRussiantextandtranslationinJeff Danziger’scartoon(Fig.52).

Ithankthefollowing museumsforprovidingmewithinformation,materialsand photographsofartworksforthisbook: YadVashemArtMuseum,Jerusalem,Israel,especiallytoMichalFeinerRosenthal,DirectoroftheCollectionDepartmentofArt;GhettoFighters’ HouseMuseum,Israel,especiallytoAnatBratman-Elhalel,theArchive’sDirector,toStephanieBuzaglo,HeadoftheCollectionsDepartment, andtoDafna

Itzkovich, library director;Auschwitz-BirkenauState Memorial and Museum, Poland, especiallytoAgnieszkaSieradzka, art historian and curator;and to the State Museum at Majdanek, Poland, especiallytoAnna Surdacka, Head of the Collections Department. Iappreciatethe assistance Ireceivedfrom the teams of the library at Beit Berl AcademicCollegefortheirprofessionalandkindapproach,and Ialsothank AvivitShalom fromthe CurriculumCenteratBeit Berl AcademicCollegeforherhelpwiththevisual materials.

Ialwaysthank my husband,Jacob,forhispatience,support,andassistancethathe haslovingly providedmeallthroughtheentireprocessofresearchingandwritingthis book.Manythanksto my daughters,Michaland Yael,whohavebeenfullyinvolvedin thisbook,especiallytoYaelforreadingthemanuscriptandforhersensitiveandintelligentcomments.IfIhaveinadvertentlyoverlookedanyonewhohashelpedmeinthe longprocessofwritingthisbook,pleaseforgive me. Idedicatethisbooktoallthevictimswhowentthroughthehorrors,violentatrocities,andsufferingbroughtupon thembytheNazisduringtheHolocaust.

List of Illustrations

The sizes aregiven in centimeters or inches to suit the various requirements of museums and collectors, in the following order: height ×width× depth.

Figure 1: The gate of Dachau concentration camp, Germany,1933 – 1945. 9

Figure 2: The gate of Sachsenhausen concentration camp, Germany,1936 – 1945 9

Figure 3: The gate of Flossenbürgconcentration camp, Germany,1936 – 1945 9

Figure 4: The gate of Groß-Rosen concentration camp, Germany,1936 – 1945. 9

Figure 5: The gate of Theresienstadt ghetto/camp, CzechRepublic, 1936 – 1945. 9

Figure 6: The gate of Auschwitz Iconcentration camp, Poland, 1936 – 1945. 9

Figure 7: Peter Edel, Self-Portrait,1944, Auschwitz. Pencilonpaper,29.5 ×20cm. Collection of Auschwitz-Birkenau State Memorialand Museum, Poland. 14

Figure 8: IsraelAlfredGlück, GoingtoWork,1945,charcoalandpencilonpaper25.3 ×36.7cm. Collectionofthe YadVashemArtMuseum,Jerusalem.GiftofDr.BohuslavKratochvíl, CourtesyofDr. Kurt Passer,London. 16

Figure 9: Władysław Siwek, Na bramie (At the gate), 1946, watercolor,27.9× 39.4 cm.Collection of Auschwitz-Birkenau State Memorialand Museum, Poland. 17

Figure 10: Czesław Jaszczyński’scamp photographs. Collection of the archiveofAuschwitz-Birkenau StateMemorialandMuseum, Poland. 18

Figure 11: JanBaraś Komski, Nabramie (Atthegate), 1946,watercolor,11× 16in.Location unknown. 19

Figure 12: HerbertRoman’scampphotographs.CollectionofthearchiveofAuschwitz-BirkenauState MemorialandMuseum, Poland. 19

Figure 13: JacobTannenbaum, DasSonntagsvergnügen,HängenmitMusik (TheSundaypleasure,a hanging withmusic),1945, coloredpencilandgouacheonpaper,20.8× 28.5cm. Collectionofthe YadVashemArtMuseum,Jerusalem.GiftofMurielKnox-Doherty, CourtesyofMs.SylviaRosenblum,Sydney,Australia. 20

Figure 14: Jacob Tannenbaum, Die Siege und Besiegten (The winners and the losers),1945, colored pencilonpaper,20.8 ×28.5 cm. Collection of the YadVashemArt Museum, Jerusalem. Gift of Muriel Knox-Doherty,Courtesy of Ms. Sylvia Rosenblum,Sydney,Australia. 20

Figure 15: Jan Baraś-Komski, Work SetsYou Free,1990 – 1997,pencil on paper,45× 42.2 cm.Collection ofAuschwitz-BirkenauStateMemorialandMuseum, Poland. 22

Figure 16: JanBaraś-Komski, Through WorktoFreedom, Germany1945, Indianink, andfeatheron paper,20× 16cm.CollectionofAuschwitz-BirkenauStateMemorialandMuseum, Poland. 23

Figure 17: JerzyAdamBrandhuber, ArbeitMachtFrei fromtheseries Oświęcim,1946, charcoalon paper,54× 36 cm.CollectionofAuschwitz-BirkenauStateMemorialandMuseum, Poland. 25

Figure 18: AliceLok Cahana, ArbeitMachtFrei, 1979 – 1981,acryliconcanvas,66.5 ×49in.Vatican Museum,Rome,Italy.Onpermanentdisplay. 26

Figure 19 EditLöeffler, WorkbringsFreedom, c.1990,acryliconpaper,49× 34.4 cm.Collectionofthe YadVashemArtMuseum,Jerusalem.Giftoftheartist. 28

Figure 20: Marian Kołodziej, ArbeitMachtFrei,1993 – 2009. ©CenterofSt.Maximilian Kolbein HarmężenearOświęcim, Poland. 29

Figure 21: ElsaPollak, ArbeitMachtFrei,ca.1978,clay,85.5 ×50.5×6cm. CollectionofTheGhetto Fighters’ House,Israel. 31

Figure 22: CeijaStojka, WorkMakesYouFree,2009,Indianink,42 ×30cm. CollectionofKaiDikhas Foundation,Berlin,Germany. 33

Figure 23: Ceija Stojka, WorkMakes You Free. Nearbythe No 11 Block. The Deadly Place, 1943,2009, Indian ink on paper,42× 30 cm.Collection of Kai Dikhas Foundation, Berlin, Germany. 34

Figure 24: Menachem-Ron Wexler, Arbeit MachtFrei, 1963, oil on cardboard, 100 ×70cm. Collection of the artist, Jerusalem, Israel. 36

Figure 25: Menachem-Ron Wexler, Arbeit MachtFrei, 1966 – 1967,print, 24.5 ×8.5 cm.Collection of the artist,Jerusalem, Israel. 37

Figure 26: Yocheved Weinfeld, You Look So Typically Jewish,1979 – 1980,mixed media, 103 ×75in. Collection of the artist,New York. 39

Figure 27: HaimMaor, ARBEITMACHTFREI, 1990,triptych,wood,copper,metal,high-glosspaint, diversedimensions.Collectionoftheartist,Meitar, Israel. 42

Figure 28: Haim Maor, Untitled,1988 (2023), acrylic and varnish on wood, 54.5 ×177 cm.Collection of the artist, Meitar,Israel. 43

Figure 29: Hélène Carroll, TheRedCrossParcel,2001,acryliconcanvas,110 ×100 cm.Collectionofthe artist,New Zealand. 45

Figure 30: Hélène Carroll, Aa is for Apple and also for Auschwitz,2016, acrylic on canvas, 50 ×40cm. Privatecollection, Israel. 47

Figure 31: Hélène Carroll, Yeah Right,2017,acrylic on canvas, 61 ×51cm. Privatecollection, Israel. 48

Figure 32: Pnina Liebermann, The Gate to Hell,2021, oil on canvas, 35 ×35cm. Collection of the artist,RamatGan,Israel. 49

Figure 33: MatanCohen, Name-Number,2014,poster,70×50cm. Collectionoftheartist,Hod Hasharon.Israel. 51

Figure 34: Renana(Rani)BenNachumOrtner, Dachau ThentheGatesofHellOpened,2022,pencil onpaper,42× 34cm.Collectionoftheartist,KibbutzEinDor,Israel. 52

Figure 35: Renana(Rani)BenNachumOrtner, DeathFreesorReleasedbyTheirDeath,2022,colored pencilsonpaper,28× 21cm.Collectionoftheartist,KibbutzEinDor,Israel. 54

Figure 36: Renana (Rani) Ben NachumOrtner, WorkRestrictstoDeath,2022, pencil on paper, 49 ×34cm. Collection of the artist,Kibbutz Ein Dor,Israel. 55

Figure 37: Haim Maor, Ha’avoda Meshachreret (Labor sets youfree), 1986, installation,fabric, highglosspaint, diverse dimensions. Detail fromthe Installation AMessage from AuschwitzBirkenau to the Khan Theater – Jerusalem.Collection of the artist,Meitar,Israel. 56

Figure 38: DvoraMorag, Ha’omanutMeshachreret (Artunleashes),1996,installation,acrylicpainton wood,fragmentsofchairs,iron,polyester, photographs,diversedimensions.Detailfrom theInstallation Don’tEatwithyourMouthOpen.Collectionoftheartist,TelAviv, Israel. 57

Figure 39: ArnonAvni, HachutzpaMeshachreret (Theaudacityunleashes),2004, cartoon,digital drawing(vectorimage),diversedimensions.Collectionoftheartist,KibbutzNirim, Israel. 59

Figure 40: SorinBlum, RakHakoachMeshachrer (Only forcereleases),2020,natural wood,30 ×44cm. Collectionoftheartist,Zikhron Ya’akov,Israel. 60

Figure 41: NechamaGolan,Untitled,2008,digitallymanipulatedphotograph,60 ×50cm. Collection oftheartist,RamatGan,Israel. 62

Figure 42: NechamaGolan,Untitled,2008,digitallymanipulatedphotograph,60 ×50cm. Collection oftheartist,RamatGan,Israel. 62

Figure 43: NechamaGolan,HaemunaMeshachreret (Faithisliberating),2021,installation,clay,soil, 100 ×70cm.Collectionoftheartist,RamatGan,Israel. 63

Figure 44: AvnerBarHama, WorkisLiberating,LandofGold,MilkandHoney,2012,staged photograph,plexiglasmapofIsrael,etchedinscription,printondibond,70 ×100cm. Collectionoftheartist,Jerusalem,Israel. 65

Figure 45: Israel Rabinovitz, Rest for the Weary,2009, iron, jute,and soot, 20 ×100 cm.Collection of the artist, MevoBeitar,Israel. 67

Figure 46: Carlos Latuff, Arbeit MachtFrei: Welcome to Palestine,2002, pen on paper,variable sizes. Collection of the artist,Brazil. 68

Figure 47: EmadHajjaj, The Daily Palestinian Holocaust,2016, cartoon. Collection of the artist, Jordan. 70

Figure 48: John FrancisBorra, Abortion MachtFrei (Abortion makes youfree), 2007,cartoon, variable sizes. Collection of the artist, U.S.A. 71

Figure 49: AlexanderHeaton, VaccinesareSafePathtoFreedom,2021,cartoon,penonpaper,variable sizes.Collectionoftheartist,UnitedKingdom. 72

Figure 50: Badiucao, Xinjiang Auschwitz,2009, cartoon. Collection of the artist, Australia. 73

Figure 51: Mario Improta, Unione Europea,2019, cartoon, variable sizes. Collection of the artist, Italy. 74

Figure 52: JeffDanziger, PutinForcesUkrainianstoRussia,2022, cartoon.Collectionoftheartist,New York,U.S.A. 75

Figure 53: Judy Chicago and Donald Woodman, Arbeit MachtFrei? WorkMakes Who Free,1992, sprayed acrylic, oil, metal, wood, and photography on photolinen and canvas, 67 ×143 in. ©Judy Chicago and Donald Woodman/ArtistsRights Society (ARS), New York; Photo© Donald Woodman/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York. 78

Figure 54: Renana (Rani) Ben NachumOrtner, WorkSetsYou Free… But Cast Me Not Off in the Time of OldAge,2022,pencilonpaper,49× 34 cm.Collectionoftheartist,KibbutzEinDor, Israel. 79

Figure 55: ArnonAvni, Noo,MaAtaMatchilShuvImHamitnachalimHa’ele (So,whyareyoustarting withthesesettlersagain ),2005,cartoon.Collectionoftheartist,KibbutzNirim, Israel. 81

Figure 56: MaartenWolterink, NewBill:Saying ‘PolishConcentrationCamps’ MeansPrison…,2018, cartoon.Collectionoftheartist,TheNetherlands. 82

Figure 57: aleXsandroPalombo, Never Again, The Simpsons at AuschwitzI Gate, 2015, cartoon. Courtesyofthe artist. 84

Figure 58: aleXsandroPalombo, Never Again, Anne Frank in AuschwitzI,2015, cartoon. Courtesyofthe artist. 85

Figure 59: Drora Dekel, Arbeit Macht Frei – Ravens,2014, digitallymanipulated photograph, 50 ×40cm. Collectionoftheartist,Kibbutz Cabri,Israel. 87

Figure 60: DroraDekel, FreeRavenintheSkiesofAuschwitz,2021,digitallymanipulatedphotograph, 40 ×50cm. Collectionoftheartist,Kibbutz Cabri,Israel. 88

Figure 61: AyanaFriedman, MyGazeattheHorizon,2021,Digitalprintingon canvas,110 ×300cm. Collectionoftheartist,RamatGan,Israel. 88

Figure 62: Muriel(Nezhnie)Helfman, DaughtersofAuschwitz,1979,tapestry,60× 54in.Collectionof theartist’sestate,U.S.A. 90

Figure 63: AaronMorgan, ArbeitMachtFrei,TheMoundSeries, 2006,acryliconcanvas,60 ×54in. Collectionoftheartist’sestate,U.S.A. 91

Figure 64: MagdaFrankFischer, Auschwitz. ca.1945,50× 40cm,ink,andwatercoloronpaper. Locationunknown. 93

Figure 65: MagdaFrankFischer, Auschwitz. ca.1945,50× 40cm,ink,andwatercoloronpaper. Locationunknown. 94

Figure 66: AliceLok Cahana, ArbeitMachtFrei – ConcertinAuschwitz,1993,diptych,mixedmediaon paper,96× 80in. ©AliceLok Cahana’sestate. 95

Figure 67: LeonidOkun, CampPrisoner,2007,Tiliawood,75 ×15× 18cm.Collectionoftheartist, Gedera,Israel. 97

Figure 68: HorstHoheisel, The Gateways of the German People,1997,lighting display on the BrandenburgGate. 98

Figure 69: Michel Kichka, Memory I,2004, ink and watercolorsonpaper,30× 30 cm.Collection of the artist,Jerusalem, Israel. 100

Figure 70: Michel Kichka, Memory II,2004, inkand watercolors on paper,30×30cm. Collection of the artist, Jerusalem, Israel. 101

Figure 71: Haim Maor, Alma Rosé: Violin in Auschwitz-Birkenau, 2021, Acrylic and varnish on wood, 140 ×60cm. Collection of the artist, Meitar,Israel. 102

Figure 72: RickiPuch, ArbeitMachtFreionVariousObjects,2010,differentsizes.Collectionofthe artist,TelAviv,Israel. 104

Figure 73: Avner Bar Hama, ArbeitMachtFrei,2012, digitally manipulated photograph, 50 ×40cm. Collection of the artist,Jerusalem, Israel. 105

Figure 74: Ezi Zino, ARing (Top panel), 2014, silver,16× 16 mm. Collection of the artist,Nahariya, Israel. 105

Figure 75: EziZino, APendant,2017,silver,andbrass,20 ×15mm.Collectionoftheartist,Nahariya, Israel 106

Figure 76: Zdzisław Walczak, Camp Pietà,1985, oil on glass, 51 ×46cm. Collections of the State MuseumatMajdanek, Poland. 107

Figure 77: Sylwester Chrapowicz, Auschwitz – Birkenau,2017,oil and acryl on canvas, wooden frame, barbed wire, 138 ×98cm. Collection of the artist, Poland. 109

Introduction

Work Sets You Free (Arbeit Macht Frei)/ YigalShahar

Through this gate under this inscription

Ipassed endless times

In my memory wereengravedtwo times

The first and the last.

At the first Iwalked intoa world of uncertainty

At the last Iwalked out into aworld of uncertainty

At the span of time in between Ilivedina worldofuncertainty. April 3, 2023¹

HolocaustsurvivorRuthKlügerwrote, “Todayeveryonerecognizesthe phraseoverthe gateofAuschwitz –‘Arbeitmachtfrei’‘Laborliberates’– astheultimatemottoofa murderousirony.”² ConcentrationcampswereacentralelementintheNaziregime’s oppressive structurethatwasimposedongovernmentopponents,minorities,andJews. Thecampswerecharacterizedbyseverecorporalpunishmentoftheprisoners,terribleworkconditions,inhumantreatmentbythecampstaff,and murder.On afewconcentrationcamps’ gates,theslogan ArbeitMachtFrei wasinscribedinvariousvisual forms.

ArbeitMachtFrei was acommonGermansayinginvariousformsamongGerman andGerman-SwisspeasantsaspartoftheProtestantlaborethic.Theoriginoftheinscriptionisinthenameof anovelfrom1873 writtenbytheGermanphilologistand novelistLorenzDiefenbach(1806 – 1883).³ Initsoriginalmeaning,thesloganinthe novelwasusedtodescribethewaygamblersandcrooks go through aprocessof “repentance” andadoptmoralnormsofhonesty,throughproductive workthatcreates valueandbenefitforthemandtheirenvironment.Thetitleofthenovelisbasedon the versefromtheGospelofJohn8:32: “Thetruthwillsetyoufree.”

In1928 the governmentoftheWeimarRepublicadoptedtheslogan ArbeitMacht Frei asanencouraging messageforitsproactive workpolicy,intendingtoreducethe levelofunemploymentinpost-WorldWar IGermany. Infact,followingtheirriseto powerin1933,theNaziscontinued to usethesloganinitsoriginalmeaningaspart oftheireffortstoreducetheenormouslevelofunemploymentthatstillexistedinGer-

1 Yigal Shahar is an Israeli poet, author, and historian. Translated by Bracha Arieti. For this poem Yigal Shahar was inspired by the life story of Aliza Baruch from Thessaloniki, Greece. Yigal Shahar, 2002, Oh Madre, A Love Story in Auschwitz, Aliza and Ovadya Baruch from Saloniki (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem), 123 – 163. (Hebrew)

2 Ruth Klüger, 2003, Still Alive: A Holocaust Girlhood Remembered (Foreword by Lore Segal),(New York: The Feminist Press), 101.

3 Lorenz Diefenbach, 1873, Arbeit Macht Frei – Erzählung (Worksets you free – a story) (Bremen: J. Kühtmann’s Buchhandlung). (German

Introduction

many. The Nazi Party adopted this slogan as an instrument to encourageits massive construction policy and initiative of public works that they,too, instituted, as part of the effortstofight unemployment.When the Nazis established concentration camps for dissidents in Germany, it was onlynatural for them to inscribe ArbeitMacht Frei onthecampgates.Butthistimetheyuseditas adeception,withcontemptand ironytoinstillfalsehopesintheprisoners’ mindsandtherebypreventresistance andinsurrection.

TheodorEicke(1892 – 1943),commanderofDachauconcentrationcamp,wasthe first to placetheinscription ArbeitMachtFrei ontheDachauconcentrationcamp gateonOctober1,1933 (Fig.1).⁴ Andothercampssoonfollowed:Sachsenhausen(Fig. 2),Flossenbürg(Fig.3),andGroß-Rosen(Fig.4).TheNaziscontinuedthistrendafter theinvasionof CzechoslovakiawhentheyestablishedtheTheresienstadtGhetto/ CampandplacedtheinscriptionontheSmallFortress(Fig.5).Aftertheoccupation ofPolandandtheestablishmentoftheAuschwitz Icampthesamesloganwaspositionedon topofthecampentrancegate(Fig.6).⁵

IsraelGutman(1923 – 2013), aPolish-bornIsraelihistorianand aHolocaustsurvivor, explained:

Whoeverpassedthrough thegatethatbearstheinscriptionchargedwithfalsehood, cynicism,and ridicule – ArbeitMachtFrei – andtheprisoneris completelydeprivedofhishumanexistence. Withinminutestheprisoneratoncelosthisname,hisidentity,hisfamily, hishome,hisclothes, hisbodyhair,theprecioussouvenirsintheformof aphotographorletterthat connectedhimwith hispast,andthefreedom to move, to decidewherehewould go,to be amasterofhisdestinyand future.⁶

It canbeassumedthatEickewasalsoinvolvedinplacingtheslogan ArbeitMachtFrei ontheSachsenhausenconcentrationcampgate,sincehisofficeswerelocatedinthis camp.⁷ Thegate’sinscriptionbecame acentralelementintheprisoners’ dailylives. Forexample,inDachau,JuraSoyfer(1912 – 1939),anAustrianpoliticaljournalist andcabaretwriter,andAustriancomposerHerbert Zipper(1904 – 1997),bothJewish, wrotethefamous Dachaulied (Dachausong),whichbecametheprisoners’ hymn.⁸

4 HaroldMarcuse, 2001, LegaciesofDachau, TheUsesandAbusesof aConcentrationCamp, 1933 – 2001 (UnitedKingdom:Cambridge UniversityPress), 26.

5 PiotrM.A. Cywiński,JacekLachendroandPiotrSetkiewicz, 2013, Auschwitzfrom AtoZ, anIllustrated History (Oświęcim:Auschwitz-BirkenauStateMuseum),7– 8; GideonGreifandPeterSiebers,2016, Death FactoryAuschwitz (Cologne:EmonsVerlagGmbH),54 – 55.

6 IsraelGutmanandMichael Berenbaum, 2003, Auschwitz:AnatomiaShel Machane Mavet (Auschwitz: Anatomyofa DeathCamp) (Jerusalem: YadVashem),7– 8.(Hebrew)

7 Rudolf Hoess,1959, CommandantofAuschwitz, TheAutobiographyofRudolf Hoess (Cleveland,Ohio: TheWorldPublishingCompany),89.

8 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jura_Soyfer(accessedonJune11, 2023).

Figure 1: The gate of Dachau concentration camp, Germany, 1933 – 1945. Figure 2: The gate of Sachsenhausen concentration camp, Germany, 1936 – 1945

Figure 3: ThegateofFlossenbürgconcentration camp,Germany, 1936 – 1945

Figure 5: ThegateofTheresienstadtghetto/camp, CzechRepublic, 1936 – 1945.

Figure 4: ThegateofGroß-Rosenconcentration camp,Germany, 1936 – 1945

Figure 6: ThegateofAuschwitz Iconcentration camp,Poland, 1936 – 1945.

Stacheldraht, mit Tod geladen, ist um unsreWelt gespannt.

Drauf ein Himmel ohne Gnaden sendet Frost undSonnenbrand.

Fern von uns sindalleFreuden, ferndie Heimat, fern die Fraun, wenn wir stumm zurArbeit schreiten, Tausende im Morgengraun.

Doch wirhaben die Losung von Dachau gelernt und wurden stahlhart dabei:

SeieinMann, Kamerad, bleibeinMensch,Kamerad, machganzeArbeit,packan, Kamerad, dennArbeit,Arbeitmachtfrei!

Barbed wire, loaded with death is drawn aroundour world. Above asky without mercy sends frost and sunburn. Far from us areall joys, far away our home, farawayour wives, when we march to work in silence thousands of us at the break of day. But we havelearned the motto of Dachau anditmadeusashard as steel: Be aman,mate, staya man,mate, do agoodjob,gettoit,mate, forwork,workmakesyoufree!

Inmid-1940RudolfHoess(Höss)(1900 – 1947),whowasfamiliarwiththeinscriptionin DachauandSachsenhausenbecauseheservedinbothduringvariousassignments, chargedthattheAuschwitz Igateshouldalsohave thesameinscription.Themetal workshopatthecampwasassignedthistask.Kurt Müller(1909 – 1948),themetalworkshopCapo, “designed” theinscriptionbydrawingitsshapeontheground. APolish prisoner(prisonernumber1010),masterblacksmithJanLiwacz(1898 – 1980),formed thelettersoftheinscriptionfrompipesusedforthecamp’swaterdistributionsystem. Theletter Bwasinstalledupsidedown.Manyprisonersinterpretedthisasanactof resistance. However,itismorelikelythatitwasaccidental.Nevertheless,itbecame animportant componentinthecampprisoners’ lifeexperience.Whenwalkingbeneaththecamp gatewiththeinscriptiontoworkandbackeverydayprisonerscomposedrefrainsconcerning it:Forexample, “ArbeitMachtFreiDurchKrematorium NummerDrei” (“WorkwillSetyouFree ThroughCrematorium Number Three”) or “ArbeitMachtFreiDurchdenSchornstein” (“WorkwillSetyouFree ThroughtheChimney”).

Thewords ArbeitMachtFrei intheconcentrationcampsinGermanyweremeant tore-educateopponentsofNaziruleinthewaysofNaziideology,whilethepurposeof the ArbeitMachtFrei inscriptionontheGermanconcentrationcampAuschwitz Iin Polandwasmeanttohumiliate,oppress,anddiscouragetheprisoners.⁹ As Primo Levirecalled, “Thejourneydidnotlastmorethantwenty minutes.Thenthelorrystopped,andwesawa large door,and aboveita sign,brightly illuminated(itsmemorystill strikesmein my dreams): ArbeitMachtFrei, ‘WorkGivesFreedom’ . ”¹⁰

In1991a controversialtheaterperformance, ArbeitMachtFrei, from ToitlandEurope bytheAcreExperimentalTheaterGroup,directedbyDavidMa’ayan,waspresent-

9 Cywiński,LachendroandSetkiewicz, Auschwitzfrom AtoZ, anIllustratedHistory,7– 8; Greifand Siebers, Death FactoryAuschwitz,54 – 55;RobertJanVanPelt,LuisFerreiroandMiriamGreenbaum, eds., 2019, Auschwitz:NotLongAgo. Not FarAway (NewYorkandLondon: AbbevillePressPublishers), 88. (Catalogue)

10 PrimoLevi,(1979)2003, IfThisis aMan,theTruce (London: Abacus), 23.

ed in Israel. Undoubtedly, this multimedia production was arrogant,large-scale, and had adeep messageabout Holocaust memories and their place in Israeliculture. The smallgroup of actors had been preparingthis spectacle for threeyears, with each of the participantsfaithful to their roles with admirable authenticity.Itwas a five-hour performance without ascript,based on the personalexperiences and life histories of each of the actors,manyofwhom wereSecond Generation children of Holocaust survivors, and interactionwith the audience.What stands out in the dynamic of the performance is the potentiallytendentious thematic linking of the memories of the HolocaustoftheJewsandtheconflictwiththePalestinians.¹¹

In 2023 Icuratedanartexhibitiontitled ‘ArbeitMachtFrei, ’ Representations,Meanings,andInterpretations.¹² Theexhibitionfocusedonthevariousrepresentations, meanings,andinterpretationsofthe ArbeitMachtFrei imageinthe worksofIsraeli artistswhoemployitas ageneralsymbolicimageofthe Holocaust.Amongtheartists wereseveralHolocaustsurvivors;mostofthem,though,weremembersoftheSecond Generation,childrenofHolocaustsurvivors,andotherswhohadnopersonalconnectiontotheHolocaust.

Theinscription ArbeitMachtFrei,especiallytheonein AuschwitzI,hasbecomea symbolicimage ofthe Holocaustin general,andoftheNazicampsinparticular.Itis usedbyartiststodepicttheharshrealityofincarcerationinthecamps,and to engage withthedenialofhumanfreedomduetotheircondemnationoftheviolentandoppressive regime.Artistsalsodealwiththemeaningoftheinscriptionas afalseslogan usedbytheNazistodeceive prisoners.

Untilnownocomprehensive andin-depthresearchintothevisualrepresentations oftheinscription ArbeitMachtFrei inartworkshasbeenwritten.Thisbookremedies thisconspicuouslack.Thisbookexamineshowthe ArbeitMachtFrei imageisdepicted, howitisutilized,anditsmeaninginconnection to Holocaustmemory. Inaddition,the bookanalyzestheplacethattheimageoccupiesintheartists’ consciousnessandhowit isgraspedinthecollective consciousnessofdifferentsocieties.Finally, theextentto whichtheimage isused to dealwithcontemporaryissuesisaddressed.

Thisbookisinthefieldofarthistory;therefore,itemphasizesthevisualexpressionofthe topicsandimagesoftheartworks.Itsmethodcombinesanartisticbiographicapproachandsocio-historicalreferencetocreatea linkbetweentheiconographicandstylisticartisticdebateandthehistoricaltimeandsocial-culturalcontext inwhichtheartworkswerecreated.Inthisway, wecansimultaneouslyseethepersonalpointofviewofeachartistandlearnabout generaltrendsandprocessesindicating theattitudeoftheartiststothe ArbeitMachtFrei image asanartistic motif.Thedocu-

11 Tami Katz-Freiman, 2003, “‘Don’tTouchMy Holocaust’– Analyzingthe BarometerofResponses:IsraeliArtistsChallengethe Holocaust Taboo,” in ImpossibleImages,ContemporaryArtafterthe Holocaust,eds.ShelleyHornstein,LauraLevittandLaurence J. Silberstein(NewYork:NewYorkUniversity Press), 148 – 150.

12 BatyaBrutin,April–June, 2023, ‘Arbeit MachtFrei, ’ Representations,Meanings,andInterpretations, (RishonLeZion:TheGalleryin Beit YadLabanim). (Catalogue, Hebrew-English)

mentarystructure of this book is comprised of artworks found in collections of artists, museums,artists’ estates,and privateowners.

The questions Itry to answer in the book are: In what wayhavethe artists used the imageofthe inscription Arbeit Macht Frei to represent the Holocaust? What are the messagesandthemeaningsthattheartistsdealwiththroughthisimage?Towhatextenthave theartistsusedthe ArbeitMachtFrei imagetocommemoratetheHolocaust?

AbouttheBook’sChapters

Surveysandexaminationof alarge numberofartworksofmanyartistspinpointthat therearemutualtopicsthathave engagedthemandthattheyallsought to express themintheiroeuvres.Theartistsputthe ArbeitMachtFrei imageina visualaswell as acontextualenvironmentaccordingtothesubjectstheychoosetodepictconcerning the Holocaust’slegacyandmemory. The Introduction dealswiththeoriginoftheinscription ArbeitMachtFrei andits appearanceonthegatesofNaziconcentration campsinGermanyandinNaziconcentrationcampAuschwitz IinPoland. It alsomentionsthetheaterperformance ArbeitMachtFrei from ToitlandEurope bytheAcreExperimentalTheaterGroup,directedbyDavidMa’ayan,andtheonlyartexhibitiontitled ‘ArbeitMachtFrei, ’ Representations,Meanings,andInterpretations that presentedworkswiththeinscriptioncreatedbyIsraeliartists.Thefirstchapter, We WereThere:Illustrated Testimony,referstoformercampprisoners’ artisticresponsestothenotorious ArbeitMachtFrei sloganasanimportantpartoftheirdailylifein thecamps.Theartistsreferredtoitsymbolically,expressively,andpersonallyasanindeliblereminderintheirmemory. Thesecondchapter, LifeintheShadowoftheInscription, showsartworksbySecondGenerationartists,childrenofHolocaustsurvivorswhorespondtotheinscription ArbeitMachtFrei invariousways.Thethird chapter, ParaphraseoftheInscription, presents avarietyofwaysinwhichartists have paraphrasedtheoriginalinscription, ArbeitMachtFrei, andpresenteditindifferentlanguagestoconveya rangeoftopicsandmessages.Thefourthchapter, Moral,Politicaland UniversalMessages, portraysthevarioususesofthe ArbeitMachtFrei slogantoexpress generalmoral,politicalanduniversalstatementsthroughthatHolocaust image.Thefifthchapter, RememberingtheHolocaust, dealswithdifferent generations’ waysofrememberingthe Holocaustthroughthe ArbeitMachtFrei inscription. Finally, the Epilogue presentsthefindingsandinsightsthathave arisenfromtheartworksdepictingtheimageoftheinscription ArbeitMachtFrei.

Chapter 1: We Were There: IllustratedTestimony

Personal Experience

Auschwitz survivors have testified thatpassing under the inscription Arbeit Macht Frei atthecampgatewas adifficultexperienceforthem,notonlyofhumiliationbutalsoof forciblychangingoftheiridentity. Theylosttheirnamesandpreviouslifeandbecame just anumber,vulnerable,weak,insecure,anddependentonthepowerfulNaziscontrolandmercy. Artistsamongtheprisonerswhosawthesewordsandexperiencedthe campreferredtothenotoriousinscriptionintheiroeuvres.Theywereartists,withthe talent,experience,andtools to substantiatevisuallytheeventsinthecampsinthe shadowofthedeceptivemessage, ArbeitMachtFrei, andalso to allowustobetterunderstandtheterriblecamprealityand to conveyittothenext generations.

Ovadya Baruch(1922 – 2010),borninSalonika(Thessaloniki),Greece, testifiedthat hiswholeworldchangedfromthemomentheenteredAuschwitzinMarch1943: “We walkedtwokilometers to Auschwitz,totheIronGatewiththeGermaninscription ArbeitMachtFrei. Uptothisgate, IwascalledOvadya Baruch.Onemeterbehindit Iwas called109432.Evenwithoutknowing awordofGerman,itdidnottakeprisonernumber109432 longuntilherealizedhehadarrivedinhell.”¹

PeterEdel(1921 – 1983), aGermanartistwithJewishroots,² referred to the Auschwitz Igatesloganin apersonal approach(Fig.7).In adoubleself-portraithede-

1 Yigal Shachar, 2002, Oh Madre – Sipur Ahava be’Auschwitz – Aliza Ve’Ovadya Baruch Me’Saloniki (Oh Madre – a love story in Auschwitz – Aliza and Ovadya Baruch from Saloniki) (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem), 45 (Hebrew); Anat Sheinkman, “If We Get out of Here Alive – We Will Get Married,” ynet.co.il, September 4, 2002, https://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-1823409,00.html (accessed on November 10, 2002).

2 Peter Edel was born in Berlin to a Jewish father and a Christian mother and educated in the embrace of Judaism. He began to study art with the assistance of his Jewish grandfather, Edmund Edel, an illustrator, who introduced him to renowned artists. When the Nazis came to power and the anti-Jewish regulations were implemented, his father ran into financial difficulties and was forced to sell their property; later, his parents separated. In the late 1930s, because he was Jewish and a Communist activist, Edel was imprisoned in Grossbeeren, Auschwitz, Sachsenhausen, Mauthausen and Ebensee concentration camps.In the fall of 1943, he was sent to Grossbeeren wherehe drew other inmates in return for cigarettes, food, and paper He illustrated on postcards for the camp guards and painted their portraits. His mother visited him once, and he gave her portraits of prisoners for safekeeping, which is how they survived the war When he arrived at Auschwitz, he received the prisoner number 164145 and was selected to be murdered. His profession as a painter and knowledge of the German languagehelped him survive. In 1944 he was transferred to Sachsenhausen and received the prisoner number 75192. There, he continued his artistic work. In the spring of 1945, he was transferred to Mauthausen and then to Ebensee wherehe was liberated by the Americans in April 1945 After the war he returned to Germany. Janet Blatter and Sybil Milton, 1981, Art of the Holocaust (New York: Routledge), 246 – 247; Agnieszka Sieradzka, 2017, Face to Face. Art in Auschwitz (Kraków: Auschwitz-BirkenauStateMuseum, The National Museum in Krakow), 239. (Catalogue)

14 Chapter 1: We Were There: Illustrated Testimony

Figure 7: Peter Edel, Self-Portrait,1944,Auschwitz. Pencilonpaper,29.5 x20cm.CollectionofAuschwitzBirkenauStateMemorialandMuseum,Poland.