Prospects of the EthiopianOrthodox Tewahido Churches in Conserving Forest Resources

Opportunities, Constraints and Prospects of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Churches in Conserving Forest Resources: The Case of Churches in South Gonder, Northern Ethiopia

Alemayehu Wassie

DECLARATION I Alemayehu Wassie hereby declare this thesis is my original work and has not already been presented nor is being currently submitted for a degree in any university or for publication. It is free for use as far as proper citation and acknowledgment is made.

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Alemayehu Wassie

Date

This thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as university main advisor.

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Dr. Neil Powell

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Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences

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This Thesis is dedicated to the late Ato Alachew Jemberie with unforgettable memories of professional dedication, humbleness and generosity, praying for his body to rest in peace under the sacred garden of EOTC and eternity for his soul in heaven.

I would like also to dedicate to the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church and its scholars for generations of dedication and faithfulness to the church and its surrounding forests.

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Opportunities, Constraints and Prospects of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Churches in Conserving Forest Resources: The Case of Churches in South Gonder, Northern Ethiopia Alemayehu Wassie Eshete

P.O.Box 2003 Addis Abeba, Ethiopia (c/o Dr. Demel Teketay) Telephone 251-1-454452 / 290987 (c/o Dr. Demel Teketay) E-Mail Orda-1@telecom.net.et; Forestrydt@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church is one of the oldest Christian Churches in Africa and is a founder member of the World Council of Churches. In addition to its religious activities, it also has long history of planting, protecting and preserving trees. If a traveler can see a patch of indigenous old aged trees in the northern highlands of Ethiopia, most probably he/she can be sure that there is an Orthodox Church in the middle. The main objectives of this paper were to study the diversity and regeneration status of woody species in the church forest, to carry out a socio-economic survey that would enable us to understand the philosophy, guiding principles and attitudes of the community. In addition, it was also to assess the opportunity, constraints, and prospects of the church in conserving woody diversity in particular and forests resources in general.

Accordingly, eight churches were selected at different altitudes purposively. Once the study churches were identified, 10m X 10m quadrats were laid systematically along parallel transects in the forests for vegetation sampling. For the socioeconomic survey, 122 household heads were selected randomly amongst the followers and at least three church scholars from each church. Moreover, focus group discussion and key informant interviews were employed. From vegetation sampling it was found that forests enveloped the church with an area ranging from 1.6 ha to 100 ha. The total number of species and families in each of the eight churches ranged from 22 and 18 to 42 and 22 respectively. The minimum plant density was 731/ha and the maximum was 2250/ha while the minimum basal area, calculated from woody plants with dbh ≼ 10 cm was 24.9 m2/ha and maximum 109.7 m2/ha. Different regeneration status was revealed from the height and diameter class distribution for some of the woody species. The height and diameter class distributions for all individuals in each studied church showed that the forests are at different secondary stages of development. The classification of the species group by ordination techniques showed the differentiation in species group types has a strong relationship with altitude.

These church forests didn’t come to exist just by mere chance. Results indicated that it is by the commitment of the church based on strong theological thoughts and a biblical basis. It was found that the local community respects and protects church forests, and considers the church as a central institution and platform. On the other hand, important stakeholders had diverging and converging views on some issues regarding church forests. In general, from the results, it was concluded that forests conserved by EOTC and its tradition provide an opportunity to establish insitu and exsitu conservation sites for forest resources.

They also have greater prospects in implementing forestry conservation, development, research and education programs with some avoidable threats and constraints for which recommendations were presented.

Key words/phrases: Church forests; Indigenous Woody Species diversity; Density; Basal Area; Ordination; Conservation; Sustainability; Indigenous institution; Tradition

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First and foremost I praise the Almighty God, who favors me to begin and to bring to an end this study.

The Archbishop of South Gonder Diocese Abune Elsa, the Manager Megabe Sirat Birhanu Kassa with other staff were so much kind when they gave me permission to go through the holy garden of the churches with their blessing and passion, thus there are no words to thank them.

Farta, Laygaynt, Ebinat, Fogera, Dera and Estie woreda church administration offices were so cooperative. The able church scholars, Melake-Hiwot Asnake Tsegaw, Melake-Birhan Melese Hailu, Melake-Miheret Wubie Asres, Liqe-Hiruan Admas Tsegaye, and Melake-Miheret Tibebu Taye are the ones who gave me special interviews and shared their cumulated knowledge with me. The kind EOTC fathers, students and community who assisted me in identifying woody species to whom I am indebted.

My main Adviser Dr. Neil Powell to whom I am grateful, who went through my paper from draft proposal to the thesis work and from office to the study site that helped me a lot in shaping the framework of the paper and final appearance. Dr Demel Teketay my in land adviser, who always wished to see my success has got a special place not only for his unreserved effort in this paper but also in all my academic endeavors and thus I am very grateful.

I am in dept to Ato Belaineh Legesse and Ato Melaku Bekele who read the draft proposal in Upssala, Sweden and commented on how to shape it in a better way. I am also in dept to Dr Yonas Yemishaw who assisted me in the socio-economic data analysis and Dr Tesfaye Bekele who assisted me in ordination analysis of vegetation data by computer software. Ato Taye Bekele and Ato Tefera Mengistu who commented on the paper are duly thanked.

My respect should go to the Organization for Rehabilitation and Development for Amhara (ORDA), my employer who assisted and sponsored me to go through the MSc. program. Here also SLU/SIDA with Wondo Genet College of forestry are grateful. Ato Dagnachew Gebeyehu is also thanked for his efforts in arranging a vehicle for my adviser field visits. Ato Muluneh (South Gonder greening program) and Ibinat-Belesa project are thanked for they provided me with a vehicle for fieldwork.

From South Gonder Zone department of Agriculture Ato Mekonen Tola, Goshu Worku, Belaineh in providing me with field equipment and information and from South Gonder Zone department of Planning & Economic development Ato Abebaw in providing demographic data are thankful.

From Estie woreda agricultural office Ato Fintie Bisahw, Ato Aschalew and Ato Tigabu Belay are also thanked in providing information and a motorbike for fieldwork. Ato Destaw Mequanent the administrator of Estie woreda was so cooperative for discussion and permission to work. Ato Mandefro from CARE, South Gonder and Ato Gizachew Sisay from CPAR Gayint should get special thanks.

W/zo Muday Abraham with her family and W/t Hibrework who hosted me while I was in field for data collection are memorable without whom it could have been hard to finish the fieldwork. Ato GebreMeskel Fenta and His wife W/zo Bosena Melese with their family, who hosted me with my family during the thesis work with generosity and family-hood, are unforgettable and very much grateful. My brother Ato Birhane Wassie and his wife W/zo Tsehay Yesmaw, Ato Ayalew Mengistu and his wife W/zo Bishat Ayalew were the ones who laid the foundation of my life from childhood to university level and to whomI am grateful.

Finally my wife sister Belainesh Melese who carried all of my family responsibility so that I could focus on my study is the corner stone in this work. My little children Mahalet and Natinael, who provided me with exhilaration when I got fed up during the thesis write up, have contributed a lot and are appreciated.

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ACRONYMS BA

Basal Area

DBH

Diameter at Breast Height

DICAC

Development and Inter-Church Aid Commission

EOTC

Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church

Fig

Figure

Jack1

First-order Jackknife estimator of species richness

masl

Meter above sea level

PA

Peasant Association

PRA

Participatory Rural Appraisal

SGAZ

South Gonder Administrative Zone

SGAZDA

South Gonder Zonal Department of Agriculture

SGAZDPED

South Gonder Zonal Department of Plan & Economic Development

Sobs

Observed number of species

WoA

Woreda office of Agriculture

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

DECLARATION........................................................................................................................................... I ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................ III ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................................................................................................... IV ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................................................ V TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................................... VI LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................ VIII LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................................... IX APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................................. X 1. INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................1 1.1. BACKGROUND ..........................................................................................................................................1 1.2. ETHIOPIAN ORTHODOX TEWAHIDO CHURCH ..........................................................................................1 1.3. ETHIOPIAN ORTHODOX TEWAHIDO CHURCH AND FORESTS/TREES: PLACED IN A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ...........................................................................................................................................2 1.4. RELIGION AND FORESTS/TREES AT GLOBAL LEVEL ................................................................................4 1.5. ETHNOFORESTRY .....................................................................................................................................4 1.6. PROBLEM STATEMENT AND JUSTIFICATION ............................................................................................5 2. CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS .................................................................6 2.1. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .....................................................................................................................6 2.1.1. Indigenous Institutions .................................................................................................................6 2.1.2. Religion ........................................................................................................................................7 2.1.3. Biodiversity ..................................................................................................................................8 2.1.4. Sustainability and Conservation of Natural Resources ................................................................8 2.2. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE ....................................................................................................................9 3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS ....................................................................................................................12 4. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY...........................................................................................................13 5. MATERIALS AND METHODS ...........................................................................................................14 5.1. STUDY AREA ..........................................................................................................................................14 5.2. CHURCHES SELECTED FOR THE STUDY ..................................................................................................14 5.2.1. Quar Debre Luel Kidus Michael ................................................................................................14 5.2.2. Zahara Debre Miheret Kidus Michael........................................................................................15 5.2.3. Gibtsawit Kidist Mariam ............................................................................................................15 5.2.4. Dengolt Debre Medalhu Kidist Mariam.....................................................................................15 5.2.5. Mekane Semayat Kidus Gelawdiwos.........................................................................................15 5.2.6. Hiruy Kidus Giorgis ...................................................................................................................16 5.2.7. Debresena Kidist Mariam...........................................................................................................16 5.2.8. Ascha Menbere Luel Kidus Michael..........................................................................................16 5.3. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION ..........................................................................................................18 5.3.1. Sampling Design ........................................................................................................................18

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5.3.2. Area of Forest Cover ..................................................................................................................18 5.3.3. Vegetation census.......................................................................................................................18 5.3.4. Socio-economic Survey..............................................................................................................19 5.3.5. Scope and Limitation of the Study .............................................................................................20 5.4. METHODS OF DATA ANALYSES .............................................................................................................20 5.4.1. Vegetation ..................................................................................................................................20 5.4.2. Socio-economic Survey..............................................................................................................24 6. RESULTS ................................................................................................................................................26 6.1. VEGETATION ..........................................................................................................................................26 6.1.1. Species Composition, Density, Basal Area and Similarity ........................................................26 6.1.2. Species Diversity: Species Richness, Evenness and Heterogeneity...........................................27 6.1.3. Regeneration Status....................................................................................................................28 6.1.4. Species Area Curve ....................................................................................................................38 6.1.5. Ordination ..................................................................................................................................39 6.2. SOCIO-ECONOMICS ................................................................................................................................40 6.2.1. Philosophy of EOTC in the Conservation of Forests .................................................................40 6.2.2. Benefits of Churches from the Forests .......................................................................................41 6.2.3. Mode of Protection of the Forests by Churches .........................................................................43 6.2.4. Historical Profile ........................................................................................................................44 6.2.5. Attitude of the Local Communities ............................................................................................45 6.2.6. Stake Holder Analysis................................................................................................................49 6.2.7. SWOT Analysis..........................................................................................................................49 7. DISCUSSION ..........................................................................................................................................52 7.1. VEGETATION ..........................................................................................................................................52 7.2. SOCIO-ECONOMY SURVEY......................................................................................................................54 7.2.1. Church Philosophy .....................................................................................................................54 7.2.2. The attitude of the local community...........................................................................................55 7.2.3. Stakeholder Views......................................................................................................................59 7.2.4. SWOT of the Tradition ..............................................................................................................60 8.CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .....................................................................................61 8.1. CONCLUSION ..........................................................................................................................................61 8.2. RECOMMENDATION ................................................................................................................................62 9. REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................63

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LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1. ALTERNATIVE PARADIGMS FOR THE PROBLEM AND SOLUTION AT HAND...................................12 FIGURE 2. MAP OF THE STUDY AREA ............................................................................................................17 FIGURE 3. HEIGHT CLASS DISTRIBUTION OF INDIVIDUALS OF SOME SELECTED SPECIES AND ALL WOODY PLANTS ENCOUNTERED IN EACH CHURCH.. ................................................................................33 FIGURE 4. DIAMETER CLASS DISTRIBUTION OF ALL WOODY PLANTS IN ALL PLOTS AND SOME OF MAJOR TREE SPECIES FOR ALL CHURCHES. .............................................................................................38 FIGURE 5. SPECIES AREA CURVE OF THE EIGHT CHURCH FORESTS STUDIES.................................................38 FIGURE 6. ORDINATION DIAGRAM OF SPECIES FROM THE CORRESPONDENCE ANALYSIS MADE USING THE SPECIES ABUNDANCE DATA FROM ALL CHURCH FORESTS. .........................................................39 FIGURE 7. HISTORICAL PROFILE OF CHURCH FORESTS IN SOUTH GONDER ZONE IN PARTICULAR AND IN ETHIOPIA AT LARGE. ...................................................................................................................45

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LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1. AREA OF FORESTS (HA), TOTAL DENSITY (INDIVIDUALS/HA), NUMBER OF SPECIES AND PLANT 2 10 CM) FAMILIES, BASAL AREA (M /HA) AS WELL AS NUMBERS OF LIVE STEMS (DBH AND DEAD STUMPS FOUND IN THE EIGHT CHURCHES. ..................................................................26 TABLE 2. LIST, DENSITIES (INDIVIDUALS/HA) AND BASAL AREAS (M2/HA) OF EXOTIC WOODY SPECIES RECORDED IN FOUR OF THE CHURCH FORESTS. ............................................................................27 TABLE 3. SIMILARITIES IN SPECIES COMPOSITION AMONG THE EIGHT CHURCHES DETERMINED BY JACCARD’S SIMILARITY COEFFICIENT..........................................................................................27 TABLE 4. DIFFERENT DIVERSITY INDICES OF THE EIGHT CHURCH FORESTS STUDIED. .................................28 TABLE 5. POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF FOLLOWERS FROM FORESTS THAT ARE EITHER PERMITTED OR FORBIDDEN BY CHURCHES. ...........................................................................................................43 TABLE 6. RESULTS FROM THE SIGNIFICANTLY DEPENDENT ANSWERS GIVEN TO THE MAIN ATTITUDINAL QUESTIONS. ...................................................................................................................................48 TABLE 7. OPINIONS AMONG THE VARIOUS IDENTIFIED STAKEHOLDERS ON SELECTED ISSUES REGARDING THE CHURCH FORESTS...................................................................................................................49

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APPENDICES APPENDIX 1. ALL SPECIES AND FAMILIES WITH RESPECTIVE ABUNDANCE, DENSITY AND FREQUENCY FOUND IN ALL THE EIGHT SAMPLED CHURCHES ....................................................................68 APPENDIX 2. CHECKLIST OF ALL INDIGENOUS WOODY SPECIES FOUND IN SOUTH GONDER ADMINISTRATIVE ZONE (SGAZDA, UNPUBLISHED) .............................................................70

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1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background The speed with which forest resources have been depleted in Ethiopia has brought significant decline in their biodiversity to the extent that some species are on the verge of local extinction. Though the available information on the forest resources of Ethiopia is very limited, it is estimated that high forests are disappearing at the rate of 150,000-200,000 ha annually (EFAP 1994) while the corresponding rate of plantation, 2000 ha per year, is insignificant and stagnating. The problem of deforestation and decline in or loss of biodiversity is more pronounced in the northern highlands of Ethiopia, particularly in the South Gonder Zone, where forests are downscaled to patches and strips on the tops of hills and heads of streams.

As a result, very little of the natural forest of the Northern Ethiopian highlands remains today.

These phenomena are the results of a long-term human occupation of the area, accompanied by sedentary agriculture and extensive cattle husbandry, spurred by the rapid growth of both human and animal populations. The deterioration of natural resources not only destroys the environment, but also undermines the very foundation on which economic growth and long-term prosperity depend. Viswanathan (1986) noted that “a traveller can see only a very few trees remaining here and there as remnants of the old vegetation, which once flourished in the area”.

In such devastated areas, conserving and maintaining woody diversity has been a very challenging task, and most approaches haven’t brought any significant results. The only areas where one can observe forests/trees in northern Ethiopia are in the surroundings of churches. These patches of natural forest have survived as a result of the traditional conservation system and protective patronage of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Churches (Yeraswork Admassie 1995).

1.2. Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church (EOTC), an indigenous and integral Christian Church of Africa, is one of the oldest Churches in the world and founding member of the World Council of Churches.

The word ‘Tewahido’ is the Ethiopian term meaning ‘made one’, the best expression conveying the faith of the church. It emphasizes the inseparable unity of the Godhead and Manhood in the Person of Christ.

The EOTC is considered to belong to the One, Holy, Universal and Apostolic Church founded by Jesus Christ (Aymro Wondmagegnehu and Motovu 1970).

Ethiopia embraced Christianity and maintained the doctrine of Christ from the era of the Apostles to the present day, as it is narrated in the Holy Bible (Acts 8:26-39). The history of St. Phillip the Apostle baptizing the Eunuch, who travelled to Jerusalem for prayer, is of great interest for the Ethiopian Church history. Eunuch was a man of high rank, the Finance Minister of Candace Queen of Ethiopia (Anonymous,

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1991). The EOTC is numerically the largest of the five non-Chalcedonian Eastern Churches - the Coptic, the Ethiopian, The Syrian, the Indian and the Armenian, which were historically called “The Oriental Orthodox Churches” to distinguish them from the “Byzantine Orthodox Churches” (Aymro Wondmagegnehu and Motovu 1970).

The EOTC believes that the church is a community founded by God in the crucified, risen and glorified Christ, the incarnate Son of God, and guided and bounded by God and the Holy Spirit. Its members accept the faith in Jesus Christ and are united under the teaching and administrative rules enjoined by the Patriarch with the council of Bishops. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church has a system of administration by which its members are to be guided. Two aspects are discerned in the administration structure: (a) Religious affairs conducted by the patriarch and the Holy Synod, and (b) Secular affairs managed by an Administrative Board. It has over 30 million followers, 400,000 clergies and 35,000 churches in Ethiopia.

Moreover, it has several followers and Archbishops in other countries (Aymro Wondmagegnehu and Motovu 1970; Taye Bekele et al. unpublished).

A church is also a building set apart for worship, and the name is used only for such structures as are for the general use of the faithful, as distinguished from chapels, which are for some community or family.

Churches are consecrated, but it is the ‘Tabot’ or the Arc of the Covenant, which gives sanctity to the church in which it is placed. Thus, every Ethiopian church must be honored with ‘Tabot’. Churches are usually built in pleasant spots and are surrounded with walls of massive stone and patches of trees, which add to the solemnity, and the quietude of the building. These churches are not only religious spots but are also biodiversity spots.

The local people call the churches with the surrounding trees as debr or geddam. Debr or Geddam is seen by the followers as the most holy place religiously as well as a respected and powerful institution socially.

It is also expected from outside to be a viable and a functioning site ecologically from the whole landscape in the area. They are visible from a great distance, with a majestic appearance, usually built upon a small hill overlooking the village.

1.3. Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church and Forests/Trees: Placed in A Historical Perspective The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church has long history of planting, protecting and preserving of trees.

If a traveller can see a patch of indigenous old aged trees in the northern highlands of Ethiopia, most probably he/she can be sure that there is an Orthodox Church in the middle. This observation is not only a recent phenomenon, but goes back many years as the event of deforestation has been occurring in the area for centuries. Many travellers on their route have observed and had an impression that old aged indigenous trees were becoming confined around churches. In his study of Forest History of Ethiopia from early times to 1974, Melaku (1992) has shown this picture as follows:

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♦ ♦ ♦

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Bruce who visited Ethiopia in 1769, and who continued his journey to Gonder has observed that in Waldeba (near Gonder) trees were found only around churches.

The British traveller, Charles Beke, who made various journeys to most parts of Gojjam, Gonder, Wello and north Shewa from 1841 to 1843, noted that “scarcely a tree being to be seen, with the exception of small groves which invariably surround the churches”.

Plowden, who was British counsel for Ethiopia from 1848 to 1860, described the vast region from Tigray to Gojjam as fertile, but he noted the lack of large timber in the region except "the great sycamore (Ficus sycomorus) and species of cedar (Juniperus procera) growing around the church". Adding to his observation, Plowden (1868) noted " The first thing probably that will strike the traveller in Abyssinia is the almost entire absence of high trees, except immediately surrounding the churches, which nearly all the conspicuous elevations, built on become from this fact, visible at great distances, and generally guide the wearied stranger to some hamlet in the neighborhood".

Markham, secretary of the Royal Geographical Society of Britain, who accompanied the British military expedition to Ethiopia in 1867-68, observed trees confined to churchyards in Adigrat (Tigray), and that Wadla (Wello/Gonder) was treeless with the exception of clumps of Kosso (Hagenia abyssinica) and other trees around the churches.

Although the main purpose of churches is as places for worship, burials and meditating religious festivals, they also provide valuable (and often unique) and secured habitats for plants and animals, as well as microorganisms and green spaces for people to rest the stressed mind. Church compounds are the monasteries of trees and other biodiverse resources where one can animate trees escaped from being destroyed forever under the shelter of the church value and esteem. Many indigenous trees and shrubs, which in some places were destroyed completely over the last century, are still found standing in the compounds of remote rural churches (Asseged and Taye unpublished; Taye Bekele 1998). The area of forest cover preserved by the Ethiopian Orthodox churches in some parts of the country has been estimated. For instance the very many churches existing in Tigray are estimated to contain about 660 hectares of forest. These patches of forests are used as sources of seeds for raising seedlings in nurseries (TFAP 1996).

In other words, church compounds are serving as in situ conservation and hot spot sites for biodiversity resources, mainly indigenous trees and shrubs of Ethiopia, which in turn give prestige for the religious sites. As a result, these forests are sanctuaries for different organisms ranging from microbes to large animals, which have almost disappeared elsewhere (Taye Bekele et al. unpublished).

Historically, most of the church forests were destroyed and burned with the churches and other precious heritages by the anti-Christian expedition led by Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim (generally known as ‘Gragn’ meaning ‘left handed’) in the beginning of the 16th century. After ‘Gragn’ was killed in 1543, most of the churches and monasteries were reconstructed together with their forests (Aymro Wondmagegnehu and Motovu 1970). Some scholars have written that one third of the land of Ethiopia, with all its resources, used to belong to the church before the 1974 Revolution (Cohen and Weintraub 1975). Out of that land holding, a smaller proportion of it was known to be forestland. In the process of nationalization of private properties during the socialist regime (Proclamation No. 31 of 1975), the EOTC was left without its land holdings, including the forests, which have been preserved for centuries. The fate of those forests was ruthless

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exploitation and destruction, which in turn brought a severe reduction in biological diversity and ecological imbalance as well (Taye Bekele et al. unpublished).

1.4. Religion and Forests/Trees at Global Level Trees surrounding debr and geddam are synonymous with the term sacred groves in most literature. The tradition of the sacred grove is well known in Ethiopian tradition as well, be it in the experience of traditional religion (e.g. the Oromo sacred tree or the adbar) or in the clump of trees that customarily envelope the Christian Debr (Bahru Zewde 1997).

Sacred groves are smaller or larger ecosystems, set aside for religious purposes. The origin of sacred groves can be attributed to the slash and burn system of agriculture, where several forest patches were left standing around farmlands. These groves came to be institutionalized as centers for culture and religious life (Gadgil and Vartak 1976). Taboos and social sanctions protect the sacred groves from deterioration due to human interference. These habitat patches may be the only primary forests remaining locally.

Several relict, endemic and endangered species have been recorded from sacred groves. Sacred groves, which form examples of in situ conservation sites and act as a refuge for species, are becoming ecologically important in the light of the current rates of deforestation and species loss. They buffer against the depletion of genetically adapted local variants and overall biodiversity in a region. They can serve as important recruitment areas to surrounding ecosystems. Sacred groves are of great economic significance too. Some of the species, so preserved, are already known to be of considerable value for the pharmaceutical industry, timber, and non-forest products while others could acquire importance in the future (Colding and Folke 1997; King et al. 1997; Pandey and Kumar 2000).

At the global level, sacred groves are well recognized and have been reported from Afro-Asian countries like Nigeria, Ghana, Syria, Turkey, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and India (Appiah-Opoku and Mulamoottil 1997; Chandrashekara and Sankar 1998; Sibanda 1997). The doctrine of the religions behind those sacred groves may vary but ultimately the experience of conserving trees in the name of religion is apparent worldwide. Thus, trees not only meet the economic and ecological needs of the people, but also form an integral part of their culture and spiritual tradition.

1.5. Ethnoforestry Ethnoforestry is the creation, conservation, management and utilization of forest resources by local communities through traditional practices and belief (Pandey 1999; Pandey and Kumar 2000). It is not to be confused with participatory forestry or joint forest management. Ethnoforestry represents the traditional ecological wisdom of indigenous peoples of the world. Protection offered to habitats is classified as protection (conservation) ethnoforestry. Traditional methods of regeneration of livelihood species by people are classified as plantation ethnoforestry. While traditional methods of growing trees and crops in

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farmlands are called ethnoagroforestry. Amongst the different forms of protection ethnoforestry: Sacred groves, Sacred trees, Temple forests and Sanctified forests are more related to religions and beliefs of the local community in different parts of the world.

1.6. Problem Statement and Justification Examination of the contribution of the sacred forests to biodiversity conservation offer perspectives on the sacred forests as a model for environmental protection (Camara 1994). Thus the role of natural sacred sites, particularly sacred groves, is attracting increasing interest in international organizations and conservation organizations such as UNESCO and the WWF. They have significant relevance for the implementation of Section 15.4.j of Agenda 21 of the Conservation of Biological Diversity which stresses more on the use of traditional wisdom and practices for conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity (Agenda 21 1992; Chandrashekara and Sankar 1998).

To study and manage human dominated and influenced ecosystems effectively, it is essential to (not just intuitively) understand human behavior or activity (Dompka 1996). To understand human behavior, it is necessary to disclose the underlying mechanisms. Many studies have reported that human behavior is influenced by demographic factors (Liu et al. 1999), social factors (tradition, culture, perception, intention, choice, value system, wants, needs) (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980), economic factors (production, consumption) (Ehrlich 1988), and ecological factors (forest conditions and the like) (Pebley 1998). In this regard Liu (2001) argues that, the lack of integrating ecological-demographic-socioeconomic-behavioral factors leads to failures in understanding and solving real-world problems.

The sustainable use of environmental resources stems from a combination of two factors: (1) the possession of appropriate local knowledge and suitable methods or technology to exploit resources, and (2) a philosophy and environmental ethics to keep utilization abilities in check and to provide ground rules by which the relationships between humans and environmental systems remain sustainable (Appiah-Opoku and Mulamoottil, 1997; Sadler and Boothroyd 1993).

Deforestation in the northern highlands of Ethiopia, specifically in South Gonder, is becoming an unstoppable process dating back many hundreds of years. In fact, nowadays there is no extensive natural forest cover in the area except remnants and patches mainly around churches and inaccessible areas. In much of the landscape of northern Ethiopia, the lush vegetation on the hillsides surrounding a church or a monastery presents a sharp contrast to the surrounding bare ridges and mountain slopes. They are the only localities covered by tree vegetation and not affected by gully erosion (Taye Bekele et al. unpublished).

The term deforestation may refer to a wider forest area clearance, but can still be applicable for South Gonder, as the rate is very rapid relative to the existing forestlands. Plantations established with many efforts were destroyed overnight during the government change and even the remaining ones are under encroachment at present. Ultimately, the size of the forest patches and the number of trees in the whole

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landscape is decreasing from year to year, with no regeneration option, rather subsequent soil depletion and land degradation. Preserving the remnant indigenous woody species in concrete ground before their entire elimination is, undoubtedly, an urgent task.

The management and conservation of forests and trees in the whole landscape has been a very challenging task as none of the 'externally' designed systems, approaches and dominant conservation paradigms imported and tried halted deforestation (Dessalegn Rahmato 2001). Moreover, most of the approaches tried have been indifferent to the traditional institutions’ principles and customs. In the course of carrying out environmental conservation activities, important local traditional institutions that should have been taken into partnership were alienated due to a lack of insensitivity towards them that led to mishandling relations (Yeraswork Admassie 1995).

Thus, it is time to take the opportunity of the locally and traditionally tested conservation systems in order to conserve and maintain the vanishing and endangered woody species’ diversity resources and ecosystem in the area mentioned. In this perspective, this study attempts to look into tree conserving traditions of the EOTC, which has been successful in resisting the flood of deforestation for many decades in the area.

Despite what the EOTC has done to conserve a significant proportion of the forests in the country, the church does not receive the recognition and support it deserves (Taye Bekele et al. unpublished). Thus, we have to recognise this tradition as an opportunity and explore possibilities of using it in future conservation programs. In order to explore the strength and opportunity of this tradition, the significance of the resource we have in these churches and monasteries should be known. The philosophy behind conserving these resources and the prospect of adopting these values and ethics to expand the forest resource base should be studied and pointed out, which is the main concern of this paper.

2. CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS 2.1. Conceptual Framework This section attempts to conceptualize the main concepts involved in the present study.

2.1.1. Indigenous Institutions In general terms, institutions are a set of complex norms regulating the action of persons in the process of social interaction. According to the Encyclopedia Americana (1963) they are aspects of the structure of a social system.

While presenting the issues of institutions in this study, it is strongly focused on the concepts of ‘Indigenous Institutions’. They represent established local systems of authority and other phenomena, derived from the sociocultural and historical processes of a given society. They originate from local

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cultures, have firm roots in the past, and are variously referred to as informal, pre-existing, or native institutions (Appiah-Opoku and Hyma 1999; Appiah-Opoku and Mulamoottil 1997). For the purpose of this study, indigenous institutions are viewed to occur at the local or community level, reflecting the knowledge and experiences of the local people. In contrast, ‘Non-Indigenous or Formal Institutions’ are established via forces external to a given community, and are characterized by functional and structural arrangements that are fairly standard.

The nature and organization of indigenous institutions revolve around three principles: behavioral alternatives, goal orientation and social norms (Apter 1968; cited in Appiah-Opoku and Hyma 1999).

Environmental ethics and practices in indigenous societies are often rooted in these abstract principles.

Thus, it is argued here that indigenous institutions can serve as entry points in the search for local options and broad-based approaches to the management of natural resources.

2.1.2. Religion Religion doesn't have a universally agreed definition. It may vary from the perspective of background, profession, attitude, etc. The Encyclopedia Americana (1963) defines religious philosophy as “a rational reflection on the nature of religion and on the meaning and truth of man's beliefs about a divine reality”.

Whatever definition religion may have, in this paper it is attempted to conceptualize its meaning from a functionalist approach. As its name indicates, a functionalist definition is one that lays stress on the functions rather than the belief content of religion. The functionalist contends that what is essential in religion is the role it plays in society, the way in which religion serves to bind together the members of a community into one coherent whole. This makes a functionalist definition true to the etymology of religion, which may stem from the Latin ‘relgiare’ ('to bind'). A recent functionalist definition is found in the work of J.M. Yinger (Clack and Clack 1998). Yinger's claim is that what distinguishes a religious institution from a non-religious institution is its concern with the ultimate. These utilitarian (an action is right from its function and wrong otherwise) and ultimate concerns are perennial factors in the human condition, which no amount of good governance could achieve. Thus he defines religion as “a system of beliefs and practices by means of which a group of people struggles with these ultimate problems of life”.

In religion, there are commandments and ethical elements, which are to be observed through which the salvation is completed. It is a powerful factor in elevating the object of worship, the religious relation and the religious life. Through the commandments and ethics within the religion, the sphere of the sacred is enlarged and committing life to these rules is an aspect of the religious vocation, ethical duty and a religious obligation. On the other hand, when the notion of divine personality or ability to be committed to the commandments and ethics is weak or lacking, commandments and ethics inevitably assume a worldly or negative character (Encyclopedia Britanica 1964).

7

2.1.3. Biodiversity Biodiversity can be defined as the variability among living organisms from all sources and the ecological systems of which they are a part; this includes compositional, structural and functional diversity at regional-landscape, ecosystem-community, species-population or genetic level (Gove et al. 1994; Heywood et al. 1995). As the definition implies, biodiversity is a very wide notion. Not withstanding the breadth of the concept of biodiversity, diversity of species remains its most frequently and widely applied measure (Gaston, 1996; Heywood, et al. 1995). Thus this paper focuses on the species level particularly on woody species diversity level.

The values, driving forces and human influences as well as the measure for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, vary greatly within and between cultures. This aspect of biodiversity is, therefore, sometimes referred to as cultural diversity, recognizing the important role of sociological, ethical, religious and ethnobotanical values in human activities. The importance of this interdependence is now beginning to be recognized again in traditional resource management systems in many developing countries (Gaston 1996).

When we deal with biodiversity conservation and management, we do have different methods and tools to achieve this. One of these approaches is the in situ conservation system around which this paper spines about. The in situ approach includes methods and tools that protect species, genetic varieties and habitats within the evolutionary dynamic ecosystems of the original habitat or natural environment. It involves the establishment or management of protected areas such as strict nature reserves (wilderness areas, national parks, national monuments) natural landmarks, habitat/species management areas, protected landscapes and seascapes and managed resource protected areas (IUCN, 1994 in Gaston 1996).

2.1.4. Sustainability and Conservation of Natural Resources Conservation is the management of human use of the biosphere so that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to current generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations. Thus, conservation is positive, embracing preservation, maintenance, sustainable utilization, restoration, and enhancement of the natural environment. Here, sustainability is a key factor in conserving and utilizing natural resources such as forest, and refers to the aspiration of the current generation without compromising the ability to meet the needs of future generations.

Sustainability in natural resource management has three dimensions: Environmental, Economical and Social. Social sustainability reflects the relationship between development and social norms. An activity is socially sustainable if it confirms with social norms, or does not stretch them beyond a community's

8

tolerance for change, which entirely needs the genuine participation of the local society and its institutions (Upton and Bass 1995).

2.2. Theoretical Perspective The world today is pre-occupied with the search for sustainable development, including the sustainable use of resources, economic sustainability and social sustainability (Sibanda 1997). As a contribution towards finding a lasting solution, strategies are being drawn up and many ideas are being tested. National legislation, international conventions and agreements are being made in an attempt to address unsustainable consumer patterns and consumerism in general. The world is still far from finding that magic solution or formula. While some progress is being made, the overall picture remains gloomy.

The main reason for the failure in natural resource conservation is due to the adoption of external technology with new institutional arrangements and overlooking the existing tradition. For obvious reasons, policy makers, in developing countries are drawn towards international environmental prescriptions that have much stronger links with western science and policy, than with the socio-economic and institutional conditions in their nations. Giddens (1990) refers to this phenomenon as phantamorgoriscism. In conditions of modernity, places become increasingly phantasmagoric, i.e. locales are thoroughly penetrated by, and shaped in terms of social influences quite distinct from them (Giddens 1990; Powell 1998). Thus, the potential contribution of indigenous institutions to environmental assessment in these developing countries has often been overlooked. This is not strange (Appiah-opoku and Mulamoottil 1997).

In the worst case, the local institutions and traditions with accumulated knowledge and experience, are considered as hindrance for development and conservation of natural resources. The western concept of ‘‘development’’ is widely interpreted as necessitating change, and it is often characterized as a movement from the old or archaic to the new, or from traditional to modern ways of life. That which is old and unchanged is reflexively categorized as underdeveloped. Based on this notion, indigenous institutions and indigenous life-styles are often regarded as clear signs of underdevelopment and as obstacles to socioeconomic advancement. They are erroneously viewed as excessive baggage that is borne by society with no relationship to its basic processes of self-preservation except in so far as it disrupts them (Dove 1990).

Views of nature by native or indigenous peoples have too often been unjustly viewed as somehow inherently simple, primitive, or naive, reflective of an earlier. Therefore, considered as inferior stage in human cultural progress; and beyond this, however poetic or endearing, as completely irrelevant to our sophisticated modern needs and times (Knudtson and Suzuki 1992). Accordingly, one ubiquitous element in development and conservation planning is the depreciation and attempted alteration or elimination of indigenous cultures or life-styles (Appiah-opoku and Mulamoottil 1997; Dove 1990).

9

In reality, development does not mean a wholesale and blind acquisition of symbols or signs of modernity.

Nor does it imply that everything about indigenous life-styles must be rejected in favor of an alien or modern system. Instead, development implies building on existing ways of doing things to make the processes more sustainable. The search for sustainable development and the conservation of natural resources must consider and examine the role of indigenous institutions and their ecological knowledge in environmental conservation and local sustainability (Fig. 1).

Hence, there has to be a reversal in thinking and approach in a natural resource conservation and management from modernist to a social-constructionist paradigm (Fig. 1). The social constructionist approach is predicated on the assumption that the terms by which the world is understood are social artefacts, products of historically situated interchanges among people (Gergen 1985 cited in Denzin & Lincoln 1994). The fact and problem of deforestation is multiple; there is no single reality. Reality is the result of the social processes accepted as normal in a specific context, and knowledge claims are intelligible and debatable only within a particular context or community (Fish 1989 cited in Denzin and Lincoln 1994). The society has constructed a fact about deforestation and has formulated its solution through the local institution. However, the ultimate outcome is still the same to the modernist approach.

Constructivists are deeply committed to what we take to be objective knowledge and truth is the result of perspective. Knowledge and truth are created, not discovered by mind. They emphasise the pluralistic and plastic character of reality- pluralistic in the sense that reality is expressible in a variety of symbol and language systems; plastic in the sense that reality is stretched and shaped to fit purposeful acts of intentional human agents (Denzin & Lincoln 1994).

As religion is one of the strong and powerful indigenous institutions, religious perspective towards conservation, the past and present experience in the field of interest should coincide to our planning and objective settings if sustainability is to be achieved. If EOTC is taken as an entry point, it can be argued that success begins there. Because it will have a cumulative knowledge of thousands of years, experiences of many people, wisdom of the spirit mediums, the wise council of elders and the able leadership of religious leaders, institutions in managing and conserving resources and strong sanctions and ‘gizet’ for outliers (Sibanda 1997).

Sibanda (1997) also claims that African philosophy on resource utilisation and environmental protection is spiritually based. Major conservation efforts and the control of resource use were/are influenced by this spirituality. Religious beliefs and taboo systems are at the centre of life as a whole. Africans’ spiritual world-view creates respect for nature, reverence for mountains, forests, animals and rivers. Out of reverence is born conservation and from it sustainable resource utilisation practices. One can prove how nature can be respected through religion by looking at the very many EOTC and monasteries in Ethiopia.

10

Therefore, the social constructivist paradigm was employed as the main interpretative to look into the problem, complementary to this, methodologies belonging to the positivist tradition such as, quantitative survey data and other forms of statistical analysis were used to diversify perspectives and so in turn make the overall study more rigorous.

11

Problem Perception Socially constructed perspective Super natural God Disapproval & Anger

Punishment

Drought Disaster

Deforestation in churchyards

Consequence

Ecological Disturbance Modern or Ecologist perspective

Solution Perception Socially constructed perspective Religious Customs & Norms Local Institutions

Sacred and Holy Tested

Trees and other bioresources in church yards

Preservation & Conservation

Sustainability

Ecologically Viable & Functional

Scientific Principles &Legal control 'Formal' Institution

Modern or Ecologist perspective

Figure 1. Alternative paradigms for the problem and solution at hand

3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS The study attempts to address the following pertinent questions: ♌ What is the extent / size of the Forest area and standing stock under the church? ♌ What is the diversity of the species, i.e. species richness and evenness and what is the regeneration status of the species?

12

♦ What benefits were obtained, and what benefit can be exploited from church groves? ♦ Are there any management practices in tending and utilization of those trees? ♦ What is the significance of EOTC in maintaining the forest resources of the area/country? ♦ What is the attitude of the church scholars towards the forests in the yards of churches? ♦ What is the attitude of different groups of the local community towards the forests in the yards of churches? ♦ How/Why does the church preserve the forests? ♦ What are the opportunities of churches in the conservation of forest resources? ♦ What are the threats to churches in their endeavours to conserve forest resources?

4. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The overall objective of this study was to assess the opportunity and prospect of the EOTC in conserving natural forest resources and the associated woody species diversity in Ethiopia. The specific objectives of the study were to: ♦ Study the diversity and regeneration status of woody species in forests found around selected churches; ♦ Carry out a socio-economics survey that would enable to understand the philosophy, guiding principles, opportunities, constraints and prospects of the EOTC in the conservation of forest resources in general and woody species in particular; and ♦ Forward recommendations that could help to enhance the role of EOTC in the conservation of forest resources and the associated biodiversity in the country.

13

5. MATERIALS AND METHODS 5.1. Study Area The study was conducted in South Gonder Administrative Zone (SGAZ), which is one of the Administrative Zones in the Amhara National Regional State (Fig. 2). Its geographical location is between 110 02′ - 120 33′ N and 370 25′ - 380 41′ E with an altitude range of 1500-4231 m. The capital town, DebreTabor is located 600 km North of Addis Abeba. SGAZ has an area of about 14,299 km2 of which about 9% is classified under ‘Kolla’ (500 –1500 masl), 73% under ‘Woynadega’ (1500-2300 masl), 16% under ‘Dega’ (2300- 3200 masl) and 2% under ‘Wurch’ (> 3200 masl) Agro-Climatic Zones. SGAZ has 10 Administrative Districts, known locally as ‘Woredas’ with a total population of 2,050,539. Of the total population, 1,041,373 are male and 1,009,166 female. The average family size is about five (2001 census).

In SGAZ, there are 1404 churches, and 95% of total population is member of the EOTC (SGAZDPED unpublished).

The rainfall is characterized by a bimodal distribution with the major rainy season being from June-August and the ‘Belg’ from March-May. The annual average rainfall varies between 400 –700 mm and the annual average temperature ranges between 9.3 - 23.7o C. The topography comprises uneven and ragged mountainous highlands, extensive plains and also deep gorges. It is one of the degraded and eroded areas in the region. The common soil types are Vertisol, Cambisol, Rigosol, Liptosols, Flovisols and Arenosols.

According to the Zonal Department of Agriculture (SGAZDA unpublished) the total forest cover in SGAZ is 20,882 ha, comprising 16,660 ha of natural forest and 4222 ha of man-made plantations. The forest cover accounts for only 1.4% of the total area of SGAZ. This figure does not include the forest resources found in the yards of the EOTC. The common tree and shrub species found in the natural forests are listed in Appendix 2. The common wildlife found in the area are: hare, duiker, common bushbuck, klipspringer, anubis baboon, common genet, python, hyena, bush pig, serval, leopard, antelope, porcupine, civets, vervet monkey, colobus monkey, and common jackal (SGZDA Unpublished).

5.2. Churches Selected for the Study Eight churches were selected for the actual study from SGAZ in six Woredas. Most of the churches were found surrounded by forests/trees. From top view position, the churchyards are almost circular in shape.

The churches are immediately surrounded by open space for worship and festivals, which in turn is enveloped by the forest. In every EOTC, the graveyard is located at the southwestern side of the church in the forest. Hence, the southwestern part of the forest is, somewhat, disturbed while the rest is intact. The churches selected for the study are briefly described below.

5.2.1. Quar Debre Luel Kidus Michael

14

This church is found in Fogera Woreda, and was built in the 15th Century in the name of St. Michael. It is located at 110 51′ N and 370 40′ E at an altitude of 1850 m. The church has 850 Christian household members. The actual forest covers 3 ha. The church has a very large Eucalyptus woodlot and farmlands surrounding the natural forest.

5.2.2. Zahara Debre Miheret Kidus Michael This church is found in Dera Woreda, and was built in the middle of the 16th Century in the name of St. Michael. It is located at 110 48′′ N and 370 34′ E at an altitude of 1934 m. The church has 250 Christian household members. The actual forest area surrounding the church covers 8 ha. There is a ‘holy water’ in the forest blessed by the church supposed to bless and protect those who use it against the powers of darkness. The church administrator explained that the area was covered by water before the church was built, which might be the extension of Lake Tana.

5.2.3. Gibtsawit Kidist Mariam This church is found in Ebinat Woreda, and was built around the year 1620 (Ethiopian Calendar) in the name of St. Mary. It is located at 120 07′ N and 380 05′ E at an altitude of 2290 m.a.s.l. The church has 350 Christian household members. The actual forest area covers 8.7 ha.

5.2.4. Dengolt Debre Medalhu Kidist Mariam This church is found in Estie Woreda, and was built around the year 1300 (Ethiopian Calendar) in the name of St. Mary. It is located at 110 36′ N and 380 04′ E at an altitude of 2500 m.a.s.l. The church has 400 Christian household members. The actual forest area covers 25 ha. This site is highly encroached by the local and nearby town dwellers. According to the church scholars and dwellers, there are two sections of the forest. The inner section, next to the church demarcated by a stone fence, is entirely forbidden for animals while in the outer section of the forest, animals are free to rest under the shade. It is forbidden to cut down trees. The Eucalyptus woodlot, which belongs to the church, had been established next to the natural forest to compensate for what had been lost through encroachment.

5.2.5. Mekane Semayat Kidus Gelawdiwos This church is found in Dera Woreda, and was built around the year 1500 (Ethiopian Calendar) in the name of St. Claudius. It is located at 110 38′ N and 370 48′ E at an altitude of 2549 m.a.s.l. The church has 800 Christian household members. In this case, the main church is some 300 meters away from the edge of the forest. The church scholar explained that the church was right in the middle of the forest in the past. A new church (sub-parish) had been built on the other edge of the forest. The actual forest area comprises 100 ha. There is a ‘holy water’ in the forest blessed by the church supposed to bless and protect those who use it against the powers of darkness. The local people allow their cattle in the forest to rest under the shade of the trees to protect them from strong sunshine and storms. Bees produce honey at the main gate of

15

the church without being disturbed since the establishment of the church and the honey is believed to be medicinal.

5.2.6. Hiruy Kidus Giorgis This church is found in Farta Woreda, and was built in the year 360 (Ethiopian Calendar) in the name of St. Gorge. It is located at 110 51’ N and 380 03’ E at an altitude of 2611 m.a.s.l. The church has 350 Christian household members. The actual forest area covers 4 ha, which is well protected by a fence from outside encroachment. Bees make honey on the window of the church with out being disturbed, and the honey is believed to be medicinal.

5.2.7. Debresena Kidist Mariam This church is found in Farta Woreda built in the first half of the 16th in the name of St. Mary. It is located at 110 51′ N and 370 59′ E with an altitude of 2690 m.a.s.l. The church has got 300 Christian households as members. The actual forest area is 11.5 ha surrounding a sloping hill. Though the church building is under maintenance the forest is still well protected.

5.2.8. Ascha Menbere Luel Kidus Michael This church is found in Lay-Gaynt Woreda, and was built in the year 1940 (Ethiopian Calendar) in the name of St. Michael. It is located at 110 43′ N and 380 28′ E at an altitude of 3100 m.a.s.l. The church has 200 Christian household members. The actual forest area covers 1.6 ha. This church has large Eucalyptus woodlot surrounding the natural forest.

16

Figure 2. Map of the study Area

17

5.3. Methods of Data Collection 5.3.1. Sampling Design The general sampling design for the vegetation census and socio-economic survey was a two-stage sampling procedure. In the first stage, out of many churches found in SGAZ (referred to as population here), 8 churches were selected purposively from the different agro-climatic zones (mainly based on altitude). Since documents that show the distribution of churches in agro-climatic zones was not available, post-stratification was employed (Shiver and Borders 1996). In the second stage, secondary units (referred to as working units here) were selected within each primary sampling unit (selected churches/Debr). The working units for the vegetation sampling were plots in the forested area and for the socio-economic study the religious scholars and followers were considered.

5.3.2. Area of Forest Cover The area of the forest cover at each church was calculated by employing traverse lines rounding the outside border. The traverse was taken by using a compass to get a bearing, measuring tape and clinometer to obtain the horizontal distance. Then the site was sketched on paper using a scale, and the area was calculated by using a transparent grid. The area occupied by the church buildings and open spaces was measured and subtracted from the total area to get the actual forest area. Moreover, the altitude and the global position (longitude and latitude) were recorded for each church using an altimeter and GPS.

5.3.3. Vegetation census For the vegetation census, parallel transects were laid out. The first transect was aligned randomly at one side of the forest using a compass; then the others were laid systematically at 50 m intervals from each other. Then, along the first transect line a 10 m X 10 m sample plot (working plot) was marked randomly and then the same size of the plots were marked at 50 m intervals systematically on all other transects. A compass and measuring tape were used to locate sample plots along the transects. Clinometer readings were made on slopes to obtain horizontal ground distances between transects and sample plots. Two measuring tapes bisecting at right angles over the center of the plot were laid out and used as a reference in locating the four corners of the plot, and the square plot was fenced by using bright ribbon. Since the forest at Mekane Semayat Gelawdeyus was so extensive, the transects and sample plots were laid at 100 m intervals.

All woody plants, within the working units, were identified and recorded. However, exotic species data was excluded from the whole analyses as the objective of the paper was to deal with indigenous woody species. Plant identification was done by referring to the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea: volume 2, part 1 (Edwards, et al. 2000), Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea: volume 2, part 2 (Edwards, et al. 1995), Flora of Ethiopia: volume 3 (Hedberg and Edwards 1989) and Useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia (Azene Bekele

18

1993). For species that proved difficult to identify in the field, herbarium specimens were collected, dried properly and transported to the National Herbarium at Addis Abeba University for identification. Diameter (at 1.3 m above the ground unless there is abnormality) of all living woody plants having ≥ 10 cm were measured using calipers and diameter tape. Trees with multiple stems at 1.3 m height were treated as a single individual and DBH of the largest stem was taken. If the tree was buttressed and abnormal at 1.3 m, the diameter was measured just above the buttress where the stem assumes near cylindrical shape. The numbers of living stems and dead stumps were counted and recorded while the heights of all woody species were measured using a hypsometer.

5.3.4. Socio-economic Survey 5.3.4.1. Attitude of the local community and Church Scholars Semi-structured questionnaires were prepared to undertake the household survey. It was pre-tasted before using it on a wider scale, and some improvement was made to the questionnaire. From each selected church (primary sampling units) 5% of the church followers (adherents) were randomly chosen and interviewed. Four churches were selected for the socio-economic survey in light of the short duration of the study; accordingly 122 household heads, in the four churches, living close to the church forests, were interviewed.

At least three church scholars were selected randomly and interviewed with open-ended questions. ‘Church Scholars’ refers to the Priests, ‘Merigeta’ and other scholarly hierarchies and clergy that serve in that specific church. Moreover, key informant interviews, focus group discussions and other PRA tools (historical profile) were employed for each selected church.

5.3.4.2. Stakeholder Analyses Stakeholders are persons, groups or institutions with interest in certain programs, activities or projects (ODA 1995). Stakeholders analysis is an holistic approach or procedure for gaining an understanding of a system, and assessing the impact of changes to that system, by means of identifying key stakeholders, and their respective interests in the system. Accordingly, key stakeholders in forest resource conservation and sustainable development activities and programs in the study area were: ♦ Administrative Bodies: The Peasant Association (at grass root level), Woreda and Zonal Council; ♦ Bureau of Agriculture: Development Agent (at grass root level), Woreda Office of Agriculture and Zonal Department of Agriculture; ♦ Religious institutions: Debr/Single Church (at grass root level), Woreda Clergy Office and Zonal Archbishop Office; and ♦ Elders and the community.

19

The common ground, conflicts and possible trade-offs among these stakeholders were seen in the conservation tradition of the church and future option of taking this tradition for the development of in situ conservation sites. Patterns of common ground between stakeholders were identified and shown as a basis for management and proposal options.

5.3.4.3. SWOT Analysis and Secondary Information SWOT analysis was also conducted to assess the strength, weakness, opportunity and threats of religious institutions in biodiversity conservation.

Relevant secondary information for the study was also collected from various sources.

5.3.5. Scope and Limitation of the Study This study covers only a very few selected churches due to a shortage of time and financial constraints.

Nevertheless, it is hoped to provide valuable information and insight that can be of great importance for the conservation of forest resources and the associated biodiversity in churchyards.

5.4. Methods of Data Analyses 5.4.1. Vegetation 5.4.1.1. Density, Basal Area, Regeneration Status and Similarity The quantitative structure analysis was made using data from abundance, density and frequency distribution of each species in the community. Abundance or density of species is defined here as the number of individuals per given area basis while frequency refers to the number of times a species is recorded in a given number of repeatedly placed sample plots or sample points (Kershaw 1964 cited in Mueller-Dombois and Ellen berg 1974). The population structural analysis was made using data from height class as well as diameter class distribution, referred to as size class distribution. The purpose of looking at the size class distributions (height and diameter) was to enable to investigate the regeneration status of the plants (Peters 1996). The height and diameter data were arranged in classes for convenience.

Basal Area (BA) was also calculated, only from plants with a diameter at breast height of ≥ 10 cm, by using the formula: BA =

πD 2 4

………………………………………..(1)

Where, D is the diameter of the plant at breast height.

To measure the similarity of churches in species composition, the binary similarity coefficient, which employs presence/absence of species data in a community, was used. In this study Coefficient of Jaccard, which is one of the most commonly used binary similarity coefficients (Krebs 1999), was employed.

20

The Coefficient of Jaccard (Sj) is expressed as follows:

Sj =

a a+b+c

..……………..………………………..(2)

Where, a is the number of species that occur in both churches 1 and 2 (joint occurrences); b is the number of species that occur in church 1 but not in church 2; and c is the number of species that occur in church 2 but not in church 1.The range of all similarity coefficients for binary data is supposed to be from 0 (no similarity) to 1(complete similarity).

5.4.1.2. Species Diversity Diversity, which is synonymous with heterogeneity (Hurlbert 1971 cited in Krebs 1999), comprises species richness and evenness. Indices that combine both richness and evenness (Heterogeneity) into a single value are diversity indices. The total number of species in a community is referred to as species richness while species evenness or equitability explains as to how species abundance is distributed among species.

Diversity has emerged as the most widely used criterion to assess the conservation potential and ecological value of a site (Magurran 1996).

A. Species Richness As a measure of species richness, the number of species in a community or sample, S and also two nonparametric estimators of species richness, the Chao1 and the first order jackknife were used (GimaretCarpentier et al. 1998; Krebs 1999).

The first Chao index (C) is given by:

C= S+

a2 2b …………………..………………………..(3)

The first order Jackknife index (J) is given by:

J= S+k

 (P − 1)   P   

……....…..……....……….…..(4)

Where, S is the number of species found when all sample plots are pooled; a is the number of species that are represented by a single individual (singletons); b is the number of species that are represented by two individuals (doubletons); k is the number of species that occur in only one sample plot (unique); and P is the number of plots sampled.

B. Species Evenness 21

Evenness measures attempts to quantify unequal representation against a hypothetical community in which all species are equally common (Krebs, 1999). The Evenness or Equitability (E) was quantified by expressing Simpson's index, 1/D (λ) (where D = Index of dominance), as a proportion of the maximum possible value λ would assume if individuals were completely evenly distributed among the species. In fact λmax = S. The Species Evenness or Equitability (E) is given by:

λ E=

1

λ max

=

s

∑

i =1

Pi

2

1 X S

=

λ S

……………(5)

Where, S is the number of species found when all sample plots are pooled; Pi is the proportion of total individuals in the ith species.

Equitability assumes a value between 0 and 1, i.e. it takes a maximum value of 1 when all species in a sample are equally abundant and then decreases to zero as the relative abundance radiates away from equitability.

The Shannon-Wiener’s equitability or evenness (J) Index (Krebs 1989) was also quantified for comparison as follows: S

J=

H′ = H′ max

− ∑ Pi ln Pi i =1

ln S

H′ = ln S

……………....(6)

Where, H' is Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index; S is the number of species found when all sample plots are pooled; Pi is the proportion of total individuals in the ith species.

C. Heterogeneity The Heterogeneity or Diversity was measured by Simpson’s Diversity Index that is commonly referred to as the dominance measure and Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index (Begon et al. 1990), which is also referred to as the information statistic index.

Simpson's Dominance Index (D) is expressed as:

22

s

D=

∑P i =1

i

2

.………………………………………………..(7)

Where, S is the total number of species in the community (i.e. the richness); Pi is proportion of total individuals in the ith species.

Since the communities assessed were finite (because of counts of individuals in the samples), to get an unbiased estimator (Krebs, 1999), the following formula was used:

D =

 ni(ni − 1) 

∑  N (N − 1) ………………..…………………………(8) 



Where, ni is the number of individuals in the ith species and N is the total number of individuals.

D is the Index of Dominance while the Index of Diversity (λ) is the inverse of D, i.e. 1/D. Index of Diversity (λ) varies from 1 to s (the number of species in the sample). In this form, Simpson's diversity can be most easily interpreted as the number of equally common species required to generate the observed heterogeneity of the sample (Krebs 1999).

The Shannon-Wiener’s Diversity Index (H’) is expressed as: S

H' = -

∑P ln p i

i

i =1

…..……………….……………(9)

Where, H' is the Index of Species Diversity, S is the number of species; Pi is the proportion of total individuals in the ith species.

The Shannon-Wiener Index (H’) increases with the number of species in the community and, in theory, can reach a very large value (Krebs 1999). The Shannon-Wiener Index can be interpreted as the average degree of uncertainty in predicting to what species an individual chosen at random from a collection of S species and N individuals would belong. It can be zero if there is only one species in the sample and takes a maximum value of LnS for a given number of species (S), when the same number of individuals represents all species.

The variance of H’ was calculated (Magurran 1996) by

∑ P (ln P ) − (∑ P ln P )

2

2

VarH’=

i

i

i

N

23

i

-

S −1 .................................10 2N 2

This allows to test the significance difference between two samples

t=

H '1 − H ' 2 1

(VarH '1 −VarH ' 2 ) 2

.................................................11

The Degrees of freedoms (df) were calculated by 2 ( VarH '1 −VarH ' 2 ) df = [(VarH '1 )2 / N1 ]+ [(VarH '2 )2 / N 2 ] .........................................12

Where, H’1 is the diversity of sample 1; N1 is the number of individuals in sample 1; H’2 is the diversity of sample 2; and N2 is the number of individuals in sample 2.

5.4.1.3. Species Area Curve The species area curve was drawn by using the number of species accumulated data versus the number of quadrats. The purpose of drawing the curve was to check whether sufficient sample was taken to record all the species of the study site.

5.4.1.4. Ordination Ordination is the arrangement of vegetation samples in relation to each other in terms of their similarity of species composition and/or their associated environmental controls (Kent and Coker 1992). The vegetation data were ordinated into different plant groups by an ordination technique using CANOCO (Canonical Correspondence) computer software (ter Braak 1985). After looking at alternative analytical techniques, Correspondence Analysis (CA) was selected and used to get maximum egienvalues and better-stratified groups. After transformation [with Log10 (x+1)], the abundance data of species from all sampled churches was subjected to CA (ter Braak 1985). Since Acacia brevispica was an outlier, it was excluded from the analysis.

In CA, points represent both sites and species, and each site is located at the center of gravity of the species that occurs there. The data used for ordination was the species data found from all churches. Thus, each point in the graph corresponds to a species, and the distance between points on the graph is an approximation to their degree of similarity in terms of distribution with in the quadrats. Then, based on the indirect gradient analysis technique, the factor altitude in this study was correlated to the distribution of points (Kent and Coker 1992).

5.4.2. Socio-economic Survey

24

The content of the interviews and discussions with the key informants, focus groups, stakeholders, observations and other qualitative data collected using the informal survey, were analyzed at the spot with various groups and also analyzed later after coding and compiling the data. For semi-structured interviews dependant and independent variables were determined. Accordingly sex, age, main occupation education status and church affiliation were taken as independent variables and attitude related questions were taken as dependent variables. Once these important dimensions and variables were determined, the results of the semi-structured questionnaires were quantified and analyzed by χ2 test using the SPSS software (SPSS 1994).

25

6. RESULTS 6.1. Vegetation 6.1.1. Species Composition, Density, Basal Area and Similarity A total of 97 different indigenous woody species representing 57 plant families and five exotic woody species were recorded in the eight forest churches studied (Appendix 1). The total number of species and families in each of the eight churches ranged from 22 and 18 at Ascha to 42 and 22 at Gelawdiwos, respectively (Table 1). However, density and basal area did not follow the same trend as the total number of species and families. Hiruy church had the highest density and basal area while Quar and Gibtsawit exhibited the lowest density and basal area respectively (Table 1). In terms of the number of live stems, with more than 10 cm diameter at breast height (DBH), Debresena ranked first and Zahara last (Table 1).

The highest number of dead stumps was recorded at Gibtsawit (130) while Hiruy had the lowest number of dead stumps (Table 1). It is interesting to note that the lowest number of dead stumps was recorded at Hiruy, which had the highest basal area, and the highest number of dead stumps was recorded at Gibtsawit, which had the lowest basal area (Table 1). In four of the churches a total of five exotic woody species were encountered (Table 2).

Table 1. Area of forests (ha), number of species and plant families, total Density (individuals/ha), basal area (m2/ha) as well as numbers of live stems/ha (DBH ≼ 10 cm) and dead stumps/ha found in the eight churches.

Church Gelawdiwos Dengolt Gibtsawit Debresena Quar Hiruy Zahara Ascha

Area of Forest

Species

Families

Density

Basal Area

Live Stems

Dead Stumps

100 25 8.7 11.5 3 4 8 1.6

42 36 35 34 34 31 29 22

29 28 24 27 25 26 22 18

1109 1169 1110 2141 731 2250 1186 1289

52 35 25 45 100 110 50 28

352 268 490 1003 293 507 227 786

32 41 130 119 69 29 41 128

The number of species and families common to all churches were only one and three, respectively.

Maytenus arbutifolia was recorded in all the study churches. However, the numbers of common species and families increased as the churches were stratified in altitude (Table 3). Churches located below 2,300 m, i.e. Quar, Zahara and Gibtsawit, shared nine species and 12 families in common while those located above 2300 m, i.e. Dengolt, Gelawdiwos, Hiruy, Debresena and Ascha, shared four species and six families in common (Appendix 1).

The abundance, density and frequency of each species and the contribution of each species to the community are summarized in Appendix 1. In all the churches, the most abundant individuals were trees (Appendix 1).

26

Table 2. List, densities (individuals/ha) and basal areas (m2/ha) of exotic woody species recorded in four of the church forests.

Church/Species A. Quar Eucalyptus camaldulensis B. Hiruy Eucalyptus globulus C. Ascha Eucalyptus globulus D. Zahara Cajanus cajan Casuarina equisetifolia Eucalyptus camaldulenis Melia azadrach

Density

Basal Area

46

5.0

314

2.0

114

3.1

51

Young individuals

The highest similarity (Sj = 0.59) in species composition was found between forests at Dengolt and Gelawdiwos churches and the lowest similarity (Sj = 0.04) was recorded between forests at Zahara and Ascha (Table 3). In general, the similarities among the studied church forests were very low, with only five among the 28 pairs of forests compared scoring Sj values above 0.50 while 15 (ca. 54%) out of the 28 pairs of forests had Sj values below 0.20 (Table 3).

Table 3. Similarities in species composition among the eight churches determined by Jaccard’s Similarity Coefficient.

Church

Coefficient of Jaccard Quar

Quar Zahara Gibtsawit Dengolt Galawdiwos Hiruy Debersena Ascha

-

Zahara

Gibtsawit

Dengolt

Galawdiwos

Hiruy

Debersena

Ascha

0.39 -

0.23 0.17 -

0.20 0.21 0.27 -

0.18 0.29 0.24 0.59 -

0.12 0.16 0.18 0.51 0.51 -

0.15 0.18 0.13 0.49 0.55 0.57 -

0.07 0.04 0.16 0.18 0.12 0.17 0.14 -

6.1.2. Species Diversity: Species Richness, Evenness and Heterogeneity Both Chao’s and Jackknife Indices overestimated the species richness for all churches as compared to the observed number of species (Table 4). According to Chao’s estimate, the highest number of species was expected at Ascha (150), which had the lowest number of observed species (22); and the lowest at Debresena (35); While Jackknife estimated the highest number of species at Quar, Dengolt and Gelawdiwos (49) and lowest at Ascha (36) (Table 4). It can be noted that the forest area and number of observed species have a positive correlation (r=0.73) (Table 1&4). The Simpson’s evenness indices for all churches were below 0.5, the first rank being 0.46 (Quar) and last 0.18 (Zahara). It is interesting to note that the Shannon-Wiener evenness Indices, on the contrary, were above 0.5 for all churches, the first being 0.82 (Quar and Gelawdiwos) and last 0.63 (Ascha) (Table 4). The highest Simpson Heterogeneity (15.7) was recorded from Quar and lowest (5.3) from Zahara and Ascha; while the highest Shannon-Wiener Heterogeneity (3.1) was recorded from Gelawdiwos and lowest (2.0) from Ascha (Table 4). The highest and lowest Shannon-Wiener values were significantly different (P=0.0005).

27

Table 4. Different diversity indices of the eight church forests studied.

Diversity Indices Species Richness Observed species (S) Chao 1 (C) Jackknife 1 (J) Species evenness Simpson’s Evenness (E) Shannon’s Equitability (J) Heterogeneity Simpson Diversity (λ) Shannon-Wiener Diversity (H’) Variance of H’

Quar

Zahara

Gibtsawit

Dengolt

Gelawdiwos

Hiruy

Debresena

Ascha

34 53 49

29 40 37

35 52 48

36 50 49

42 50 49

31 67 43

34 35 39

22 150 36

0.46 0.82

0.18 0.70

0.3 0.78

0.2 0.67

0.35 0.82

0.27 0.75

0.29 0.79

0.24 0.63

15.7 3.0 0.01

5.3 2.4 0.008

10.5 2.8 0.006

7.1 2.4 0.0023

14.7 3.1 0.0022

8.51 2.6 0.0048

9.9 2.8 0.0018

5.3 2.0 0.024

6.1.3. Regeneration Status 6.1.3.1. Height Class Distributions The height class distributions exhibited different trends from species to species within a church forest and among church forests, even for the same species (Fig. 3). In all sampled church forests, 12 different groups of height class distribution patterns of the species recorded were observed: A. Species having a high proportion of individuals at the lowest class followed by a sharp decline at the next class and no or very few individuals at the next higher classes (Fig. 4A); e.g. Bersama abyssinica (Dengolt), Apodytes dimidiata and Prunus africana (Hiruy); B. Species with the highest number of individuals at the lowest and a sharp decline at the next class followed by a more or less gradual decrease towards the higher classes (Fig. 4B); e.g. Diospyros abyssinica (Quar) and Euphorbia abyssinica (Gibtsawit); C. Species with no individuals at the lower four classes and gradually increasing numbers of individuals at the next two higher classes (Fig. 4C); Albizia schimperiana (Quar) and Schefflera abyssinica (Gelawdious); D. Species with no or a few individuals at the lowest class and a gradual or sharp increase in the number towards the medium class followed by sharp or gradual decline towards the upper classes (Fig. 4D); e.g.

Juniperus procera (Gibtsawit & Ascha), Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (Gibtsawit), Euphorbia abyssinica (Hiruy), Apodytes dimidiata, Dovyalis abyssinica, Olinia rochetiana, Pittosporum viridiflorum and Teclea nobilis (Deberesena), Erica arborea and Osyris quadripartita (Ascha); E. Species having the highest proportion of individuals in the lowest and/or second classes and no individuals at the next two classes followed by a slight/gradual increase towards the upper classes (Fig. 4E); e.g.

Millettia ferruginea and Mimusops kummel (Zahara) and Prunus africana (Dengolt); F. Species having individuals at only one of the height classes (Fig. 4F); e.g. Chionanthus mildbraedii (Zahara) and Psydrax schimperiana (Gibtsawit); G. Species having fewer individuals at the first class with the number showing a sharp increase at the second class followed by a sharp drop at the next class and with no individuals at or above the third class (Fig. 4G); e.g. Acokanthera schimperi (Gibtsawit), Teclea nobilis (Dengolt) and Combretum molle (Gelawdiwos); H. Species having more or less the same number of individuals at the lower four height classes and a sharp increase in the number at the next class followed by a decline in the last class (Fig. 4H); e.g. Juniperus procera (Dengolt); I.

Species having no individuals at the lowest height class and a gradual increase in the number up to the fifth class followed by a decline at the last class (Fig. 4I); e.g. Chionanthus mildbraedii (Gelawdiwos);

J.

Species having no individuals at the lowest class and missing individuals at one or two of the other height classes (Fig. 4J); e.g. Ekebergia capensis (Gelawdiwos and Hiruy).

28

K. Species having two individuals each at only the fourth and fifth height classes (Fig. 4K); e.g. Podocarpus falcatus (Gelawdiwos); and L. Species having a higher number of individuals at lowest three height classes and a sharp decline to only one individual at the next class, no individual at the fourth and only one individual at the sixth classes (Fig. 4L); e.g. Dombeya torrida (Hiruy).

On the other hand, when pattern of the height class distribution of individuals of all the species in each of the churches is considered, three categories can be recognized: I. Church forests having a lower number of individuals at the lowest class and a sharp increase at the next class followed by a sharp decline in the third class and a gradual decline thereafter; e.g. Quar, Gibtsawit, Dengolt, Galawdiwos and Debresena; II. Church forests having a higher number of individuals at the lowest class followed by a gradual decline in the number towards the successive higher classes; e.g. Hiruy and Zahara; and III. Church forests having very few individuals at the lowest class and sharp increases at the next two classes followed by sharp declines towards the upper classes; Ascha.

29

Quar

C

B

Albizia schimperana

2 1 0 2

3

4

5

6

5 0 1

2

Height class

3

4

5

F

5

6

Num ber of individuals

Num ber of individuals

4

Height class

4 2 0 1

2

3

4

Height class

100 50 0 3

4

1

2

5

3

4

5

6

E M imusops Kummel

6

150

2

0 Height class

8

II

All woody plants

1

10

M illettia ferruginea

10 8 6 4 2 0 3

20

E

Chionanthus mildbraedii

2

30

Height class

Zahara

1

6

6

Height class

30

5

6

Num ber of individuals

1

10

Number of individuals

3

Num ber of individuals

Num ber of individuals

40

15

4

Num ber of individuals

I All woody plants

Diospyros abyssinica

100 80 60 40 20 0 1

2

3

4

Height class

5

6

Gibtsawit

G

B Euphorbia abyssinica

30 20 10 0 3

4

5

6

25 20 15 10 5 0 1

2

Height class

D

8 6 4 2 0 3

4

5

6

Number of individuals

Number of individuals

10

2

4

5

6

1

2

2 0 4

5

6

120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1

Height class

Height class

6

I

4

3

5

All woody plants

6

2

4

F

8

1

3

Height class

Psydrax schimperiana

Olea europaea

1

3

6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Height class

Number of individuals

2

Juniperus procera

Number of individuals

40

Number of individuals

Number of individuals

Acokanthera schimperi

1

D

2

3

4

5

6

Height class

Dengolt

A

H

20 10 0 2

3

4

5

6

Teclea nobilis

40 30 20 10 0 1

2

3

4

5

Height class

Height class

I

15 10 5 0 2

3

4

Height class

5

6

Number of individuals

Number of individuals

All woody plants

20

400 300 200 100 0 1

2

3

4

Height class

Gelawdiwos

31

150 100 50 0 1

2

3

4

Height class

E Prunus africana

1

6

Number of individuals

30

Number of individuals

Number of individuals

40

1

G

Juniperus procera

Bersama abyssinica

5

6

5

6

I

G

15 10 5 0 5

6

20 0 1

2

Height class

3

4

5

6

1 0.5 0 5

6

3 2 1 0 1

2

5 0 4

5

6

4 2 0 4

5

2 0 1

2

6

2 0

150 100 50 0 1

2

4

5

6

60 40 20 0 3

D

4

Dovyalis abyssinica 40 30 20 10 0

32

5

6

J 5 4 3 2 1 0 1

A

80

2

4

2

3

4

5

6

Height class

100

1

3

Ekebergia capensis

5

6

II

All woody plants 200 150 100 50 0 1

2

3

4

5

6

Height class

Height class

um ber of individuals

um ber of individuals

Apodytes dimidiata

3

Prunus africana

Height class

Debresena

6

200

L

4

Number of individuals

Number of individuals

6

3

5

Height class

6

D

8

2

4

250

Height class

Euphorbia abyssinica

4

6

8

Hight class

6

5

10

Number of individuals

Number of individuals

10

8

4

Dombeya torrida

15

10

3

A

Apodytes dimidiata

1

3

Height class

Hiruy

3

2

I

4

Height clas

2

1

All woody plants Num ber of individuals

Num ber of individuals

Number of individuals

1.5

1

0

C

2

4

1

Schefflera abyssinica

2.5

3

2

Height class

K

2

3

Height class

Podocarpus falcatus

1

4

Number of individuals

4

40

5

Number of individuals

3

60

D

Olinia rochetiana um ber of individuals

2

80

Number of individuals

20

1

J Ekebergia capensis

Commbretum molle Number of individuals

Number of individuals

Chionanthus mildbraedii

15 10 5 0

D

D

Ascha

D

D

10 5 0 4

5

6

15 10 5 0

Height class

2

3

4

Height class

5

6

5 4 3 2 1 0 1

2

3

4

5

6

Height class

III

All woody plants Num ber of individuals

1

Num ber of individuals

15

Num ber of individuals

Num ber of individuals

20

3

Osyris quadripartita

Juniperus procera

25

2

D

D

Erica arborea

1

I

40 30 20 10 0 1

2

3

4

5

6

Height class

Figure 3. Height class distribution of individuals of some selected species and all woody plants encountered in each Church. Species or churches with a similar pattern are labeled with the same letter or number. Height classes: 1= < 1 m; 2= 1-5 m; 3 = 5-10 m; 4 = 10-15 m; 5 =15-20m; 6 = â&#x2030;Ľ 20m.

6.1.3.2. Diameter Class Distributions

33

Similar to the height class distributions, the diameter class distributions exhibited different trends from species to species within a church forest and among church forests, even for the same species (Fig. 4). The diameter class distributions of species revealed seven patterns (Fig. 4A-F) while diameter class distributions of all individuals in each of the eight church forests showed a more or less similar pattern (Fig. 4). The seven categories of diameter class distributions of species are: A. Species having individuals only at the lowest class or the two lowest classes (Fig. 5A); e.g. Chionanthus mildbraedii (Zahara), Acokanthera schimperi (Gibtsawit), Bersama abyssinica, Teclea nobilis (Dengolt), Combretum molle (Gelawdiwos) and Apodytes dimidiata (Hiruy); B. Species having a high proportion of individuals at the lowest class and a sharp decline at the next class/classes followed by a gradual decline in the number of individuals towards the next classes (Fig. 5B); e.g. Euphorbia abyssinica (Gibtsawit); Teclea nobilis (Deberesena) and Erica arborea (Ascha); C. Species exhibiting more or less the same pattern as category ‘B’, but with missing individuals at one or several of the classes (Fig. 5C); e.g. Diospyros abyssinica (Quar), Millettia ferruginea and Mimusops kummel (Zahara), Juniperus procera (Gibtsawit & Dengolt), Prunus africana (Dengolt); Dombeya torrida and Prunus africana (Hiruy); D. Species having fewer individuals at the first class with the number showing a sharp increase at the next class or two classes followed by a sharp drop at the next class and a gradual decline thereafter; all species except one with missing individuals at one or two of the middle classes (Fig. 5D); e.g. Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (Gibtsawit), Apodytes dimidiata, Dovyalis abyssinica and Olinia rochetiana (Debresena); E. Species having very few individuals at the lowest class and with no or fewer individuals in the next class followed by a sharp increases at the next class or classes and a sharp decline thereafter (Fig. 5E); e.g.

Chionanthus mildbraedii (Gelawdiwos); Euphorbia abyssinica (Hiruy); Pittosporum viridiflorum (Debresena) and Juniperus procera (Ascha); F. Species having either no or few individuals at the lowest three classes and missing individuals at the next four to seven classes followed by few individuals at the upper classes (Fig. 5F); Ekebergia capensis and Schefflera abyssinica (Gelawdious) and Ekebergia capensis (Hiruy); and G. Species having no or only one individual at the lowest diameter class/classes but a few individuals at only one or two of the other diameter classes (Fig. 5G); e.g. Albizia schimperiana (Quar), Psydrax schimperiana (Gibtsawit), Podocarpus falcatus (Gelawdiwos) and Osyris quadripartita (Ascha).

The diameter class distribution of all individuals in each of the churches followed the pattern described in category ‘B’ above (Fig. 4) Quar G C i

Diam eter class

80 60 40 20

11

9

7

5

3

0 1

11

9

7

0

Number of individuals

5

5

11

9

7

5

0

10

3

1

15

1

2

Num ber of individuals

3

3

All woody plants

Diospyros abyssinica

4

1

Num ber of individuals

Albizia schimperana

Diameter class

Diam eter class

Zahara

10 8 6 4 2

r of individuals

r of individuals

M illettea ferruginea 15 10 5

34

C

C

M imusops kummel

r of individuals

A Chionanthus mildbraedii

100 80 60 40 20

i

A

B

Psydrax schimperiana

G

11

9

7

9

11

A

Teclea nobilis 200 150 100 50

11

9

7

5

3

0 1

Number of individuals

9

7

11

9

0

5

20

35

3

40

30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1

60

C

Juniperus procera

Number of individuals

80

Diameter class

11

A

Bersama abyssinica

7

11

9

0

Diameter class

Dengolt

7

7

0

50

5

1

100

3

2

Diameter class

5

Number of individuals

3

5

11

9

7

5

0

150

3

2

ii

All woody plants

4

1

4

Number of individuals

6

3

0 Diameter class

5

8

3

2

1

D

10

1

4

Diameter class

Olea europaea

1

6

5

11

9

0

Diameter class

Number of individuals

Number of individuals

5 7

11

9

7

5

3

0

10

5

10

15

3

20

20

1

Number of individuals

30

8

25

a

1

Number of individuals

40

Number of individuals

C Juniperus procera

Euphorbia abyssinica

1

Acokanthera schimperi

3

Gibtsawit

C

i

Gelawdiwos

G

11

9

7

5 4 3 2 1

Diameter class

11

9

0 7

11

9

7

0

Ekebergia capensis

5

36 5

F

3

10

Diameter class

5

3

0

1

15 5

11

9

7

5

100 1

11

20

3

11

0

25

1

5

9

200

C

Dombeya torrida

Number of individuals

10

7

300

Diameter class

Number of individuals

A

15

5

400

Diameter class

20

3

9

0

Number of individuals

0.5 7

11

9

7

5

3

0

1

5

1

2

3

2

1

i All woody plants

1.5

1

3

Number of individuals

4

1

Number of individuals

Diameter class

2.5

Diameter class

Number of individuals

0

Schefflera abyssinica

5

Diameter class

1 0.5

F

Podocarpus falcatus

Apodytes dimidiata

2 1.5

Diameter class

Diameter class

Hiruy

2.5

3

0

F

Ekebergia capensis

1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

11

0

20 9

2

40

7

4

60

5

6

3

8

80

1

10

A

Combretum molle

Number of individuals

E Number of individuals

Number of individuals

Chionanthus mildbraedii

C

5

11

7

9

i

All woddy plants 400 300 200 100

Diameter class

11

9

7

0 5

11

9

7

5

3

1

5

Diameter class

120 100 80 60 40 20 0

Diameter class

3

0 1

11

10

B

Teclea nobilis

Number of individuals

11

9

7

5

3

15

1

E

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1

Number of individuals

20

Diameter class

Pittosporum viridiflorum

D

Olinia rochetiana

Number of individuals

Diam eter class

9

11

9

7

5

3

0

7

2

5

4

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1

Number of individuals

a

6

1

Number of individuals

8

D

Dovyalis abyssinica

Number of individuals

D

Apodytes dimidiata

3

Debresena

i

3

E

Diameter class

Ascha

Diam eter class

Diam eter class

8 6 4 2

Diam eter class

11

9

7

5

0 3

11

0

9

37

2

G

Osyris quadripartita

1

4

7

11

9

7

5

3

0

6

5

5

8

3

10

10

1

15

Num ber of individuals

20

1

Num ber of individuals

25

E

Juniperus procera

Num ber of individuals

B

Erica arborea

i

Figure 4. Diameter class distribution of all woody plants in all plots and some of the major tree species for all churches. Species with similar patterns are labeled with the same letter. Diameter class: 1=<10 cm;2=10-20 cm;3=20-30 cm;4=30-40 cm;5=40-50 cm; 6=50-60 cm;7=60-70 cm;8=70-80 cm;9= 80-90 cm;10=90-100 cm; 11=â&#x2030;Ľ100 cm.

6.1.4. Species Area Curve The number of species at each church forest showed a relatively sharp increase initially with increasing number of plots followed by a declining rate of increase (Figure 5). The exceptions to this trend were

Numbe r of Plots

Figure 5. Species area curve of the eight church forests studies.

38

53

49

45

41

37

33

29

25

21

17

13

9

5

45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1

Cumulative No. Of Species

forests at Quar and Ascha.

Quar Zahara Gibstawit Dengolt Gelawdious Hiruy Debresena Ascha

6.1.5. Ordination The Correspondence Analysis ordinated the species recorded from all the churches into four groups (G1G4) (Fig. 6). These groups were: ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦

G1: characterized by the association of Hypericum revolutum- Erica arborea - Gnidia glauca- Myrsine africana occurring above 3000 m; G2: characterized by the association of Olinia rochetiana-Ekebergia capensis-Dombeya torrida-Dovyalis abyssinica-Podocarpus falcatus occurring between 3000 and 2300 m; G3: characterized by the association of Acokanthra schimperi-Euclea divinorum-Psydrax schimperianaPremna schimperi occurring 2300 and 2000 m; and G4: characterized by the association of Cordia africana-Croton macrostachyus-Millettia ferrugineaMimusops kummel-Olea europaea occurring below 2000 m.

The special feature, which is set almost at equal distance from the four communities, is brought by Juniperus procera.

+8 .0

Otto

Hyre Mase Erar

Rune

Gngl Phov

Nuco

Asae

RhreOsqu

Clmy

Doan Star Eudi Oleu Acsc

Sesi Olca Pssc

Jagr

Rhvu

G3

Prsc

Roab

G1

Jupr

Ptst

G2

Grfe

Fivam Ciau

Hiaf

Fi th ScabCaed Clab Euab Savi Dipe

Clhi

Xiam

Caau Rhgl

Acpu Bupo Phdo Pivi Vemy Maar Mysa Doto Stab Aral Doab Fiov Beab Teno Pofa Fisu Unsp Emsc Mala Bran Segi Alab Apdi Urhy Praf Como Caol Olro Gasa Clan Brmi Erbr PhreEkca

Veam

Ardo

G4 Fiva

Cato

Acab

Jusc

Crma Alsc

Addi

Coaf

Ceaf Diab

6. Ordination diagram of species from the Correspondence Analysis made using the species Mife Chmi Astr Rhpr Pisp - Figure Rial abundance data from all church forests.DrstThe Eigenvalues for Coar axisMiku1 &2 are 0.29 and 0.27 Meaz 2.respectively. The abbreviations on the figure are the combination of the first two letters of the genus 0 and species name of the plants listed in Appendix 1.

-3.0 +9.0

39

6.2. Socio-Economics 6.2.1. Philosophy of EOTC in the Conservation of Forests Church and monastery forests didn’t come in to existence by mere chance. Results from this study suggest that, it is by the commitment and effort of the holy fathers and mothers based on a strong theological basis and biblical thoughts. According to the prominent church scholars, including the Archbishop and the Holy Scriptures of the church (The Holy Bible, King James Version), the main theological bases and religious perspective in conserving forest resources were stated as follows: The Church on the earth signifies and symbolizes the new heaven, the holy city, New Jerusalem coming down from God out of heaven, prepared as a bride, adorned for her husband. Thus, it should have the same semblance and appearance as the Eden heaven was. The Holy Bible states about Eden as “ And the Lord God planted a garden east-ward in Eden; and there he puts the man whom he had formed. And out of the ground made the lord God to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight, and good for food…And a river went out of Eden to water the Garden; and from thence it was parted, and became in to four heads. ” (Genesis 2: 8-10). Therefore, the church like Eden was beautified with many plants, animals and other organisms and the holy water/streams infinitely has been surpassing from these forests that was believed as proceeding out of the throne of God. When the first man was placed in Eden there was a task given for him along with the freedom and pleasure he had. That task was conservation and development of nature as “ And the Lord God took the man, and put him in to the Garden of Eden to dress it and to keep it” (Genesis 2: 15). The EOTC followers who are supposed to be the generation of Adam and children of God should respect and exercise this dictate at least in the church compound if not possible in the whole landscape.

In the creation history, in the beginning, the earth was without form, and void, before it was prepared to a habitable state. In the preparation process, the Lord God created green plants in the third day before he created the man on the sixth day. “And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth: and it was so: ... and God saw that it was good” (Genesis 1: 11-13). The first home for the first man was not an ivory house or a palace overlaid with gold and silver but a garden furnished and decorated by nature, populated with flourishing and pleasant trees. The shadow of the trees was his retirement, under them was his dining room; and this was so good that King Solomon was not arrayed like them in his Kingdom. According to this holy statement, forests and other plants were shown how they were necessary for human worldly life and pleasure. It has also shown their right to exist in earth as long as man exists as they were created in one of the days of the creation week. So, no one has the right to destroy them except the Lord God who made them and armed with the biblical perspective, it would be suicidal to destroy them by man whom they were created for.

Trees have a strong attachment with the failure of the first man and with the process of saving human beings by the Lord Jesus Christ. “ And the Lord God commanded the man, saying, of every tree of the garden thou mayest freely eat: but of the tree of the Knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt thereof thou shalt surely die (Genesis 2: 16-17). Unfortunately, the first persons violated the commandment and ate the special tree. The consequence was a curse. Later, based on God’s promise, the Lord and the savior Jesus Christ came to save Adam and his generation. This was done by Jesus’ holy blood, crucified on the holy cross-made of wood/special trees. Moreover the ark of Noah by which, he, his family and a pair of female and male animals of all types of the earth were saved from the evil destruction of water, was made of gopher wood (Genesis 6). Thus, trees and other plants are integrated with the Christian’s religious life and their mere existence reminds of all the ups and downs of human beings from creation till the end of this world.

Trees and forests have been symbolized on several occasions both, in the Old and New Testaments of the Holy Bible, to remind prospects in the spiritual life of human beings with their

40

presence and graceful habitation, and the contrary in their absence. In connection with these, some interesting biblical words can be quoted about trees. ¾

“Blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly, Nor standeth in the way of sinners, Nor sitteth in the seat of the scornful. But his delight is in the law of the Lord; and in his law doth he meditate day and night. And shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water, that bringeth forth his fruit in his season; his leaf also shall not wither; and whatsoever he doeth shall prosper” (Psalm 1: 1-3).

¾

“O God! Thou art my God; early I will seek thee: My soul longeth for thee, how shall I stretch my flesh in a dry thirsty land, where no tree and water” (Psalm 63: 1-2).

¾

“And by the river upon the bank thereof, on this side, on that side, shall grow all trees for meat, whose leaf shall not fade neither shall the fruits thereof be consumed: it shall bring forth new fruit according to his months that is twelve times in the year, because their waters they issued out of the sanctuary, and the fruit there of shall be for food and the leaf for medicine” (Ezek 47:12).

¾

“I am the true vine, and my father is the husbandman. Every branch in me that beareth not fruit he taketh away: and every branch that beareth fruit, he purgeth it, that it may bring forth more fruit…. I am the vine, ye are the branches” (John 15: 1-5). In this statement it is shown that the Lord and Savior Jesus Christ as a vine tree, believers as the branches and his relation to them as the source of all their fruitful and spiritual life.

¾

“And he showed me a pure river of water of life, clear as crystal, proceeding out of the throne of God and of the lamb. In the midst of the street of it, and on either side of the river, was there the tree of life, which bare twelve manner of fruits and yielded her fruit every month; and the leaves of the tree were for the healing of the nations” (Rev 22: 1-2).

Churches and monasteries are holy places as they are houses of God. The forests/trees grown in God’s compound are therefore considered as sacred. The trees in the compound are symbolic of the presence of angels guarding the church. On top of this, they are precious heritages passed from many generations with the sacrifice of holy fathers and mothers. They have got blessings of many saints beneath their roots where their holy flesh rested in peace. Therefore, trees in the compound are not to be cut unless for the purpose of the church itself and the land is not to be ploughed.

Clearly, in the holy bible, the Lord God commanded to preserve and conserve forests/trees as described in the following statements: “You shall not destroy the trees thereof by forcing an axe against them, for thou mayest eat of them, and thou shalt not cut them down. Are trees in the fields men that they should be besieged by you…?” (Deut. 20: 19).

Moreover, in many miracle books of saints and scriptures (the so-called ‘Gedel’, ‘Tamrie Mariam’ and ‘Dersan’) the importance of trees and their holy services are stated.

With the above theological and biblical justifications, trees and other natural resources were much respected and taken care of for centuries by EOTC. In the natural conservation tradition of EOTC, trees are much loved and cared for, but this doesn’t mean that trees were worshiped. According to the church scholars, EOTC has been totally against worshiping trees.

6.2.2. Benefits of Churches from the Forests Besides the spiritual and theological aspects, trees have several benefits for churches. The main benefits of churches from the forests can be broadly categorized under products and services.

41

6.2.2.1. Products Forests around or in the vicinity of churches offer various products summarized below.

The durable and strong woods of church forests are used to maintain and reconstruct the church buildings.

Moreover, architectural designs on roofs and walls of the church are made of major and minor products of the forests.

Charcoal required for the internal church services are made of the woody plants in the forests.

Some selected trees and minor products are used for making sacramental and sacred utensils such as wine, oil, incense, drums, crosses, plates, beads and prayer sticks for church services.

The fruits, leaves and other parts of some trees are used as food for monks, hermits and church students.

Moreover, some trees and other plants are used as sources of traditional medicine.

The churches generate income by selling dead and fallen trees/branches to the followers at a fair price.

Some of the plants are used to make ink and dyes, which are, in turn, used to write religious scriptures and hymns, including the national history, on skins/hides and to draw holy pictures on the inner wall of churches.

Since the ink does not easily fade away, it is possible to read the old church books written many hundreds years ago. Moreover, the outer cover of these books had been made of wood to increase their durability.

6.2.2.2. Services The forests also offer a variety of services to churches, which are listed below.

They protect the church building from strong wind, storms and soil erosion since the churches were mostly built on the tops of hills.

Forests serve as classrooms for the traditional church school and provide a quite shady environment.

Forests create privacy and tranquility for hermits and monks who are praying day and night.

They give shade and conditioned atmosphere whenever there are religious festivals and meditations outside the church buildings.

Forests provide sweet and pleasant smells around churches, and create beautiful scenery, impression and contemplation for prayers.

Forests give grace and esteem to churches and play a protective role. The church scholars and followers equate a church without trees to a naked person. The majestic creation of church forests prompts the followers to fantasize about how more beautiful and graceful their creator, i.e. God, could be.

They indicate the presence of churches in the area from a distance, reminding Christians passing by to bow, which signifies the deep respect they have for the church of the Almighty.

Forests serve as platforms for followers to discuss religious and social issues. Moreover ‘Mahabber and Senbetie’ (social institutions for making private feasts in the name of God, Saints, Angels) are enjoyed by the followers with the poor and guests under the ameliorated shade of the forest.

Church forests are used as symbols and examples in the teaching and preaching of the Gospel. Moreover, most of the church songs, hymns and canonicals (‘Satat’) are symbolized and exemplified with trees.

The church forests are primarily reserved for the church services based on the above stated theological principles and benefits. However, there are some possible forest benefits allowed for the followers under

42

the permission and recognition of the church administrators where as some benefits are entirely forbidden (Table 5). The strong remark here is that all possible benefits can be obtained only by permission and the presence of the church scholars and/or administrators. In rare cases, i.e. whenever trees fall down due to age or damage, the dead wood is sold to the followers at a fair price and at the same time, generates income for the church. Similarly, though it is entirely forbidden to collect honey produced in the wild, followers are allowed to hang their own beehives on the peripheral trees of the church to produce honey.

Table 5. Potential benefits to followers from forests that are either permitted or forbidden by churches.

Potential Benefit Fuel wood Construction wood Fodder Tree seeds Seedlings (Wildings) Honey Medicine (Tree parts) Fruits Worldly recreation and enjoyment Spiritual contemplation and praying

Permitted

a a a a

Forbidden

a a a a a a

6.2.3. Mode of Protection of the Forests by Churches Churches protect and conserve their forest resources by using two different methods, namely religious sanctions and/or legal protection.

6.2.3.1. Religious sanctions The main mode of protection is achieved through creating religious commitment and respect among the followers. As the church is believed to be the house of God, everything in the compound is sacred and respected. Every follower is expected to respect and protect the house of God together with the forest enveloping the church. Cutting a tree in the church compound is considered as denying the presence of God unless it is for the special purpose of the church. It is believed that cutting in and smuggling of trees from the church compound would bring a curse and the one who did it is considered as a person who has violated the Kingdom of God and would be alienated from the church communities. A person that cuts a tree or even a dead branch for personal use would be presented to the church community/church scholars and asked to repent and be committed not to repeat the mistake again. If the person fails to admit his/her mistake voluntarily or makes the same mistake again, he/she would be alienated from the church community and would not be entitled to services from the church. This sanction is known as ‘Gizet’.

Hence, since Orthodox Christians fear ‘Gizet’, they do not dare cut trees in church forests.

43

6.2.3.2. Legal Protections Since churches and their forest resources are found in the world where there are different attitudes and perspectives of people, they also use guards and the civil law to protect their forest resources. At present, demand for wood is increasing, and religious perspectives are diversified. Therefore, since most of the churches have assigned guards, encroachers and outlaws are caught and brought to the civil courts for the appropriate measures. It was reported that though churches are primarily houses of God, they are also houses looked after by the State, which provides the necessary legal protection to their forest resources.

6.2.4. Historical Profile The EOTC have preserved their forest resources by using the two modes of protection discussed above. In this conservation task of the forest resources by EOTC tradition, the church scholars claim many hardships were encountered and sacrifices paid by past generations. The most prevalent events that have affected the composition and size of church forests are summarized in Fig. 7.

44

Land redistribution by EPRDF: considerable forest land of the churches were redistributed for landless individuals. All of those forestlands were immediately converted to farmlands.

Villagaization program of ‘Derge’ regime: everybody was forced to construct a new house in a preset period and site. The only construction wood resource was the church compound that everybody was forced to smuggle from the church compounds and thus much of the forest was affected.

?

1991

1987-1989

Land redistribution by ‘Derge regime’: considerable forest land of the churches was redistributed for land less individuals. All of those forest lands were immediately converted to farmlands.

1985

Transition from imperial to communist regime: before the communist regime came in to power one third of the of the country’s land used to belong to the EOTC. Out of that a considerable part of the land was forestland. When the government launched the privatization of land, all of the church land except the nearby compounds were nationalized and redistributed to individuals. Forest lands subsequently 1974-1976 came under merciless destruction.

The expedition of Ebrahim Ahmed: the Moslem expedition against Christianity starting from the eastern part of Ethiopia to the Northern highlands of Ethiopia led by ‘Gragn’ Mohamed had burnt many churches and monasteries. Together with the churches, forest resources were 1528-1543 burnt and destroyed.

Figure 7. Historical profile of church forests in South Gonder Zone in particular and in Ethiopia at large.

6.2.5. Attitude of the Local Communities 45

With the continuous and severe deforestation prevalent in different areas, the church forests have survived because it is believed that they are sacred (49.2%), as a result of the good will of the communities (39.3%) and due to legal protection (11.5%). In general, about 93% of the respondents confirmed that the church forests would not have survived if they were not owned by/associated with the EOTC. Only 30% of the respondents have utilised the church forests for collecting fuelwood (59.4%), fodder (24%), construction wood (13.5%) and honey (2.7%). The main reasons forwarded by the respondents who have never utilised the church forests were a belief in their sacredness (42.2%), possession of other alternative sources (36.4%), a ban of use by the churches (21.2%). Future benefits expected by the respondents from the church forests were collection of fuelwood (36.9%), construction wood (19.7%), fodder (10.7%) and seeds of plants (4.1%), and none (28.7%). The suggestions given on the future ownership of church forests were to keep them under the ownership of churches (99.2%) and to allocate them to community members (0.8%). All respondents confirmed that they want to see churches surrounded by forests since forests provide both products and services to the churches. In the event of encountering someone cutting trees, respondents indicated that they would try to stop him/her with arguments and confrontations (56.6%), inform the case to church officials (28.7%), inform the case to leaders of Peasant Associations and the Police (9%) and do nothing (5.7%).

The major sources of fuelwood for the households were own trees/woodlots (82%), natural forests (9.8%), market (6.6%) and church forests (0.8%). Similarly, sources of wood for construction were own trees/woodlots (75.4%), market (18%), community forests (3.3%) and church forests (0%). About 82.8 % of the respondents perceived that the size of natural forest outside churchyards in their area had decreased in the past as a result of deforestation. The main solutions forwarded to protect the remaining natural forests were to launch strict rules (82.8%) and to keep them under the possession of the church (8.2%).

Respondents had perceptions that the size of church forests has decreased (45.9%), increased (31.1%) and not changed (23%). The reasons given for the increment in the sizes of churches were the planting of new seedlings by the church community (55.3%) and natural regeneration (44.7%). On the other hand, illegal cutting (58.9%), improper grave monument construction (14.3%), building construction by the churches (14.3%) and natural disaster (10.7%) have been held responsible for the decrease in the sizes of churches.

Respondents considered the current sizes of church forests to be enough (54.1%), too small (31.1%) and too wide (14.8%). It was interesting to note that about 92% of the respondents emphasised that they would not agree if the State claimed to own the church forests. As to whether the church forests will persist respected and protected by the people in the future, most of the respondents were positive (77%) and others were either sceptical (13.9%) or unable to forecast (9%). In this connection, the factors that were projected to exert pressure/threats on the church forests by the respondents who had negative opinions were the

46

overlooking of church values (64.7%), population increment (23.5%) and prevalent extensive grave monument construction (11.8%).

Of the public instruments governing the local communities, religious rules/beliefs and sanctions were considered to have the highest respect by most of the respondents (82%) than civil legislation (0.8%) or both (17.2%). As to which was most feared were religious rules and sanctions (73%), civil legislation (4.1%) and both (23%). Among the locally based institutions, the level of trust and respect was indicated that the clergy/churches are more trusted (98.4%) and respected (98%) than the Office of Agriculture or PAs. Most of the respondents (92.6%) expressed their willingness to plant seedlings around the church with 94% of them setting a precondition that the newly planted seedlings must be given for their church. The preferences of respondents for the type of trees/shrubs to be used for planting around the church were indigenous species (54.9%), Eucalyptus species (32.8%), other exotic species (8.2%) and all types (4.1%).

Moreover, about 57% of the respondents would like to have similar forests as those around churches on their land holdings, and of the remaining respondents most (94%) indicated that they had a shortage of land that prevented them from planting trees while others (4%) claimed that such forests must be unique only to churches.

Some of the answers given to the above main attitudinal questions were significantly dependent on the independent variables (Tables 6) while others were not. For instance, the answers given for measures to be taken personally to stop tree cutting in the churchyard were dependent upon the sex of the respondents with a probability of 0.977 (1- 0.023).

47

Table 6. Results from the significantly dependent answers given to the main attitudinal questions.

Dependant Variable

Degrees of Freedom

P- Value **

3 2

0.023 0.023

3 3

0.04 0.043

9

0.02

4 4

0.012 0.039

6 3 12 6 9 3 9 6 6 3

0 0 0 0.002 0.011 0.003 0.014 0.003 0.011 0.005

A. Sex* Measures to be taken to stop tree cutting personally Perception about change in the sizes of church forests

B. Age* Perception on church forests surviving without the churches Interest to develop similar forests as around churches on own holdings

C. Main Occupation* Tree species preference to be planted around churches

D. Education Status* Perception about dynamics of church forest size Perception to the present church forest size

E. Church Affiliation* Perception on why church forests survived Response on using church forests Future expectations from the church forests Suggestions on the future of church forests Measures to be taken to stop tree cutting personally Willingness to plant seedlings around churches Preference of trees/shrubs to be planted around churches Perception to the current size of church forests Response on the future persistence of church forests Interest to develop similar forests as around churches on own holdings * Independent variable

** subjected to 0.05 level of test

48

6.2.6. Stake Holder Analysis There were similarities and differences in opinion among the various identified stakeholders on selected issues regarding the church forests (Table 7).

Table 7. Opinions among the various identified stakeholders on selected issues regarding the church forests.

Stakeholder

Opinion Who protects church forests?

Who owns church forests?

Who has the right to use the church forests and how?

What should be done about the future of church forests?

What is expected in the future?

EOTC

Churches

Churches

Churches: only when needed

Recognition; legal protection; Development of projects that will assist the churches

State Administrators

Churches

State*

Churches: after prior recognition and permission of Woreda Offices of Agriculture (WOA)

Absolutely important to keep them under churches with full ownership and use rights Advisable to keep them under churches with close supervision by the respected bodies

Department/Office of Agriculture

Churches

Communities

Churches: after prior recognition and permission of WOA**

Advisable to keep them under churches with close supervision by WOA

Permission for utilization; replace what is cut; active role of churches in forest task forces at all levels

Elders and Communities

Churches

Churches

Churches: only when needed

It is absolutely important to keep it under the church with full ownership and rights of use

Protection assistance from the State

Proper and efficient utilization of the forests by churches; permission for utilization

* Like any land and land resources; ** If churches need to cut a tree they are obliged to plant 5 seedlings of the same kind of species one year before cutting.

6.2.7. SWOT Analysis The results obtained from the SWOT analysis on the conservation tradition, conservation system and the forest resources of ETOC based on the discussion made with church scholars, administrative bodies, Woreda Office of Agricultural experts, community elders and field observations are summarised below.

6.2.7.1. Strengths The strengths of ETOC are their: Strong ability to resist deforestation of the church forests compared with any other traditional and conservation mechanisms.

Interest and commitment to conserve all types of plants in the churchyards. Though a few trees were more valuable for the churches, all plant species were allowed to grow in the compound irrespective of their purposes or uses.

Willingness to allow the forests to be used as a source of indigenous tree seeds for local communities and state nurseries.

Customary plans to establish trees/forests in the yards of new churches well ahead of time.

49

6.2.7.2. Weaknesses The weaknesses of EOTC are associated with the absence of: No clear and documented border demarcations of the forests, which encourage encroachment by farmers owning land adjacent to the forests.

No scientific forest management practices except conservation since churches have no financial capability for training their staff members in the field No inventories of the forests resources and forest management plan.

6.2.7.3. Opportunity/Prospects The opportunities/prospects of EOTC include: Possession of many indigenous species/forests protected in different agro-ecological/climatic zones, which are resources of great actual and potential local, national, regional and global (e.g. germplasm and carbon sequestration) importance.

Recognition and acceptance of their conservation strategy of church forests by the local people.

Potential of their forest resources for: (a) in situ and ex situ conservation of indigenous plants, which would ultimately serve as sources of seeds/propagules/germplasm for future development of forests; (b) studying the vegetation history of adjacent areas in particular and the country at large; (c) deciding species adapted to the sites in question in future forestry programs; and (d) serving as field laboratories/centres/sites for practical training, research on biology, ecology, forestry, pharmacology, sociology/anthropology, socio-economics, forest history/history, etc.

6.2.7.4. Threats The threats on church forests owned by EOTC include: Grazing of seedlings and trampling of the ground by the domestic animals that are allowed access to the forests for shelter against the hot sunshine and strong storms in some churches. This may affect regeneration of these forests.

Encroachment into the church forests by individuals for farmlands and settlement as well as cutting of woody plants for fuelwood. This may lead to a decline in the sizes and diversity (richness and evenness) of the forests.

The encroachment by the local people could be caused by the critical shortage of fuelwood and farmland, which is spurred by the ever-increasing human and animal populations, or individuals who were pushed and tempted by ‘modernist’ and other religious sects to deny the traditional and religious values.

Substitution of indigenous species in church forests by fast growing exotic species. Most of the churches do not have enough income for church services and other expenses. Hence, there is a tendency of growing eucalyptus in the churchyards. Moreover, as per the regulation of the Woreda Office of Agriculture mentioned above, churches are replacing the indigenous trees (for e.g. Juniperus procera) that they cut for various purposes by exotic species (mainly Cupressus lusitanica) since it is difficult for them to raise/get seedlings of indigenous trees.

Construction of monuments and improper grave houses in the forests. Many stone and marble made monuments, with an average surface area of 2.5 m X 1.5 m (3.75 m2), and small houses were observed covering considerable segments of the forest areas of churches. Unlike other traditional grave spots, they affect the regeneration potential of the forest. Construction of monuments and small houses on graves had never been a tradition of EOTC, and still is not accepted by the church scholars.

Death of many old trees without being substituted. Almost all of the churches studied have been serving for more than a century with their forest resources. Thus, many of the trees are aged and dying without any replacement.

50

This may result in complete losses of valuable indigenous tree species in the future, which in turn lead to the decline of species composition of the church forests.

51

7. DISCUSSION 7.1. Vegetation The minimum basal area/ha recorded from the eight churches is similar to that of Chilimo state forest (27.3 m2/ha) while the maximum basal area/ha recorded is similar to that of Wof-Washa state forest (100.3 m2/ha) (Tamrat Bekele 1994). The number of live stems/ha and basal area for the eight churches do not show any trend of relation (Table 1.) because in some of the churches there are few but big trees and in others many stems but smaller in diameter. Whereas, the trend of inverse relation between basal area and number of dead stumps may show the exploitation of stems was the main reason for Basal Area variation and hence, Gibtsawit is most exploited and Hiruy least exploited and the others fall in between.

The only common species to all sampled churches is Maytenus arbutifolia, which has a wide range of distribution in Ethiopia and the presence of this species may also indicate those forests that have been disturbed. The number of common species and families increased as the churches were stratified in altitudinal range, which might indicate the species composition, corresponds to the altitude gradient. The Jaccard similarity coefficient among the eight churches showed the same trend that higher similarity recorded in same altitudinal range (Table3). Except for five pairs, the remaining similarity coefficients are below 0.5, which means less similarity among the churches and that each church has its own unique species composition (Table 3.). Thus, all the sampled churches are equally important and sensitive from a conservation point of view and there will not be redundancy if all of them are to be conserved.

The South Gonder indigenous woody species profile was compared as a checklist with the species recorded in the sampled churches. Accordingly from the total 125 woody species found in the zone, 81 species were recorded in the eight sampled churches and 16 species were recorded which had not been listed in the checklist (Appendix 2). In eight churches, 65% of the zonal woody species can be found. This may reveal the significance of EOTC in woody diversity resource conservation of the study area in particular and the country in general. On the other hand, the presence of exotic species intermingled with the indigenous species, may show a fast economic return and seedling availability for pushing the church to give attention to exotic species.

Species richness estimates by Chaoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s index for all churches is higher than the observed number of species, which indicates that there are many species represented by single individuals (rare species) (Table 4.). It is especially exaggerated for the Ascha church because of the sensitivity of Chaoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s index to sudden change in the cumulative number of rare species as quadrats were accumulated (Fig. 5) (Dagnachew Gebeyehu, 2001). The Jack 1 also overestimates compared with the observed number of species S, which has indicated that there are more species found only in single plots (unique) (Table 4.). Jack 1, which is good in ranking species richness among sites (Dagnachew Gebeyehu 2001), displays a similar trend to the

52

observed number of species across the churches. So the cumulative rank of the species richness by Jack 1 and observed species gives Gelawdiwos to be the first and Ascha to be the last, which in turn follows the size of the forest area. The presence of many rare and unique species, confirmed by the two estimates, makes those churches sensitive for conservation, as they are the only remnant forests in the area and the last option to hold those woody species. The correlation between species richness and size of the forest area suggests protection of the area of those forests is one of the measures to be taken to conserve the existing species richness.

The Simpson equitability is low for all sampled churches, which indicates there is an unbalanced distribution of the number of individuals among different species (Table 4). This means, there are few species represented by many individuals (Appendix 1). The reason for the low evenness or dominance in abundance can be attributed to excessive disturbance, variable conditions for regeneration, and exploitation of some species. The domination of a few species with many unique and rare species invites intervention to conserve the maximum possible woody diversity. On the other hand the Shannon equitability is higher because of its dependency on the observed number of species (Dagnachew Gebeyehu 2001). Therefore this measure is unreliable whenever there is a variation between observed number of species and estimated species richness.

The heterogeneity indices recorded from each church were compared to that of Chilimo forest, which has Shannon and Wiener’s H’ = 2.77 and Simpson’s λ= 9.18 (Tadesse Woldemariam 1998). The church Quar, Gibtsawit, Galaowdiwos and Debresena are showing a higher diversity than that of Chilimo, while Zahara, Dengolt, Hiruy and Ascha are lower than that of Chilimo. This could show the significance of those sites in preserving and conserving woody diversity of the area in particular and the country in general.

The height and diameter class distribution, which was taken for comparison, varied in the number of patterns and species allocation to each pattern (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4). This results from the fact that height is determined by site factor whereas age, management and intervention determine diameter. Therefore, for the sake of observing regeneration status and human interference, the diameter distribution showed a good picture.

Accordingly, the first pattern of the diameter distribution includes (Fig 4A) species with good regeneration but complete failure of further development, may be they are newly dispersed and arrived species. The species in the second pattern (Fig. 4B) indicate good regeneration with gradual decreases towards the mature individuals, which has a higher potential of reproduction and are shade-tolerant. There is a large probability that the death of an adult tree will be replaced by the growth of individuals from the smaller size classes and seems to be a self-maintaining plant population. The species in the third pattern (Fig. 4C) indicates good reproduction but a bad recruitment due to disturbance; thus the population of these species

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may diminish in the future. The fourth pattern indicates (Fig 4D) fair regeneration but many young individuals with fewer mature individuals, indicating there was a favorable time for higher reproduction, which later changed to an unfavorable condition that hampered regeneration. The fifth pattern (Fig. 4E) indicates poor regeneration due to unfavorable conditions and a higher frequency at the middle class, then a small number of individuals at the higher class, which might be destroyed by natural disaster, competition, or cutting. The sixth pattern (Fig. 4F) is with poor regeneration, where the medium sized trees are selectively cut but there are very big and old individuals, which are no longer reproducing or regenerating and thus, the population of such species may decrease to the extent of disappearing from the site. The seventh pattern (Fig. 4G) indicates series disturbance that confined them in a limited class with few numbers of individuals. The seven patterns may give three cumulative patterns that there are species concentrated at the lower class, then some species at the middle and others at higher classes, which may show the species in those remnant church forests are in different successional stages (Demel Teketay 1997; Tamrat Bekele 1994).

The diameter class distribution for all individuals in all sampled churches revealed almost the same trend that there were many small to medium sized trees and some big individuals, which gives an inverted â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Jâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; shape distribution (Figure 4 i, ii and iii). This may indicate that those church forests are at a different stage of secondary development (Tamrat Bekele 1994).

The trend of plot number- species accumulated curve for all of the seven churches indicates the samples taken were almost sufficient to represent the whole area that possibly brings new species (Fig. 5). But for the church Ascha and Quar, most of the compound was dominated by few numbers of species and only a segment of the compound had many species. By chance, the last quadrat was laid on the rich segment of the compound and thus the curve behaved differently from others. This also underestimates the species richness of the two churches, which is confirmed by the Chaoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s index (Table 4).

The outcome of CA reveals four groups are stratified according to altitudinal gradient, which shows differentiation in species group types have a strong relationship with altitude (Tamrat Bekele 1994). The species Juniperus procera is laid at equidistant from each group because it has been found in all agroclimatic zones, moreover this species is the first of all species preferred by the church scholars. This is an indication for species conservation strategy and site selection that altitude is one of the determining factors in species distribution.

7.2. Socio-economy survey 7.2.1. Church Philosophy

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The EOTC perceives nature in a holistic manner. Nature includes among others, human beings, forests/trees, animals, microorganisms, water, other land features and the nation as a whole. This holistic approach has favoured the respect and veneration of nature, by enriching ecological preservation along with Humanity and Christianity, which matches to the broader concept of biodiversity conservation.

Accommodating the biblical story of creation and holy verses from other Holy Scriptures to the traditions of respecting the environment is an important characteristic and strength of the EOTC. The EOTC philosophy of conserving nature in general and forest resources in particular combines conservation, proper utilization and development of the resources, which has made the tradition healthy.

Conservation is manifested in the natural resources preserved in the church compound. Proper utilization is manifested in utilizing the church forest for the church purpose. Where as development is manifested in the planting habit of seedlings in each church in particular and in national resource development projects run by one of the structural wing in the church responsible for development and aid named as DICAC (Development and Inter-Church Aid Commission) in general.

The EOTC philosophy of conserving forests perceives not only the material values of the forests but also appreciates the services, which can be extracted from the forests. The followers are allowed to benefit from the minor products and services from the forest with permission. The benefits, which are designated as permitted and forbidden, are helpful for the sustainability of the resource.

The two modes of protection ‘Gizet’ as a house of God and ‘Legal protection’ as a house of state is a twosided blade to protect the resources. Whenever there is a severe shortage of forest resources, people inevitably overlook religious values and start to violate those values for survival. Moreover, secularism and the view of other religious sects may degrade the value of the church thus for all of these risks legal protection is of a paramount importance in addition to the core mode of protection, the religious sanction.

From the historical profile (Fig. 7), it is clear to notice that powerful bodies beyond the church and local community ignited all of the events. The size of the forest destroyed and the extent of the damage in the composition is not known/ not documented. However, it can be speculated that especially the recent damages might have an impact on the population structure of some species, species richness and evenness.

Therefore, the knife of the state should be sharpened to safeguard church forests from such events that may arise in the future by compensating the church knife, which is blunt for such kinds.

7.2.2. The Attitude of The Local Community The perception of the community as to how the church forest survived rests on the belief of sacredness and thus, those church forests could not survive if the churches had not been there. The variable, how the church forest survived is dependant on church affiliation because from place to place the utility of legal

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protection to protect the church forest beyond the religious sanctions vary. While the question, could the forest survive without the church, is dependent on age because younger people probably perceive deforestation differently to elders due to a lack of experience.

Most of the respondents never utilized the church forest for household uses because they believe they are sacred and have their own woodlot. The main types of products gained by the local community from the church forest, for those who utilized are fuel wood followed by fodder. However, the main source of fuel and construction wood for the community doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t include the church forest or it is a very low percentage.

This indicates that the fuel wood they benefited from the church is not considered as a habitual source.

The main expectation of the community in the coming times from the church forest is getting fuel wood followed by fodder; on the contrary some of the respondents donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t need to utilize the church forest for their personal use. Where as their suggestion about the future of those forests is to keep under the church and they always need to see forests enveloping churches, which may indicate the tradition, will continue in the future whenever new churches are to be built. Thus, their fuel wood expectation seems to depend on if there are sales by the church as a result of fallen and damaged trees, as was the experience in most churches. However, the expectation of fodder/practically grazing seems a threat for the future because there was no permitted experience for grazing. The variables, past benefit, expected benefit and suggestions about the future of the church forest are dependent on church affiliation because the relation and utilization arrangement of church forest between the church administrators and the local followers varies slightly from place to place.

The measures to be taken whenever someone is cutting trees illegally in the church compound, is to stop the act by argument and confrontation by themselves and secondly to inform the church officials.

However, a smaller portion goes to inform the PA leaders or considers it as none-of their business. This indicates how the community internalises the tradition and the resources and how a sense of responsibility is developed. This variable is dependent on the sex of an individual and church affiliation. It is dependent on gender because females are not physically fit to confront directly so they try to inform the church officials. It is dependent on church affiliation because the strength of the PA administration and the availability of church scholars nearby the church affect the decision to stop the illegal cutting.

The perceptions of the dynamics of church forests (as 31% increased, 45 % decreased and 23% no change) viewed in relation to the perceived decrease of natural forest (82.8%) suggests that the church both successfully resisted deforestation in the past and at the same time increased the total church forest area.

Moreover, the recommendation given to protect the remaining natural forest suggests retaining the churchâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s custodianship as an alternative for conservation in the future. The main reason for the church forest increment is because new seedlings were planted followed by natural regeneration. But most of the

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newly planted seedlings were Eucalyptus spp and exotic species due to a lower availability of seedlings for indigenous species. Therefore, the threat of substitution of indigenous species by others is more pronounced here. The causes that decrease the church forest on the other hand, (illegal cutting, improper grave-house and monuments construction, and natural disasters) may continue as a threat in the future. The variable, dynamics of the church forest, is dependent upon sex and education. The females due to lower education opportunity and lower engagement in church administration, might perceive things differently to that of males.

In the perception of the present size of the church forest area, too small means that the area of the church forest is expected to increase in size. While too wide means that the church has got the maximum possible forest area, but this doesn’t mean there is a need to decrease the size. This is conformed by the fact that the community would disagree, if the state tries to shift a portion of the church forest from church ownership to another form, no matter what the size of their church forest area is. The variable, perception to present size of the church forest, is dependent on education status and church affiliation. It is dependant on education status because the more they are educated the more they demand to have forest resources and perceive the resources as small and vice-versa. It is dependent on churches because the size of the forest area varies from church to church.

Although a majority of the respondents confirm the persistency of the church forest in the future, it seems there are issues that the community feels as threats. The threats are the denying and overlooking of EOTC values, which may increase in the coming generation due to the influence of other religious sects and ‘modernity’ leading to the overlooking of the EOTC values. Moreover, population pressure, leading to a higher demand of wood and farmland to affect the church forests and lastly improper grave monument construction will affect the regeneration of the forest. All these risks vary from place to place so this variable is church affiliation dependent.

The comparison of civil laws & legislation and the religious rules & sanction, which are the two major governing rules of the community, reveal that the religious rules and sanctions are the main governing rules in the lifestyle of the local community. This indicates that the main mode of protection for church forests to be religious sanctions assisted by legal protection.

Among the locally based institutions, results suggest that the church (the clergy) is the one to be trusted and respected more by the community. This indicates how the church’s beliefs and practices are deeply imprinted with the lifestyle and personality of the people. Thus, the church can be taken, as an entry point and platform for any development and conservation programs as it is the central institution among the community.

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The willingness to plant seedlings around the churches is very high. But most of the respondents set preconditions for the planting that the planted seedlings must be given to the church. This is an indication of how the forest development is strongly associated with the church. As to the type of species to be planted around the church the main preference was for indigenous species followed by Eucalyptus spp.

The preference of indigenous trees is of great importance from a conservation point of view. However, the preference of Eucalyptus spp, which seems to be of an economic need to the church, is a threat, which may entirely substitute those indigenous tree species. These two variables, the willingness and species preference are church affiliation dependent, that come from the ability of church leaders to motivate the followers for seedling planting and the income demand of each church could vary. The variable, species preference is also a main occupation dependent that the handicraft workers preferring more indigenous species, which are preferable for architectural work than others.

The study area, which is devoid of extensive natural forest, whether it can be reclaimed or not, depends mainly upon the attitude of the community. The response given to the question ‘whether they would like to have similar forests as in the churches in their landholdings’ is almost equal in proportion of needing and not needing. This variable is dependent on age and church affiliation. It is dependent on age because the lower age classes, that are demanding more agricultural lands, don’t want to see forest reclamation. It is dependent upon church affiliation because the availability of extra places varies from place to place. In general almost half of the community responded that they don’t want to develop and reclaim the natural forest outside of the church compound. Moreover, economical and ecological problems of practicality, even based on the willing segment of the community, will challenge the reclamation of the natural forest.

Therefore, the church forest will continue being the only remnant of the dry afro-mountain forest in the area with avoidable threats. This is an alarm that church forests would do well to recognize and protect in order not to miss the last chance of protecting the indigenous forest of the area.

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7.2.3. Stakeholder Views The result of stakeholder analysis shows there are points whereby all stakeholders converge and also diverge. Regarding the view of who has been protecting the church forest, all of them agree that it is the EOTC. The owner of the church forest and the right to use it are the divergent views and interests among the stakeholders. The church and the community hold the same view that the owner and the one who has the right to use is it is the church at all times. Whereas, the state representatives believe that the owner is the state but the church has the right to use with prior recognition of the agricultural office. The agricultural office claims the owner of the forest to be the community, which doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t clarify the ownership. Regarding the utilization right, the Office of Agriculture takes the full authority to control and with its permission the church can be given the right to use the forest. The permission that can be given from the office of Agriculture demands to inform the Office of Agriculture one year before whenever the church needs to cut trees in its compound. If it is permitted, the church has to plant five seedlings, which are of the same kind of species as that to be cut. The availability of indigenous seedlings is restricted in the government and private nursery; thus exotic species end up being planted. The church scholars consider the permission procedure and requirement as a threat. This make them feel detached from the decision-making processes associated with forest management.

The view about the future of the church forests also diverges among the stakeholders. The EOTC and the community argue that the forest should be retained under the church with full ownership and right of use.

They strongly argue it is the church that made the resource available so the church should be given full responsibility with assistance from the state. On the other hand, the state and Office of Agriculture argue that it is advisable to keep the church under the protection purpose but under close supervision and authority of the respected body (Agricultural Office).

The expectation around church forest conservation also varies. The EOTC expects recognition of the tradition and the approval of the full ownership of the church by the state and respected bodies, legal protection from the government and fund/project based to manage the resource properly under the values and norms of the church. The community also expects protection assistance from the state. The state in turn expects the church to utilise the forest resources effectively and efficiently with the approval of the respected bodies. The Department of Agriculture expects recognition of its technical rules for cutting by the church and the church to play a great role in the forest taskforce, set at different levels to conserve the remaining forest resources outside of the church compound.

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All these divergent views may lead to mistrust and poor co-operation among the stakeholders as each one of them tries to go their own way, which in turn leads to complete indifference and failure. Therefore a trade-off on common grounds seems the remedial and resolution for diverging views.

7.2.4. SWOT of the Tradition The strengths and opportunities are derived from the theological framework of the tradition and indoctrinating of this tradition among the community. The opportunity and prospects are to be more pronounced if all stakeholders give positive recognition to the tradition and the resources, along with material and technical assistance of scholars and the efforts of the higher officials of the church is to be added.

The weaknesses of the tradition, which are more of a technical nature, are derived from two sources. The first is from the land tenure system of the area in particular and the nation in general and the other is from the economic and financial limitations of the church itself. The threats on the other hand are derived from population pressure, other religious sects, nature, resource limitation and misapplication of the church traditions and doctrine. The weakness and threats are avoidable if the state, all stakeholders, scholars/professionals, the church and the community together exert continuous effort. On the contrary, if nothing is done, sooner or later those church forests may disappear due to the threats.

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8.CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 8.1. Conclusion The diversity of indigenous woody species and the forest area protected by the eight studied churches are significant and by and large the contribution of the EOTC in forest resource conservation for the zone in particular and the country in general is considerable. The basal area of all church forests shows those forests have a good stock as compared to some of the natural state forests. The studied church forests being found in different agro-climatic zones and having their own unique species composition surrounded by bare landscape make them sensitive from a conservation point of view.

The patterns of some of the species population structures suggest at least two major types of plants. The first, are species able to regenerate in the forest understory and the others are plants which have difficulties reproducing. The poor regeneration and recruitment status of some species subjected to biological dynamics in the forest without scientific management intervention; aggravated by external influences mainly grazing and cutting could lead to the disappearance of some of the species. The diameter class distribution for all individuals from all the eight churches revealed the forests are at different secondary development stages. Therefore, the current species composition of the forests may be changed through time.

Theological thoughts and biblical justifications are the frame works of the EOTC tradition to conserve the forest resources. The tradition seems holistic, which accounts for the care for all forms of life. According to the tradition, tree seeds collection, traditional medicine and contemplation in the church forests are permitted, while collection of fuel wood, construction wood and fodder are forbidden for the community.

The local communities do have higher respect and thrust in the EOTC among other institutions, which has made the church the central institution and platform for socio-economic issues of the people.

The positive attitude to the resources protected by the church and the acceptance of the church tradition is thus an opportunity for forest conservation. Therefore, the isolated remnant forests of churches, with their higher woody diversity are a potential for in situ and ex situ conservation sites. Moreover, with formal legal protection, in addition to the religious protection method, scientific management intervention and resource investment, church forests may provide greater prospect in implementing and disseminating forestry resource conservation, development, research, education and extension programs among the rural community.

On the other hand, the diverging views mainly on ownership and utility rights among the stakeholders may affect the strength of the tradition. The influence of population growth with poor available forest resource,

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attitude and perception diversion of some of the community members due to the temptation of other religious sects and â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;modernityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; are the major threats. Misapplication of the church tradition among the followers, mainly monument construction, is also a threat. Unless those threats, which are avoidable, are not hampered, the quality and quantity of the forest resources could be affected sooner or later. This is not new from experience and the past forest history of the area in particular and the country in general.

8.2. Recommendation In order to strengthen the tradition and minimize the threats on the forest resources protected by the EOTC the following recommendations are suggested: 1. There has to be silvicultural intervention to facilitate the regenerating aptitude of some of the species in order to assure sustainability of the diversity. The church development commission (DICAC) may do the intervention. Moreover, forest management plan should be prepared and exercised.

2. The legal protection of the church forest should be strengthened to make more sharpened the two sides of the protection mechanisms of the church.

3. The church forest areas ought to be gazetted by the state after a clear demarcation and marked to stop further encroachment and exclude grazing.

4. It would be wise to train and orientate the church scholars about scientific tree propagation (seed collection, storage and nursery techniques), silvicultural and forest management technique, which may diversify their level of knowledge on top of traditional conservation knowledge.

5. The stakeholder divergent views need to converge with consensus and discussion in such away that this tradition can be more strengthened and recognized.

6. Exotic species should not be planted intermingled with the indigenous woody species, rather they should be encouraged to be planted on the outer border of the indigenous stands as a buffer zone.

7. Monument construction on grave spots should be prohibited per the tradition of the church, and the traditional burial system must be encouraged.

8. It is advisable to identify those sites as an in- situ and ex- situ conservation sites for indigenous woody diversity and other biological organisms with some arrangements without contending the responsibility and use right of the church.

9. To carry out further studies on patterns of age class distribution, degree of isolation of the plants from the surrounding plant population, the potential of the soil seed bank and ethno-botany of each species, to be able to expand the composition and structure of the forest and to extract more knowledge.

10. Any scientific or outside intervention that may be launched on church forests should be designed and applied in such a way that it will not overlook the traditionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s theological background and belief connection to the local community. Instead it must be supplementary and not a substitution to the tradition so that it can be more productive for the church forest and boosting to the outside landscape.

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Conservation Ecology: HRL: http://www.consecol.org/vol1/iss1/art6.

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Forests.

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67

Appendix 1. All species and Families with respective Abundance*, Density** and Frequency*** found in all The Eight Sampled Churches

Tree Tree Shrub Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Stemmed grass Stemmed grass Shrub Shrub Tree Tree Shrub Tree Shrub/Tree Shrub/Tree Climber/Tree Shrub/Tree Tree Tree Shrub/Tree Tree/Shrub Climber Shrub/Tree Shrub Shrub/Tree Tree Tree Tree/Shrub Shrub Tree Shrub/Tree Tree Tree/Shrub Tree Tree Climber/Shrub Tree Tree Shrub/Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Climber/Shrub Tree/Shrub Climber/Shrub Tree Shrub Tree/Shrub Shrub Shrub/ Tree Tree Tree

4.5

1

5

4.5

6 2 1 5

27 18.2 9 9.1 5 4.5 23 22.7

5 5 2 1 9

23 9.1 23 22.7 9 9.1 5 4.5 41 22.7

8 7.7 31 23.1

1

8

1 5 4 20 46 23

7.7

2

15 15.4

1

8

7.7

2 1 4

15 15.4 8 7.7 31 15.4

1 1

8 8

1

5

8

40

1 7

5 35

2 2

10 10

1 1

5 5

5 3

25 15

7.7 7.7

15 15.4 23 15.4

4

18 18.2

3 3

14 14

21 162 53.8 16

6

Density

5

7.7

1 4

2 3

1

Gibts Abundance

8

% Frequency

1

Density

Bazra Girar Kanto Kosheshile Merenz Bamba Sesa Embis Donga Kerkeha Shembeko Yeset- Kesit Wolenbi Azamir Yenebir Tifer Abalo Atquar/Anfar Zigtta/Digtta Dingay seber Gemero Agam Kawoot Wogeda Lomi Limich/Limbich Yazo-Hareg Misirich Feyele feji Buna Kolla abalo Wanza Bisana Almit Selechegn Kitkita Wulkifa Koshim Itsepatos Lol Enkoko Asta Kermo Ayderk Dedeho Kulkual Yewof Shola Shola Chebaha Banbulea Warka Yetota Kolet Awura Lenkuata Trign Hareg Amija Tembelel Yeabesha Tsid Simiza/Sensel Kurava/Kelawa Atat Nech Atat Birbira Ishe

Abundance

Acacia abyssinica Hochst. ex. Benth.

Acacia brevispica Harms Acanthus pubescens (Oliv.) Engl.

Acokanthra schimperi (DC.)Benth.

Adansonia digitata L. Albizia schimperiana Oliv.

Allophylus abyssinica (Hochst) Radlkofer Apodytes dimidiata E. Mey ex. Arn. Arundinaria alpina K.Schum.

Arundo donax Asparagus aethiopicus L. Asplenium trichomannes L. Bersama abyssinica Fresen.

Bridelia micrantha ( Hochst.) Bill.

Brucea antidysenterica J.F.Mill.

Buddleja polystachya Fresen.

Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth.

Canthium oligocarpum Hiern Capparis tomentosa L. Carissa edulis Vahl.

Celtis africana Burm.f.

Chionanthus mildbraedii ( Gilg & Schellenb.) Stearn Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.)

Clausena anisata (Willd.)Benth.

Clematis hirsuta Perr & Guill.

Clerodendron myricoides (Hoechst)R.Br.ex.Vatke Clutia abyssinica Jaub. & Spach.

Coffea arabica L. Combratum mollie R.Br.ex G.Don Cordia africana Lam. Croton macrostachyus Del. Dioscopodium penninervium Hochst.

Diospyros abyssinica (Hiern)F.White Dodonaea anguistifolia L.f.

Dombeya torrida (J.F. Gmel.) P.Bamps Dovyalis abyssinica (A.Rich.)Warb.

Dracaena steudneri Schweinf.ex Engl.

Ekebergia capensis Sparrm.

Embelia schimperi Vatke Erica arborea L. Erythrina brucei Schweinf.

Euclea divinorum Heirn Euphorbia abyssinica Gmel.

Ficus ovata (Vahi) Ficus sur Forssk.

Ficus thonningii Blume Ficus vallis-choudae Del. Ficus vasta Forssk.

Galiniera saxifraga (Hochst)Bridson Gnidia glauca ( Fresen.) Gilg Grewia ferruginea Hochst.ex.A.Rich Hippocratea africana (Willd.)Loes Hypericum revolutum Vahl Jasminum grandiflorum L. Juniperus procera L. Justicia schimperiana (Hochst. Ex Nees) T.Anders.

Maesa lanceolata Forsk Maytenus arbutifalia (A. Rich.) Wilczek Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell Millitea ferruginea (Hochst.) Bak. Mimusops kummel Bruce ex DC.

Local Name Life Form Density

1Fabaceae 2Fabaceae 3Acanthaceae 4Apocynaceae 5Bombacaceae 6Fabaceae 7Sapindaceae 8Icacinaceae 9Gramineae 10Gramineae 11Liliaceae 12Aspliniaceae 13Melianthaceae 14Euphorbiaceae 15Simaroubaceae 16Loganiaceae 17Fabaceae 18Rubiaceae 19Capparidaceae 20Apocynaceae 21Ulmaceae 22Oleaceae 23Rutaceae 24Rutaceae 25Ranunculaceae 26Verbenaceae 27Euphorbiaceae 28Rubiaceae 29Combretaceae 30Boraginaceae 31Euphorbiaceae 32Solanaceae 33Ebenaceae 34Sapindaceae 35Sterculiaceae 36Flacourtiaceae 37Agavaceae 38Meliaceae 39Myrsinaceae 40Ericaceae 41Fabaceae 42Ebenaceae 43Euphorbiaceae 44Moraceae 45Moraceae 46Moraceae 47Moraceae 48Moraceae 49Rubiaceae 50Thymelaeaceae 51Tiliaceae 52Celastraceae 53Hypericaceae 54Oleaceae 55Cupressaceae 56Acanthaceae 57Myrsinaceae 58Celastraceae 59Celastraceae 60Fabaceae 61Sapotaceae

Name of Species

Abundance

No Family

Zahara

% Frequency

Quar

9.1 9.1

73 36.4

46 23.1

3 15 33 16

2 3 1

15 15.4 23 15.4 8 7.7

4 1

31 23.1 8 7.7

1 3 11

3

14

9.1

1

5

1

5

4.5

5

23 18.2

3

15

8 7.7 23 23.1 85 84.6 21

5 18 95 95.5 1

25 90 5

3

23 23.1 10

45 45.5

15

2 1

15 15.4 19 86 54.5 8 7.7 110 500 54.5

3

62Myricaceae 63Loganiaceae 64Oleaceae 65Oleaceae 66Oliniaceae 67Santalaceae 68Lamiaceae 69Palmae 70Euphorbiaceae 71Phytolaccaceae 72Pittosporaceae 73Pittosporaceae 74Podocarpus 75Verbenaceae 76Rosaceae 77Rubiaceae 78Fabaceae 79Rhamnus 80Anacardiaceae 81Anacardiaceae 82Anacardiaceae 83Capparidaceae 84Rosaceae 85Polygonaceae 86Asclepiadaceae 87Araliaceae 88Asteraceae 89Fabaceae 90Apiaceae 91Menispermaceae 92Rutaceae 93 94Urticaceae 95Compositae 96Asteraceae 97Olacaceae

Myrica salicifolia A.Rich.

Myrsine africana L. Nuxia congesta R. Br. ex Fresen.

Olea capensis L. Olea europaea L. Olinia rochetiana A.Juss.

Osyris quadripartita Decn.

Otostegia tomentosa A.Rich.

Phoenix reclinata Phytolacca dodecandra L'H' erit.

Pittospirum spp Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims Podocarpus falcatus (Thunb.)Mirb.

Premna schimperi Engl.

Prunus africana ( Hook. f .) Kalkm.

Psydrax schimperiana Pterollobium stellatum (Forssk.) Brenan Rhamnus prinoides L'Herit.

Rhus retinorrhoea Oliv.

Rhus glutinosa A.Rich.

Rhus vulgaris Meikle Ritchiea albersii Gilg Rosa abyssinica Lindley Rumex nervosus Vahl.

Sarcostemma viminale (L.)R.Br. Schefflera abyssinica (Hochst.ex.A.Rich.)Harms Senecio gigas Vatke Senna singueana (Del.)Lock Steganotaenia araliacea Hochst.

Stephania abyssinica (Dillon &A.Rich.) Walp.

Teclea nobilis Del. Unidentified Urera hyselodendron (A.Rich.) Wedd.

Vernonia amygdalina Del. Vernonia myriantha Hook.f.

Ximenia americana L.

Shinet Kechem Anfar Damotie Woyra Woyra Tifie Keret Tinjut Zembaba/Senel Indod Enqualit Ahot Zigba Chocho Homa Seged Kentefa Gesho Talo/Tilem Embis Kamo Hadesa Kega Embacho Moider Hareg Getem Shokolo Bisbisha Yejib dula Nech hareg Seheel Kumbel Lanqueso Grawa Qotiqoto Inkoy

Tree Shrub Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree/Shrub Shrub Tree Climber Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Climber/Shrub Shrub/Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Shrub Shrub Climber Tree Shrub Shrub Tree Climber Tree/Shrub Tree Climber Tree Shrub Tree/Shrub

1 5 27 13

1

2

15 15.4

1

8

7.7

1 1

8 8

7.7 7.7

1

8

Number of quadrats (size of 10mtX 10 mt) assessed for each church was: Quar = 13, Zahara = 22, Gibtsawit = 20, Dengolt = 54, Gelawdios = 46, Hiruy = 14, Debresena = 32, Ascha = 7 *Abundance refers number of individuals per area sampled (Number of quadrats X size of the quadrat) **Density refers number of individuals per hectare derived from Abundance and ***Frequency refers percentage of plots in which a species was recorded

69

18 18.2 5 4.5

1

5

3

14 13.6

4.5

7.7

8 7.7 15 15.4 23 23.1

10 10

1

5

17

85

7 4

35 20

1 6

5 30

2

10

1

5

1 1

5 5

4.5

4 1

14

1 2 3

5

2 2

64 45.5

S/ N

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67

Family

Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Euphorbiaceae Acanthaceae Apocynaceae Bombacaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Sapindaceae Icacinaceae Gramineae Gramineae Melianthaceae Euphorbiaceae Simaroubaceae Loganiaceae Fabaceae Rubiaceae Capparidaceae Apocynaceae Ulmaceae Oleaceae Rutaceae Rutaceae Ranunculaceae Verbenaceae Euphorbiaceae Combretaceae Combretaceae Boraginaceae Euphorbiaceae Urticaceae Sapindaceae Sterculiaceae Flacourtiaceae Meliaceae Myrsinaceae Fabaceae Ericaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Ebenaceae Euphorbiaceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Thymelaeaceae Tiliaceae Tiliaceae Rosaceae Celastraceae Hypericaceae Oleaceae Cupressaceae Acanthaceae Myrsinaceae Celastraceae Fabaceae Sapotaceae Myricaceae Loganiaceae

Appendix 2. Checklist of All Indigenous Woody Species Found in South Gonder Administrative Zone (SGZDA, Unpublished) Scientific Name Local Name Life Form

Acacia abyssinica Hochst. ex. Benth.

Acacia brevispica Harms Acacia nilotica Acalypha fruticosa Forssk Acanthus pubescens (Oliv.) Engl.

Acokanthra schimperi (DC.)Benth.

Adansonia digitata L. Albizia amara (Roxb.)Boiv.

Albizia schimperiana Oliv.

Albizia spp.

Allophylus abyssinica (Hochst) Radlkofer Apodytes dimidiata E. Mey ex. Arn. Arundinaria alpina K.Schum.

Arundo donax Bersama abyssinica Fresen.

Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.)Baill.

Brucea antidysenterica J.F.Mill.

Buddleja polystachya Fresen.

Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth.

Canthium oligocarpum Hiern Capparis tomentosa L. Carissa edulis Vahl.

Celtis africana Burm.f.

Chionanthus mildbraedii ( Gilg & Schellenb.) Stearn Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.)

Clausena anisata (Willd.)Benth.

Clematis hirsuta Perr & Guill.

Clerodendron myricoides (Hoechst)R.Br.ex.Vatke Clutia abyssinica Jaub. & Spach.

Combratum mollie R.Br.ex G.Don Combretum aculeatum Cordia africana Lam. Croton macrostachyus Del. Debregeasia saeneb (Forssk.)Hepper & Wood Dodonaea anguistifolia L.f.

Dombeya torrida (J.F. Gmel.) P.Bamps Dovyalis abyssinica (A.Rich.)Warb.

Ekebergia capensis Sparrm.

Embelia schimperi Vatke Entada abyssinica Steud.ex A.Rich Erica arborea L. Erythrina abyssinica Erythrina brucei Schweinf.

Euclea divinorum Heirn Euphorbia abyssinica Gmel.

Ficus ovata Vahl.

Ficus sur Forssk.

Ficus thonningii Blume Ficus vallis-choudae Del. Ficus vasta Forssk.

Galiniera saxifraga (Hochst)Bridson Gardenia volkensii K.Schum Gnidia glauca ( Fresen.) Gilg Grewia bicolor Grewia ferruginea Hochst.ex.A.Rich Hagenia abyssinnica (Bruce) Gmelin Hippocratea africana (Willd.)Loes Hypericum revolutum Vahl Jasminum grandiflorum L. Juniperus procera L. Justicia schimperiana (Hochst. Ex Nees) T.Anders.

Maesa lanceolata Forsk Maytenus arbutifalia (A. Rich.) Wilczek Millittia ferruginea (Hochst.)Bak. Mimusops kummel Bruce ex DC. Myrica salicifolia A.Rich.

Nuxia congesta R. Br. ex Fresen.

70

Bazra Girar Kanto Cheba Nacha Kosheshile Merenz Bamba Sibkana Sesa Sendel Embis Donga Kerkeha Shembeko Azamir Yenebir Tifer Abalo Atquar/Anfar Zigtta/Digtta Dingay seber Gemero Agam Kawoot Wogeda Lomi Limich/Limbich Yazo-Hareg Misirich Feyele feji Kolla abalo Zenfok Wanza Bisana Shunshuna Kitkita Wulkifa Koshim Lol Enkoko Ambelta Asta/Adale Kuara/Korch Kermo Ayderk Dedeho Kulkual Yewof Shola Shola Chebaha Banbulea Warka Yetota Kolet Gambilo Awura Sumaya/Sefa Lenkuata Koso Trign Hareg Amija Tembelel Yeabesha Tsid Simiza/Sensel Kurava/Kelawa Atat Birbira Ishe Shinet/Kalava Anfar

Tree Tree Shrub/Tree Shrub/Tree Shrub Tree Tree Tree/Shrub Tree Tree/Shrub Tree Tree Stemmed grass Stemmed grass Tree Tree Shrub Tree Shrub/Tree Shrub/Tree Climber/Shrub Shrub/Tree Tree Tree Shrub/Tree Tree/Shrub Climber Shrub/Tree Shrub Tree Shrub Tree Tree/Shrub Tree/Shrub Shrub/Tree Tree Tree/Shrub Tree Climber/Shrub Tree Tree Tree Tree Shrub/Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree/Shrub Tree Tree Tree/Shrub Tree/Shrub Tree Climber/Shrub Tree/Shrub Climber/Shrub Tree Shrub Tree/Shrub Shrub Tree Tree Tree Tree

F.ch x x

x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125

Oleaceae Oleaceae Oliniaceae Cactaceae Santalaceae Lamiaceae Palmae Phytolaccaceae Fabaceae Pittosporaceae Pittosporaceae Podocarpus Portulacaceae Verbenaceae Rosaceae Rubiaceae Fabaceae Rhamnaceae Anacardiaceae Anacardiaceae Anacardiaceae Euphorbiaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Polygonaceae Salicaceae Araliaceae Euphorbiaceae Fabaceae Bignoniaceae Myrtaceae Rutaceae Combretaceae

Asteraceae Olacaceae

Olea capensis L. Olea europaea L. Olinia rochetiana A.Juss.

Opuntia vulgaris Osyris quadripartita Decn.

Otostegia tomentosa A.Rich.

Phoenix reclinata Jacq.

Phytolacca dodecandra L'H' erit.

Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh.

Pittospirum spp Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims Podocarpus falcatus (Thunb.)Mirb.

Portulaca quadrifida L. Premna schimperi Engl.

Prunus africana ( Hook. f .) Kalkm.

Psydrax schimperiana Pterollobium stellatum (Forssk.) Brenan Rhamnus staddo A.Rich.

Rhus retinorrhoea Oliv.

Rhus glutinosa A.Rich.

Rhus vulgaris Meikle Ricinus communis Rosa abyssinica Lindley Rubus apetalus Poir.

Rumex nervosus Vahl.

Salix subserrata Schefflera abyssinica (Hochst.ex.A.Rich.)Harms Securinega virosa (Roxb. Ex Willd.) Pax. & Hoffm Senna singueana (Del.)Lock Stereospermum kunthianum Cham Syzygium guineense Teclea nobilis Del. Terminalia spp.

Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Unidentified Vernonia myriantha Hook.f.

Ximenia americana L.

X- found in the eight sampled churches.

71

Damotie Woyra Woyra Tifie Beles Keret Tinjut Seniel/Zembaba Indod Yekola Wanza Enqualit Ahot Zigba Marenta Chocho Homa Seged Kentefa Tedo Talo/Tilem Embis Kamo Chaqima Kega Enjory Embacho Ahaya Getem Wenahee Bisbisha Zana/Washta Dokima Seheel Akima Alashumie Albey Arboji Birbirta Dabes Degdeg Hareg Dodo Genbez Isat-Lash Kandura Kezikez Kumbel Sosich Teji Tinbilta Tules Wanat Wenbela Werchebo Woef kentif Ybel Genbo Yedem Kitel Yederie Qotiqoto/Dingurita Inkoy

Tree Tree Tree Shrub Tree/Shrub Shrub Tree Climber Tree Tree Tree Tree Shrub Tree Tree Tree Climber/Shrub Shrub/Tree Tree Tree Tree Shrub/Tree Shrub/Small Tree Shrub/Tree Shrub Tree Tree

x x x

Shrub Tree Tree Tree/Shrub Tree/Shrub

x

Tree

x

Shrub/Tree Tree/Shrub

x x

x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

x