Master of Science in Sustainable Design Program at Thoamas Jefferson University

THE DESIGN OF A SUSTAINABLE HOUSING PROTOTYPE FOR MILLENNIALS IN RENO, NEVADA

A Thesis Presented to the Faculty Of Thomas Jefferson University In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Sustainable Design

by Deysi Montes December 2019

Š2019 Deysi Montes

ABSTRACT This project presents a proposed housing solution for Millennials.

This thesis analyzes current issues confronting Millennials in 2019, their causes, and their effect on this generation’s ability to provide for themselves and their families, a chief concern of which is housing. The solutions proposed in this research apply to both individuals and families.

The design proposal shows a pilot solution that minimizes the construction footprint, allows for long term savings, is energy efficient, supports the local ecosystem, and, adapts throughout the life span of a person and beyond to include multiple generations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research is dedicated to my family for all their support and understanding and to my professors Robert Fryer and Robert Fleming for guiding me and inspiring me along my educational journey.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOLWEDGEMENTS………………………………..……………………………iii LIST OF TABLES……...…………...….…………………………………………….…iv LIST OF FIGURES………………………………...…...………………………….…....v CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION………………………...……...……………….…...1 CHAPTER TWO: PROBLEMS……………...………………….……………………….11 Millennials, Lifestyle and Circumstance.………...……………….……...11 Housing Market Price………………………………………………………16 Construction Materials……….………….…………………………….....28 Housing as a Fundamental Right…………………………………….….34 Conclusions …………………………………………………………….….38 CHAPTER THREE: PROBLEM SOLUTION………….……..…………………………40 Site Selection………….…………………………………………..………..40 Site Inventory ……………...……………………….……………………....44 Experience ………………………………..………………………...44 Performance…..….……………………………………………….. .47 Culture…………………………….……………….……………..…48 Systems …………………………………...…….…………….…....50 Site Analysis………………….……………………...............................…...51 Experience.. …………………………….……………..………..…... 51 Performance.………………………………………………………..51 Culture………………………............................................................52 Systems .............................................................................................52 Guiding Principles…....................................................................................53 Goals and Strategies....................................................................................53 Experience .........................................................................................54 Performance......................................................................................54 Culture................................................................................................55 Systems…………..............................................................................55 Pre-Design......................................................................................................57 Building Location & Building Orientation...............................................59 Schematic Design........................................................................................60 Design Development....................................................................................70 Landscape Selection....................................................................................70 Wall Selection................................................................................................ .71 Roof Selection ...............................................................................................72 Solar Panel Selection....................................................................................74 Interior Wall Selection .................................................................................74 Validation........................................................................................................76 CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSIONS.......................................................................................79 Performance...................................................................................................79 Systems. ....................................................................................................... 80 Culture.............................................................................................................81 Experience ... .................................................................................................82 Next Steps......................................................................................................82 REFERENCES... ..............................................................................................83 iv

LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1-1: Barriers to Homeownership…………………….…….…….………...3 FIGURE 1-2: FIGURE 1-2: S&P/Case Shiller U.U. National Home Price Index 1975…………………………………………………………………………………....6 FIGURE 1-3: Global Material Resources Outlook to 2060………..………………8 FIGURE 2-1: US Population Distribution by Age, 2013……………………………11 FIGURE 2-2: Share of Population Aged 20 to 34 that are Foreign Born............12 FIGURE 2-3: Race and Ethnic Group, 15 to 34 Year-Old…………………………12 Figure 2-4: Millennials are Better Educated than Prior Generations……..........14 Figure 2-5: A Depressing Milestone Housing Market Price……………….…..15 Figure 2-6: Le Corbusier L’Unite d’Habitation……………………...……...….......19 FIGURE 2-7: Change in Median Wages Compared to 1960………...…………...20 FIGURE 2-8: Divorce Rate for Adults Ages 50 And Older Has Roughly Doubled in the Past 25 Years……………………………………………….…..……21 FIGURE 2-9: US Historical Foreclosure Activity and Rates ……………............23 FIGURE 2-10: About One in Three Millennials Live with Their Parents………..24 FIGURE 2-11: Percentage of 24 – 34-Year-Olds Living with Parents VS. Homeownership Rate in Under 35-Year-Olds……………….…………..……...24 FIGURE 2-12: The Cost of Construction Materials……………..…………...……25 FIGURE 2-13: Five Largest Wood Exporting Countries in the World…………...26 FIGURE 2-14: Where the Pain Will Be Felt the Most…………….………………..26 Figure 2-15: Seasonal Correlation VOC and Temperature……………..…….....31 FIGURE 2-16: Median Total Income Among Generations in Every State.…......37 FIGURE 2-17: Trends in Trailing Twelve-Month Average of Median U.S. New Home Sale Prices………………………………………………..………………......38 FIGURE 2-18: Annual Homeownership Rates for the United States by Age Group (1982-2017)………………………………………………………..…….…..39 FIGURE 3-1 Map Reno, Nevada..……………………………….……………….....40 FIGURE 3-2 Location of Reno, Nevada…………………………….……….…..…41 FIGURE 3-3 Reno Distances to East and West…………………………………..42 FIGURE 3-4 Reno Entertainment Industry at Night……………….…………...43 FIGURE 3-5 Site Location... …………………………………………….………….43 v

FIGURE 3-6 District Framework Downtown Reno……………………………....44 FIGURE 3-7 Site Inventory Diagram for Experience…………………...………..45 FIGURE 3-8: Food Truck during the Summer at Idlewild……………..……......45 FIGURE 3-9: Idlewild Park…………………………………………………...……..46 FIGURE 3-10 Reno Truckee River ………………………………………..……..…46 FIGURE 3-11 Wingfield Park Weekend Activities…………………...…………....46 FIGURE 3-12 Reno Flooding Map…………………………………..……………...47 FIGURE 3-13 Site Inventory Diagram for Performance …………………...…...48 FIGURE 3-14 Site Inventory Diagram for Culture…………….……………….....49 FIGURE 3-15 View towards Booth Street……………………….………………..49 FIGURE 3-16 View towards the Access on a Major ………….………………….49 FIGURE 3-17 Site Inventory Systems Diagram……...……..……………………50 FIGURE 3-18 Bus Stop on Idlewild Street……………………..………………….50 FIGURE 3-19 Evolution of the House…………………………...………………....57 FIGURE 3-20 How We Live, U.S. Household Types, 2010………..………………58 FIGURE 3-21 Millennials Housing Needs……………………...…………….…...59 FIGURE 3-22 Building Orientation and Building Location………...……..…….60 FIGURE 3-23Apartment 1, 24’x24’ Studio Floor Plan……………...…………..... 61 FIGURE 3-24 Apartment 1, 24’x24’ Studio Sections……………..………………61 FIGURE 3-25 Apartment 1, 24’x24’ Studio Perspective Towards Entry Doo…..62 FIGURE 3-26 Apartment 1+1/4, 36’x24’ Floor Plan ………………..………….....62 FIGURE 3-27 Apartment 1+1/4, 36’x24’ Sections………………...……………...63 FIGURE 3-28 Apartment 1+1/4, 36’x24’ Perspectives………………………..…63 FIGURE 3-29 Apartment 1+1/2, 36’x24’ Floor Plan……………………………....64 FIGURE 3-30 Apartment 1+1/2, 36’x24’ Perspective through Living…………..64 FIGURE 3-31 Apartment 1+1/2, 36’x24’ Perspective through Living ….……....64 FIGURE 3-32 Apartment 1+1, 48’x24’ Floor plan……………………...……….....65 FIGURE 3-33 Apartment 1+1, 48’x24’ Sections…………………...……………...65 FIGURE 3-34 Apartment 1+1, 48’x24’ Perspective from Master Bedroom…...66 FIGURE 3-35 Apartment 1+1, 48’x24’ Perspective from Living Room & Dining Room…………………………………………………………….…………………..66 FIGURE 3-36 Two Story 1+1/2 Floor Plan 1 and 2. ………………...…………..…67 vi

FIGURE 3-37 Two Story 1+1/2 Sections ………………………..……………….....67 FIGURE 3-38Two Story 1+1/2 Perspective…………………..………………….....68 FIGURE 3-39 Two Story 1+1/2 Perspective…………………..…………………...68 FIGURE 3-40 Two Story 1+1 Floor Plan……………………….…………………...69 FIGURE 3-41 Two Story 1+1 Sections……………………………….……………...69 FIGURE 3-42 Two Story 1+1 Perspective………………….……………………....70 FIGURE 3-43 Insulated Concrete Forms…………………………………………72 FIGURE 3-44 R-Value Choices for Quad-Lock Walls……………………………72 FIGURE 3-45 Sarnafil Roof System………………………………………….…....73 FIGURE 3-46 305 Solar Panel……………………………………………………...74 FIGURE 3-47 McCain Modular Walls……………………………………………...76 FIGURE 3-48 Annual Energy Use Baseline……………………………………....76 FIGURE 3-49 Annual Energy Use After Quad-Lock Wall &Floor System…........77 FIGURE 3-50 Annual Energy Use After Sarnafil Roof Selection……………….77 FIGURE 3-51 Annual Energy Use After Sunpower Solar Panel ………………..78 FIGURE: 3-52 Total EUI Reduction………………………………………………..78 FIGURE 4-1 Project Perspective…………………………………………………....79 FIGURE 4-2 Interior View to the Apartment Complex ………………………….80 FIGURE 4-3 Interior View to Community Gardens..……………………………..81 FIGURE 4-4 Interior View towards the Entrance……………………………........81

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LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1-1: Homeownership among Baby Boomers, Gen Xers, and Millennials…………………………………………………………………………....4 TABLE 1-2: Construction and Demolition Debris Generation by Source (Thousand tons)………………………………………………………………...…...9

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Homeownership is a goal most people share, whether they are married, have children, or are single; homeownership is a concept developed from 19th and 20th century precedents. Existing housing is designed and constructed to satisfy needs and aspirations that go as far back as the 19th century, resulting in housing styles that tend to be segregational, exclusionary, and more expensive and unaffordable. The current housing market is not well equipped to move forward with the needs and aspirations of the 21st century, especially for a particular group within the population: Millennials.

Millennials are categorized as the population born between the years 1981-2000. In 2014, the number of Millennials in the United States was about 83.1 million, placing them as the largest population in the US (The Council of Economic Advisors, 2014). According to a report by the Center for Sustainable Systems at the University of Michigan, since 1950, regular residential living trends in the U.S. have been towards bigger houses with fewer occupants, and thus the number of occupants per home decreased, and single-occupant homes increased from 9% to 28% (2018). This dynamic affects Millennials in particular since they are the latest to join the housing market, and life events are changing faster compared to previous generations. For instance, Millennials are no longer getting married in their early 20’s unlike the Baby Boomers, nor are Millennials buying fourbedroom houses in the suburbs (Choi et al., 2018).

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The collective transition of this population, from being dependents to starting their own families, presents a panorama with long-term influence on housing market trends. These life conditions that differ from previous generations should be taken into consideration when designing and building houses.

Under typical conditions, homes rarely change their shape or layout, unless they experience remodeling due to sale, redevelopment, or demolition. The traditional house has a non-variable size and program, regardless of the needs and situation of the owners. One factor contributing to the unaffordability of housing is that current housing market prices are high, making it difficult for Millennials to afford their first home. A low inventory of houses combined with the current Millennial’s modest income (and historically low for this age group) makes it harder for them to afford a house. When trying to buy a house, Millennials face barriers that often stop them from becoming homeowners.

According to the Urban Institute, more than half of people considering purchasing a home believe they cannot afford a down payment (Choi et al., 2018). As reported by the Urban Institute, almost 40% of Millennials think they require more than 20% of the total house cost for a down payment. Only 12 % of this population is aware that they can buy a home with as little as 5% for a down payment (Choi et al., 2018). The survey in Figure 1-1 shows that financial misinformation is the first barrier that future homeowners face. A potential homebuyer does not need 20% or more to afford the down payment of a mortgage; a median down payment is 12% 2

and for Federal Housing Administration (FHA) loans can be as little as 5% (Choi et al., 2018).

FIGURE 1-1: Barriers to Homeownership

Source: Choi et al., 2018 Deloitte Magazine stated that by 2025, 75% of the global workforce will be comprised of young adults born between the 1980s and 1990s (2014).

This shows that the Millennial population will soon become the vast majority of the working force able to afford homes and provide for their families. New approaches to architecture and the real estate market should be accompanied with strategies aimed to satisfy this population’s requirements.

Millennials are one of the most studied groups, primarily because of their behavior and decision making that greatly differs from previous generations. The ample research done to analyze the behavior and choices of Millennials has shown that they are highly engaged and purpose-driven, emphasize social responsibility, care about the Environment, prefer living

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in communities with shared interests, and value acquiring experiences more than material objects (Donston-Miller, 2016).

The Millennial population shares few with other generations such as Generation X, Baby Boomers, and Silent Generation. Millennials are more diverse (racially and ethnically), they are the most educated generation, and they are getting married or having children at much older ages. In addition, Millennials range from 23 to 38 years old, and currently, situate themselves at the peak of their homeowning stage. However, Millennials’ actions and decisions in becoming homeowners are delayed, and in the best cases are occurring in less proportion than previous generations (Deloitte, 2014).

Based on a census performed by the American Community Survey in 2015, the population of Millennials was 75,170,263 from which only 32.2% were homeowners (Table 1). Reasons for why only a third of this generation are homeowners are almost ironically the same characteristics that define this population, such as lower rates of marriage, higher education debt, and wider racial and ethnicity range, among others (2015).

Table 1: Homeownership among Baby Boomers, Gen Xers, and Millennials in 2015

Source: American Community Survey, 2015

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Housing is a human right according to the UN Fact Sheet N 21 where it states that: “The right to adequate housing is universally recognized by the community of nations . . . All nations without exception, have some form of obligation in the shelter sector, as exemplified by their creation of housing ministries or housing agencies, by their allocation of funds to the housing sector, and by their policies, programs and projects . ‌All citizens of all States, poor as they may be, have a right to expect their Governments to be concerned about their shelter needs, and to accept a fundamental obligation to protect and improve houses and neighborhoods, rather than damage or destroy them. Adequate housing is defined within the Global Strategy as meaning: adequate privacy, adequate space, adequate security, adequate lighting and ventilation, adequate basic infrastructure and adequate location with regard to work and basic facilities-all at a reasonable cost.â€?

(UN, 1948, p. 3) The current situation Millennials face is the opposite, where it is harder to find houses at affordable prices in areas closer to working centers and at the same time are in appropriate living conditions. The direct impact on housing unaffordability is that it displaces poor residents, drives economic inequality, and creates social disparity. It seems at times that housing is not a human right, but rather a commodity for investment, where owners can sell when the market is up and buy when the market is down. Real estate property is highly profitable, hence subject to speculation, the price of rent or a mortgage is directly proportional with problems, such as gentrification, and has variations city to city. A general rule of thumb shows that prices will be higher in cities that concentrate higher capital investments, for example, in cities such as New York and 5

San Francisco, where gentrification is evident and where technology investment has a place. Moreover, residential real estate is highly connected to the market forces which adds interest to the most significant industrial and financiers.

The latest boom in the housing prices is no recent phenomenon.

Figure 1-2, shows that the price of inflation for housing in the US increased by almost 180% during the 2007 recession. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, prices for houses are 421.17% higher this year than in 1975, with an estimated difference of $421,168 US Dollars. This fact is the equivalent of a house in 1975 with a price of $100,000 USD, now costing $521,168 USD in 2019 (Official Data Foundation, 2019).

FIGURE 1-2: S&P/Case Shiller U.U. National Home Price Index 1975

Source: Feazelle, et all, 2017 Unfortunately, the annual income of people has not increased as much as the real estate market. Both of these issues combined are significant causes for inflation in the US. "Rising rents remain the source of inflation. This is driven by shortages of housing in desirable markets," said Dean Baker, a Senior Economist at the Center for 6

Economic and Policy Research. He also declares that, "Unfortunately, the downward trend in housing construction means that these shortages are unlikely to be addressed on the supply side in the foreseeable future" (CBS Interactive Inc, 2018, p. 4).

Andrew Woo, Former Director of Data Science at Apartment List, examines the trend of the rise in the price of housing, and affirms that: “In 1960 Inflation-adjusted rests have risen by 64%, but real household incomes only 19%. The situation was particularly challenging from 2000-2010: household incomes fell by 7%, while rents rose by 12%. As a result, the share if cost burned renters nationwide more than doubled from 24% in 1960 to 49% in 2014 …Rents have risen rapidly in many cities thorough the US by looking at things over more than fifty years helps us understand the impact of these trends. If rents had only risen at the rate of inflation, the average renter would be paying 366 less in rent each month”. Mr. Woo also continues saying: “there is not one state in the US in which a minimum wage worker, who labors 40 hours a week that can afford the cost on an average one-bedroom apartment for rent and much less to buy .” (Dollack, 2017, p. 13) In recent decades, the world has had remarkable development and with it architecture and the construction industries have utilized enormous quantities of materials with high costs for the environment; moreover the foresight for this matter is on the rise. The graph in Figure 1-3 shows the prognosis for 2060, where construction materials, such as sand, gravel, and crushed rock, will increase to reach almost 60 gigatons globally. According to the report from Transparency Market

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Research, the volume of construction debris produced worldwide will be approximately 2.2 billion tons by 2025 (Slowey,2018).

FIGURE 1-3: Global Material Resources Outlook to 2060

Source: OECD, 2019 The use of materials and the link between environmental consequences and economic drivers is a keystone study when researching the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SGD). SDG # 12 talks about “Responsible Growth and Production� and how to target efficient use of natural resources and sustainable management. The increasing use of construction materials is also associated with the increase projected for environmental impacts by 2060 (OECD, 2019).

Many times, with the objective of improving technical and performance characteristics of construction materials, factories can use new chemical compositions and substances that can cause harmful consequences to the health of the building and environment. At the same time, these materials generate contamination, which 8

becomes an environmental burden. It is evident that many construction materials also have good technical characteristics, but the tricky part is to backtrack the threat of contamination that production processes have. Practically half of the materials used in the construction industry originate from natural sources. According to the data gathered by the United States Environmentally Protection Agency (EPA), the US produced 548,351 tons of construction and demolition debris in 2015, and compared to previous years the production of this debris is escalating (Table 1-2).

TABLE 1-2: Construction and Demolition Debris Generation by Source (Thousand tons)

Source: US Environmental Protection Agency, 2018.

The construction industry shows that it is not easy to change the market construction system and utilize natural resources. Recycling, reuse, and recuperation of materials does not seem to have an impact on the traditional tendency to extract raw materials. This environmental crisis makes it necessary to look for a formula that works with the responsible utilization of materials in a way that complies with the same functionality without harming the environment. Currently, the home construction industry increased to 1.326 million of housing starts according to the commerce department. At the same time, polls taken of economists by 9

Reuters forecast that housing construction will continue to rise (Mutikani, 2019). With such demand for housing, there is an opportunity to introduce a different paradigm for construction that can be affordable yet also create and promote healthy environments for new homebuyers: Millennials.

The built environment has a direct impact on people’s health and psychological state; therefore, the importance of material source and production selection is essential. After reviewing these precedents, it is possible to understand the impact level that these issues have on Millennials. Combined with the current circumstances and average age of Millennials, this becomes an important problem to solve.

By creating a series of smaller building modules that can be purchased and assembled as needed, the result will be an affordable and environmentally sustainable house that meets the individual needs, values, and lifestyles of Millennials.

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CHAPTER TWO: PROBLEMS Millennials, Lifestyle and Circumstances The current housing market does not always provide options that fulfill the changing needs, values, and lifestyles of Millennials. For instance, Millennials are no longer getting married in their early 20s, buying a fourbedroom houses located on the outside of town, and moving up the corporate ladder at one company their entire career. Also, most Millennials graduated during the recession of the 2000s, combined with their unprecedented student debt and present job insecurity forces them to delay other significant decisions in life (Passy, 2017).

In 2013, the total population of Millennials was a third of the total population in the US. Presently, they are the most extensive and diverse population in the US (Figure 2-1).

FIGURE 2-1: US Population Distribution by Age, 2013

Source: The Council of Economic Advisors ,2014.

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Millennials are predominantly a diverse group as a result of immigration during the 1940s with the “war years� (Rosenberg, 2009).

According to the Census Bureau, 13.7% of the US population was foreign resident in 2017, the second highest since 1910 with 20% of the population (Figure 2-2).

FIGURE 2-2: Share of Population Aged 20 to 34 that are Foreign Born

Source: The Council of Economic Advisors, 2014.

The percentage of people that identified themselves as whitenon-Hispanic has decreased by 20% compared to 1980, and people with Hispanic ancestry has also tripled compared to 1980 (Figure 2-3).

FIGURE 2-3: Race and Ethnic Group, 15 to 34 Year-Old

Source: Council of Economic Advisers, 2014

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Millennials have also witnessed the advancements of technology and enjoyed access to it in more significant ways than any previous generation. Technological advances, such as the personal computer, cell phones, internet, game consoles, e-book readers, tablets, have helped shape this generation’s ways. Since these advances were accessible to them during their childhood, it is easy to see how technology has affected and shaped the way Millennials think, act and their present expectation from life. At the same time, digital content and software came through at affordable prices that placed a new world of information accessible to the fingertips of Millennials. Movements and initiatives, such as crowdfunding, entrepreneurship, and online jobs, are popular nowadays, however, it is too early to see the full development of these initiatives.

According to a study by MIT, the average age of startup founders of companies is around 42 years old, and the average age of entrepreneurs who founded high-growth companies is 45 years old. The study also affirmed that 20-something founders have the lowest likelihood of starting a company with a successful outcome. Moreover, it is still early to see thefull potential of Millennials (Azoulay, Jones, Kim & Miranda, 2018).

It is a fact that there are more Millennials with a college degree than any other generation. As shown Figure 2-4, among Millennials, 39% of those ages 25 to 37 have a Bachelor’s degree or higher, compared with just 15% of the Silent Generation, 24% of Baby Boomers and about 29% Gen Xers at the same age. During recession times, there is greater enrollment in postsecondary schools; which works as an incentive to make one’s skills and 13

capabilities much more competitive in more stringent job market circumstances The better expectancy of income should occur in a nearfuture as a result of investing time and effort to achieve higher education.

Income for Millennials is varied as well; there is a great difference in income between Millennials with a degree versus those that do not.

However, they are below the income levels compared with older generations at the same age (Bialik & Fry, 2019).

FIGURE 2-4: Millennials are Better Educated than Prior Generations

Source: Pew Research Center, 2019.

The student loan debt has also increased as a collective in the USA. According to the Federal Reserve, the student loan debt surpassed $1.5 trillion in late 2018, and is catalogued as the second-largest category on debt in a regular household (Figure 2-5).

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Figure 2-5: A Depressing Milestone

Source: Federal Reserve, 2018 Furthermore, among buyers that were denied a mortgage from a lender, 40% had college debt. In the same study, another fact surfaced where “80% of Millennials don't own a home, and 83% of this population said student loan debt was one of the most significant barriers of buying one� (Lerner 2017, p. 2).

The loan acquired by students often with the high expectancy of increasing their income; can also play against them and become a difficulty when trying to buy a home. According to the Homebuyer Profile report from the National Association of Realtors, "Almost one in four homebuyers this year had student loans, which made it harder for them to save for a down payment and delayed their purchase" (USA Today, 2018, p.

2). According to Market Watch website, first-time buyers, who are by majority Millennials, were able to come up with a 5% down payment to buy a home in 2017, and a 6% in 2018; comparatively the median down payment between home buyers was 10% (Passy, 2017). Overall, Millennials feel the 15

burden of their student loans and the responsibility of paying them off, which can hold them back before making the decision to buy a home. The student loan burden is reflected on their much conservative state of mind before making the decision to acquire the second loan, or even being able to save up for a down payment.

When talking about the design of residential buildings, most of the current options for homes on the market follow a generic space design that does not always satisfy the changing trends and needs of Millennials. The particular style that has taken over leading US cities are apartment buildings with rectangular designs, flushed façade, and flat windows. This uniformity could perhaps be closely related to the new design methods using programs, such as Sketchup, Revit, and Autocad, as well as the selection of materials that are strictly related to value engineering and profit maximization.

Scott Black, senior vice president of Bristol Development, a Nashville-based firm that develops apartments across the Southeast describes, “At the end of the day, if you line up multifamily apartments from Boston, San Francisco, and Miami that have been built in the last decade, you’re going to see a very strong pattern” (Sisson, 2018, p.6). In theory, architecture should always respond to the context where it is built.

Housing Market Price The industry of residential apartments is worth $61 billion a year and one of the biggest constraints it has is location or available space for 16

construction (Salviati, 2018). Most of the time, zoning gives preference to single-family detached homes. One example is Seattle, where close to three quarters of land allocated for residential use is set to be for single-family housing and leaves one quarter of available land free for multifamily use which ends up with no other option than clustering up to utilize as much space possible in the lot footprint (Salviati, 2018).

The design of the building becomes a challenge when trying to apply all the zoning codes to a small terrain assigned for construction. Also, the similarities in the looks of buildings are closely related to the zoning codes.

According to Mohler, "Due to height limits and safety fire requirements, most of these structures are what's known as five over one or one-plus-five: wood-framed construction, which contains apartments and is known as Type 5 in the International Building Code, over a concrete base, which usually contains retail or commercial space, or parking structures, known as Type 1. Some codes also mandate a modulated facade, or varying exteriors across adjacent buildings to avoid repetition" (Sisson, 2018, p.10).

At the same time, the codes also predetermine the cost of multifamily projects. The reason why big cities show the same kind of buildings is because it is the best way to take full advantage of space and is the cheapest way that equates to better earnings. For instance, "In this case, that's light-frame wood construction, which often uses flat windows that are easy to install; a process called rain-screen cladding to create the skin of the building; as well as Hardie panels, a facade covering made from fiber cement" (Sisson, 2018, p. 11).

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When talking about residential construction, it is often true that there is a need to cut costs to maximize profitability. To use a simple example, for faรงade options that are often utilized in multifamily buildings, Hardie panels is the world leader in fiber cement siding, and backer board costs close $7.45 per square feet (Remodeling Expense, 2019).

According to Scott Black, proposing too many variations in apartment buildings equals higher costs. Usually, the units proposed in a project have a standard size, for instance, 12-foot-wide bedrooms. This widely utilized formula references back to the late 1940s when Le Corbusier proposed L'Unite d'Habitation, where modules are stacked to maximize the space provided for construction and for this construction to remain affordable to the new war survivors (Figure 2-6). Almost 70 years have passed since this style of constructing was put into practice and not much has changed. However, the needs for citizens have changed drastically depending on the generational group. For example, Millennials are prone to ideas such as tiny homes, family friendly homes or green homes (Brown, 2019) because they are aware of the impacts their decisions have on the planet.

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Figure 2-6: Le Corbusier L’Unite d’Habitation

Source: Fromageplus, 2010 Nowadays, construction is still concerned about fitting the greatest number of units in a building, but this time, the reason is to maximize the profitability of the construction. Close to two-thirds of the entire US population agrees that they cannot afford to buy a house and affording a down payment is something they do not see in the near future. It could be said that the entire country is facing an affordable housing crisis where the prices of homes are growing at a rate faster than current income wages; hence, the disproportion into the market price and the household income.

Advocacy Group Home 1 prepared a report that exposed how 11 million Americans spend half their paycheck on only rent (Vassel, 2016).

Not only that, but research by The Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University found that half of renters spend 30% or more of their total income on their rent (Gensler, 2015). Furthermore, one of the most definite statements is presented by The National Low-Income Housing 19

Coalition who showed that a typical renter with a minimum wage income could not afford a two-bedroom apartment working only 40 hours a week (Bloom, 2017).

The current economic growth of the country does not reflect on the financial situation of many Americans and leaves them in a sore spot where it is impossible to pay worthy housing without overworking one’s limit. Housing prices continue to increase while wages stagnate and Figure 2-7 shows the disproportion of growth between rents and median wages.

The percentage of median rent has grown about 60% in about 55 years, whereas the median wage has barely moved.

FIGURE 2-7: Change in Median Wages Compared to 1960

Source: Harvard Joint Center for Housing Studies, 2018 The factors that converge for the US housing unaffordability market is a sum of various circumstances such as policy decision making, demographics, and market forces which converge into creating this complex matter. Baby Boomers, a generation that ranges between 55 years or older, are changing the parameters of living. They are living longer with better quality of life at their age, more likely to get divorced, and are more 20

independent compared to their predecessors (Stepler, 2016). “In 2015, for every 1,000 married persons ages 50 and older, 10 divorced – up from five in 1990, according to data from the National Center for Health Statistics and U.S. Census Bureau. Among those ages 65 and older, the divorce rate has roughly tripled since 1990, reaching six people per 1,000 married persons in 2015” (Stepler, 2016, p.2).

According to Pew Research Center the percentage of divorces in three different age groups. Figure 2-8 shows that divorces in people 50 years or more has increased a 109% within a 25-year timeline. In contrast, divorce rates from people between 25-39 has decreased by 21% (Pew Research Center, 2015).

FIGURE 2-8: Divorce Rate for Adults Ages 50 And Older Has Roughly Doubled in the Past 25 Years

Source: Pew Research Center, 2015 The divorce rate for Baby Boomers is high and as a result, more people living alone with less available housing stock. Also, the expectancy of life has improved compared to previous decades, so people are living 21

longer and healthier. Therefore, Baby Boomers will most likely not die soon or move to assisted living facilities. Furthermore, Boomers look into downsizing living space and are entering the housing market to compete for entry-level homes with other generations, such as the Millennials, thereby creating pressure on the entry-level home prices. (Stepler, 2016) In 2008, the USA lived a recession that affected many Americans where credit scores were affected, work was scarce, savings were depleted, and led to a massive foreclosure crisis. During the 2008 recession, Generation X (Gen X), who at the time were between their late 20s and 30s, just entered the housing market and were confronted by the massive foreclosures. The entire country economy stumbled during this recession and between the years 2007 and 2011, 13,037,432 properties were foreclosed in the USA with a peak of almost 2.9 million foreclosures in 2010 (Figure 29). It has been 11 years since that crisis and enough time has passed for Gen Xers and other generations who were affected to get back on their feet and return to the home ownership market. Gen Xers are a generation that in theory should have already passed the stage of buying their first home, however, given the circumstances, this generation adds up to the demand in the housing market forces. Furthermore, rental supply is driving down, and as a result, rents are increasing (Stepler, 2016).

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FIGURE 2-9: US Historical Foreclosure Activity and Rates

Source ATTOM Data Solutions, 2019 Millennials, now in their 30’s, are entering into the housing market, but have to compete with older generations, such as Baby Boomers, who have built up equity for entry-level houses. The Millennial presence also adds up to the increasing demand on housing and rental prices, which can lead to a long-term shift in young people living with their families well into their 20s (Hirsch, 2019). In Figure 2-10, the number of Millennials living with their parents is almost as high as the Millennials who are married or cohabiting in their own household. Also, the number of Millennials who are living by themselves is the lowest compared to the other three types of living arrangements.

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FIGURE 2-10: About One in Three Millennials Live with Their Parents

Source: Pew Research, 2014 In Figure 2-11, the percentage of Millennials living with their parents begins to rise in 2004. The decline in homeownership begins soon after with the financial crisis of 2007.

FIGURE 2-11: Percentage of 24 – 34-Year-Olds Living with Parents VS. Homeownership Rate in Under 35-Year-Olds

Source: Calculated Risk, 2010

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The price of construction materials also adds to the unaffordability of homes. Usually, builders earn their profit by charging an extra cost on top of the price of raw materials and their labour. Figure 2-12 shows the climb of raw material prices with the producer price index, which has risen by 50% since 2008.

FIGURE 2-12: The Cost of Construction Materials

Source U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2019

Figure 2-13 presents the top five countries that export wood with the greatest amount of wood or lumber coming from China with a cost of $13,544,087, followed by Canada and in third place is USA with a cost of $8,998,289. The new increase in importing tariffs is also reflected on the construction industry.

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FIGURE 2-13: Five Largest Wood Exporting Countries in the World

Source: NAHB Now, 2018 In May 2019, President Trump announced an increase in tariffs from 10% to 25% on $200 billion Chinese imports. The National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) said that these tariff increases would affect the prices on more than 400 goods used in construction, including lumber, steel, brick, and aluminum, among others (Brown, 2019). Figure 2-14 shows that the construction industry is most affected by the 40% steel tariffs followed by the automobile industry. This raise in cost will be passed to owners and create a higher increase on prices for homes.

FIGURE 2-14: Where the Pain Will Be Felt the Most

Source: Statista.com, 2018.

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Anthony Rinaldi, an engineer, businessman, and CEO of his own constructing company, said, “The bulk of steel imports here in the States come from Asia — China being the primary marketplace — and the tariffs we are seeing have had a gross impact on the overall cost of the trades with which we deal with steel (Brenzel, 2019, p. 8). Also, he pointed out that: We've seen an increase of about 5 percent on the overall gross value of their numbers. That we've been seeing climbing over the last nine-to-12 months” (Brenzel, 2019, p. 8).

Another reason which explains why construction materials prices are rising is the increase in fuel prices. Since the USA relies heavily on the importation of most construction materials, transportation has become a real burden for buyers. According to AGC, in 2018, construction materials prices increased with 4.9% in lumber and plywood products, and 38.5% in diesel fuel. Also, AGC expressed the following: "Tariffs may help a few producers, but they harm contractors and anyone with a limited budget for construction," said Stephen E. Sandherr, AGC's CEO. "The best way to help the U.S. steel and aluminum sector is to continue pushing measures, like regulatory reform and new infrastructure funding, which increases the demand for their products as the economy expands" (The Construction Specifier, 2018, p. 5).

According to the NAHB and the Bureau of Labor Statistics, there are currently 143,000 unfilled construction job openings throughout the US and 69% NAHB members have reported experiencing delays in finalizing projects within estimated timeframes due to shortages in qualified construction workers (Tradesman International, 2019). One of the reasons for this sector shortage is that many qualified construction workers who 27

could not find jobs changed industries during the recession, and have not returned (Tradesman international, 2019). Moreover, younger generations joining the job market are not considering construction as a career option and are encouraged to pursue college degrees and white-collar careers (Sisson, 2018, p. 13). Vocational education is disappearing from high schools due to low sign-ups from students and as older generations who used to work on construction are retiring, there are not enough qualified individuals taking over these jobs (Sisson, 2018, p. 13). "We can only train students who want to be trained," says John Courson, President and CEO of HBI. "We have to sell the parents on the notion that Johnny or Judy will have good, high-paying jobs with upward mobility" (Sisson, 2018, p. 14).

Construction Materials One of the most important principles of sustainable construction is avoiding the use of toxic building materials. Unfortunately, residential buildings sometimes necessitate the use of toxic materials, and some even comply with legal regulations. A big part of the problem is because construction professionals, such as architects, interior designers, and civil engineers, do not know the toxicity of the materials they propose and use in construction. The other reason is economics, since these materials tend to be more affordable. For example, there is scientific evidence regarding the high toxicity levels of lead plumbing. However, current legal regulations do not impose tight thresholds because of economics. The cost of lead pipe substitution could cost about â‚Ź200,000 million in Europe (Pacheco-Torgal & Jalali, 2011). However, the dangerous health impacts of lead are now 28

common knowledge, such as increase on blood pressure, headaches, mood disorders, and loss of appetite (Cafasso, 2018).

One fundamental concept that is essential to understanding construction material toxicity is their use. Humans around the world use different kinds of resources, including non-renewable ones; because of these high levels of pollution are produced and most importantly, only a small percentage of the global population uses the vast majority of nonrenewable resources. This makes it a severe issue that affects the entire world. Construction is responsible for large amounts of non-renewable resource depletion and large emissions of carbon dioxide gas. (PachecoTorgal & Jalali, 2011).

Nowadays, residential construction materials contain thousands of chemicals and heavy metals that pollute the indoor and outdoor environment. This contamination produces health-related problems, such as irritation, rashes, itchiness, asthma, dizziness, headache, fatigue, disruption of the endocrine system, reproductive impairment, child development, congenital disabilities, immune system suppression, and cancer (Pacheco-Torgal & Jalali, 2011). Furthermore, toxicity levels during the production stages and the chemicals involved are alarming. In 1984, a terrible disaster occurred in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India on the Union Carbide Limited (UCL), where a methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas leak caused approximately 15,000 deaths and 558,125 injuries. This fatal event became known as the Bhopal gas tragedy and is cataloged as the world's worst industrial disaster(Pacheco-Torgal & Jalali, 2011) 29

MIC is an organic compound (CH3NCO) generally used in the formulation of pesticides, and production of rubbers and adhesives.

Construction materials that contain such polymers, include spray-on insulation, soundproofing materials, polyurethane paint systems, caulks/sealants, waterproofing agents, adhesives, and concrete patching/repair materials (MIOSHA, 2015).

During the production of chemical materials, hazardous waste is produced, which is significantly associated with building materials containing these chemicals. A few of the most commonly known are dioxins and furans as well as volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

VOCs are the mostly known toxic chemical that the world is exposed to and are atmospheric pollutants produced by building materials using organic solvents, such as paint and varnishes. (Green Building Supply, 2019) Poor indoor air quality can appear from floor coverings, floor adhesives, insulation and sealing materials, screeds, paints, heating devices, parquet floors, the wood used in construction. These harmful substances in home interiors cannot always be smelled or seen, but can emit toxic pollutants through offgassing. A study carried by Foobot in 2018 (pioneers in innovative air monitoring products, services, and technologies leading to improved air quality indoors) demonstrated the correlation between indoor VOC emissions and temperature; in the same study VOC concentrations reach peak values during the summer when temperatures are at their highest point in the year (Figure 2-15).

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Figure 2-15: Seasonal Correlation VOC and Temperature

Source: Footbot, 2018 Wood is commonly used within construction and is a great example of a sustainable material. However, it has low resistance to biological degradation, such as insect attacks, fungal rot or decay, mold, or wooddestroying insect degradation (Morrel 2002). Until 2004, a common practice to preserve wood was the use of insecticides or fungicides, such as creosote, chromated arsenicals (containing copper and a combination of chromium and arsenic), and pentachlorophenol (PCP) (EPA, 2019).

However, these chemicals contain high toxicity levels and are bioaccumulative. When in contact with rainwater, these chemicals are purged away, thereby contaminating the environment and the people exposed. In January 2004, the US EPA permanently forbade the use of CCA copper, chromium, and arsenic for any timber or wood preservation (EPA, 2019).

Creosote was utilized until 1948 as a wood preservative and its manufacturing was obtained through distillation from coal tar. It is 31

currently only utilized for commercial uses and its application is prohibited on wood intended for any interior use or anything that has contact with food or drinking water due to potential cancer agents within the formula (EPA, 2019).

Materials that release toxins under fire are also a great concern for construction. Studies done by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) revealed that most deaths during fire are from the inhalation of toxic fumes liberated from construction materials (Bush,2015). Also, data show that deaths during fires are increasing since 1980, which could be related to the number of combustible materials used in the interior of houses (Gann et al. 1994).

Some industrial byproducts utilized for the production of concrete, such as phosphogypsum, possess radioactive elements, such as radium (226Ra), uranium (238U, 234U), lead (210Pb), and certain metals that typically come from phosphate rocks (Rihanek 1971). The composition of phosphogypsum is phosphorus with sulfuric acid and is host to naturally radioactive components. The waste generated from its use contains several undesirable components, such as heavy metals, that if not handled correctly, can be severely damaging to the surrounding environment, including water sources. Phosphogypsum is used in the production of cement, bricks, and plaster, usually with other added benefits. For instance, it is used as a replacement for limestone and has proven to provide a better roadbed (Rihanek 1971).

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According to the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements: “The use of waste materials with some form of radiological contamination is known to be a matter of concern to public health because exposure over a long term even of low doses can develop cancer formations” (Pacheco-Torgal & Jalali, 2011).

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) estimates that, “Each year, 40 million tons of the waste are added to stacks in the US, and about 90 million tons annually outside of the US.” Stacks refer to phosphogypsum that is domestically produced throughout the country and at this rate, the IAEA estimates that these stacks, “Will more than double by the year 2040” (Feeco International, 2019).

Lead plumbing has been used through centuries. Approximately 2,200 years ago, during the Roman Empire, waterworks improved due to lead pipes and with this upgrade, the entire water system expanded dramatically. Due to its low corrosion features, lead has been the selected material for water plumbing (Hodge 1981; Dutrizac et al., 1982; Nriagu, 1983).

“Several authors mentioned that lead plumbing is responsible for health problems because of corrosion is formed on the pipe’s surface that eventually will be leached away, thus contaminating water” (Zietz et al.

2009).

Furthermore, most homes built before 1980 still have lead within their construction, and it can still be found in interior water pipes within the connections of homes or business to the main water line in the streets.

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When lead builds up in the human body, it can cause serious health issues.

For example, children younger than six years can suffer severe physical and intellectual impairing as a result of lead. Troesken explains that, “Not only in the USA thousands of children have died as a result of lead poisoning but also many suffered from intellectual impairment. A blood lead content higher than 10mg/dl is the threshold for lead poisoning�

(Troesken, 2006).

There are a large number of constructed buildings that present some form of toxicity to the environment, indoor air, outdoor environment, and health or through the production stage via fumes released during fires or by poisoning nearby ecosystems. A big part of the problem is that at times, there are not enough data on the level of toxicity from the built environment to address the problem. The correct choice of construction materials will be an essential matter, even before construction begins to ensure the wellbeing of the occupants and environment.

Housing as a Fundamental Right In 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was written for the first time and was a milestone in the history of modern humanity. The UDHR was declared by the United Nations General Assembly in Paris, composed by representatives of different legal and cultural backgrounds, as a common standard of achievements for peoples and all nations. The UDHR was translated into over 500 languages and for the first time, human beings were now universally protected (UN, 2018).

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According to the UDHR, every human being on the planet has the fundamental right to housing, which safeguards accessibility to an affordable, habitable, secure, and safe home with the freedom from forced eviction (UN, 2018). Moreover, it is part of the selected government’s obligation to guarantee that everyone can live in dignity, peace, and security. In the US, there are seven principles that explain the fundamental to the right to housing.

The first principle is the security of tenure, meaning all residents should possess a degree of security that can guarantee protection against forced eviction, coercions, harassment this includes predacious redevelopment and displacement (NESRI, 2015).

The second principle is the availability of services, materials, facilities, and infrastructure, which implies that housing has to provide facilities that are important for comfort, nutrition, security, and health.

These services include facilities such as safe drinking water, heating, lighting, washing facilities, sanitation, and resources of food and storage (NESRI, 2015).

Thirdly, housing cost should be in a healthy balance so that the fulfilment and satisfaction of other necessary basic needs will be compromised by rent or mortgage. For example, a person should not be put in the predicament of buying food or paying rent (NESRI, 2015).

The fourth principle is the provision of a comfortable, decent, and safe home. According to this principle, housing should be able to provide 35

its residents adequate shelter that can provide protection from cold, heat, wind, rain, damp, and any other threat that can bring risk to health and the building’s habitability, such as structural hazards (NESRI, 2015).

The fifth principle is accessibility, which explains that housing must be accessible to all individuals with no distinction and especially vulnerable groups should be helped to have access to housing resources (NESRI, 2015).

The sixth principle is location and says that housing should not be constructed or be in the immediate proximity of areas that are polluted or sources that can threaten the health of the occupants. Furthermore, the location of the house must be in the proximity of areas that have access to sources of employment, social facilities, childcare centers, schools, and healthcare centers (NESRI, 2015).

And finally, the seventh principle is cultural adequacy, which is when the housing itself and the policies must guarantee the free expression of cultural identity and diversity. This includes the preservation of institutions and landmarks that are directly linked with cultural heritage.

Also, modernization or redevelopment programs should guarantee that the cultural heritage of communities and housing are not be sacrificed (NESRI, 2015).

In order to be able to afford a home, the buyer should be able to allocate only 28% of the total income into a mortgage. However, Millennials have a median total income of $40,000 throughout the US (Figure 2-16) and 36

the median house price in the USA was $321,000 in 2018 (Figure 2-15). To be able to afford a house in the median housing price ($321,000), the minimum income required would be $61,000 (Down Payment, 2019).

However, most Millennials do not make this amount of money and have other expenses that add into this equation, such as student loans, automobile loans, and health loans.

FIGURE 2-16: Median Total Income Among Generations in Every State

Source: How Much and American Community survey, 2016

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FIGURE 2-17: Trends in Trailing Twelve-Month Average of Median U.S. New Home Sale Prices

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2018 Even though housing is a fundamental human right, this concept is not translated to the reality of many Millennials, who are forced to live with their parents for longer due to the financial situation or share small places and take more than one job to cover other expenses.

Conclusions Even though Millennials have a good projection with increasing income, the challenges that appear when making the decision to purchase homes are bigger than the facile decisions and circumstances they have to go through. The current housing ownership (Figure 2-18) shows that Millennials are the generation with the lowest homeowners, below 36% of the total population compared to the following Gen X that has close to 60% as homeowners (The Councils of Economic Advisers, 2014). Furthermore, the options that Millennials are presented with when trying to buy a home

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do not always fulfil their needs in regard to aesthetics, health, environmental impact, and location.

FIGURE 2-18: Annual Homeownership Rates for the United States by Age Group (1982-2017)

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2018

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CHAPTER THREE: PROBLEM SOLUTION This chapter will present the framework used to create the final design of the modular system of apartments in the city of Reno, Nevada.

The design goal is to provide a viable solution for the housing problem millennials are currently experiencing.

Site Selection Reno is the largest city in Northern Nevada with a population of 250,998. This city sits over the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains in the Truckee Meadows and the southern part of Washoe (County World Population Review, 2019). Figures 3.1 and 3.2 below show the location of the project.

FIGURE 3-1 Map Reno, Nevada

Source: Istockphoto.com , 2012

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FIGURE 3-2 Location of Reno, Nevada

Source: Google Earth, 2019 The history of Reno begins in 1859 when Charles William Fuller occupied a piece of land on the south bank of the Truckee River in Nevada.

By early 1860’s, he had constructed a bridge and a small hotel; this place took the name of Fuller’s Crossing. In the following year, Fuller sold his bridge and hotel to Myron C. Lake, who renamed the spot Lake’s Crossing and soon was charging a toll on the bridge. Eventually, this crossing became an important station on one of the main routes between northern California and the silver mines of Virginia City and the Comstock Lode.

Buildings began to appear on the town site and the new settlement was named Reno in honor of General Jesse Lee Reno (1823–1862), a Union army officer who was killed during the Civil War (Jesse Lee Reno 1422 , 2014).

After the construction of the U.S. highways, Route 40 was historically directed along 4th street through downtown Reno. The primary north-south 41

highway through Reno is U.S. Route 395/Interstate 580. The Regional Transportation Commission of Washoe County (RTC) has a bus system that provides Reno with access to busses that go through the common locations in the city. There are intercity buses to Carson City, and a shuttle service that offer mobility to disabled persons. The bus system has its main terminal on 4th Street in downtown Reno and secondary terminals in Sparks and at Meadowood Mall in south Reno (RTC, 2019). Reno is located very close to the border with Northern California, as shown in Figure 3-3.

Reno is also well known because of the casino industry that is located primarily downtown, as seen in Figure 3-4. Tourism is the predominant industry in Reno, and the casino industry attracts more than 5 million visitors annually. Furthermore, there is a strong presence of manufacturing and logistics activities that also have an impact on the population rate growth and housing demands (Advameg, 2019).

FIGURE 3-3 Reno Distances to East and West

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019

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FIGURE 3-4 Reno Entertainment Industry at Night

Source: Easy Wat Designs, 2019 The site selected for the location of the project is a lot at the intersection of Booth Street and Idlewild Street in Reno, Nevada (Figure 35). The reason for the selection is its proximity to a natural corridor, downtown, the high school and bus stops (Figure 3-6).

FIGURE 3-5 Site Location

Source: Google Earth, 2019

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FIGURE 3-6 District Framework Downtown Reno

Source: Reno.gov 2019 Site Inventory In order to better understand the existing conditions of the site, a site inventory was performed using the four quadrants of the Integral Framework: Experience, Performance, Culture and Systems.

Experience The selected site is on a highly desired area specially for Millennials because of the quick access to downtown areas and its proximity to the river. This site is highly involved with the year-round activities that incentivize the community to experience and enjoy the outdoors. The outdoor area has a wide variety of flora and fauna that change throughout the year, depending of the season. Figure 3.7 illustrates the main sources of noise on Booth Street and Keystone Avenue. Most of the undesirable views are on the east because of the direct view towards Keystone Avenue. The site offers biophilic elements because of the closeness with the Truckee River, and because of the corner location wherein the west and north 44

faรงades are most visible to the community. The area presents diverse entertainment opportunities for the community (Figure 3-8, Figure 3-9, Figure 3-10, Figure 3-11) FIGURE 3-7 Site Inventory Diagram for Experience

Source: Google Earth, 2019 FIGURE 3-8: Food Truck during the Summer at Idlewild

Source: Shelle Murak, 2015

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FIGURE 3-9: Idlewild Park

Source: Shelle Murak, 2015 FIGURE 3-10 Reno Truckee River

Source: Peppermill Casino, 2019 FIGURE 3-11 Wingfield Park Weekend Activities

Source: Scott Kelley

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In the city of Reno, people are heavily involved in outdoor activity around the river. The immediacy of this natural feature will heavily influence the design of the apartment building with regards to views, access to downtown, and possible points of noise protection.

Performance The site has approximately 4.17 acres, is located outside of the 100year floodplain (Figure 3-12), and has an elevation 21 feet above the Truckee River.

FIGURE 3-12 Reno Flooding Map

Source: Washoe Regional Mapping System, 2019 Figure 3-13 illustrates important elements to take into consideration for the design performance. The natural habitat in the area surrounding the river is one of the most significant for the design. Among the wildlife that coexists within the downtown area and entertainment district are beavers, eagles, racoons, Ruby Throated hummingbird, Chickadees, Monarch butterflies, Mallard ducks, Canada goose, among many others (Truckee Travel Guide, 2019). The undesirable light comes from the west and the summer breezes from the west; furthermore, there is a steep slope over the north area that starts on the limit of the river.

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FIGURE 3-13 Site Inventory Diagram for Performance

Source: Google Earth, 2019 Culture Figure 3-14 shows the strategic location of the lot affords the nearby community immediate access to downtown. The intersection between Booth Street and Idlewild Street is a major community node because it’s the point where people cross to access the walking trails that lead toward downtown. Also, there is a cultural corridor north of the project, which means that there is public circulation that has access to the river. This area enjoys views towards the river and is a welcomed feature by everyone in the community (Figure 3-15 & Figure 3-16). Furthermore, this presents an opportunity for a design that could become the landmark of this community.

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FIGURE 3-14 Site Inventory Diagram for Culture

Source: Google Earth, 2019.

FIGURE 3-15 View towards Booth Street

Source: Google Earth, 2019 FIGURE 3-16 View towards the Access on a Major Trail

Source: Google Earth, 2019

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Systems Figure 3-17 shows that the site is well connected with the bus system as there is a bus stop 200 feet from the lot. The Idlewild Street and Booth Street intersection also tend to be a well connected and the intersection is often congested; at that corner there are stop signs and there is a lot of pedestrians crossing in all directions, so at times it tends to be a very slow transit area for cars, see Figure 3-18.

FIGURE 3-17 Site Inventory Systems Diagram

Source: Google Earth, 2019 FIGURE 3.18 Bus Stop on Idlewild Street

Source: Google Earth, 2019 Additional means of transportation for the site include bicycles and scooters, which are very popular in the community.

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Site Analysis After reviewing the site inventory and conditions, the site analysis will delineate opportunities and constrains that help create recommendations for the best proposal of the design.

Experience Based on the existing site conditions, there is an opportunity to create a important community landscape space to be viewed and enjoyed from the north side of the lot. However, this could become a constraint due to the existing steep terrain that is in between the site and river. To achieve this opportunity, it is recommended to respect the setbacks of the lot.

Another opportunity exists to create an attractive, natural landscape that can shelter selected fauna. Natural ecosystems require little to no effort for maintenance as they live in a perfect equilibrium and adapt to all the seasons. This also eliminates the potential for invasive species that could overrun the natural flora and fauna compositions. It is recommended to select native plants that could adapt to the site and which require little maintenance. Furthermore, there is an opportunity to create sound buffer zones on the West and East of the lot in order to dissipate the noises from car traffic that could potentially be a source of noise pollution. But, a contstraint for this recommendation is that the location of these buffer zones must not interfere with the solar energy collection.

Performance The performance opportunities within the site are to maintain existing connections with the natural corridor and create new ones.

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However, the constraints to be aware of are to keep the public and the private areas well delineated in order to avoid disturbance and unsafe conditions. Another constraint to consider is the tidal influence and river variable flow depending on the weather and season. When correctly designed, the project should be able to coexist with the natural elements of the site. Furthermore, a set of landscape features could be utilized on the West in order to protect from the undesirable light. Another constraint would be the flood plain that is close to the North of the site, and this would require close evaluation.

Culture The main opportunity is to continue to provide the local community with the “open to nature� experience, and to encourage the connection between the site, the community and the river. New apartment buildings have the tendency to be secluded and often contribute to gentrification.

The design of a landscape that not only serves the users of the building, but also serves the community can be a great opportunity to achieve this connection with nature. To include the community and future residents in the design process and give them the opportunity to express their future plans for growth will be vital to the design and layout of the project. It is also recommended that all walking surfaces within the project be ADA accessible.

Systems There is an opportunity to influence and mark the major trails that surround the project. Also, the proximity to the bus stop, major trail routes 52

and bicycle routes minimizes the need for the use of a car. A constraint to be aware of is the congested intersection that is immediately adjacent to the project, as this could potentially create noise disturbance to the users.

Even though the delineation of setbacks is very subtle, it is important to respect and be aware of those limits when proposing the project, as this could greatly benefit the design by preventing problems during flooding season and keeping the perimeter of the project safe.

Guiding Principles Guiding principles were created in order to establish a comprehensive framework to guide the direction of the project. All four quadrants were considered so that the development of a successful project is ensured.

Performance: Optimize climate factors that occur onsite to maximize occupant comfort. Reduce energy consumption and emissions.

Systems: Create a natural ecosystem surrounding the homes that behave inclusively with the community.

Culture: Encourage and promote a culture that engages Millennials. Design the project to become a landmark for the community.

Experience: Create environments that offer seclusion for security, connection with nature and encourage people to create their own experience.

Goals and Strategies The following goals and strategies were created to inform the specific methods by which the guiding principles would be achieved and 53

establish specific targets to measure the success of the project. Moreover, these goals and strategies were created to satisfy all four quadrants: Experience The experiential goals of this project are to incorporate the sounds of the flora and fauna, along with the calming sounds of water running through the interior ponds. The smell of the flowers and trees that are on the project, as well as the color palette of the selected plants which will influence the views depending on the season. The project also aims to create a space where people from the community can enjoy the breezes from the river and have a pleasant time during the hot days of summer. In order to achieve these goals, the project will provide an exterior space that the community can utilize for entertainment and to enjoy the proximity and experience to nature. This space will be delineated by trees and bushes that will help with the privacy of the open space.

Performance The performance goals of this project are to reduce the energy through the entire project and to achieve zero energy consumption. In order to achieve these goals, the following strategies are proposed: vegetation on the West and South sides of the lot in order to avoid undesirable light and to protect from winter winds. Also, interior gardens will be created throughout the apartment complex in order to create air circulation in between the apartments; moreover, the project proposes interior ponds that will help to refresh the air during the hot months of July, August and September. These interior ponds will create natural ecosystems 54

that can host native animal species such as the Monarch butterfly, Mallard ducks and the California Ground squirrel. The plant selection will include Bristlecone Pine, Rubber Rabbitbrush, Desert Peach, Dandelion, Mullein and trees, such as Utah Juniper and Peach trees, that will provide the perfect environment to host the necessary fauna.

Culture The culture goals of this project aim to improve the access to the walking trails that lead to the river, and to increase the community awareness of the river, flora and fauna of the site. Finally, the building must be seen as a new approach to spatial adaptation which can grow to meet changing user needs The strategies to achieve this goal include open space towards the north of the project that allows users of the apartment complex and community to integrate more as a community and to direct them towards the beautiful views and experience of the river. Also, to engage local residents to participate in the programing for the apartment buildings.

Systems The systems goals are to reduce the overall costs to the apartment owners, and to encourage the use of the bus, bicycle and walking trails to commute around downtown. The strategies utilized in order to achieve these goals include reducing the parking spaces, using the ponds as water gardens that will aid the storm water management, and cross ventilation strategies throughout the site.

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The systems goals are to reduce the overall costs to the apartment owners, and to encourage the use of the bus, bicycle and walking trails to commute around downtown. The strategies utilized in order to achieve these goals include reducing the parking spaces, using the ponds as water gardens that will aid the storm water management, and cross ventilation strategies throughout the site.

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Pre-Design Currently the real estate market trend is to buy a home, and when one outgrows it because of life changes, to sell that home and buy another, larger one, and then to finally to sell that bigger home in order to buy a smaller home as life situations change once more. The reasons for it are various. For example, the most common is the growth of the family and the reduction of the family because children leave home (Figure 3-19).

FIGURE 3-19 Evolution of the House

Source: Hoover, 2017 This system of acquiring a new home to then sell it requires a solid financial estate, something that most Millennials don’t have. In order to propose a design that can adapt with the needs of the users throughout the time, it’s important to understand what the predominant needs will be.

Figure 3-20 shows that 27% of the population are married with children and 14% are single people with children and illustrates the current disconnection between contemporary household (Paste in Place, 2011)

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FIGURE 3-20 How We Live, U.S. Household Types, 2010

Source: Paste in Place, 2011.

There are five possible groups within the Millennial population that could benefit from the design of this project (Figure 3-21). The first group is the single Millennials, for whom the needs for spaces are minimal, such as: entry, bath, living room, dining room, bedroom, kitchen, garage, and laundry. The spaces for the bedroom, living room, dining room and kitchen can become one compact space in order create a more affordable apartment foot print. The second group are couples, whose apartment footprint needs will be slightly bigger. In this case, the necessity for one separate space for a bedroom will work better for privacy needs. The third group are single parents with one or more children. This group will need two bedrooms in order to allow enough space and privacy for the children.

The fourth group are couples with children. Similarly to the single parents, they will need two bedrooms. The fifth group are Millennial families with children and extended family that, for multiple reasons, live in the same household. In this case, 3 bedrooms are required to accommodate the other members of the family.

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FIGURE 3-21 Millennials Housing Needs

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019.

Building Location & Building Orientation The apartment location creates environments that offer seclusion for security, connection with nature and encourage people to create their own experience within the complex. All the apartments have views towards interior gardens that provide them with privacy and beautiful views. Also, all of the buildings are connected to the interior ponds and community park (Figure 3-22).

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FIGURE 3-22 Building Orientation and Building Location

Source: Google Earth, 2019 Schematic Design The schematic design explains the 6-apartment model that will be able to adapt to the needs of the user. The design allows the creation of a module of 24’x24’ (576 sf) that can host a studio and grow from there.

Depending on the need of the user, this module could potentially grow an additional 50% (288 sf) of the footprint to an additional 100% percent of the footprint (1,152 sf). The more bedrooms the apartment has, the bigger the footprint. This allows Millennial without the economic means for a typical home to start with a small footprint of 24’x24’, and as their economy and family grows their house can also grow up or grow down. This model of construction can potentially decrease the need for more construction, and instead can be modified as time passes.

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The first apartment called the #1 is designed to target single Millennials. It has a total square footage of 576 and is a 24’x24’ module.

This apartment has 1 full bathroom, 1 kitchen, 1 HVAC system closet, 1 laundry closet, 1 full closet, 1 living room and dining room. The living room can be potentially converted into a bedroom depending on the needs of the user. This apartment could grow by 50% or 100% more on one single level (Figure 3-23, Figure 3.22,Figure 3-24 & Figure 3-24).

FIGURE 3-23 Apartment 1, 24’x24’ Studio Floor Plan

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019 FIGURE 3-24 Apartment 1, 24’x24’ Studio Sections

Closet and Dining Room

Living LivingRoom Room&Dining &DiningRoom Room

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019 .

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Kitchen

FIGURE 3-25 Apartment 1, 24’x24’ Studio Perspective Towards Entry Door

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019 The second apartment type is the 1+1/4 model. This is a 36’x24’ and 864 sf. This apartment is targeted at couples or single Millennials who want to have a separate room. The spaces that this apartment has include 1 full bathroom, 1 kitchen, 1 HVAC system closet, 1 laundry, 1 bedroom, 1 full closet, 1 living room, 1 dining room, 1 terrace. The 1+1/4 apartment model allows for reconfiguration and immediate growth to a 1+1/2 apartment model or for a 2+2 apartment model (Figure 3-26, Figure 3-27 & Figure 328).

FIGURE 3-26 Apartment 1+1/4, 36’x24’ Floor Plan

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019 62

FIGURE 3-27 Apartment 1+1/4, 36’x24’ Sections

Bedroom

Closet and LR

Doors towards Balcony

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019 FIGURE 3-28 Apartment 1+1/4, 36’x24’ Perspectives.

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019 The third apartment model is the 1+1/2 and it is a 36’x24’ apartment with a total of 864 SQF. This apartment is targeted for single parents with one or more children or for families with 3 or more people. The 1+1/2 apartment has 1 full bathroom, 2 bedrooms, 1 kitchen, 1 HVAC system closet, 1 laundry closet, 1 living room and dining room and a terrace. This apartment model could potentially grow to be a 42’x24’ apartment. This apartment has views towards the beautiful interior gardens and access to

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a small terrace for people to share, mingle and enjoy the landscape (Figure 3-29, Figure 3-30, Figure 3-31).

FIGURE 3-29 Apartment 1+1/2, 36’x24’ Floor Plan.

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019 FIGURE 3-30 Apartment 1+1/2, 36’x24’ Perspective through the Living Room and Dining Room

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019 FIGURE 3-31 Apartment 1+1/2, 36’x24’ Perspective through the Living Room and Dining Room

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019 The fourth apartment model is the 1+1. It has two modules of 24’x24’ and it is 576 sf (Figure 3-32). This apartment model is recommended for 64

families that share their home with not only their childre but also other family members. The 1+1 has 2 full bathrooms, 3 bedrooms, 1 kitchen, 1 HVAC system closet, 1 laundry closet, 1 full closet, 1 living room with dining room, 1 terrace space (Figure 3-33).

All of the bedrooms have exterior views to the street and the master bedroom as well as the terrace and living room which have views toward the interior gardens (Figure 3-34 & Figure 3-35) FIGURE 3.32 Apartment 1+1, 48’x24’ Floor plan

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019 FIGURE 3-33 Apartment 1+1, 48’x24’ Sections

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019

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FIGURE 3-34 Apartment 1+1, 48’x24’ Perspective from Master Bedroom

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019 FIGURE 3-35 Apartment 1+1, 48’x24’ Perspective from Living Room & Dining Room

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019 The fifth apartment model is the two story 1+1/2. This apartment has a 24’x24’ footprint and has two floors. The social areas are located on the first floor and the private bedrooms are on the second floor. The second floor has only a footprint of 12’x24’ giving this apartment the opportunity to have a double height. This apartment is recommended for Millennials that are single parents or have the need for two bedrooms (Figure 3-36, Figure 3-37, Figure 3-38 & Figure 3-39).

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FIGURE 3-36 Two Story 1+1/2 Floor Plan 1 and 2.

First Floor Plan

Floor plan floor 2 Floor plan floor 2

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019 FIGURE 3-37 Two Story 1+1/2 Sections

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019

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FIGURE 3-38 Two Story 1+1/2 Perspective

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019 FIGURE 3-39 Two Story 1+1/2 Perspective

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019

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The last apartment model is the two story 1+1 and it has a 24’x24’ footprint with 1,152 sf. This apartment is recommended for Millennials that live with extended family members. The two story 1+1 has 2 full bathrooms, 3 bedrooms, 1 kitchen, 1 HVAC system closet, 1 laundry closet, 1 closet under the stairs and a terrace (Figure 3-40, Figure 3-41, Figure 3-42).

FIGURE 3-40 Two Story 1+1 Floor Plan

First Floor Plan

Second Floor Plan

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019 FIGURE 3-41 Two Story 1+1 Sections

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019 69

FIGURE 3-42 Two Story 1+1 Perspective

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019.

Design Development Design development describes all the considerations and important aspects that define the project.

Landscape Selection One of the first considerations is the landscape, since the river is a natural corridor and home for different species of animals and plants. The landscape design creates an ecosystem that is capable of sheltering Monarch butterflies. Reno is along the migration path for the Monarch butterfly, which flies through the state during summer. There is a need for native habitats that can shelter more Monarch butterflies during their migration since these butterflies are important pollinators and a thermometer to evaluate the climate and environmental conditions. The apartment building design for Millennials can host the butterflies thanks to the integration of native Milkweed as part of the landscape design. For the tree selection included in the design, selections such as the Utah Juniper trees are important because it is native to Reno and it can adapt to 70

heat, cold, wind and drought. The Red Maple is also included in the design for similar reason. Furthermore, perennial shrubs give nourishment and food sources for these butterflies as they continue their long migratory path (Nevada Monarch Society, 2019).

Wall Selection For the wall and floor system selection for the design is Quad Lock insulated concrete with R-42 insulation (Quad-Lock, 2019). These are insulated concrete forms (ICFs) made of expanded polystyrene and highdensity polyethylene that also provide the concrete forms for exterior walls.

This material selection helps to create comfortable and healthy environments that can be constructed in a fast manner and at the same time can be resilient, sustainable and durable (Figure 3-43). The selection of this material ensures more consistent indoor temperatures and a high STC rating reduction of interior sound transition. Because of the high R values, there is minimal air infiltration, which improves the overall air quality in all apartments, provides zero food source for insects, which prevents rodents or any other kind of animals that are attracted by conditions near the river, and it provides a superior protection against disasters, specifically earthquakes. Furthermore, the thermal mass properties of the walls and floors are optimal for passive solar design with lower life-cycle costs and emissions. Moreover, there is minimal to no waste generated on site because of the construction of the panels. This reduces the structural requirements for foundations and walls because of the lightweight material (Quad lock, 2019).

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FIGURE 3-43 Insulated Concrete Forms

Source: Quad-Lock, 2019

FIGURE 3.44 R-Value Choices for Quad-Lock Walls

Source: Quad-Lock, 2019 Roof Selection The recommended roof is the Self Adhered Sarnafil system that does not use solvent solutions for installation, and has no exhaustion of VOC’S or odors. It utilizes the Sarnafil G410 self-adhered thermoplastic roofing membrane that is fully recyclable. This roof system reduces labor for installation as well as waste and it’s a good option for its longevity and low environmental impact. Furthermore, this roof selection meets the key sustainable goals for energy efficiency, greenhouse reduction, 72

environmentally preferable products and waste reduction. Moreover, using this kind of roof can help into the savings, improve the user comfort levels and can be relied on when protecting the building and its contents (Sarfafil, 2019). The roof recommended for the project is an IgnitionResistant roof with concrete tile and elevated batten system.

FIGURE 3.45 Sarnafil Roof System

Source: Sarnafil, 2019

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Solar Panel Selection SunPower 305 is the solar panel selection for its high efficiency and reduced installation costs (Sunpower, 2019).

FIGURE 3-46 305 Solar Panel

Source: SunPower, 2019 Solar Panel Calculations: Total roof area = 39,968.18 sq. ft 20% area loss for services = 7993 sq. ft Total solar panels to place = 242 Panel power = 305 w Total electricity generated =

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(number of panels * panel watt * peak sun hours * 365 days/year * system losses) / 1,000 East & West (194 x 305 x 0.77 x 6.2x 365) / 1000 = 103,104 kwh South (48 x 305 x 0.65x 6.2x 365) / 1000 = 3,473 kwh Total energy production by solar panels= 106,577 kwh Interior Wall Selection The Interior wall system selected for is the McCain vertical interior wall panels. The installation of this wall will ensure the adaptability of the apartments and the growth per user decision. This interior panels are a patented design that work through a rail system that allows for the reconfiguration, also they arrive at the job site ready for installation which brings a lot of benefits to the project. The McCain wall system provides a variety of colors and textures that can create an aesthetically pleasing interior with this sustainable interior wall panels. The prefabricated components for the wall are wear resistant, mold and mildew resistant.

This wall selection is a flexible and versatile modular solution that ensures the longevity of the project and allows the user to expand or condense the construction as needed (McCain Walls, 2019).

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FIGURE 3-47 McCain Modular Walls

Source: McCain Walls, 2019 Validation Figure 3-48 shows the baseline for the project before adding all the selections. The total energy utilization for the apartment complex is 451,330 KWh per year and an EUI of 28 kBTU/sf/year.

FIGURE 3-48 Annual Energy Use Baseline

Source: Sefaira, 2017

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Figure 3-49shows the validation after applying the selection for the walls and floor system with Quad-Lock. The new energy use is 349,882 KWh per year with a EUI of 21 kBTU/sf/year.

FIGURE 3.49 Annual Energy Use After Quad-Lock Wall and Floor System

Source: Sefaira, 2017 Figure 3-50 shows the EUI reduction after the roof selection with Sarnafil system. The new energy use is 299,192 KWh per year and EUI is 18 kBTU/sf/year.

FIGURE 3-50 Annual Energy Use After Sarnafil Roof Selection

Source: Sefaira, 2017 77

Figure 3-51 shows that the EUI drops to 6 kBTU/sf/year.

FIGURE 3-51 Annual Energy Use After Sunpower Solar Panel Selection

Source: Sefaira, 2017 After adding all the selection to the project, there is a potential of 75% reduction of the EUI compared to the baseline model (Figure 3-52).

FIGURE: 3-52 Total EUI Reduction (KBTU/sf/yr)

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019.

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CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSIONS By creating a series of adaptable floor plans that can be purchased, assembled and modified as needed, the result will be an affordable and environmentally sustainable house that meets the individual needs, values, and lifestyles of Millennials (Figure 4-1).

FIGURE 4-1 Project Perspective

Source: Deysi Montes,2019 The project aligns with the intended purpose as outlined in the guiding principles previously established in Chapter 3.

Performance: Trough the creation of landscape throughout the apartment complex the project intends to optimize climate factors that occur on site to maximize occupant comfort of the users.

Moreover, reduce energy consumption and emissions. In order toa achieve zero energy consumption through passive energy strategies such adding g trees to the North, East & South sides of the lot in order to break the winter

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winds to increase comfort levels. Inside the apartments. Also, interior ponds help freshen up the air during hot summer days on July and August..

Take advantage of the NW wind during the summer by using shrubs and deciduous trees. Furthermore, in order produce energy, all apartments have access to solar panels and solar heating where possible.

Systems: Create a natural ecosystem surrounding the homes that behave inclusively with the community; through the selection of trees and shrubs that can hose fauna. Also, through the creation of these interior gardens, water management strategies are incorporated in the project. And with the orientation of the apartment’s cross ventilation strategies work for towards the benefit of the project(Figure, 4.2). Furthermore, the strategic location of the project allows for the users to use bike paths, the bus system and walk paths to access downtown.

FIGURE 4-2 Interior View to the Apartment Complex

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019 80

Culture: Encourage and promote a culture that engages Millennials who live in this space. Design the project to become a landmark for the community so they feels that the project brings a positive impact into the area. Also the project encourages the community that leave in the complex as well as the people who live in the neighborhood to utilize the garden that is facing the river in order to enjoy the beautiful views of the river .

Moreover, the community garden created on the east of the project tries to promote the healthy living of Millennials by planting their own garden pf vegetables.

Furthermore, the project aims to become a pilot design for future developments that eventually can fulfill all generational groups and evolve according to specific needs and become a long term solution for increasing population.

FIGURE 4-3 Interior View to the Apartment Complex Community Gardens

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019

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Experience: Create environments that offer seclusion for security, connection with nature and encourage people to create their own experience. Through the incorporation of interior gardens is possible to bring the flora and fauna from the site to the homeowners. Also, the running water is a feature that tries to bring the natural sounds of water.

The experience also varies depending of the season since the trees and shrubs change colors and loose leaves. All interior spaces in the project are delineated by trees which mark the transitions between public and private spaces.

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FIGURE 4.4 Interior View towards the Entrance

Source: Deysi Montes, 2019 Next Steps The next steps for this project are to provide a complete budget and cost analysis, and a life cycle assessment for all the materials used in the construction in order to persuade investors about the benefits of the project and its new approach.

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