Al diplomacy 8 by Diplomatic-Institute

Editorial In Qatar, we believe that the modern technology will not be beneficial if not used to serve human development. Human development can only be beneficial if it depends on knowledge economy which is based on research and development. These aspects are integral in our forward-looking vision of our country’s future during the next years if we used the natural resources well to develop humans and society. This is only possible based on the extent of positive interaction between citizens and the state. In this era, distances became insignificant and time is accelerated due to the continuing revolution of communications technology. Therefore, the state has to to adopt modern technologies to improve the services provided to the citizens, residents, visitors and all parties interested in our country. Thus, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs renewed its website by integrating some enhancements to provide optimal electronic services. Given the importance of the social media in the digital era, the Ministry’s website has been linked to its new account on Twitter. The newly inaugurated Website of the Diplomatic Institute will provide access to its training activities, as well as news and updates about its seminars, conferences, research and studies. The digital Issues of «Al Diplomacy» magazine will be available to the readers. In this context, we decided to give primacy to the «social media» topic in the eighth issue of your magazine, «Al Diplomacy» owing to several reasons, some of which we summarize hereafter: • At the end of May 2013, there were 54,5 million Facebook users in the Arab World. By the end of June 2011, the users amounted to 29,8 million. In fact, the number of Facebook users in the Arab region tripled during the period 2010-2012 and is still on the rise. • In May 2013, the average spread of Facebook users in each Arab country exceeded 19%, increasing from 12% one year before. Qatar is ranked the fourth with respect to the spread (preceded by Emirates, Jordan and Lebanon). The percentage of the youth (ranging from 15-29 years old) represents 70% approximately of the Facebook users in the Arab World. The GCC countries have the top first five ranks of Facebook users as a ratio to the population. • In March 2013, the number of active Twitter users in the Arab World was 3,7 million. Qatar is ranked the eighth in the Arab World before demographically superior countries such as Iraq, Algeria, Tunisia and Sudan. • In May 2013, the total number of Linked In users in the Arab World was 4,7 million. Youth under the age of thirty five represent the majority of Linked In Users in the region. Sixty per cent of them are 18 to 35 years old. United Arab Emirates is ranked the first (16.45%), while Qatar is ranked the second (12.88%) of the total users in the Arab World (the Arab social media report data). We think that this phenomenon, i.e., social networking, is still a newborn while its influence is growing. Therefore, we have to cope with it so that Qatar is always a pioneer of modernization.

1 Issue 8 - December 2013

Contents

Quarterly magazine published by the Diplomatic Institute Ministry of Foreign Affairs - Issue 8 - December 2013

General Supervisor: Dr. Khalid bin Mohammed Al-Attiyah Minister of Foreign Affairs Editor in Chief: Dr. Hassan bin Ibrahim Al-Mohannadi Director of the Diplomatic Institute Publisher: The Diplomatic Institute For more information please contact us: State of Qatar - Doha P.O.Box : 250 Tel. : (+974( 40112500 Fax : (+974( 40112511 Email: Diplomacy@mofa.gov.qa Website: www.di.mofa.gov.qa - All correspondence on behalf of the Editor in Chief - Published articles reflect the views of writers and do not necessarily reflect the considerations of the magazine

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Editorial

Follow-ups

Dr. Al-Attiyah: Qatar Will Remain an Active Member for a World of Peace and Prosperity

Follow-ups

Social Media: How can they be beneficial to Qatar Diplomacy?

Reports

Index of Economic Freedom 2013

Spotlight

Spotlight: Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization «ISESCO»

Public Figures

‫‏‬Napoleon Bonaparte

Articles

The Gulf between Traditional and New Media

Articles

The Ambassador from Nomination Until Completion of the Mission

Articles

‫ ‏‬istory of Sino- Arab Relations Diplomacy... H Instead of War

Publications

From the Institute’s Publications: ‫‏‬Islam and Diplomacy

Dr. Al-Attiyah:

From the Political Dictionary

Qatar Will Remain an Active Member for a World of Peace and Prosperity

Follow-ups

Dr. Al-Attiyah:

Editorial

Qatar Will Remain an Active Member for a World of Peace and Prosperity

In Qatar, we believe that the modern technology will not be beneficial if not used to serve human development. Human development can only be beneficial if it depends on knowledge economy which is based on research and development. These aspects are integral in our forward-looking vision of our country’s future during the next years if we used the natural resources well to develop humans and society. This is only possible based on the extent of positive interaction between citizens and the state. In this era, distances became insignificant and time is accelerated due to the continuing revolution of communications technology. Therefore, the state has to to adopt modern technologies to improve the services provided to the citizens, residents, visitors and all parties interested in our country. Thus, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs renewed its website by integrating some enhancements to provide optimal electronic services. Given the importance of the social media in the digital era, the Ministry’s website has been linked to its new account on Twitter. Work continues - God willing - to build bridges with the most important social networks, all of which translates our belief that if policy loses contact with people it loses contact with reality.

Social Media:

In this context, we decided to give primacy to the «social media» topic in the eighth issue of your magazine, «The Diplomat,» owing to several reasons, some of which we summarize hereafter:

How can they be beneficial to Qatar Diplomacy?

• At the end of May 2013, there were 54,5 million Facebook users in the Arab World. By the end of June 2011, the users amounted to 29,8 million. In fact, the number of Facebook users in the Arab region tripled during the period 2010-2012 and is still on the rise. • In May 2013, the average spread of Facebook users in each Arab country exceeded 19%, increasing from 12% one year before. Qatar is ranked the fourth with respect to the spread (preceded by Emirates, Jordan and Lebanon). The percentage of the youth (ranging from 15-29 years old) represents 70% approximately of the Facebook users in the Arab World. The GCC countries have the top first five ranks of Facebook users as a ratio to the population. • In March 2013, the number of active Twitter users in the Arab World was 3,7 million. Qatar is ranked the eighth in the Arab World before demographically superior countries such as Iraq, Algeria, Tunisia and Sudan. • In May 2013, the total number of Linked In users in the Arab World was 4,7 million. Youth under the age of thirty five represent the majority of Linked In Users in the region. Sixty per cent of them are 18 to 35 years old. United Arab Emirates is ranked the first (16.45%), while Qatar is ranked the second (12.88%) of the total users in the Arab World (the Arab social media report data).

Diplomats and all persons working in public affairs all over the world notice the growing importance of the new media, including the social media. In the Arab World specifically, these media played a political and expressive role since they spread. Their availability to every literate citizen allows him to become "an informative cultural producer". Thus, the "passive consumer" of newspapers, radio and television transformed into a social activist exerting influence, through blogging, or uploading photos and videos on social networks such as Flicker, Instagram, YouTube and Daily Motion. He may also participate in editing Wikipedia articles, or through discussion and other activities in Forums, or through publishing news and debating political and other topics on some networks such as Facebook and Twitter, etc. In fact, he can do all of the abovementioned together.

We think that this phenomenon, i.e., social networking, is still a newborn while its influence is growing. Therefore, we have to cope with it so that Qatar is always a pioneer of modernization. Last but not least, the Diplomatic Institute will inaugurate its website in mid-January 2014. This would provide access to its activities in the training field, as well as updates about its new seminars, conferences, research and studies in addition to publishing the digital version of «Al Diplomacy» magazine.

In recent days, Foreign Minister Dr. Khalid bin Mohamed Al-Attiyah has travelled between two farflung cities to expound the general principles that determine Qatari foreign policy, explaining the State’s position on varied issues. Invited to London on 4th December by the Royal Institute, the Minister gave a lecture at Chatham House, before attending the regional security summit at the Manama Dialogue on the 7th December, organized under the auspices of the International Institute for Strategic Studies.

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10 Issue 8 - December 2013

Issue 8 - December 2013

Spotlight

Reports

Public Figures

Spotlight:

Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization «ISESCO»

Issue 8 - December 2013

Articles

The Gulf

The Ambassador from Nomination Until Completion of the Mission

between Traditional and New Media

Emperor of France. He achieved several victories and is indeed one of the major military geniuses that we know in history. He was a military leader who created an empire comprising most of western and central Europe. He was also known as Napoleon I. Napoleon military campaigns are taught at several military schools worldwide. Opinions about him diverge. On the one hand, there are those who oppose him as a tyrannous dictator.. On the other hand, there are those who view him as a statesman and a patron of civilization. For they attribute him the French Civil Law known as Napoleon Law, which laid down the judicial and administrative foundations of most Western Europe countries, and later on the countries that fell to the French colonialism and mandate. He also established the Bank of France. Napoleon was born in Ajaccio (Corsica Island) on 15 August 1769 in the Kingdom of France, to aristocratic parents from noble Italian descent. He studied in France and excelled in the martial arts, mathematics, literature, history and geography. Following graduation, he was appointed second lieutenant in the artillery of the Royal French Army in 1785. He was promoted to first lieutenant in 1785, and in 1792, became captain. Napoleon was known to be short, extremely intelligent, and according to some of his close collaborators, pretty eccentric

Issue 8 - December 2013

Articles

Ambassador Hadi Bin Nasser Al-Hajri * Each year, the State of Qatar appoints ambassadors abroad. Some of them have sufficient experience of the adopted procedures of the appointment of ambassadors, the missions they are charged with, the consequent duties, and the applicable protocol procedure from nomination until completion of the mission. These are experienced ambassadors who assumed that position for several years. Others are new ambassadors nominated for the first time. Some of them are not familiar with the procedures of selection and nomination, the correspondences between the state assigning the ambassador and the hosting state, the consequent actions since being notified of the nomination until getting ready to travel and arrive at the state of residence, submitting credentials, proceeding work and duties as ambassador. Therefore, this article addresses the necessary qualities of an ambassador, nomination procedures, approval, getting ready to travel, arrival in the state of residence and the missions and duties of ambassadors under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 1961 promulgated under Law No. 13 of 2009 regarding the Qatari diplomatic and consular corps. It provides information to new ambassadors appointed in this position for the first time regarding their rights and duties, and answers several questions they have about the new position.

By Dr. Abdullah Al-Madani*

Dr. Jamal Sanad Al-Suwaidi, head of the Emirates Center for Strategic Studies, published recently a book titled “From Tribe to Facebook: the Transformational Role of Social Networks” (issued in Arabic and English editions). It is a book that tempts one to consider its content carefully. Nothing can be described as doubleedged weapon more than the new media, also dubbed social media, alternative media, or any other name all of them designated for the untraditional or unofficial media.

* Bahraini Researcher and Academic

Napoleon Bonaparte

The Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization «ISESCO» was founded by the resolution of the third Islamic Summit Conference held in Makkah on 25th - 28th January 1981. The resolution confirms the establishment of a new international Islamic body among the institutions concerned with the joint Islamic activities in the framework of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). ISESCO is a specialized organization interested in the fields of education, sciences, culture and communication in the Islamic states. Its headquarters is located in Rabat, Kingdom of Morocco.

Index of Economic Freedom 2013

The Qualities of Ambassadors There are necessary qualities for the diplomatic representative: Tactfulness, quick wittedness, strong memory, sociability, integrity, accuracy, honesty, sincerity, frankness, patience, composure, non-artificiality, tastefulness, resourcefulness, intelligence, strong personality and good education. These qualities should be part of an ambassador’s character. As for the acquired qualities, an ambassador should be versed in one or more foreign languages, have an academic university degree, be familiar with the diplomatic law and the rules of work including how to approach the diplomatic

History of Sino- Arab Relations Diplomacy... Instead of War Dr. Mohammed Habash *

mission. He should also be familiar with the protocol, etiquette and courtesy rules, and master the wording of diplomatic documents such as official letters and memoranda as necessitated by relations with other states.

It may seem a little unrealistic to review the history of Sino-Arab diplomatic relations under such a title, intimating as it does something of an affectionate artificiality. The historic capital of Xī'ān in China and the Muslim capital of Medina were separated by some seven thousand kilometers, though a little less later on, as the Islamic capital moved to Damascus and then Baghdad. In those days, correspondence between Xī'ān and Baghdad would take at least two months to arrive. Nevertheless, the historical reality lays bear an impressive fact - at no point were the relations ever interrupted; rather they have continued to evolve both positively and peacefully for centuries.

Ambassador Selection or Nomination Appointment of ambassadors is the responsibility of the President of State (in Qatar, it is the prerogative of the Emir pursuant to Article 66 of Qatar Constitution). The common practice dictates that the Minister of Foreign Affairs selects the mission chief from the personnel of the diplomatic corps

* Qatar Ambassador – Warsaw

Issue 8 - December 2013

* Consultant at Doha International Center for Interfaith Dialogue

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Issue 8 - December 2013

Publications

From the Political Dictionary

From the Institute’s Publications:

Islam and Diplomacy In the context of implementing the plan of the MOFA Diplomatic Institute concerning research and scientific studies in varied diplomatic, political and economic fields in 2013, the Institute published a new study titled “Islam & Diplomacy: Overview of diplomatic values in Islam”. The study comprises an introduction and four main chapters concluding with a set of practical recommendations. These recommendations aim at scientifically anchoring a comprehensive connection between Islam and international conventions in the diplomatic sphere. In the first chapter, the study addresses the Islamic Shariah view of the diplomatic activity. It starts with establishing an essential juristic rule substantiated with evidence showing Islam view in respect of building amicable relationships with varied nations worldwide based on equality and mutual respect. The study elaborately discusses the arguments of extremists dividing the world into two camps. It presents conclusive evidence of progressive Islamic jurisprudence view on amicable relations with other nations, denying the hostile logic in international relations based on a mistaken concept of holy war. It also denies the concept of clash of civilizations adopted by western extremists. Then, the study presents a historic overview of the development of diplomatic activity, starting from the age of prophecy, the ambassadors of the Noble Prophet (Peace be Upon Him) and their major successes, following with the diplomatic activities of the Righteous Caliphs, then with the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. It also highlights several unique diplomatic competencies that emerged throughout the history of Islam. The study also allocated a special section to address the participation of Muslim women in the diplomatic activity. In this context, it particularly focuses on issues of interest to women, such as handshake, veil and travelling without an unmarriageable man, which must be addressed juristically so that women could have an appropriate work environment based on the values of Shariah.

Nation – State States and nations may seem similar but they are not. States rule peoples within a borders demarcated territory. Moreover, states usually apply rules, impose taxes and duties, mint currencies, provide postal services, hold a police force and build an army. States wage wars, negotiate treaties, commit people to prisons, regulate life by a thousand methods. It also claims sovereignty over their lands. On the other hand, nations comprise groups of people claiming to have common ties such as language, culture and historic identity. Other groups claim that they represent a nation that comprises a state of its own such as French, Egyptians and Japanese. Others claim a state but in vain such as Tibetans, Chechen, Palestinians and Kurd. The traditional nation – state in Eastern and Western Europe developed within established regional borders that were part of the European State regime which was recognized by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. On the other hand, the states which were formed later, starting with Italy and Germany, followed a specific path, which was that of the nation- states in Eastern and Central Europe at the time they were formed when the national awareness flame paved the way to establishing a state. The difference between these two paths (from a state to a nation and from a nation to a state) is reflected by the backgrounds of the pioneer builders of the state and the nation. In the first case, the builders were lawyers, diplomats and officers in the military of the monarchal administration. They established together the State's bureaucracy. In the second case, writers, historians, scientists and intellectuals laid down the basis of the diplomatic and military unity of the country later on.

In the third chapter, the study addresses aspects of diplomacy in Holy Quran and Sunna. Indeed, it surveys the ambassadors of the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) and their successes in their diplomatic activities, highlighting the ingeniousness in the Prophet’s selection of his successful ambassadors. The study addresses the Mohammedan diplomacy in conflict resolution and ending wars through exploring some examples from the Prophet Mohammed (God's blessing and peace be upon him) where he opted for diplomacy and resisted war tendency. In the fourth chapter, the study addresses the common features of both modern diplomacy and Islamic diplomatic values. It asserts the basic norm in Islam is participation in civilization building not clashes or conflicts. Moreover, it confirms that modern civilization is a human universal including all human civilizations. It also stresses that Islam does not seek clashes and conflicts of civilizations but fraternity and a common human civilization.

Moreover, the study tackles substantial juristic aspects regarding the four immunities of diplomats, namely the judicial, financial, political and personal immunities. It presented methodological approaches mixing Islamic jurisprudence heritage and international conventions with respect to immunities.

The study concludes with some recommendations aiming at developing the Arab and Islamic diplomatic action. This is in line with a vision integrating the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic and Consular Relations with the bright side of the enlightened Islamic jurisprudence, which stressed the same principles.

In addition, the study presents an essential Islamic juristic approach concerning the commercial, the military and the cultural attachés, noting that some of them were present in the

This book represents a new contribution of the Diplomatic Institute to the Arab Diplomatic Library presenting a vision substantiated with scientific evidence and objective approach.

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Issue 8 - December 2013

39 3 Issue 8 - December 2013

Follow-ups

Dr. Al-Attiyah:

Qatar Will Remain an Active Member for a World of Peace and Prosperity

In recent days, Foreign Minister Dr. Khalid bin Mohamed Al-Attiyah has travelled between two farflung cities to expound the general principles that determine Qatari foreign policy, and the Stateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s position on varied issues. Invited to London on 4th December by the Royal Institute, the Minister gave a lecture at Chatham House, before attending the regional security summit at the Manama Dialogue on the 7th December, organized under the auspices of the International Institute for Strategic Studies.

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Follow-ups Historical Experience, Citizen Awareness and State Policy The Ministerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lecture in London was more comprehensive as it was not limited to issues of regional security, - focal point of the Manama Dialogue. The speech brought clarity to a number of individual issues for a better understanding of Qatar foreign policy, and most specifically the historical developments that have brought the country into the modern era. Such changes have contributed significantly to building a national character, and a social, political and economic vision founded on specific cultural and historical bases. Dr. Al-Attiyahâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lecture in London also elucidated the context by which Qatar has shifted economically from subsistence to prosperity; from an era of pearl-diving to an era of liquefied natural gas and petrochemicals. The Minister expounded the process by which Qataris have faced up to the difficulties that have cropped up along this path of development, enunciating the socio-political and very human choices people have made in coming to know this new world. The Minister concisely reminded his audience of the key achievements of Qatari society, all of which have happened in a very brief period of time under the leadership of His Highness Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, the father of the current Emir, who led Qatar to rank honorably or top almost all international indicators of development. The Minister then went on to explain the Stateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s position on a number of current issues, demonstrating how policy is derived from the principles of "Qatar National Vision 2030".

The London lecture dealt with a total of seven foreign policy issues, namely mediation, aid, integration, the situations in Syria, Egypt, Palestine and negotiations with Iran, while the Manama speech focused on three highly complex issues regarding the official Qatari position toward Syria, Iran and the Middle Eastern peace process.

Qatar would welcome any fight, no matter the cost, if it means saving life Readers may well remember how Qatar was strongly criticized by some media over its relationship and so-called "secret accommodations" with the Asad regime, while others pretended Qatar maintained suspicious relationships with third parties from a wide range of conflicting interests and agendas, describing its state policy as "opportunistic ". Although the Minister did not condescend to reply to such charges directly, yet his words went some way to clear up any remaining confusion. Dr. Al-Attiyah defended the extraordinary mediation efforts made by the Qatari diplomatic service, as evident in the Lebanese hostage crisis in particular and many other incidents in general, saying that the principal which has been the object of so much unfair and inaccurate criticism can be spelled out in three simple words: "Save Human Life". Whether in Lebanon, or previous and similar situations in Sudan, Somalia, Libya and elsewhere, there can be no doubt

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Follow-ups that were it not for a Qatari policy and Qatari action in providing aid on the ground, people would have died. When it comes to saving human life, then there is nothing wrong in Qatar standing proud and bearing the brunt of any attack. Qatar will not change its policy because it is based on firm and principled foundations. However, change occurs to circumstances and interests, not to constant principles.

Asad has lost interest in a political solution, because there is none that can keep him in power The Minister confirmed with great clarity that the State had "always called for a peaceful political solution, despite the state-orchestrated crimes committed by the Asad regime". The Minister observed in this context that Asad has "lost any interest in a political solution" precisely because he knows that there is no hope for a solution that might leave him in power, let alone absolve him of the crimes he has perpetrated. The Minister also commented on the lack of any ethical considerations in the roles played by some powers with regard to Syria, viewing their policies as unjustifiable and untenable. In Manama, Dr. Al-Attiyah once more expounded the Qatari position while examining the Syrian tragedy, commenting on the impotence of the international community as it stood by and watched the atrocities carried out by Bashar al-Asad’s forces on an unarmed population. Reflecting on this regrettable condition, he had already described the narrow interests that were determining policies at the expense of both the Syrian people and national unity, even when the results conflicted with ethical behavior and the simplest and most basic human values. Yet such is the power wielded by those holding a permanent seat in the Security Council and the privilege of veto. It is self-evident that some of this "impotence" was artificial from the very beginning, a kind of undeclared service that benefits an anxious Israel as it frets over an unfolding Syrian Revolution. Indeed, the revolution may foreshadow dangerous changes in the region, leading to the end of a government that has been in a truce with Israel for nearly forty years. It may morph into a democratic government where sovereignty is invested in people and not in the mutual self-interest of a powerful oligarchy. The reasons for such impotence may thus rest in a kind of coeval political and structural reality. The system currently in place at the United Nations Security Council is the very guarantor of impotence, whether in its attempts at dealing with humanitarian crises or the political manipulations of benefitting member states. It may well be that these reasons suffice to explain Qatar’s position regarding the crisis in Syria. However, Dr. Khalid Al-Attiyah also linked the international community’s impotence on the one hand and Qatar "shouldering its responsibilities" on the other, standing up on a principled and moral commitment for those described as "having rights" – i.e. the Syrian people. In this context, the Minister proceeded to focus on two further concerns: engagement with the international community’s attempts to find a political solution, and attention to the humanitarian dimension, especially the necessity of ensuring that UNSC resolutions are passed on to an enforcement mechanism, as was the case for chemical disarmament.

Continued Economic Support for Egypt Describing events in Egypt from a politically holistic perspective, Qatari policy has found itself once more on the defensive, criticized and attacked by some elements who never fail to demonstrate prejudice, ignorance and, occasionally, a deliberate reluctance to

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Follow-ups

propagate truth. Some even allow events to be dictated by partisan self-interest to the extent that one suspects parties of neither working for the good of Egypt, nor its people. With a debate following the Chatham House lecture, questions had been raised that provided an opportunity for the Minister to clear up issues that had evidently confused the audience.

all parties in a conflict. Exclusion of any party leads only to giving subversion and sabotage a chance. Inclusion is surely one of the most basic traits of democratic behavior and the reason why Qatar has sought to reconcile Hamas and Fatah by hosting talks between the two parties since 2012. It is also what Qatar did for Sudan, and what Qatar did for unifying all

Dr. Al-Attiyah highlighted the point that Qatar neither supports a particular party nor backs a political faction, but rather nascent democracy itself. He observed that economic support continued to be offered from "the time of Mohamed Husain Al-Tantawi to Adli Mansour and Abdul-Fattah al-Sissi". Qatar has not withdrawn the billions that it pumped into the Egyptian economy following the revolution since, whatever the current constraints, Egypt is an important country whose future is worth betting on. The country deserves help to overcome its difficulties. Addressing the more skeptical element, the Minister made clear that Qatar is not only cooperating with Egypt but offers support based on the latterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s requests. Qatar backs dialogue between all sides in hope of building a national consensus â&#x20AC;&#x201C; advocating integration, and not exclusion. Its policy is founded on well-understood concepts as accepted by the majority of the international community in addition to international and regional institutions.

Integration as an Enduring Policy, without which there is no solution That Qatar calls for integration no doubt requires further explanation. Whether one looks at Egypt, Palestine, Syria or anywhere else for that matter, Qatari diplomacy holds that effective political solutions require the participation of

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Follow-ups

Syrian opposition groups into a single, encompassing umbrella organization. Similarly, the State has hosted a Taliban office to facilitate the political process between all the parties concerned. Yet, despite Qatarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sound logic, justified both morally and politically, it has led to harsh criticism that the government supports Hamas at the expense of other parties, or Taliban at the expense of the Karzai administration. Were this for one moment true, then Qatar would have committed the very sin that it has a recommended so hard to avoid â&#x20AC;&#x201C; excluding people over a difference of opinion.

Defining the GCC role in negotiations with Iran Dr. Al-Attiyah referred back to his theme of in- and exclusion in various ways during his talks in both London and Manama. On the subject of negotiations with Iran, the Minister proposed that the recent rounds of initiatives should be referred to as 5+2 and not 5+1 if the role of the GCC were to be taken seriously. Now how would it be possible to build a secure and stable future for the region without taking into account the interests of all parties concerned? Excluding the GCC is as absurd as suggesting that Gulf Arabs have no inherent interest in the process going on between Iran and powers from outside the Gulf region!

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Nevertheless, Dr. Al-Attiyah broadly welcomed the agreement reached by the 5+1 group in the recent negotiations with Iran, emphasizing the need to involve Gulf States in all initiatives that concern the future of the region and the very necessary work of removing all weapons of mass destruction from the entire Middle East. These are two issues, upon which there is consensus in the GCC, if not all Arab countries. First, the exclusion of Gulf Arabs from the negotiations with Iran has led to different interpretations by way of explanation, none of which bode well for the future of relations between the Gulf and other parties. While not exactly a "Sykes-Picot-style" agreement of US-Iranian power sharing, it is no secret that such suspicions exist and are a cause for concern. However, Dr. Al-Attiyah was quick to point out that Iran is not the enemy, despite a fundamental difference of opinion between the two states on the subject of Syria. The second important issue relates to Israel, which the Minister implied in his call to make the "region free of nuclear weapons and all WMD, without exception". Dr. Al-Attiyah expressed once more an opinion that has prevailed in the Arab political arena for many years and that, periodically, makes its way back on the agendas of Arab summits and other high level meetings, namely that Israel is the only state to which no demand is made to abandon WMD, though there can be no logical, legal or moral justification for such deficiency.

Follow-ups The Use of Military Force to Suppress and Imposed Security Non-Solutions In both London and Manama, Dr. Al-Attiyah spoke of the situation in Palestine and invoked the basic principles that require Qatar to condemn injustice and aggression wherever they are to be found and side squarely with justice. Qatar, the Minister said, rejects all forms of Israeli colonization. The Minister observed that the repressive and discriminatory practices that killed the peace process in its very infancy continue unabated, underscoring the point that both the UN Security Council and the other sponsors of peace between Israel and the Palestinians have failed to carry out their duty. Israel would not have been able to return to its usual oppressive practices had there actually been a scintilla of international will to make the agreement binding. The Minister has often remarked, and most recently at the beginning of his speech in Manama, that the revolutionary transformations taking place in the Arab world must leave no doubt that the use of military force to suppress "will not lead to any solution that can bring security and stability". Just as this is true for the Arab countries concerned, so is it true in the case of Israel â&#x20AC;&#x201C;

which has perpetuated the same behavior for decades but still will not see that it simply does not work. The Minister reiterated Qatarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s position that a peace can only be built on the complete Israeli withdrawal from all Arab territories occupied in 1967.

Qatari Policy is Governed by Humane, Moral and Religious Considerations Referring to many other tenets of Qatari policy, the Minister highlighted the fundamental and teleological values that govern its relationship with the rest of the world, values not based on opportunistic improvisation. They are key moral and legal precepts that the State of Qatar is keen to implement in full, believing that this best ensures future peace and prosperity in the world. Thus, by way of example, Qatarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s aid for development is nearing one billion dollars yearly, an amount that exceeds the funds provided by the United States or Germany related to GDP. This goes some way to alleviating human suffering, relieving poverty, responding to natural disasters, wars and catastrophes, while all the time emanating from a humane vision governed by moral and religious values that form the basis of the State and its foreign policy.

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Follow-ups

Social Media:

How can they be beneficial to Qatar Diplomacy? Diplomats and all persons working in public affairs all over the world notice the growing importance of the new media, including the social media. In the Arab World specifically, these media played a political and expressive role since they spread. Their availability to every literate citizen allows him to become "an informative cultural producer". Thus, the "passive consumer" of newspapers, radio and television transformed into a social activist exerting influence, through blogging, or uploading photos and videos on social networks such as Flicker, Instagram, YouTube and Daily Motion. He may also participate in editing Wikipedia articles, or through discussion and other activities in Forums, or through publishing news and debating political and other topics on some networks such as Facebook and Twitter, etc. In fact, he can do all of the abovementioned together.

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Follow-ups "‫ ‏‬Digital Diplomacy" Expands the Scope of Foreign Policy Influence For building relations with other countries, the advanced industrial countries do not rely anymore on the traditional diplomatic means only, as they use, for the same purposes, the means of public diplomacy which give them more influence at the popular level. Consequently, they serve their interests in a better way on the long run, since governments change, regimes collapse, leaders come and go, but peoples remain. Indeed, new studies prove that 72% of Internet adult users in U.S.A are active on social networks. In this case, no one will be astonished when Qatar diplomacy uses the new media, including the social media, in its regular activity and efforts for building strong relationships with other countries, in addition to using that as part of the public diplomacy that addresses peoples, thus completing the work of traditional diplomacy. In the digital age, awareness and usage of digital diplomacy are necessary. As for the foreign policy in all countries, this is undoubtedly the "Internet moment," which some dubbed " "Twidiplomacy. As we cannot talk here about all social networks, suffice it to give some prominent examples.

‫ ‏‬taying Away From "Facebook" Is Being S Away From More Than Billion People Facebook is the most popular social network since its creation in 2004. In 2008, Facebook has had at least one hundred million users whereas its users reached 1.11 billion in March 2013. Obviously, staying away from this social network, for any public affairs oriented institution, means keeping itself off communication with over a billion people. How can diplomacy in the digital age disregard "Facebook", which is

able to open channels to illustrate foreign policy, publicize positions, block the way to rumors and answer questions before such a number of people all over the world? Let’s take the example of the U.S.A. One may say that it has, inside and abroad, enough public and private media that make social networks unnecessary. Nevertheless, social media are officially approved in the U.S. Department of State as part of the public diplomacy, used even by the President of United States himself. Why so? Because there is evidence that about half of Facebook adult users in the U.S.A,- that is, 47% - get the news from this network; i.e., 30% of the population which is 316,668,567 persons in total. Despite obtaining news from Facebook and Twitter does not exclude other sources, this phenomenon indicates the importance and seriousness of the social networks in diffusing and propagating any "news", regardless of authenticity, at a broad public level. In Qatar, the Ministry of Interior led the way in opening two pages in English and Arabic on Facebook. Similar initiatives were implemented by the Supreme Council of Information and Communication Technology (ICT Qatar), Qatar Olympic Committee, Qatar Foundation, and other Qatari institutions such as Ooredoo, Qatar National Bank, Katara, Qatar Airways, Museum of Islamic Art, Qatar University and others. There are also pages for Al Jazeera Channel, the Ministry of Endowments and Islamic Affairs, and Qatar News Agency... Consequently, it is expected that the Ministry of Foreign Affairs will open soon an official page on this network frequently visited by millions of visitors. It would be linked to its present Twitter account through a news feed.

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Follow-ups ‫‏‬YouTube: Five Centuries in One Day YouTube is one of the strongest and most important new media channels since its creation in 2005. More than a billion users visit it monthly. Thus, it has a great impact on the broad public regarding any political or non-political issues. According to some social networks experts, the emergence of Facebook, Twitter and other social media accelerated the growth of YouTube, since these networks facilitated videotapes discovering and circulating. Some numbers reveal the extent of interaction between YouTube and these networks, especially the magic practiced by these electronic tools on human minds. Some figures seem astounding indeed, because they exceed all that the traditional media (especially the print) have always dreamed or aspired to. . An expert says, for example, that: • Nearly five hundred years of YouTube videotapes are watched daily on Facebook. • More than 700 video from YouTube are circulated on Twitter every minute. • 100 million persons have a social activity (such as: like, share, comment, etc…) on Youtube every week. • Retweeting one tweet produces about 6 sessions on YouTube. • In each minute, there are 500 tweets that include a link to YouTube.

‫‏‬Three-quarters of the world countries tweet When a person opens Twitter, the question "what’s happening?" leads to an answer not related necessarily to the user personally but to what is occurring around him...;i.e., what he sees or hears. It is the same question set forth for any diplomat or media professional, as both are required to submit a report about what is happening. Indeed, on Twitter also you do the same, but within only 140 letters… which may be the event headline that can be completed by a link to a text published on Internet, a videotape, some photos or otherwise. Twitter has been launched in July 2006. It is an electronic social network and microblogging service, which is today one of the world most visited top ten websites. With all what is happening on Twitter related to exchanging information regarding varied aspects of the social life, no government, governmental party or institution interested in the public opinion or the market can disregard the potential empowerment provided by this network in the fields of news publishing, public relations, marketing, influencing the public opinion or the consumer and interacting with other social parties. As a matter of fact, the diplomatic profession and the foreign policy are not an exception in this field, particularly for small and developing countries whose political and economical tools are not based upon hard power. They would surely find great benefits in soft power and public diplomacy directed to peoples, not to states or governments. For example, in the United States (demographically, the third country in the world after India and China), it is proved that 16% of adults use Twitter, which represents the main news source for 8% of them (i.e., nearly one person from every ten persons) in comparison with 30% who use Facebook as a news source. This is the reason behind the U.S. Department of State growing interest in Twitter. . The same case applies to the White House and all U.S. Departments, agencies, governmental and non-governmental organizations in America and the rest of the world. Qatar could not fall behind the common development that made more than three-quarters (77%) of the UN memberstates mark their presence on Twitter, according to recent surveys. It turns out that about half of the accounts opened on these social networks are those of heads of states, heads of governments, and foreign ministers. It is also obvious that one third of those leaders personally tweet even if this is not always regularly performed . In this context, it is observed that two-thirds of the tweeting leaders in the world (68%) make direct connections with their peers through Twitter.

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Follow-ups Attracting Followers Nevertheless, we should indicate in this context that attracting the greatest number of followers has become an industry and a paid service provided by some specialized companies such as TwitterCounter, and there are also some Arab companies that provide the same service … that is, some numbers turn out to be artificially inflated, and "followers" are made up approximately through the same means by which a leader’s image is globally marketed by experts of public relations and mass communications. However, what is called "delusion industry" does not deny the ability to influence and generate the required impression. Several governments use Twitter as an automatic news feed linked to their websites or to "Facebook". A survey shows that all 45 European governments have presence on Twitter while more than two-thirds of the African governments mark their presence on the same network. In fact, African leaders are the most active on Twitter. It is also proved that Twitter has special popularity among South America leaders as all governments registered their presence, except Suriname, on this social network with big numbers of followers. Actually, Twitter has become the network chosen for communication by threequarters of Asia governments. Qatar government opened a news feed account on Twitter titled "decisions@Qatar_" in an effort to publish Amiri decrees, decisions and Cabinet's ]resolutions[ in Qatar". The Ministry of Foreign Affairs opened two accounts on the same network, one of them in Arabic "@MofaQatar_AR", whereas the other is in English "@MofaQatar_EN". They are used to diffuse the recent news by the Ministry. All tweets have links to the new Website of the Ministry whose service has opened on 29th September 2013.

Volunteering to serve Wikipedia is serving Qatar Wikipedia identifies itself as an Internet-based multilanguage encyclopedia project of free content or as "a general reference book" collaboratively edited . Since its establishment in 2001, it is considered as the biggest encyclopedia on Internet. In publishing, it adopts the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Licence.. That is, you can share, copy, distribute, move, amend and build upon the written text along with respecting some conditions. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Qatar has a page on Wikipedia in English language (it suffers from a great lack of information and needs to be really developed). Qatar Gate located on the Arabic Wikipedia website is an open invitation for the Qatari Public Diplomacy. Qatar Gate takes us across the suggested links to other Entries such as: Qatar Policy, which does not outline or present the policy of Qatar (this matter still needs an effort from those who best know the policy of Qatar). However, it suggests links leading to other pages on the Arabic Wikipedia encyclopedia. Thus, sub-categories lead one to other branched classifications and so on. In this context, we mention the following Entries as examples: Qatari Politicians, Doha Agreement 2008, Foreign Relations of Qatar, Egypt – Qatar Relations, Bahrain-Qatar Relations, and Saudi Arabia-Qatar Relations, etc… It is necessary to emphasize that the existence of pages about Qatar policy and its foreign relations on Wikipedia does not imply that the content of these pages is scientific, objective, honest or edited by Qatari officials. As a matter of fact, Wikipedia is an open source encyclopedia and the text written therein does not represent any specific party. Entries are not signed by any person or institution. They are participatory; that is, someone begins a certain topic and leaves it open. Another person comes to make some amendments and additions to it; a third party adds or amends thereto. These processes are monitored by a committee of volunteers approved by Wikipedia. The committee interferes according to interactions and reverberations received on any topic suggested to this encyclopedia.

‫ ‏‬ttractive Popularity of Ambitious A Public Diplomacy Wikipedia gains great popularity as it attracted more than 86 million visitors monthly in 2012. In fact, it is very important on Internet because it provides information phrased and submitted by many people. It always gets criticism, counter-criticism and revision. Considering that it is updated all the time, information is updated and added by virtue of the volunteers.

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Follow-ups Unlike the famous traditional encyclopedia, Wikipedia is not edited by experts and this is its only problem. Every visitor can be turned into an active participant as soon as he opens an account on the website. Besides, visitors do not need qualifications to participate in the encyclopedia, as it is enough to cite the sources to be accepted. This makes Wikipedia an attractive network for any active public diplomacy, and Qataris are required to participate in it, because lack of participation may at least open the way for anybody willing to talk about Qatar policy in the way they like. This is not limited to Wikipedia only, but also includes the other social media, and the entire public diplomacy. Absence or silence makes people believe that rumors about Qatar public and foreign policy are true, whereas about 99% of the common stories echoed by media outside Qatar are unfounded. Participation should not be limited to the efforts of isolated persons. There are always volunteers who fill up blanks and write down texts that may disagree with the facts. However, they are satisfied with linking them to some polemical or hostile pamphlets in the traditional media, perhaps in newspapers and magazines paid to attack Qatar for some reason. These texts are acceptable after auditing their links that lead to "sources" as stipulated in the publication conditions. However, they fill a space and do not cover a subject by adopting a neutral scientific approach.

The Necessity to Adopt a Consistent Strategy for Social Communication Obviously, social networks enable Foreign Policy to extend its scope to wherever Qatar interests exist all over the world, in addition to practicing public diplomacy and addressing peoples, not only leaderships and elite. In this context, Qatar diplomacy needs to adopt a consistent strategy to deal with all social media or with the most important of themâ&#x20AC;Ś a strategy that aims at expanding the circle of radiation and identifying the efforts exerted by Qatar inside and abroad regarding all human activity fields approximately: culturally, politically and economically.

There is significant work awaiting Qatar diplomacy in this field particularly It is evident that any institution marking its presence on a certain social network may need to exert extra efforts to be present on other networks as long as these networks are interconnected. Furthermore, the activity will grow more perfect and integral if a Facebook user becomes able to publish and distribute the same material to more than one social network at the same time, and this action is allowed by the technology of these media. Hence, there is no justification to think that the satisfaction derived from making an activity on one network is sufficient. On the contrary, the more the activity scope is expanded on the social networks, the best interaction and influence potentials are increased. In fact, this issue is very simple as opening an account on a website takes few minutes, then the account is activated and the results come gradually according to the exerted efforts.

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Due to the Qatari government new experience on Twitter (surely individual citizens are more experienced), it is necessary to exert more efforts to make Qatari diplomacy voice reach the greatest number of Twitter's users. As the case with all social communication tools, this effort cannot be limited to the government or the governmental officials only. We saw a great power such as the United States stimulating the Americans to engage eagerly and actively in helping the U.S. Department of State to perform its work inside and abroad. The Secretary John Kerry sees that it is the "priority" of his mission. What about the developing countries? They are in greater need for mobilizing the public and the civil society organizations for this national mission. Wikipedia is an example indicative of the potentials available for an ambitious public diplomacy especially that the information related to Qatar in this electronic encyclopedia is incomplete and the content is still in its beginning for the different categories and the related sub categories. Wikipedia declares generally that "the Arabic version of the free encyclopedia was launched in July 2003 and its contents are still under construction. Thus, any simple amendment or addition has a great value for this encyclopedia". It is important to notice that the Arabic Wikipedia dedicated, for all who are interested in participating in topics about Qatar since 30th May 2007, a page "WikiProject Qatar", which is known as "a project for organizing and unifying the efforts of who are interested in Entries related to Qatar and in developing them as much as possible". The same is applied to the English pages of Qatar in this encyclopedia that should be monitored, revised, developed and fed with information and sources: Such as "Qatar", "Qatar Brief", its links, branches and sub categories and the list of topics related to Qatar and Qatar foreign relations. All of them need to be improved, audited and further supplied, especially because they are thickers and more numerous than the Arabic pages, but large number and thickness do not mean accuracy and objectivity. Therefore, there is an urgent need to monitor, revise and participate in these pages written about Qatar to highlight Qatar policy and serve the interests of the country abroad. Qatari students in social sciences, international relations and others as well as the trainees in the Diplomatic Institute can achieve that.

Reports

Index of Economic Freedom 2013

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Reports The Index of Economic Freedom issued by Heritage Foundation in cooperation with Wall Street Journal measures economic freedom based on 10 main pillars: business freedom, trade freedom, financial freedom, fiscal freedom, monetary freedom, investment freedom, labor freedom, government spending, property rights, freedom from corruption. This index is important for it indicates the relations between economic freedom and positive economic and social values such as the gross domestic product per capita, economic growth rates, human development, democracy, elimination of poverty and environment protection. It also compares, within one year or over a span of time, states on one side and the development of their constituent subsidiary indicators on the other. According to the index of economic freedom, the countries are classified into free, mostly free, moderately free, mostly unfree and repressed. The index of economic freedom 2013 covers 161 countries, where Hong Kong was ranked first, Singapore second, Australia third, New Zealand fourth, Switzerland fifth, Canada sixth, Chili seventh, Mauritius eighth, Denmark ninth, United States tenth as shown in the following table.

and ranked twenty-seventh on the international level. It was followed by the United Arab Emirates (28 th internationally), and Jordan (33), and the four of them were classified among the “mostly free countries”. They were followed by the “moderately free” Sultanate of Oman, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia. Then come the “mostly unfree” Lebanon, Morocco, Tunisia, Yemen, Egypt, Djibouti, and Mauritania. In fact, Qatar's rank in the Index of Economic Freedom 2013 internationally (27) surpassed other countries such as Norway, which was ranked thirty one and South Korea which was ranked thirty fourth. Indeed, Qatar achieved that top rank in the Index of Economic Freedom 2013 due to its governmental reform policies accompanied with competent legislations in addition to the open economy policies adopted by the country as well as the tax freedom provided to investors.

Qatar scores in the Index of Economic Freedom 2013 The first top ten countries worldwide in the Index of economic freedom 2013 Rank

Country

Overall score

The 10 economic freedoms‫‏‬

Score‫‏‬

Financial freedom‫‏‬

50.0

Investment freedom‫‏‬

45.0

Hong Kong

89.3

Trade freedom‫‏‬

82.5

Singapore

88.0

Monetary freedom‫‏‬

80.3

Australia

82.3

Labor freedom‫‏‬

63.4

New Zealand

81.4

Business freedom‫‏‬

69.4

Switzerland

81.0

Government spending‫‏‬

81.2

Canada

79.4

Fiscal freedom‫‏‬

99.8

Chili

79.0

Freedom from corruption‫‏‬

72.0

Mauritius

76.9

Property rights‫‏‬

70.0

Denmark

76.1

United States

76.0

Hong Kong, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand and Switzerland are classified in the category where the index value ranged between (80-100), which is the value set for free countries. Canada, Chili, Mauritius, Denmark and the United States are classified in the category where the index value ranged between (70-79.9), which is the value set for mostly free countries.

Qatar is second among Arab countries and 27th internationally in the Index of Economic Freedom With a score of 71.3 points, Qatar ranked second among the Arab countries following Bahrain (12th internationally),

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It is worth mentioning that Qatar had the second rank internationally in the Fiscal freedom after the United Arab Emirates. It also achieved significant progress in the trade freedom index, monetary freedom and government spending. However, the subsidiary indicators of financial freedom and investment freedom are still low. Qatar is expected to achieve more a superior rank in the Index of Economic Freedom during the following few years since it adopted a set of institutional reforms, projects and programs in line with the National Development Strategy (2011-2016), which will provide more modern financial services to all foreign and local investors under a competitive and effective environment.

Spotlight

Spotlight:

Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization «ISESCO» ‫‏‬The Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization «ISESCO» was founded by the resolution of the third Islamic Summit Conference held in Makkah on 25th - 28th January 1981. The resolution confirms the establishment of a new international Islamic body among the institutions concerned with the joint Islamic activities in the framework of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). ISESCO is a specialized organization interested in the fields of education, sciences, culture and communication in the Islamic states. Its headquarters is located in Rabat, Kingdom of Morocco.

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Spotlight Objectives ‫‏‬The Organization aims at: • Strengthening, promoting and deepening cooperation between the Member States in the fields of education, sciences, culture and communication, in addition to promoting and developing these areas within the Islamic world civilization’s frame of reference and in the light of Islamic humanitarian values and ideals. • Stimulating the understanding among peoples from within and without the Member States together with contributing to spreading peace and security in the world through various means, particularly education, science, culture and communication. • Promoting the correct image of Islam and the Islamic culture, encouraging dialogue among civilizations, cultures and religions and spreading the values of the culture of justice and peace and the principles of freedom and human rights in accordance with the Islamic civilization perspective. • Boosting cultural interaction and supporting its diversity aspects among the Member States simultaneously with preserving the cultural identity and protecting the intellectual independence. • Strengthening integration and coordination between OIC specialized institutions in the fields of education, sciences, culture and communication and ISESCO Member States, along with enhancing cooperation and partnership with similar governmental and non-governmental institutions of common interest within and without the Member States. ‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬

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• Paying attention to the Islamic culture, highlighting and defining its characteristics in intellectual studies, scientific researches and educational curricula. • Consolidating Integration and interdependence among the educational systems of the Member States. • Supporting the efforts of the educational, scientific and cultural institutions of Muslims in States non-Member of ISESCO. ‫‏‬The charter of the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization stipulates that each Member State of OIC will become a member of ISESCO after signing a formal pact and completing the legal and legislative proceedings of the joining decision in addition to a written notification addressed to the public administration of ISESCO. States that do not have the membership or the observer status at the Organization of the Islamic Conference are not entitled to be members of ISESCO. The number of ISESCO Member States to date is (51) states out of a total of (57) Member States in the OIC.

Agencies ‫‏‬ISESCO’s agencies comprise the following:

‫‏‬First: The General Conference: ‫‏‬The General Conference is composed of the Ministers responsible for the fields of education, sciences, culture and communication. They are nominated by their Governments or on their behalf. ‫‏‬The General Conference shall meet in ordinary session once every three years. They may meet in an extraordinary session as well.

Spotlight ‫‏‬Second: The Executive Board:

2. ISESCO Center for the Promotion of Scientific Research

‫ ‏‬he Executive Board consists of a representative of each T Member State, with competence in the fields of education, sciences, culture or communication.

‫‏‬The Centre was established in 2000 A.D. with the aim of promoting advanced scientific research and developing studies in various scientific and technical fields, to achieve sustainable economic growth in the Islamic states. Besides, it organizes experts meetings and connects networks of scientists in different scientific and technical fields to discuss the research barriers. It also develops programs and strategies that will meet the future needs of the Islamic world.

‫‏‬Third: The General Administration: ‫‏‬The General Administration is headed by a general director elected by the General Conference for a period of three years, renewable only twice, upon a suggestion from the Executive Board. The General Director of ISESCO is the head of the administrative agency of the Organization, and the person in charge before the Executive Board and the General Conference, and has the direct power over all employees in the General Administration. ‫‏‬The Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization has several subsidiary agencies represented in the following: 1. The Committee of Heritage in the Islamic World ‫‏‬The Committee was established in 2007. It is a specialized State committee dedicated to the preservation of the humanitarian cultural heritage in the Member States in general and the Islamic heritage in particular. It represents an international governmental mechanism working on coordination, cooperation and consolidation of efforts in addition to emphasizing that the Islamic cultural heritage must occupy a prominent and distinctive position in the world heritage map.

3. Federation of the Universities of the Islamic World ‫‏‬The Federation was founded in 1987 A.D. in order to raise the level of scientific research in all fields, and to exchange findings connecting them to the the Islamic Nation’s requirements of development and civilization. Moreover, it raises and develops the level of the higher education in response to the needs of the Islamic communities, in order to benefit from the scientific and technological developments in the framework of the cultural constants of the Islamic Nation. It strengthens cooperation to promote the exchange of experiences, studies , programs and visits in the fields of education, science, culture and technology. ‫‏‬In addition to the subsidiary agencies, the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization established two regional offices in Sharjah, (U.A.E.) and Tehran, (the Islamic Republic of Iran). It also assigned two representatives; one at the UNESCO in Paris (France), and the second in Moroni, (the Federal Republic of the Comoros). It also established four educational centers in Chad, Niger, Guinea and Malaysia, in addition to three regional centers for multimedia optical audio production and formation in Syria, Sudan and Iran.

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Public Figures

â&#x20AC;Ťâ&#x20AC;?â&#x20AC;ŹNapoleon Bonaparte Emperor of France. He achieved several victories and is indeed one of the major military geniuses that we know in history. He was a military leader who created an empire comprising most of western and central Europe. He was also known as Napoleon I. Napoleon military campaigns are taught at several military schools worldwide. Opinions about him diverge. On the one hand, there are those who oppose him as a tyrannous dictator.. On the other hand, there are those who view him as a statesman and a patron of civilization. For they attribute him the French Civil Law known as Napoleon Law, which laid down the judicial and administrative foundations of most Western Europe countries, and later on the countries that fell to the French colonialism and mandate. He also established the Bank of France. Napoleon was born in Ajaccio (Corsica Island) on 15 August 1769 in the Kingdom of France, to aristocratic parents from noble Italian descent. He studied in France and excelled in the martial arts, mathematics, literature, history and geography. Following graduation, he was appointed second lieutenant in the artillery of the Royal French Army in 1785. He was promoted to first lieutenant in 1785, and in 1792, became captain. Napoleon was known to be short, extremely intelligent, and according to some of his close collaborators, pretty eccentric

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Public Figures Military prominence and Imperial expansion In 1796, Austria became the main enemy of France and when war burst out between them, Napoleon was victorious. Within less than a year, Napoleon defeated five armies each of which was bigger than his, and achieved the ultimate victory after marching to the Alps threatening Vienna at the onset of 1797. France and Austria signed the Treaty of Campo Formio in the same year, whereby France expanded its territory. Napoleon returned to Paris and was received as a Hero. The Directoire government of the first French Republic assigned him two military campaigns directed at the Coalition against France. In 1799, he deposed the Directoire and replaced it with the Three Consulsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; government assuming the position of the first Consul himself. Five years later, the French Senate declared him Emperor. The French Empire engaged into several conflicts during the first decade of the nineteenth century, which were later known as the Napoleonic Wars. These conflicts involved all major powers in Europe. Indeed, France had splendid victories over all the countries it fought at the time and occupied a leading position in Europe. Its influence expanded to almost all European countries. Napoleon expanded the French scope of intervention in European political matters through alliances with various countries and placing some of his relatives and friends on the thrones of others.

Expansion to the East: Egypt Invasion

the vital need for markets and colonies drove the European capitalist countries to impose their influence and expand to different territories. Westward across the new world, eastward across Asia and southward across Africa; to attain cheap natural resources and sell the European products in their markets. Therefore, Egyptâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s invasion aimed, inter alia, at facilitating the transport of French trade to the east instead of the Cape of Good Hope route which was controlled by the English Navy. In 1798, Napoleon sailed to Egypt with an army of 38,000 soldiers in addition to 167 mathematicians, environmentalists, chemists, geodesists and others. Those scientists made several discoveries in Egypt, mainly the Rosetta Stone. Their discoveries were described in a book titled "The Description of Egypt". When Napoleon arrived at the coast of Alexandria, he called to calm and cooperation, claiming that he (i.e., Napoleon) did not come as an invader but as a Muslim convert, a friend and protector of Muslims. Thus, Napoleon took over the richest territory in the Ottoman Empire. He also claimed that he was a friend of the Ottoman Sultan coming to Egypt only to avenge from Mamluks (Egypt ruling military caste) for they were enemies of the Sultan and the Egyptians. In July, he defeated Mamluks in the Battle of the Pyramids near Cairo. However, in the beginning of August of the same year, the French Navy berthing at Abukir Bay was destroyed in a battle against the British Navy under the command of Horatio Nelson. In 1799, Napoleon invaded Acre but was unable to take it over and retreated back to Egypt. Then, he heard of the French Army defeat in Italy and returned to France.

The modern age in the history of Europe, after the end of feudalism, the establishment of the nation-state and the rise of mercantile capitalism, was characterized by the search for colonies outside the continent.. After the industrial revolution,

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Public Figures Russia Invasion, Napoleon biggest mistake The French Invasion of Russia in 1812 was a turning point in Bonaparte's career. During the campaign, the French army suffered grave human and material losses and damages causing a terrible military breakdown that Napoleon has never been able to overcome. In that year, Napoleon waged a campaign against Russia and mobilized an army comprising France, Austria, Prussia, Italy and Poland made of 600,000 soldiers. The army under Napoleon's command marched to Russia. However, the Czar decided to adopt the "burned land" strategy, withdrawing from combat and luring his enemy inwards to the freezing Russia plains. Finding no significant resistance, Napoleon continued to march and reached Moscow. Briefly, after the French Army entered Moscow, the Russians burned the city and interrupted the supplies. Hence, Napoleon could not provide the army with its needs and tried to retreat to Germany besieged by winter and snow, which destroyed his army. About 500,000 soldiers died in this campaign.

The decline of his fame at the Battle of Leipzig and his fall with Waterloo After his return from Russia, Napoleon encountered a hostile coalition of Austria, England, Russia, Prussia and Sweden. In October 1813, the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Battle of the Nationsâ&#x20AC;? broke out in Leipzig and Napoleon was terribly defeated. He returned to France but the coalition chased him and took over Paris in March 1814. They forced Napoleon to announce his abdication and sign the first Paris Treaty whereby he relinquished all his rights to the

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French throne. He was exiled to Elba and assigned a salary of one million francs per year. Napoleon left France heading to the new destination preserving the title of Emperor. On 20 March of the same year, he entered Paris again returning from Elba Island on the shoulders of the public cheering his name, and ruled for one hundred days. On 18 July 1815, Napoleon fought his last battle in Waterloo, which was one of the most famous battles in history because it squashed him and ended his rule. Napoleon retreated to Paris. The coalition continued its march, and entered Paris with Louis XVIII. A new treaty was made between France and the coalition (the Second Paris Treaty) returning the French borders to their state before the French Revolution and imposing a huge military penalty on France.

His Death In August 1815, Napoleon was exiled to Saint Helena Island in the Atlantic Ocean, which was a British Colony. He spent five years and half on the island suffering the ill-treatment of the British colonist. Diminished by a stomach cancer, he died on 5 May 1821 and was buried on the Island. However, in 1840, Paris recuperated his remains and he was buried in the Dome Church at the Invalides. Autopsy of Napoleon's remains showed that he died of stomach cancer. However, some researchers think that his death was caused by arsenic found in his hair spray or due to the huge amount of arsenic used for wallpaper cladding at that time.

Articles

The Gulf between Traditional and New Media By Dr. Abdullah Al-Madani*

‫‏*‏‬Bahraini Researcher and Academic

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Articles

Success of the New Media in Bringing up Issues Transferring the Public from Watching to Active Participation There is no doubt that the new media broke the barriers and reached people wherever they are. Besides, they provide an alternative when the doors of the official and traditional media are closed before a number of political organizations, their representatives and followers, giving them the freedom to publish their agendas. They also provide equality between all as for the ability to deliver their voices and messages without interfering, concealing or manipulating. They become thus the pulse of the street, from which the decision makers should benefit to keep informed about the opinion trends. The new media succeeded to bring up issues transferring the public from watching to active participation in all phases of news making. The most obvious example is represented in the political usage of Twitter and Facebook by the political activists during the electoral campaigns, the list-making of the candidates, the support and voices providing, as happened in the elections of Iran, Iraq and Egypt, or during mobilizing, directing and provoking the supporters against the authorities in the protests of Egypt, Tunis, Yemen and Bahrain. Undoubtedly, the new media that emerged, prevailed and attracted people force the traditional media to more

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transparent, honest and direct events and news dealing, in order to stay close to the public Twittering and Facebooking. Otherwise, the public opinion would be formed only through the social media that proved ability, across exchanging news, photos, information and clips, in shaping convictions and directing the public opinion. On the other hand, there is an important role for the new media in helping to diffuse knowledge, develop science, open horizons for invention, creation and information about peoples, civilizations and their achievements. It is also necessary to acknowledge the unprecedented potentials new media have enabled for the official authorities in all the world countries, so to establish fast and effective communication channels with the public in case of catastrophes, disasters and terrorist operations, thus tracing their perpetrators and struggling against the unfair rumors targeting national security and domestic peace. â&#x20AC;Ťâ&#x20AC;?â&#x20AC;ŹThe

Dark Side: 14 Objections to the New Media All of the above-mentioned is right and agreed upon. However, the new media have a dark side represented in their devastating cultural, social, political and security effects. Dr. Al-Suwaidi counted more than 14 defects of the new media summarized as follows:

Articles • The new media lack professionalism and their tools contribute in diffusing incorrect news, rumors, mobilizing and sometimes manipulating public opinion, purchasing and selling Twitter followers as indicated in some reports. For example, there is evidence that the broad usage of the social media in the Gulf region, through the dominance of youth who have little knowledge, lead to disturbance and confusion. The matter gets worse when it results in repulsive sectarian cracks such as what happened in Bahrain. • The new media contributed in corroding several wellfounded media values and concepts, such as credibility and trustfulness of the news source, giving instead advantage to rumors, misleading and deceptive information. For example, the new media sometimes fabricates intentionally news, photos and clips for certain purposes. Then, some traditional media use and spread this stuff as facts under the pressure of scoop. In other words, the new media is crowded with considerable content whose authenticity cannot be acknowledged. This issue is a challenge that may be difficult to overcome as this content is not made by organizations that can be held accountable or checked, but is provided by persons who are not necessarily committed to the profession’s conditions and ethics. As a result, the credibility of this content is not based only upon the extent of its logical consistency and clarity, but also on the credibility of its producer in the opinion of the public through previous

acquaintance. In this manner, the person’s credibility replaces that of the organization. Naturally, individuals tend generally to believe their peers. In the Gulf, this matter causes many problems, particularly with circulating meaningless content under big titles to attract attention or to achieve personal profits. • The new media contributed in diffusing the negative security phenomena that threat communities through propagating radical notions, recruitment processes, and explosives making up instructions. In addition, it facilitates communication between terrorists regarding, for example, the time of their operations, the hiding places, transportation and hitting targets. This is observed in the behavior of "Al-Qaeda" affiliates and the groups related to Iranian radicals and Hizb Allah, in the Gulf generally and in Bahrain particularly. In the same context, it can be said that "as long as absolute freedom is available for everyone in the new media, it may be misused by some people to implement and publicize their political and ideological purposes through provoking, calling for mobilization and massing, violence and devastation, particularly in the communities that are burdened with illiterateness and lack of culture and are ready to subordinate to emotions and mottos instead of resorting to logic and reasoning. The seriousness of this matter is increased when the social media user belongs to a religious cult, since he may use the new media in diffusing expiatory fatwas creating

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Articles tension in his community; then, he hides behind his religious rank to avoid taking the responsibility. • In the wake of the new media, new legal problems concerning misuse and electronic publication offenses emerged. In fact, it has become difficult to determine the legal responsibility for the social media or to distinguish the responsibility of its manager or owner from that of the user, particularly owing to the increasing trickery, evasiveness, fraud and posting under false names. In the same context, the social media are held responsible for the increasing financial, cultural, intellectual, political, economic and sexual crimes, as well as fraud and deception offenses through assuming false identities or child sexual abuse. • The new media contributed to the spread of the virtual world whereby it has become responsible for shaping the opinions of the adolescent and teenage youth, as it created a space for them to spend free time and fulfill whims and sexual suppression through exchanging sexual images and clips easily. • The new media is largely responsible for family fragmentation, social traditions’ recession, and gap widening between older and young generations in the Gulf region. The adult users have become so busy with the new media that they started to neglect their relations and traditional duties towards society, friends and relatives. Moreover, their preoccupation with new media drove them to neglect their duties towards their wives and children, which resulted in a case of practically "virtual widowhood and orphanage". It was also noted that the more one uses social media, the less one engages in face to face dialogues, participation and discussions with his children, which may cause a gap between generations. • In spite that some people praise the new media for training users to be brief in expression by limiting the number of words in tweets, messages...etc., this advantage is worthless compared to the negative effect on local language. Under the new media, a new global "language" has been formed through the similarity of intellects, cultures and minds that are communicating. Furthermore, some users do not have the required culture to write. So they express their mind through manipulating pictures to create offensive and shameful images including those and of some celebrities. This is another example of the disadvantages of the new media, particularly that a large portion of the young generation in the Arab society and others has been raised in an irresponsible way that did not teach moral restraints.

Are Alternate Media Viable? In short, a quick review of the postings in the new media demonstrates the following: • Personal opinions predominate documented information. The content is based on expressions such as "I heard, I was told, and after a call from a friend" ... etc. • Negative perspective on all official political, economic and social activities of the country, as if the state does not

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implement any positive activities, projects or achievements. Hence, the new media are used in subversion and instigation instead of reform, which results in a state of deterioration and unrest at the social, development and security levels. • Some persons turn their blogs into diaries, which is not a big deal. However, turning these blogs into references for information is wrong, when such information was written by a young, inexperienced and uneducated person. Most conversations discussing the new media in the Gulf describe them as positive media. That is, they are able to handle the problems of traditional media, such as lack of courage, lack of transparency and information filtering, before display. However, the new media are not the alternate solution because they have some problems that make them more dangerous to the nation's cultural order. This is very much so particularly with some Arab problems, such as superficial thinking, unfair generalization, emotionality, dominance of ideological slogans on reason and logic. Moreover, the emergence of electronic media in the Gulf resulted in penetrating the traditional media fortresses, especially in the countries that impose major restrictions on the freedom to license traditional media. Meantime, it was an outlet for a large portion of the public to express their opinions more easily. This helped the region emerging electronic media in attracting large audiences and forced the traditional media to access the electronic media through creating interactive websites to gain more readers. However, the important point in differentiating the good from the bad will be the subject matter. Eventually this is what matters in determining what is good whether in printed or electronic press. The electronic media not beneficial if the subject is superficial and unprofitable to the reader.

What Should be Done? First: the traditional media institutions need serious and sincere reconsideration to correct their mistakes, develop their connection to the masses, increase their credibility through allowing the expression of opinions and counter opinions, and increase their courage in addressing the concerns of the public. Nevertheless, the new media need their users to undertake the responsibility in building and communicating a culture that is based on documented valid information, using neutral language and abstaining from instigation and attacks targeting people in their honor. They should not follow emotions and attractive slogans. They should abide by clear basics while blogging. In other words, the new and social media can be credible only if their users apply self-censorship. Second: It is advisable that the new media acts as complementary and not replacement to the traditional media. Several official entities worldwide do not take the postings in social media seriously. That is, they consider social media as a mere chat or mere frivolous communication among a group of people. However, when the same content of social media is transferred to the traditional media (such as the press), the concerned entities act accordingly. In other words, no matter how important the news communicated via social media networks, they will remain contained in these networks unless the traditional media communicate such news formally.

Articles

The Ambassador from Nomination Until Completion of the Mission Ambassador Hadi Bin Nasser Al-Hajri * Each year, the State of Qatar appoints ambassadors abroad. Some of them have sufficient experience of the adopted procedures of the appointment of ambassadors, the missions they are charged with, the consequent duties, and the applicable protocol procedure from nomination until completion of the mission. These are experienced ambassadors who assumed that position for several years. Others are new ambassadors nominated for the first time. Some of them are not familiar with the procedures of selection and nomination, the correspondences between the state assigning the ambassador and the hosting state, the consequent actions since being notified of the nomination until getting ready to travel and arrive at the state of residence, submitting credentials, proceeding work and duties as ambassador. Therefore, this article addresses the necessary qualities of an ambassador, nomination procedures, approval, getting ready to travel, arrival in the state of residence and the missions and duties of ambassadors under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 1961 promulgated under Law No. 13 of 2009 regarding the Qatari diplomatic and consular corps. It provides information to new ambassadors appointed in this position for the first time regarding their rights and duties, and answers several questions they have about the new position. The Qualities of Ambassadors There are necessary qualities for the diplomatic representative: Tactfulness, quick wittedness, strong memory, sociability, integrity, accuracy, honesty, sincerity, frankness, patience, composure, non-artificiality, tastefulness, resourcefulness, intelligence, strong personality and good education. These qualities should be part of an ambassador’s character. As for the acquired qualities, an ambassador should be versed in one or more foreign languages, have an academic university degree, be familiar with the diplomatic law and the rules of work including how to approach the diplomatic

‫‏*‏‬Qatar Ambassador – Warsaw

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Articles experienced in diplomatic activities. Selection is based on seniority, adequacy and innate and acquired qualities of nominees as previously mentioned. The nominee career development and good reputation and his success during service time in a specific state or region are motives and advantages for his nomination to be the mission chief. Indeed, an ambassador, delegated minister or advisor could be presented as ambassadors. In some states, ambassadors are appointed from outside the diplomatic corps. This "political appointment" is the prerogative of the President of State. It is common practice in the United States of America conversely to the United Kingdom, which selects most of its ambassadors from the diplomatic corps. Under political appointment, a public personality not affiliated to the diplomatic corps is selected, such as an ex-minister, officer or professor. After the Ministry of Foreign Affairs examines the ambassador's file, the nominee's name along with his resume is submitted to the President of the State. Such nomination must be kept confidential and should not be released to the media even if approved by the Head of the State. In case the

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ambassador's nomination is accepted by the President of the State, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs shall be notified thereof and the following process (i.e. consultation) is initiated.

Consultation Consultation has become a rule or principle recognized by jurisprudence and set forth in diplomatic agreements, particularly the Havana Convention 1982 and Vienna Convention 1961. According to that principle, states should consult each other before appointing the chiefs of their missions. Article 4 of Vienna Convention 1961 provides that consultation is a prerequisite to the final appointment of the diplomatic mission chief. The sending state must ensure that the person to act as the chief of the mission is approved by the host state. The procedure requires the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Department of Protocol, to prepare a memorandum enclosing the resume of the nominated ambassador including his profile, qualifications and previous services in the different states in addition to his marital status. This memorandum shall be sent with attachments to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the

Articles

receiving state through diplomatic channels, i.e., through the embassy of the sending state. A review might be conducted by the embassy of the host state in the sending state or through its permanent delegation in the United Nations if there are no current missions. When a state desires to appoint an ambassador, it shall make sure that such ambassador demonstrates competence, sincerity, honesty and integrity. It shall also make sure that there are no negative remarks on such nominee by the receiving state pursuant to Clause (A) of Article (4) of the Diplomatic Law, which provides "The sending state must make certain that the agreement of the receiving state has been given for the person it proposes to accredit as the chief of the mission. The common diplomatic practice provides that the receiving state investigates that nominee by its accredited ambassador in the sending state or by its ambassadors in the states where the nominee ambassador worked to find out more about his dispositions, attitudes and activity. The receiving state may accept or refuse according to the state policy pursuant to Clause (B), Article (4) of Vienna Convention, "The receiving state is not obliged to give reasons to the sending state for refusal to accredit" . The receiving state may express its refusal through notifying the sending state that it refuses to accept that nominee as the diplomatic mission chief and may give a reason for such refusal. On the other hand the host state may refuse

impliedly through procrastination in replying. In fact, refusing an ambassador usually results from specific reasons, such as reciprocity for previous refusal of an ambassador, or a report from an ambassador of the host state in a state where the nominee had previously served suggesting he had a hostile attitude against the receiving state. In this case, the nomination may be refused without an express statement of such refusal. Approval usually takes from one to three months. If more than half this period lapses without a reply, the sending state invites the mission chief of the host state to inquire about such delay, whereupon he might provide the reasons expressly or reply in the usual diplomatic manner that he has no information and that he shall inquire about the matter. In case of no reply, it means an implied refusal. In fact, states have different reactions to refusal. Some States insist on their nominee and do not nominate any replacement. They keep pressing the receiving state to accept its nominee even to the extent of reducing the representation level in the mission. The sending state may delay nominating a replacement for several years. Some states do not hold to their rejected nominee in an effort to maintain amicable and distinguished relations between both states. Thus, they replace the refused nominee with another to fulfill the desire of the receiving state. All these procedures are valid under the Diplomatic Law and are usually addressed confidentially between both states.

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Articles Appointment and Letter of Accreditation If the nominated ambassador is accepted by the receiving state, the latter responds with an official memorandum welcoming that ambassador and sends it in the same way the consultation memorandum was received. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the sending state addresses the State Presidency Division for notification of approval of consultation to proceed with signing the credentials (letter of accreditation), which is an official document addressed by the Head of the State accrediting the ambassador to the Head of the state receiving the diplomatic representative. It is an old formal wording that was not amended or renewed. The title usually includes "Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary", which is common in the diplomatic field, but may not be comprehensible for the public. In fact, this title is an old wording for the common diplomatic practice, giving the title "extraordinary" to delegated ambassadors assigned with extraordinary and temporary duties as chiefs of honorary missions or negotiation delegations, so that they could be distinguished from accredited ambassadors leading fixed diplomatic missions. Then, that common practice developed with time and the title is assigned to ambassadors in permanent representation and stated in credentials as "Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary" without implying an additional privilege. Thus, that title is used to keep the past traditions and practices.

Preparation to Travel and Arrive in the Receiving State After the sending state gets the host stateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s approval on the nominated mission chief, the protocol department provides him with the "credentials" signed by the Head of the State and thereby he becomes an appointed ambassador in the host state and starts his arrangements to travel. The preparation period takes three months in normal circumstances. Several states agree on this period if acceleration is not reasonably required. Reasons for acceleration include a visit by the President of the sending state to the receiving state or vice versa or other urgent reasons. During this period, the appointed ambassador devotes himself to study several files of the state where he is appointed. He reviews the political files and the nature of the relations between both states. He also studies all old and recent files and correspondences. He conducts researches and seeks the help of persons familiar with the political, social, cultural and economic affairs and customs and traditions of the state as well as all information that can be beneficial to his work in that state. He shall make sure to meet the ex-ambassador or the employees of the Ministry who previously worked in that state. In some states, the competent departments in the Ministry, or the ambassador himself, prepares the speech, which the ambassador will give in the credentials submission ceremony if required as per the protocol of the receiving state. The duties include visiting some departments such as the department of finances to check his mission requests, projects, duties and rights. According to the common diplomatic practice, the assigned ambassador visits the ambassador of the receiving state, who is accredited by his state as a courtesy and for preliminary information about the State. That ambassador may throw him

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a party to be acquainted and invite some common friends. The duties also include visiting some ministries concerned with foreign affairs. If he is reassigned from another embassy abroad, he should perform the usual farewell in this event such as bidding farewell to his acquaintances in the receiving state and ambassadors as well as the related protocol. He shall conclude the procedures with meeting the Minister of Foreign Affairs and President of the State. In some states, the appointed ambassador takes the legal oath before the Head of the State while bidding farewell thereto. In other states, he takes the oath in writing to be kept in his file. In Qatar, Article (5) of the decree promulgated under Law (13) of 2009 concerning the consular and diplomatic corps provides, "The staff of diplomatic and consular corps before proceeding with their job duties take the following oath: I swear to God to be faithful to the country and Emir, to respect Islamic Shariah, the Constitution and the Law, to serve my country honorably, sincerely and faithfully and to keep the confidentiality of my job"). The ambassadors, plenipotentiary ministers, advisors and consuls general take the oath before the Emir or his deputy in presence of the Minister. The remaining members of the diplomatic and consular corps take the oath before the Minister or his deputy. The second person in charge in the embassy sends a memorandum to the department of protocol in the receiving state and all accredited Arab embassies notifying them of the arrival date of the new ambassador. The ambassador will be welcomed at the airport by the manager of the department of protocol or his deputy along with all Arab ambassadors desiring to welcome him and ascertain the desire to help in his new job duties. Then, a memorandum shall be sent to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the receiving state to set a date for the ambassador to meet the Minister of Foreign Affairs to provide copies of credentials (the unsigned copies) and a date to meet the President of the State to submit the official credentials. In case copies of the credentials are submitted to the Minister of Foreign Affairs in the receiving state, he shall be deemed officially accredited and can exercise his job duties. However, he cannot attend official events organized by the Head of the state (the common practice in some states provides that the ambassador may not give an official speech at the National Day if his credentials are not submitted to the Head of the state). After submitting the credentials to the President of the State, accreditation is complete whereby the ambassadors may exercise all competences and duties assigned thereto including attendance of events organized by the President of the State. In fact, the credentials submission date to the President is very important in determining the seniority of each ambassador with respect to protocols.

Ambassador Tasks and Duties The Vienna Convention 1961 organizing diplomatic relations stipulates that a mission represents its state and in this capacity it performs bilateral, multilateral and joint representation as well as representing the protection of interests. The tasks of this position can be briefed to participation of the mission in the public life of the host state through taking part in general celebrations, formal receptions and national days. The mission chief usually undertakes this duty and if he is absent or the position is not occupied, the concerned person in the mission shall be his deputy. Moreover, the mission in its capacity as a main administration of official communication

Articles addresses some issues in the name of its state and seeks to demonstrate its rights and defend its interests in addition to representing the sending state at any established international organization within the host state. Hence, the mission is a representative of the State as a whole not the Head of the State or the government as was previously prevalent. The administrative duties of the ambassador in the mission include organizing the mission and implementing the instructions of the Minister of Foreign Affairs such as not leaving his place of work in the receiving state, even for a short while, without the approval of the Minister of Foreign Affairs or his deputy. In addition, he submits reports on his interviews starting from the Head of the State to the most junior employee in the host state. These reports shall be submitted after interviews promptly, urgently and immediately. He shall also prepare a detailed report on the host state including information on the stateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s geographical location, population, religion, races, denominations and minorities as well as the political, economic and social situation. This report should also include the political powers, parties and influential persons as well as its relations to neighboring states and major powers, its interest in the issues of the Arab and Islamic world, its influence on the international society and finally its relation with Qatar. He shall also make suggestions, which the ambassador thinks can develop the bilateral relations. The ambassador administrative duties include the direct and full supervision of the mission, its employees and its affiliated offices as well as streamlining its work progress optimally. Also, innovating ways and means to make his mission a model for other missions since any mistake, slip or negative attitude in the mission is attributed to the mission chief and no one else in the mission, which is the established common practice and convention as the embassy is attributed to the ambassador.

Expiry of Ambassador Mission

reassignment. Then, he visits them starting with the doyen of diplomatic corps to jointly set a date for the farewell gathering if he so desires. The common diplomatic practice provides that ambassadors visit him back. Moreover, the doyen of the diplomatic corps organizes a reception celebration for mutual courtesy where the doyen presents him the usual souvenir from all ambassadors. The second person "deputy of the mission chief" attends the farewell gathering and undertakes the mission duties after the ambassador's departure. This gathering gives him the opportunity to meet the ambassadors. The accustomed conventions provide that the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the host state organizes a lunch or dinner celebration for the terminated ambassador where the latter is given a token of the state heritage. In this celebration, both parties exchange expressions of courtesy. Furthermore, the terminated ambassador thanks the Minister of Foreign Affairs and his employees for assisting him to succeed in his mission. The departing ambassador may also be given an order of merit if the state gives such orders or may be given just the token. The departing ambassador prepares the speech addressing his fellow accredited ambassadors to thank them for their cooperation, friendship and good relations with the usual compliments in these cases. He also signs the letters and submits them to the deputy mission chief to be sent after his departure. Moreover, he sends a memorandum to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to advise about appointing the second person in charge of the mission as his deputy until the arrival of a new ambassador. He also sends a letter to the bank the mission deals with enclosing the signature of the deputy of the mission chief to be approved instead of the terminated ambassador. These letters are sent during the ambassador's departure. The Minister of Foreign Affairs and the department managers bid farewell to the terminated ambassador, who concludes his mission by meeting the Head of the state. Such meeting shall be his last with officials of the host state. Then, he is accompanied to the airport by the manager or deputy manager of protocol, the doyen of the diplomatic corps, several ambassadors from his group, the members of the embassy and his friends, if he desires so, in the receiving state. His departure represents the end of his service at that post.

The ambassador mission expires when receiving a memorandum from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the sending state nominating a new ambassador to the host state. As of that date, the concerned state is notified of the ambassador change. The latter may be aware of this action or may be told about it by his friends in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs except for the states which define the period the ambassador spends in the host state to be three or four years , so that ambassador and host state know in advance at what date his mission ends. If the receiving state replies with approving the nomination, in case of no delay aiming at extending the incumbent much appreciated services, the sending state shall notify its ambassador to get ready to travel and start the farewell process. This process takes from one to three months as the case may be. The terminated ambassador shall notify the Ministry of Foreign Affairs with a memorandum requesting to set a date to farewell the Minister of Foreign Affairs and some Ministers in addition to another memorandum requesting a date to farewell the Head of the state.

In conclusion, it is difficult to evaluate the success or failure of an ambassador. In fact, everyone desires to succeed in his service. This mission is subject to several factors. It could be successful if his state has good relations with the host state, which facilitates his mission and consolidates his relations with the officials in that state. Furthermore, his success is measured by his achievements during his service politically, economically and socially, such as the number of official visits between both states, the number of signed agreements, the terms of trade, the completed business transactions, his relations with officials, his social relations in the host state and the services he provided to the people of his state. All the aforementioned factors in addition to others help evaluate the mission of an ambassador.

The ambassador gets ready to travel, prepares himself psychologically and arranges his family affairs. He visits the ministers with whom he has business or friendship relations as well as his friends of the state nationals other than government employees. Then, he sends notifications to his coworkers and the chiefs of diplomatic mission advising them of the

The ambassador's success in his missions is based on his adherence to the teachings of Islam and abidance by the advice and instructions given to him by the officials in the State before proceeding with his mission. In addition to the respect for the trust the Emir accorded him, given that his appointment was based on the trust that he will succeed in his mission.

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‫ ‏‬istory of Sino- Arab Relations H ‫‏‬Diplomacy... Instead of War Dr. Mohammed Habash *

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Articles A unique blend of calm, rational and positive Diplomacy China is woven deep into the narrative of Arab and Islamic civilization, part of the rich tapestry of Arab heritage, culture and myth from the earliest times. A popular refrain had it: "Seek out knowledge, even in [distant] China". In popular culture China has been linked to the stories of Solomon and the magic carpet he would ride, as well as the tales of Azrael on his inexorable journeys eastward. Stories would portray the Emperor of China as a people’s emperor, whose subjects were most loyal and obedient. Exegetes have also linked the name of China with the prophetic hadith concerning the conquests of Dhu’l Qarnayn, who reached the setting sun and found it “emerging from a murky spring”. Similarly, China is regularly portrayed in the scientific literature of Islamic cultural heritage as a distant land full of wonders, such as the secrets of chemistry and the mystery of alchemy. Myth and legend aside, the history of China and her relations with the Arabs reveal a unique blend of calm and rational diplomacy in this country, to which responded a positive disposition that has guided successive Islamic nations ever since.

A Peace-Loving people throughout History Spread over an area of approximately nine million six hundred thousand square kilometers, only fractionally less than the size of the Arab world today, China is also equivalent in size to the Umayyad, Abbasid and Ottoman Caliphates of Islamic history. Such size has allowed for a spirit of equality and integration between China and the Islamic world. Firstly then, one might describe the Chinese as a people who not only deeply cherish their heritage, traditions and ancestors, but also a people who have embraced peace throughout their long history. Nor should one forget that the Chinese giant has been the victim of prolonged Mongol invasions and Japanese imperialism, living for many years under a colonialism that came from the north and east. Perhaps the clearest example of this ancient peoples’ predilection for peace is the Great Wall, which was built by the Chinese over the course of centuries. First begun in 204 BCE, many successive dynasties made additions so that by the year 1644 it finally stretched over some six thousand seven hundred kilometers. The Wall was an attempt to ensure peace and repel a continuous series of Mongol invasions that plagued the nation throughout the course of its history. A similar ingenuity for peace was demonstrated by the Prophet of Islam, may the peace and blessings of Allah be upon him, when he had a trench dug around Medina as a clear rejection of conflict, yet a strong response to the machinations of the enemy that would spare Muslim blood. China had previously become well acquainted with Arabia due to the Silk Road, along which merchants travelled for centuries. They would journey around the Arabian peninsula, through the Levant and Mesopotamia to reach historic Turkestan before plunging deep into the depths of ancient China, where people would exchange goods and cultural experiences through festivities filled with joy and generosity. With the advent of Islam, Tang-ruled China enjoyed yet another period of prosperous civilization which lasted some

three hundred years (618 CE to 906 CE), reaching the zenith of its influence, unity and prestige under the Emperor Li Shìmín, more famously known as Tài Zōng. Geographically, China’s historical borders were delimited by the seas of the east, the Himalayan range to the south and the Great Wall of the north. However, the borders to the west have ebbed back and forth like the tides of the ocean. At times stretching as far as Afghanistan and including the majority of Turkestan in Xinjiang, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, and at other times receding back to the East Turkestan of modern China today. The region still retains some Turkish nationalist tendencies, following the Soviet annexation of West Turkestan during the 1940s. China’s central government annexed the East in 1949. After a great deal of intense demographic restructuring, the regions’ borders were adjusted to change the composition of its Muslim society, and the region’s name was changed to Xinjiang. The Chinese border was thus settled in its current form since that time.

Islamic emissaries negotiate with Chinese Emperors Orientalists always accuse Islam that it spread by force of arms. Usually, scholars respond by pointing to the Melayu, which embraced Islam through preaching work and good exhortation. However, another type of relations is rarely mentioned away from the religious issue; i.e. the positive diplomacy adopted by Islam towards China. This type of connections had not received sufficient consideration although it was the direct cause of establishing balanced relations with this great civilization, providing huge security, touristic and commercial cooperation through history. In the meantime, this quiet diplomacy has avoided war and clashes between nations and finally managed to convince at least thirty million Chinese of voluntarily and willingly embracing Islam. The diplomatic connections between Muslims and the kings of China could be observed in two phases: First: Since the reign of Uthman Ibn Affan in 651 A.D until Kara-Khanid Khanate conversion to Islam in 964 A.D. Second: Since 964 A.D to the establishment of Modern China in 1912 A.D. In the first phase, three rounds of negotiation have been recorded between China and the Islamic Caliphate: The first formal contact between China and the Arab world was recorded when the Caliph Uthman Ibn Affan sent envoys to China to meet the Emperor of Tang dynasty, Emperor Gaozong in Chang'an (now Xi'an) in August 651 A.D. It was the beginning of the civilized dialogue between both the Chinese and the Arab nation. This interview was recorded officially in volume IV of the old Tang dynasty book. Certainly, the messengers of Uthman Ibn Affan were not messengers of conquest and war. The Islamic conquests during Uthman time did not surpass Persia while Central Asia States were still under their old rulers. It was no question for the armies of conquest to go to China while this entire country was not Muslim. A number of Islamic cities in China recount the memories of the arrival of Al Sahabah (the companions). There is a tomb of

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Articles Saad Bin Abi Waqas in Guangzhou. The Islamic Association in Guangzhou in South China reopened it in a grand ceremony in 2010. Nevertheless, the arrival of Saad Bin Abi Waqas to China was not mentioned in any of the Islamic or Chinese sources. It reflects a form of emotional communication between Muslims in China and the primary Islamic roots.

The Wisdom of China in Avoiding War With the Arabs Aside from the myths that do not fit reality, the commentators mentioned in this regard that the son of the King of Persia, Fairuz Bin Yazdegerd, fled after Nahawand Battle to the east seeking refuge and help from the King of China to retrieve his kingdom from Arabs. However, the Chinese King listened quietly and patiently to Fairuz; then, he acted in a high diplomatic way and apologized for not sending armies to fight alongside the Persians against Arabs pretexting that his state is far away from Persia. Nevertheless, he sent his ambassadors to the Arabian Peninsula to meet the Caliph Uthman and explain the position of the King of China, while seeking his indulgence for providing a safe place to Khosrau Family. Uthman Ibn Affan appreciated the King of China for his neutrality and positivity and sent a delegation loaded with gifts and valuables to him. This was the first diplomatic contact between Arabs and China on the state level. In another text, Almaqdesy mentioned in his book "Albad wa Altarikh" that Uthman Ibn Affan sent Abdullah Bin Amer and Mujash' Bin Masood to seek and get Yazdegerd, the defeated King of Persia. They followed him in Istakhr, Kerman and Merw Shah Jan and Sijstan. Apparently, they went deeply into the lands of Afghanistan. Ibn Al-Muqaffa mentioned that they carried precious gifts to the King of China. Most likely, this is the story indicated by the Chinese references in the old Tang dynasty book. Ibn Al-Muqaffa mentioned that the gifts carried by the delegation to the King of China were very valuable including countless gold and silver utensils. There is no doubt that this reflects the friendly relationship between the King of China and the conquerors who were mostly in conflict with his enemies. This was the first official contact between Arabs and China and it was a peaceful and friendly contact. It contributed to the prosperity of the Silk Road once again in addition to facilitating a second trail that passes across the Arabian Peninsula, the Iranian and Pakistani South to the North of India and Bangladesh, through the Chinese cities.

The Silk Diplomacy It is useful here to point out that the Silk Road began historically since the Roman times, where the Chinese silk was being sold in Rome for the Royal family in particular. However, in the context of its historical development, it has turned into a massive festival of culture, knowledge and trade. These convoys consisted of about eight thousand camels loaded with unique products. The road had annually the winter trip and the summer trip; the first was passing across the Islamic states southward of Caspian Sea, while the second crossed northward the Caspian Sea through the territory of Central Asia, before reaching the historical cities of northern China.

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Undoubtedly, the success of communication between the Rashidun Caliphate during Uthman era and China is a major diplomatic success. It was perhaps the most important reason for the stability of Islam in Persia, since this very connection defined the status of the Persian Emperor's son, Fairuz Bin Yazdegerd, as a political refugee within China power spheres, in Turkestan. Hence, the kings of China became his permanent residence sponsors instead of being his bloody revolution sponsors. As a result, his ambitions to wage resistance wars supported by China to recover Persia from Arabs ended. Chinese sources have early related the story and referred to Uthman Ibn Affan as Mosho; i.e., Caliph, and as Mosho III. This was quoted by the researcher Abdo Qasim in the book "Al Arabi" from the Chinese encyclopedia ÂŤTo YuÂť titled (Tongteyen).

Qutaiba's Delegation The second communication between Arabs and China was recorded during the wars of Qutaiba Ibn Muslim Albahli in Uzbekistan in approximately 94 A.H 713 A.D. This great Omayyad conqueror expanded in Central Asia resuming the conquests of Al-Ahnaf Ibn Qays and Hudhayfah Ibn Al Nu'man in Iran. He advanced deeply in Afghanistan, passing through Uzbekistan and reaching Kashgar, which was the capital of Eastern Turkestan that the Chinese considered as theirs. After weeks, he received a letter from the King of China inviting a delegation to explain what Islam is. The opportunity was appropriate for Qutaiba to start a major diplomatic contact with the greatest civilization of the East. He had to show the conquerors' strength, regularity and connection with the capital of the Caliphate. Qutaiba developed a unique program to picture the Muslim community through three features. Firstly, the behavior of Muslims within their families indicating the various aspects of mercy, compassion and stability; secondly, the behavior of Muslims with their kings and its significance of prestige, respect and dignity; and lastly, the behavior of the Muslims in war where patience, tolerance, steadfastness and courage are required. Qutaiba chose twelve men from his army having attractiveness, eloquence, courage, patience and integrity. He ordered to provide them with good equipment and fine supplies of silk, embroideries, horses and others. Qutaiba's delegation went to the King of China, headed by Hubayrah Bin Almashmarag Al Kelaby, who was a talented and eloquent speaker. When they arrived to China, they were invited by the King; thus, they wore white clothes and mantillas underneath, perfumed themselves, wore the gowns and went to the King who was hosting prominent personages from his people. They took their places in his court, but neither the king nor any of his people spoke to the delegation. When the delegation left the King's court, the King said to the attendees: What do you think of them? They said: we think that they are nothing but women. In the next day, the King invited them to his court again; thus, they wore the embroideries, fur turbans, and garments (square fur closes with marks) and went to him. When they entered to his place, they were told to return. The King said to his companions after the departure of the

Articles Muslim delegation, what do you think of them? They said: this profile is more manly than the former.

uniform worn by the negotiator. In such way, he left a limited space to a language, which was foreign to China.

On the third day, the King summoned them to his court over again. So, they armed themselves, wore helmets and armors, held swords, spears and bows and rode their horses. When the King of China saw them, he looked at them like mountains ahead. When they came close to the King's council, they centered their spears and approached advertently.

The desired diplomatic expression is not necessarily the soft gentle speaking. However, Hubayrah used an apparent defiant speech when the King of China tried to belittle the capabilities of the Qutaiba's army and threatened him by saying: you are like an egg in my palm and your leader cannot attack me. Hubayrah replied: how does he have little power while his horses straddle in your territory and end up in the olive lands?

The Logic of Hubayrah At the evening of this day, the King of China summoned their leader. Thus, Hubayrah went to meet the king. The King said: you may have seen the greatness of my reign and no one will save you from me; in fact, you are like an egg in my Palm. I will ask you about something and if you do not say the truth, I will kill you. The King asked Hubayrah: why did you appear in the first, second and third outfits in this way? Hubayrah answered: the first outfit is our clothes and perfume among our families; the second outfit is our clothes when we go to our leaders; the third outfit is our uniform to meet our enemies. The King said: you introduced yourselves in the best way. You should go to your leader and tell him to leave. I knew about his aspiration and his little power; otherwise, I will send who destroy you and perish him. Hubayrah said: how does he have little power while his horses straddle from your territory and end up across the olive lands! And how can he be aspirant while he renounced worldly pleasures and invaded you? As regarding the threat to kill us, the time of our death was set. Martyrdom is the most honorable way to die. We neither hate nor are afraid of it. The King could not deny the truth; thus, he forgot about his threat and asked gently: what will satisfy your leader? Hubayrah replied firmly and strictly: he swore not to leave until he sets foot on your land, seals your kings and obtains the tribute. In an unexpected response, the King said: I will deliver him from his oath. We will send him some of our land dust to step on it, and our sons to be sealed and enough money to please him.

Lesson Learned on the Relations with Non-Muslims Although the story may show a great deal of exaggeration especially regarding its provocative side, Hubayrah has actually established in a rational diplomatic way peaceful relations between two equivalent states. He succeeded in showing the three capacities of the Islamic community. He introduced, on the first day, the family relationships in the Islamic community through soft quiet clean clothes. He displayed on the next day the clothes of the official and protocolic meetings. On the third day, he showed his people in war and confrontation appearance. This diplomatic show was more eloquent than any words in the world. I think that Hubayrah mastered this role proficiently and managed to overcome the language barrier through sending most of his message over selecting the diplomatic

Actually, Qutaiba Ibn Muslim ceased the attack on China satisfied by the positive attitude of the King. Hence, a relationship of neighborhood and cooperation between Muslims and the King of China was grown up. This relationship deserves to be studied and scrutinized as it recognizes the possibility of building rational diplomatic relations with a nonMuslim idolatrous country in accordance with the principle: "you have your religion and I have mine". This situation is a precedent worthy of study and consideration. It confirms that Islam allows establishing positive diplomatic relations with non-fighting infidel states. This is in opposition to the principle adopted by radicals today, claiming the necessity of ridding the world of paganism by the sword, and the inadmissibility of peace with non-Muslims, who, according to them, should be fought until they embrace Islam. This attitude resulted in very negative repercussions on the relations of Muslims with the world.

From the Single Battle of Talkh to the Paper Industry The only fight that occurred between Arabs and Chinese was in 751 A.D., i.e. in the second year of the Abbasid Caliphate. The "New Tang Dynasty" book (Xin Tang Shu), part V, "Biography of Emperor Xuan Zong (Xuan Zong 712756 A.D. on the Throne), states that in July in 751 A.D. the army of the Chinese commander Gao Xian Zhi met the army of the Arabs in Talas, and the army of the Commander Gao was defeated". Moreover, the New Tang dynasty book, Part 135, "Biography of Commander Gao Xian Zhi" states that Commander Gao Xian Zhi invaded Fetnat town, which is one of the Emirates of Tashkent province and captured and killed its Prince. His fugitive son sought refuge with the Arab Army Commander and the other Emirates leaders. As a result, the Chinese and Arab armies engaged in a battle in the territory of Talas whereupon the Chinese army was defeated. The prince avenged his father and returned to the throne. A large number, nearly twenty thousand, of the Chinese soldiers had been captured in the battle, including the Chinese historian TUHwan who was taken to Baghdad and then allowed to return to China. He wrote precise details of his journey to Baghdad in the Chinese language. Talas (talkh) battle is the only military engagement in the Sino -Arab relations over history. Arabic sources named this battle as Talkh and mentioned that the King of China helped kings of Alsaghed (now in Tajikistan) with a great army of 100,000 combatants, but they were confronted by Ziad Saleh and Khaled Bin Ibrahim, who were from Abu Muslim Al Khawlani men, at Al Shash Valley between Merw and Samarkand. The Arab and Chinese sources agree that the battle led to the decisive victory of the Muslims over the Chinese army led by Kao Hsin Tse.

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Articles Although the results were a disaster for the Chinese army, Abu Muslim Al Khawlani ordered to treat them well. Thereupon, he benefited from them in building the first paper mill in the Islamic world in Samarkand. As a matter of fact, China has preceded the world in paper industry. Those captives transferred Chinese paper industry and lithography. This industry quickly transferred to Baghdad had had the greatest impact on the prosperity of the papermakers' craftsmanship and the spread of knowledge.

Outcomes of Al Mansour's help to the King of China The positive consequences of well treating the captives and making use of them, led to an improvement in the Sino- Arab relations, which returned to the status quo ante. Moreover, the diplomatic relations have been developed between the Caliphate and the Kings of China as well as the local rulers. After less than five years (756 A.D.), upon the request of the imperial Chinese government of the Tang dynasty, the Abbasid Caliph Abu Jaafar Al Mansour agreed to send an army to put down the military coup led by An Lu Shan Wuxi Si Ming.. It was a decisive contribution to regain the friendship between both states. The friendly relations between China and the Abbasid Caliphs continued for about 200 years during which the borders did not witness any significant military clashes. This reflects the success of the diplomacy adopted by Uthman Ibn Affan and Caliph Al Mansour, particularly between the capital of the Caliphate and the Chinese emperor court.

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The interrelations between the Caliph Al Mansour and the King of China Chuan Zoingh at that time were well known. There is a need to study the Muslim juristic and political positions in respect to sending Muslim soldiers to fight alongside Chuan Zoingh, to help him stabilize his rule in China, which resulted in building solid relations between both giant powers, for the meaning of Jihad and fighting for Allah is not at all clear in this kind of alliance. Poets mentioned that repeatedly. For example, Al Humeyri praised Al Mansour saying: Peerless God ... .... Gave you the power for life and religion He Gave you infinite power...so that the King of China is guided to you During more than two hundred years, the local Khans ruled Western China (Eastern Turkestan) with their initial laws and doctrines. Friendly relations, good neighborliness and loving for Islam have arisen between them and Central Asian Muslims who were under the rule of the Samanid State during the Abbassid era. These relations have evolved until they finally culminated with the historic decision taken by the Qaghan Satuq Baghara Khan to embrace Islam of his free will, in response to the popular conversions to Islam then. Eastern Turkestan was announced as an Islamic state in 964 A.D. This good country communicated with the Arabs via trade and pilgrimage convoys on the Silk Road. These diplomatic ties promoted trade exchange between Chinese and Arabs. Muslim scholars used to refer to senior traders and businessmen, saying: "his trade reached China".

Articles Among them are the chief trader of Alexandria Al Kawlami, Ibn Al Belensi, the chief trader of Iraq Ibn Al Sawamili who was a pearl dealer, and Al Belensi Al Muhaddith Al Andalusi. There is no doubt that such connections between Andalusia, Alexandria and China reflect the services provided to the travelers road through the development of the Silk Road over history The conversion of Kara-Khanid Khanate to Islam in addition to establishing the Islamic Emirate of Kashgar in the heart of China is a very important event. It provided good opportunities for communication between China and the Arabs on the basis of the shared values of Islam.

Transforming Enemy into Friend: Resurgence of Islam in the Heart of China During the following centuries, Kara-Khanid Khanate engaged in various wars but not for religious reasons. Like all Chinese, they also faced the destructive invasions of the Mongols. Nevertheless, all of this did not harm the friendly relations between Arabs and China or between Islam and the Chinese civilization. Interrelations between Kings and Caliphs of Baghdad continued and were reinforced during the time of the Caliph Al Nasir for whom speeches were pronounced in China. Nasir Al Din Al Tusi made use of these relations during the time of Al Musta'sim as he invited to Maragheh Observatory, a number of China's most prominent scientists, including Tom Je. The Chinese scientists have had a significant role in the development of astronomical knowledge. In 1211 A.D of the thirteenth century, Mongols and Tatars invaded Kara-Khanid Khanate in Eastern Turkistan and a devastating expedition was launched against the Muslim world ruining the Islamic cities by brute force. In the way, they wrecked each town including the capital, Baghdad. The Caliphate collapsed with the Abbasid dynasty. Indeed, people thought that the Islamic civilization has ended forever, since Muslim military armies have been shattered in Bukhara, Samarkand, Tashkent, Isfahan, Hamadan and Baghdad. However, the Muslim rule has been strongly revived once again due to its will and civilization in Kashgar, which is the metropolis of the present Chinese Xinjiang and the historical capital of Eastern Turkistan. The world was surprised with a stunning coup made by the Mongol rulers themselves in Kashgar, as they began to convert embracing Islam, just as what happened with Kara-Khanid Khanate before three centuries. While people heard about Genghis Khan’s crimes and Hulagu's massacres, the world watched those Mongol invaders converting to Islam, starting from Berke Khan, Tughlaq Timur Khan in Kashgar until Tikodar son of Hulagu. This was a result of careful diplomacy started by Baibars in Egypt and the Levant via continuous delegations and eloquent diplomatic letters with Hulagu's sons, gradually until they decided to convert to Islam. These efforts were completed when Mongol rulers in Kashgar announced their conversion to Islam with the help of preachers who arrived in Kashgar from Baghdad. These major historical changes still need to be studied independently to explain this strange phenomenon that is unparalleled in history. Despite the violent conflict between Arabs and Tatars, the Chinese people remained neutral in these bloody wars. Besides, Muslim Chinese of Eastern Turkistan influenced

directly Kashgar rulers, converting them to Islam and a new chapter of cooperation and integration began between China's sages and the Mongol ruling dynasties entirely happy with their conversion to Islam. The cultural and human effect started taking its course transforming them into human civilization builders. They showed sufficiency and wisdom in raising the flame of civilization over again. Today, more than seven centuries after the Mongol invasion, while we wander in Eastern and Western Turkestan down to the Indian subcontinent in the South, we will find that the greatest mosques, schools, temples and gardens are those built by these invaders after being converted to Islam. Through the experiences of the people of China, India and Turkistan, a mix of civilizations has been built under the umbrella of Islam taking its spirit from the East. In respect to this amazing chapter about the interaction of civilizations, the Islamic philosopher Muhammad Iqbal commented on what happened, saying: "Tatar nations tyrannized, so, their hopes perished. Worshippers of idols previously became protectors of Kaaba and Yamani corner".

Success of Islamic Diplomacy to Integrate with the Quiet Chinese Diplomacy Across History Inspires Nowadays Islamic Diplomacy It is our duty today to resume these historic connections between Muslims in the west of China and the Arab Peninsula. Spiritual overwhelming gifts still hold people eager to visit the Haram Al-Sharif and Turkestan Muslim believers travel to this spiritual generous source to connect with the roots of Islamic civilization. As Qutaiba Ibn Muslim reached Kashgar and diffused knowledge all over it, Arab countries were pleased with the scientists of Igor and Turkestan such as Muhammad Ibn Musa Al Balasaguni from Kashgar who was so famous for his science and goodness that he was made judge of Jerusalem. We should mention here the great imams of Turkestan who honored the Islamic civilization, such as Al-Farabi whose knowledge is still eminent in the Arab world and the human civilization, the famous astronomer Ahmad Ibn Farghānī, Al Akhsheed Farghānī and other scientists of Samarkand, Tashkent , Tarkhan, Ferghana, Kashgar and Balasagun. We should say that the success of the Islamic diplomacy in its integrative interaction with the quiet Chinese diplomacy throughout history, may inspire nowadays Islamic diplomacy for cooperating with the confidently emerging Chinese giant on the world stage. While Arab diplomacy tries to convince the Chinese Dragon of many interests in working with the Arabs, we still are short of affecting the historical, cultural and diplomatic dimensions, necessary to make a successful relationship between Arabs and Chinese. With regards to these facts, an Arab Islamic diplomacy, aware of this history, should communicate with the Chinese people through dozens of millions of Chinese Muslims, not oblivious of the unique historical experience which maintained rational diplomatic relations with China in the midst of hundreds of bloody wars that shook the region and the world over time.

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Publications

From the Institute’s Publications:

‫‏‬Islam and Diplomacy In the context of implementing the plan of the MOFA Diplomatic Institute concerning research and scientific studies in varied diplomatic, political and economic fields in 2013, the Institute published a new study titled “Islam & Diplomacy: overview of diplomatic values in Islam”. The study comprises an introduction and four main chapters concluding with a set of practical recommendations. These recommendations aim at scientifically anchoring a comprehensive connection between Islam and international conventions in the diplomatic sphere. In the first chapter, the study addresses the Islamic Shariah view of the diplomatic activity. It starts with establishing an essential juristic rule substantiated with evidence showing Islam view in respect of building amicable relationships with varied nations worldwide based on equality and mutual respect. The study elaborately discusses the arguments of extremists dividing the world into two camps. It presents conclusive evidence of progressive Islamic jurisprudence view on amicable relations with other nations, denying the hostile logic in international relations based on a mistaken concept of holy war. It also denies the concept of clash of civilizations adopted by western extremists. Then, the study presents a historic overview of the development of diplomatic activity, starting from the age of prophecy, the ambassadors of the Noble Prophet (Peace be Upon Him) and their major successes, following with the diplomatic activities of the Righteous Caliphs, then with the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. It also highlights several unique diplomatic competencies that emerged throughout the history of Islam. The study also allocated a special section to address the participation of Muslim women in the diplomatic activity. In this context, it particularly focuses on issues of interest to women, such as handshake, veil and travelling without an unmarriageable man, which must be addressed juristically so that women could have an appropriate work environment based on the values of Shariah.

courts of caliphates since the early ages of Islam. The study also allocated a chapter to address the embassy of Hajj and its advantages. Furthermore, it made significant suggestions to develop that embassy and restore its efficient role in communication and integration among the peoples of Islamic nations. In the second chapter, the study addresses diplomatic values in Islam such as the manners of ambassadors, the principle of reciprocity, the ambassador's duty towards his homeland and his country of residence. It also refers to the duties of a diplomat working in a country with beliefs and traditions different from the values of Islam. In the third chapter, the study addresses aspects of diplomacy in Holy Quran and Sunna. Indeed, it surveys the ambassadors of the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) and their successes in their diplomatic activities, highlighting the ingeniousness in the Prophet’s selection of his successful ambassadors. The study addresses the Mohammedan diplomacy in conflict resolution and ending wars through exploring some examples from the Prophet Mohammed (God's blessing and peace be upon him) where he opted for diplomacy and resisted war tendency. In the fourth chapter, the study addresses the common features of both modern diplomacy and Islamic diplomatic values. It asserts the basic norm in Islam is participation in civilization building not clashes or conflicts. Moreover, it confirms that modern civilization is a human universal including all human civilizations. It also stresses that Islam does not seek clashes and conflicts of civilizations but fraternity and a common human civilization.

In addition, the study presents an essential Islamic juristic approach concerning the commercial, the military and the cultural attachés, noting that some of them were present in the

This book represents a new contribution of the Diplomatic Institute to the Arab Diplomatic Library presenting a vision substantiated with scientific evidence and objective approach.

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From the Political Dictionary ‫‏‬Nation – State ‫‏‬States and nations may seem similar but they are not. States rule peoples within a borders demarcated territory. Moreover, states usually apply rules, impose taxes and duties, mint currencies, provide postal services, hold a police force and build an army. States wage wars, negotiate treaties, commit people to prisons, regulate life by a thousand methods. It also claims sovereignty over their lands. On the other hand, nations comprise groups of people claiming to have common ties such as language, culture and historic identity. Other groups claim that they represent a nation that comprises a state of its own such as French, Egyptians and Japanese. Others claim a state but in vain such as Tibetans, Chechen, Palestinians and Kurd. ‫‏‬The traditional nation – state in Eastern and Western Europe developed within established regional borders that were part of the European State regime which was recognized by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. On the other hand, the states which were formed later, starting with Italy and Germany, followed a specific path, which was that of the nation- states in Eastern and Central Europe at the time they were formed when the national awareness flame paved the way to establishing a state. ‫‏‬The difference between these two paths (from a state to a nation and from a nation to a state) is reflected by the backgrounds of the pioneer builders of the state and the nation. In the first case, the builders were lawyers, diplomats and officers in the military of the monarchal administration. They established together the State's bureaucracy. In the second case, writers, historians, scientists and intellectuals laid down the basis of the diplomatic and military unity of the country later on.

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‫‏‬Failed State ‫‏‬Theoretically, it is a sovereign state, but is no longer able to maintain itself as a viable political and economic unity. It has become an ungovernable state lacking legitimacy in the viewpoint of the international society. In recent years, several states fit these criteria such as Somalia and Iraq, which had top rankings in the failed states index. ‫‏‬To understand the precise nature of a degenerated state, it should be compared with its opposite, i.e., the solid or viable states able to maintain their regional borders and provide a decent level of public services, such as health and education for their peoples. They are also states endowed with active infrastructure and economy, additionally to their ability to maintain order and the rule of law. A state of this type is socially coherent, with a stable internal political system. ‫‏‬Failed states do not have any of the aforesaid merits. That is, they are unable to provide the basic needs or necessary services to their citizens. Moreover, they do not have any active infrastructure or credible legal systems. In some cases, the authority is taken over by criminals, warlords, armed gangs or religious fanatics. Some of these states might get caught up in civil wars for several years. The most painful aspects of breakdown are the agonies inflicted on civilians in most cases. ‫‏‬Currently, the Failed States Index issued by the Fund For Peace (FFP) and Foreign Policy Magazine makes its assessment based on 12 social, economic and political indices whose data are collected from available literature.

‫‏‬Rogue State ‫‏‬It is a state that controverts international conventions and regimes. Such states are considered hostile and representing a threat to world peace. They have fanatic regimes that are antagonistic to foreigners, and consider themselves superior to other states. Hence, they do not respect the rules of international society. It is worth mentioning that in absolutely most cases, the roguery epithet qualifies a regime, not the people or the nation. Wherever such differentiation is absent, the people withstand the consequences of any action the international community undertakes against such a regime. ‫‏‬The international community considers the behavior of a rogue state as including: uncontrolled production and development of biological and chemical weapons, active pursuance on the black market of materials for nuclear weapons’ manufacturing, drugs trafficking, international conventions revoking, protection of terrorism, belligerency, invasion of neighboring states, and building long range missile bases. ‫‏‬Qualifying some states as rogue, rejected or reactionary, may engulf the international community into a predicament, as it is partially responsible for the actions of such states. Such classifications therefore may lack credibility.

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