Eric D. Gould- Does Parental Quality Matter by Yad Hanadiv

Does Parental Quality Matter? Evidence on the Transmission of Human Capital Using Variation in Parental Influence from Death, Divorce, and Family Size Eric D. Gould Hebrew University Avi Simhon Hebrew University Bruce Weinberg Ohio State University 1

Does Parental Education Affect Kids?

• Every Data Set: Strong positive correlation between schooling of parents and children. • Causation or Correlation? • Nature or Nurture? And what kind of Nurture?

Does Parental Education Affect Kids? Why is this important? • If it is correlation (genetic): more limited policy options to improve well-being and opportunities for children. • If causal: suggests that policy interventions can affect not only this generation, but also the next. • Especially true: education affects many non-labor market outcomes – marriage, divorce, health, crime. 3

Our Contributions • New identification strategy • Exploit variation in the amount of time children spend with each parent (parental death, divorce, family size) • Our results are different → larger causal effects • Reconcile contradictory findings in the literature. • Shed light on casual mechanisms: effect of parental education depends on amount of parental control. 4

Our Contributions • Help us understand a puzzle → why educated parents spend more time with their children? • Guryan, Hurst, and Kearney (2008)

Existing Literature Three Basic Strategies • Twins: control for common genes between twins • Adoptions: parents and children don’t share genes. • IV: Instrumental Variables for Parental Education

• All three have benefits but also limitations. 6

Existing Literature - Adoptions • Plug and Vijverberg (2003), Plug (2004), Bjorklund et al. (2006), Sacerdote (2007). • Strategy: use variation in adopting parents’ schooling levels to see how it affects adopted child’s schooling. • Results: mostly nature, some but much less nurture. • But larger effects on non-school outcomes.

Existing Literature - Adoptions Critique of Adoptions Strategy: (1) Adopted children are not randomly placed (except for Sacerdote (2007)). (2) Variation comes the whole environment not just parental education.

Existing Literature - IV • Black, Devereux, and Salvanes (2005) • Instrument for Parental Education: the increase in compulsory schooling in Norway from seventh to ninth grade during the 1960’s. • Results: little evidence for a causal relationship between parent and child schooling. • However, maternal education does affect sons when sample is restricted to low education women. 9

Existing Literature - IV • Advantages: identifies effect of a parent’s education. • Disadvantages: 1. Effect could be due to spouse’s education or income.

2. Spouse’s education is tricky – Oreopoulos et. al. sums both parent’s education together. 3. Compulsory schooling laws may have been accompanied by other changes in school system – violating IV assumptions. 10

Summary of Existing Literature • Parents have little effect on child schooling levels. • Although, some IV evidence that mother’s education from the low-end of the distribution matters. • Bigger effects found using other academic outcomes: 1. 2. 3. 4.

grade retention dropouts test scores behavioral issues 11

Reconciling Conflicting Results • Holmlund et al. (2010) and Haegeland et al. (2010) • Differences in results comes from the methods, not the different sources of data. • IV produces bigger effects because it uses variation at the lower end of the education distribution. • Adoptees uses variation at the upper end of the parental distribution. • Our results will confirm these findings. 12

Related Literature Parental Time Use • Guryan, Hurst, and Kearney (2008) • Educated men and women spend more time with their kids, despite higher wages and hours worked. • At the same time, they reduce time spent on every other non-labor market activity. • Why? We show they are more productive. 13

Our Data • Jewish, native, non ultra-orthodox • Scheduled to graduate high school between 1992 and 2009 (born between 1974 and 1991). • Student info: matriculation grades, birth date, number of siblings, birth order, gender, 12th grade school id, socioeconomic index for neighborhood. • Parental info: schooling level, date of birth, date of death (as of 2010), last change in marital status, income 1988-2008. 14

Table 1: Summary Statistics

Death of Mother Analysis

Mother Did Not Die

Mother Died before 18

Mother Died after 18

Passed Matriculation Exam

0.60

0.54

Mother's Education

12.52

Father's Education

Death of Father Analysis

Father Did Not Die

Father Died before 18

Father Died after 18

0.53

0.61

0.50

0.49

11.92

11.88

12.56

11.84

11.58

12.47

12.34

11.97

12.51

11.34

11.55

Mother's Log Income FixedEffect

-0.14

-0.15

-0.26

-0.13

-0.32

-0.34

Father's Log Income FixedEffect

-0.08

-0.17

-0.23

-0.07

-0.35

-0.38

Number of Siblings

2.29

2.11

2.36

2.28

2.44

2.56

11.88

15 11.94

Socioeconomic Index of the Locality

12.57

12.66

12.34

12.60

Appendix Table 1: Causes of Parental Deaths (Cohorts 1992-2004) Mother Loss before Age 18

Infections Neoplasms Endocrine Blood Disease Mental Nervous System Circulatory Respiratory Digestive Urinary Pregnancy Skin Musculatory-Skeletal Congenital Unknown Illness Traffic Accident

Father Loss before Age 18

Frequency

Percent

Frequency

Percent

1.23

0.39

3,574

66.42

4,007

29.71

1.26

321

2.38

0.43

0.26

1.30

317

2.35

0.54

0.55

496

9.22

3,719

27.58

1.58

354

2.62

1.41

435

3.23

0.69

156

1.16

0.74

0.06

0.05

0.41

0.14

0.22

0.21

178

3.31

1,146

8.50

208

3.87

925

6.86

148

2.75

579

4.29

Table 1 Comments • Large sample (relative to literature). • Matriculation passing is important, lots of variation ≈ 60% • Students who lost a parent have lower passing rates, but are not randomly selected (parental education). • Losing a mother seems more random than losing a father. • Widowed Fathers remarry more often than grieving mothers. 17

Table 2: Descriptive Regressions for Individuals that Did Not Suffer Parental Loss Dependant Variable: Pass Matriculation Exam

(1)

Mother's Education

(2)

0.044***

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

0.026*** 0.020*** 0.018***

(0.00) Father's Education

(3)

(0.00) 0.042*** (0.00)

(0.00)

0.015***

(0.00)

0.026*** 0.019*** 0.017*** (0.00)

(0.00)

0.014***

(0.00)

Mother's Log Income Fixed-Effect

(0.0003)

0.077*** 0.054*** 0.053*** (0.00)

Father's Log Income Fixed-Effect

(0.00)

0.072*** 0.050*** 0.056*** (0.00)

Socioeconomic Index for Locality

(9)

(0.00) (0.0008)

0.032*** (0.00) 0.036*** (0.00)

0.008***

0.011***

0.007***

(0.00)

Other controls: ages of both parents when the child was born, number of siblings, birth Number School Fixed order, aofdummy for being male, and a dummy for each cohort. Effects

Sample Restriction

850

847

851

848

847 18

Table 3: Comparing Students Who Lost a Parent to Those That Did Not Dependant Variable: Pass Matriculation Exam Did Not Lose a Parent (1)

Mother's Education

Father's Education

(2)

Lost Mother Before Age 18 (3)

(4)

Lost Father Before Age 18 (5)

0.018***

0.009***

0.022***

(0.00)

(0.003)

(0.00)

0.017***

0.019***

0.009***

(0.00)

(0.003)

(0.00)

0.008***

0.012***

0.009***

(6)

Mother's Log Income Fixed-Effect

Father's Log Income Fixed-Effect

Socioeconomic Index for Locality

(0.00) when the child (0.00) Other controls: ages of both parents was born, number (0.00) of siblings, birth 19 order, a dummy for being male, and a dummy for each cohort.

Table 3: Comparing Students Who Lost a Parent to Those That Did Not Dependant Variable: Pass Matriculation Exam Did Not Lose a Parent (1)

Mother's Education

Father's Education

(3)

(4)

Lost Father Before Age 18 (5)

0.018***

0.009***

0.022***

(0.00)

(0.003)

(0.00)

0.017***

0.019***

0.009***

(0.00)

(0.003)

(0.00)

Mother's Log Income Fixed-Effect

Father's Log Income Fixed-Effect

Socioeconomic Index for Locality

(2)

Lost Mother Before Age 18

0.008***

(6)

0.053***

0.005

0.050***

(0.00)

(0.01)

(0.004)

0.055***

0.066***

0.016***

(0.00)

(0.01)

(0.00)

0.011***

0.012***

0.015***

0.009***

0.013***

(0.00) when (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) Other controls: ages of both parents the child was born, number (0.00) of siblings, birth 20 order, a dummy for being male, and a dummy for each cohort.

Table 4: Mother Loss Analysis - The Effect of Losing a Mother Interacted with Parental Education Dependant Variable: Pass Matriculation Exam (1)

Mother Died

(2)

(3)

(4)

-0.038*** (0.0038)

Mother Died when Child < 18

0.0021 (0.0245)

Mother's Education

0.0260*** (0.0003)

Father's Education

0.0262*** (0.0003)

Mother Died when Child < 18 interacted with: Mother's Education

-0.0056** (0.0023)

Table 4: Mother Loss Analysis - The Effect of Losing a Mother Interacted with Parental Education Dependant Variable: Pass Matriculation Exam

Mother Died

Mother Died when Child < 18

Mother's Education

Father's Education

(1)

(2)

(3)

-0.038***

-0.0247***

-0.0238***

(0.0038)

(0.0035)

(0.0037)

0.0021

0.0287

0.032

(0.0245)

(0.0228)

(0.0241)

0.0260***

0.0203***

0.0182***

(0.0003)

0.0262***

0.0189***

0.0171***

(0.0003)

(0.0002)

(0.0003)

Socioeconomic Index for Locality

(4)

0.0082*** (0.0002)

Mother Died when Child < 18 interacted with: Mother's Education

-0.0056**

-0.0079***

-0.0073***

(0.0023)

(0.0021)

(0.0023)

Table 4: Mother Loss Analysis - The Effect of Losing a Mother Interacted with Parental Education Dependant Variable: Pass Matriculation Exam (1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Mother Died

-0.038***

-0.0247***

-0.0238***

Mother Died when Child < 18

(0.0038) 0.0021

(0.0035) 0.0287

(0.0037) 0.032

(0.0037) -0.0322***

Mother's Education

(0.0245) 0.0260***

(0.0228) 0.0203***

(0.0241) 0.0182***

(0.0065) 0.0182***

Father's Education

(0.0003) 0.0262***

(0.0003) 0.0189***

(0.0003) 0.0171***

(0.0003)

(0.0002)

(0.0003)

0.0082***

(0.0002)

Socioeconomic Index for Locality

Mother Died when Child < 18 interacted with: Mother's Education

Father's Education

-0.0056**

-0.0079***

-0.0073***

(0.0023)

(0.0021)

(0.0023)

0.0027

0.0029

0.002

(0.0023)

(0.0021)

(0.0022)

Table 4: Mother Loss Analysis - The Effect of Losing a Mother Interacted with Parental Education

(5)

Mother's Education

(6)

(7)

(8)

0.0260*** (0.000)

Father's Education

0.0262*** (0.000)

Mother Died when Child < 18 interacted with: Mother's Education

-0.0287*** (0.006)

Father's Education

0.0166*** (0.006)

Mother's Educ*Age of Child when Mother Died

0.0021*** (0.001)

Father's Educ*Age of Child when Mother Died

-0.0013*** (0.001)

Mother's Educ - Father's Educ

Table 4: Mother Loss Analysis - The Effect of Losing a Mother Interacted with Parental Education

Mother's Education

Father's Education

(5)

(6)

(7)

0.0260***

0.0203***

0.0182***

(0.000)

0.0262***

0.0189***

0.0171***

(0.000)

-0.0287***

-0.0270***

-0.0246***

(0.006)

(0.005)

(0.006)

0.0166***

0.0143***

0.0125**

(0.006)

(0.005)

(0.006)

0.0021***

0.0017***

0.0016***

(0.001)

(0.000)

-0.0013***

-0.0011**

-0.0010**

(0.001)

(0.000)

(8)

Mother Died when Child < 18 interacted with: Mother's Education

Father's Education

Mother's Educ*Age of Child when Mother Died

Father's Educ*Age of Child when Mother Died

Mother's Educ - Father's Educ

Table 4: Mother Loss Analysis - The Effect of Losing a Mother Interacted with Parental Education

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

Mother's Education

0.0260***

0.0203***

0.0182***

Father's Education

(0.000) 0.0262***

(0.000) 0.0189***

(0.000) 0.0171***

(0.000)

-0.0287***

-0.0270***

-0.0246***

(0.006)

(0.005)

(0.006)

0.0166***

0.0143***

0.0125**

(0.006)

(0.005)

(0.006)

0.0021***

0.0017***

0.0016***

(0.001)

(0.000)

-0.0013***

-0.0011**

-0.0010**

(0.001)

(0.000)

Mother Died when Child < 18 interacted with: Mother's Education

Father's Education

Mother's Educ*Age of Child when Mother Died

Father's Educ*Age of Child when Mother Died

Mother's Educ - Father's Educ

-0.0195*** 26 (0.005)

(Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)*Age of Child when Mother

Table 4 Results • Mother’s education is important only if you spend time with her. • Value of mother’s education increases with every year with her. • Value of father’s educ decreases with every year spent with mother. • Suggests that “interaction time” with children is important. • If you don’t interact, your education is irrelevant for your kids. • Robust to including school fixed-effects, socioeconomic index. 27

Table 4 Comments Threats to Identification • Effects are due to parental income, not education. • Effects are due to some other omitted variable. What you have to believe: some omitted variable is correlated in one direction with mother’s education and the other way with father’s education (each one interacted with years with mother). Seems unlikely → educ of both parents are positively correlated. But, we address this with a “Placebo Analysis.”

Placebo Analysis Use a Sample of Individuals who lost a mother above age 18 • Amount of interaction time after age 18 cannot directly affect success on matriculation exam taken before age 18. • If previous results are due to omitted variable, we should get similar results with this sample. • If previous results are causal, we should not get similar results.

Table 8: Placebo Analysis using those that Lost a Parent Above the Age of 18 Child Passed Matriculation Exam at 18 Children Who Lost a Mother after Age 18

Mother's Education

Father's Education

Mother's Educ*Age of Child when Parent Died

(1)

(2)

0.0234***

0.0226**

(0.0021)

(0.0107)

0.0240***

0.0129

(0.0020)

(0.0102)

-0.0002 (0.0004)

Father's Educ*Age of Child when Parent Died

0.0001 (0.0004)

Age of Child When Parent Died

-0.0008 (0.0038) 30

Table 5: Mother Loss Analysis with Parental Income Includes Parents with Zero Income (5)

(6)

(7)

Excludes Parents with Zero Income (12)

(13)

(14)

Mother Died when Child < 18 interacted with:

Mother's Education

-0.0182*

-0.0439***

Father's Education

0.0071

0.0033

Mother's Educ*Age of Child when Mother Died

0.0013*

0.0033***

Father's Educ*Age of Child when Mother Died

-0.0006

-0.0004

Mother's Log Income Fixed-Effect

-0.0287

-0.0149

Father's Log Income Fixed-Effect Mother's Log Income Fixed-Effect*Age of Child when Mother Died Father's Log Income Fixed-Effect*Age of Child when Mother Died

0.0457

0.0714

0.0001

-0.0022

-0.0027

-0.0041

Observations

634944

434003

-0.0143

-0.0267** 31

Mother Died when Child < 18 interacted with:

Mother's Educ - Father's Educ (Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)*Age of Child when

Table 5: Mother Loss Analysis with Parental Income Includes Parents with Zero Income (5)

(6)

Excludes Parents with Zero Income

(7)

(12)

(13)

(14)

Mother Died when Child < 18 interacted with:

Mother's Education

-0.0208**

-0.0182*

-0.0510***

-0.0439***

Father's Education

0.0128

0.0071

0.0162

0.0033

Mother's Educ*Age of Child when Mother Died

0.0013*

0.0034***

0.0033***

Father's Educ*Age of Child when Mother Died

-0.001

-0.0006

-0.0012

-0.0004

Mother's Log Income Fixed-Effect

-0.0531

-0.0287

-0.0533 -0.0149

Father's Log Income Fixed-Effect Mother's Log Income Fixed-Effect*Age of Child when Mother Died Father's Log Income Fixed-Effect*Age of Child when Mother Died

0.0458

0.0457

0.0323

0.001

0.0001

0.0000 -0.0022

-0.0024

-0.0027

-0.0011 -0.0041

645467

634944

434003

-0.0143

-0.0349***

Observations

634944

0.0714

434003 434003

Mother Died when Child < 18 interacted with:

Mother's Educ - Father's Educ (Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)*Age of Child when

-0.0171*

-0.0267** 32

Variations and Interesting Subgroups • Cause of death – maybe results are due to different types of death at different ages. (Results are similar if restricted to cancer.) • Father getting re-married. (A bit stronger.) • Do effects differ across subjects? Math, Hebrew, etc. (Hebrew has strongest effects.) • Do effects differ for boys and girls? (Bigger for Girls) • Effects coming from high or low end of parental educ distribution? (Low end). 33

Table 9: Mother Loss Analysis within Subgroups of Students who Lost a Mother Dependant Variable: Pass Matriculation Exam All

(1)

Dad Not Boys Remarried (2)

(3)

Girls

Mom Died <= Age 9

Mom Died > Age 9

Mom Less than HS

Mom At Least HS Grad

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

Mother Died when Child < 18 interacted with:

Mother's Educ - Father's Educ (Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)*Age of Child when Mother Died

Number of School Fixed Effects Observations

-0.0185*** -0.0191*** 0.0012*** 0.0014***

651

646

19905

18936

Table 9: Mother Loss Analysis within Subgroups of Students who Lost a Mother Dependant Variable: Pass Matriculation Exam Girls

Mom Died <= Age 9

Mom Died > Age 9

Mom Less than HS

Mom At Least HS Grad

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

-0.012

-0.025***

0.001

0.002***

Number of School Fixed Effects

564

563

Observations

9584

10321

All

(1)

Dad Not Boys Remarried (2)

Mother Died when Child < 18 interacted with:

Mother's Educ - Father's Educ (Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)*Age of Child when Mother Died

Table 9: Mother Loss Analysis within Subgroups of Students who Lost a Mother Dependant Variable: Pass Matriculation Exam Girls

Mom Died <= Age 9

Mom Died > Age 9

Mom Less than HS

Mom At Least HS Grad

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

-0.030***

-0.010

0.002***

0.001

Number of School Fixed Effects

554

564

Observations

8515

11390

All

(1)

Dad Not Boys Remarried (2)

(3)

Mother Died when Child < 18 interacted with:

Mother's Educ - Father's Educ (Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)*Age of Child when Mother Died

Table 9: Mother Loss Analysis within Subgroups of Students who Lost a Mother Dependant Variable: Pass Matriculation Exam Girls

Mom Died <= Age 9

Mom Died > Age 9

Mom Less than HS

Mom At Least HS Grad

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

-0.0185*** -0.0191*** -0.012

-0.025***

-0.015**

-0.016

-0.030***

-0.010

0.0012*** 0.0014***

0.001

0.002***

0.001

0.002***

0.001

564 9584

563 10321

616 15531

644 18225

554 8515

564 11390

All

(1)

Dad Not Boys Remarried (2)

(3)

Mother Died when Child < 18 interacted with:

Mother's Educ - Father's Educ (Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)*Age of Child when Mother Died

Number of School Fixed Effects Observations

651 19905

646 18936

Father Loss Results • Robustness check. • Results should be similar, but the mirror image of results up to now.

– Mother’s educ → more important when father dies. – Father’s educ → less important.

Table 9: Father Loss Analysis - The Effect of Losing a Father Interacted with Parental Education Dependant Variable: Pass Matriculation Exam (1)

Father Died

(2)

(3)

(4)

-0.0529*** (0.0025)

Father Died when Child < 18

0.001 (0.0151)

Mother's Education

0.0260*** (0.0003)

Father's Education

0.0260*** (0.0003)

Socioeconomic Index for Locality

Father Died when Child < 18 interacted with: Mother's Education

0.0052*** (0.0015)

Table 9: Father Loss Analysis - The Effect of Losing a Father Interacted with Parental Education Dependant Variable: Pass Matriculation Exam

Father Died

Father Died when Child < 18

Mother's Education

Father's Education

(1)

(2)

(3)

-0.0529***

-0.0362***

-0.0309***

(0.0025)

(0.0023)

(0.0024)

0.001

0.0206

0.019

(0.0151)

(0.0140)

(0.0148)

0.0260***

0.0202***

0.0182***

(0.0003)

0.0260***

0.0188***

0.0170***

(0.0003)

(0.0002)

(0.0003)

Socioeconomic Index for Locality

(4)

0.0082*** (0.0002)

Father Died when Child < 18 interacted with: Mother's Education

0.0052***

0.0030**

0.0032**

(0.0015)

(0.0014)

(0.0015)

Table 9: Father Loss Analysis - The Effect of Losing a Father Interacted with Parental Education Dependant Variable: Pass Matriculation Exam (1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

-0.0529***

-0.0362***

-0.0309***

-0.0310***

Father Died when Child < 18

(0.0025) 0.001

(0.0023) 0.0206

(0.0024) 0.019

(0.0024) -0.0275***

Mother's Education

(0.0151) 0.0260***

(0.0140) 0.0202***

(0.0148) 0.0182***

(0.0041) 0.0182***

Father's Education

(0.0003) 0.0260***

(0.0003) 0.0188***

(0.0003) 0.0170***

(0.0003)

(0.0002)

(0.0003)

0.0082***

(0.0002)

Father Died

Socioeconomic Index for Locality

Father Died when Child < 18 interacted with: Mother's Education

Father's Education

0.0052***

0.0030**

0.0032**

(0.0015)

(0.0014)

(0.0015)

-0.0073***

-0.0068***

-0.0072***

(0.0014)

(0.0013)

(0.0014)

Table 9: Father Loss Analysis - The Effect of Losing a Father Interacted with Parental Education

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

Father Died when Child < 18 interacted with: Mother's Education

0.0070** (0.0035)

Father's Education

-0.0138*** (0.0032)

Mother's Educ*Age of Child when Father Died

-0.0002 (0.0003)

Father's Educ*Age of Child when Father Died

0.0006** (0.0003)

Mother's Educ - Father's Educ (Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)*Age of Child when Mother Died 42

Table 9: Father Loss Analysis - The Effect of Losing a Father Interacted with Parental Education

(5)

(6)

(7)

0.0070**

0.0043

0.0052

(0.0035)

(0.0032)

(0.0034)

-0.0138***

-0.0122***

-0.0129***

(0.0032)

(0.0030)

(0.0031)

-0.0002

(0.0003)

0.0006**

0.0005**

(0.0003)

(0.0002)

(0.0003)

(8)

Father Died when Child < 18 interacted with: Mother's Education

Father's Education

Mother's Educ*Age of Child when Father Died

Father's Educ*Age of Child when Father Died

Mother's Educ - Father's Educ (Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)*Age of Child when Mother Died 43

Table 9: Father Loss Analysis - The Effect of Losing a Father Interacted with Parental Education

(5)

(6)

(7)

0.0070**

0.0043

0.0052

(0.0035)

(0.0032)

(0.0034)

-0.0138***

-0.0122***

-0.0129***

(0.0032)

(0.0030)

(0.0031)

-0.0002

(0.0003)

0.0006**

0.0005**

(0.0003)

(0.0002)

(0.0003)

(8)

Father Died when Child < 18 interacted with: Mother's Education

Father's Education

Mother's Educ*Age of Child when Father Died

Father's Educ*Age of Child when Father Died

Mother's Educ - Father's Educ

0.0100*** (0.0029)

(Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)*Age of Child when Mother Died

-0.0004* (0.0002)44

Comments on Father Loss Results • Results show: value of a parent’s education increases with time spent with the parent. • Results are a mirror of the results for “mother loss”. • Robust to controls for school FE, socioeconomic index, and wages. • Results go away for those that lost a father above age 18. • Supports a causal interpretation of both sets of results.

Table 8: Placebo Analysis using those that Lost a Parent Above the Age of 18 Child Passed Matriculation Exam at 18 Children Who Lost a Father after Age 18

Mother's Education

Father's Education

Mother's Educ*Age of Child when Parent Died

(3)

(4)

0.0207***

0.0092

(0.0013)

(0.0065)

0.0234***

0.0122*

(0.0012)

(0.0062)

0.0002 (0.0002)

Father's Educ*Age of Child when Parent Died

0.0002 (0.0002)

Age of Child When Parent Died

-0.0042* (0.0022)

Table 11: Father Loss Analysis with Parental Income Includes Parents with Zero Income (5)

(6)

Excludes Parents with Zero Income

(7)

(11)

(12)

(15)

Mother's Education

0.0182***

0.0150***

0.0176***

0.0134***

Father's Education

0.0170***

0.0138***

0.0168***

0.0123***

Mother's Log Income Fixed-Effect

0.0523***

0.0315***

0.0607*** 0.0381***

Father's Log Income Fixed-Effect

0.0545***

0.0350***

0.0683*** 0.0450***

Father Died when Child < 18 interacted with:

Mother's Education

0.0180***

0.0213***

0.0024

0.006

Father's Education

-0.0213***

-0.0182***

-0.0201**

-0.0141

Mother's Educ*Age of Child when Father Died

-0.0011**

-0.0013***

-0.0002

-0.0005

Father's Educ*Age of Child when Father Died

0.0011**

0.0010**

0.0012*

0.001

Mother's Log Income Fixed-Effect Father's Log Income Fixed-Effect Mother's Log Income Fixed-Effect*Age of Child when Father Died Father's Log Income Fixed-Effect*Age of Child when Father Died

-0.0202

-0.032

-0.0533***

-0.0402**

0.0014

0.0023*

0.0016

0.0014

-0.0111

-0.0101

-0.0940*** -0.0698*** 0.0017

0.0016

0.0041*** 0.0033** 47

Table 10: Father Loss Analysis within Subgroups of Students who Lost a Father Dependant Variable: Pass Matriculation Exam

Mother's Educ - Father's Educ (Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)*Age of Child when Father Died

Number of School Fixed Effects Observations

All

Mom Not Remarried

0.0112***

0.0118***

(0.003)

-0.0005**

(0.000)

749

747

49590

48600

Boys

Girls

Dad At Dad Died Dad Died Dad Less Least HS <= Age 9 > Age 9 than HS Grad

Table 10: Father Loss Analysis within Subgroups of Students who Lost a Father Dependant Variable: Pass Matriculation Exam All Mother's Educ - Father's Educ

0.0112*** (0.003)

(Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)*Age of Child when Father Died

Number of School Fixed Effects Observations

-0.0005**

Mom Not Remarried

Boys

Girls

Dad At Dad Died Dad Died Dad Less Least HS <= Age 9 > Age 9 than HS Grad

0.0117*** 0.0123*** (0.005)

(0.004)

-0.0004 -0.0007**

(0.000)

749

656

675

49590

23254

26336

Table 10: Father Loss Analysis within Subgroups of Students who Lost a Father Dependant Variable: Pass Matriculation Exam All Mother's Educ - Father's Educ (Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)*Age of Child when Father Died

Number of School Fixed Effects Observations

Mom Not Remarried

Boys

Girls

Dad At Dad Died Dad Died Dad Less Least HS <= Age 9 > Age 9 than HS Grad 0.0112**

0.0024

(0.005)

-0.0006*

0.0002

(0.000)

672

655

25029

24561

Table 10: Father Loss Analysis within Subgroups of Students who Lost a Father Dependant Variable: Pass Matriculation Exam

Mother's Educ - Father's Educ (Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)*Age of Child when Father Died

Number of School Fixed Effects Observations

All

Mom Not Remarried

0.0112***

0.0118***

(0.003)

-0.0005**

(0.000)

749 49590

Boys

Girls

0.0117*** 0.0123***

Dad At Dad Died Dad Died Dad Less Least HS <= Age 9 > Age 9 than HS Grad 0.0076**

0.0201**

0.0112**

0.0024

(0.004)

(0.009)

(0.005)

-0.0004 -0.0007**

0.0001

-0.0011*

-0.0006*

0.0002

(0.000)

(0.001)

(0.000)

747 48600

656 23254

675 26336

732 38453

740 44626

672 25029

655 24561

(0.005)

(0.004)

Summary of Results and a Causal Interpretation • The education of the parent becomes more important the longer you live with them. • Robust to controlling for school fixed effects, parental wages, and cause of death → all are very correlated with student performance. • Placebo results: not significant for those that lost parent above 18. • Results bigger for cases where widow did not re-marry – implying that re-marriage “replaces” the deceased spouse. 52

Other Contexts with Variation in Parental Control Divorce • Most children live with their mothers. • Should expect mother’s education to be more important than father’s. • Caveat: could be another case where the mechanism is through the mother’s earning power.

Other Contexts with Variation in Parental Control Larger Families • Larger division of parenting responsibilities in larger families. • If so, mother’s education should become more important than the father’s, since the mother has more responsibility. • Mothers in larger families tend to work less. • So, the mechanism is not coming through a greater importance on earning power. 54

Table 13: The Effect of Parental Education on Child Education According to Parental Divorce Status Child Passed Matriculation Exams All

Mother's Education

Father's Education

Parents Parents Not Divorced at Divorced at Age < 18 Age < 18

(1)

(2)

(3)

0.0265***

0.0288***

0.0261***

(0.000)

(0.001)

(0.000)

0.0248***

0.0232***

0.0250***

(0.000)

(0.001)

(0.000)

(Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)* Parents Divorced at Age < 18 (Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)* Age of Child when Parents Divorced if under Age 18

Parents Divorced

Parents Divorced at Age < 18

-0.0698***

-0.0703***

(0.002)

-0.0501*** (0.003)

Age Parents Divorced if Age was < 18 55 Socioeconomic Index for Locality

Table 13: The Effect of Parental Education on Child Education According to Parental Divorce Status Child Passed Matriculation Exams All

Mother's Education

Father's Education

Parents Parents Not Divorced at Divorced at Age < 18 Age < 18

All

(1)

(2)

(3)

(6)

0.0265***

0.0288***

0.0261***

0.0185***

(0.000)

(0.001)

(0.000)

0.0248***

0.0232***

0.0250***

0.0166***

(0.000)

(0.001)

(0.000)

(Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)* Parents Divorced at Age < 18

(7)

0.0019*** (0.001)

(Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)* Age of Child when Parents Divorced if under Age 18

Parents Divorced

Parents Divorced at Age < 18

Age Parents Divorced if Age was < 18

-0.0698***

-0.0703***

-0.0725***

(0.002)

(0.007)

-0.0501***

-0.0233***

(0.003)

(0.005) 0.0009*** (0.000)

Socioeconomic Index for Locality

0.0079***

Table 13: The Effect of Parental Education on Child Education According to Parental Divorce Status Child Passed Matriculation Exams All

Mother's Education

Father's Education

Parents Parents Not Divorced at Divorced at Age < 18 Age < 18

All

(1)

(2)

(3)

(6)

(7)

0.0265***

0.0288***

0.0261***

0.0185***

(0.000)

(0.001)

(0.000)

0.0248***

0.0232***

0.0250***

0.0166***

(0.000)

(0.001)

(0.000)

0.0019***

0.0027*

(0.001)

(0.002)

(Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)* Parents Divorced at Age < 18 (Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)* Age of Child when Parents Divorced if under Age 18

-0.0001 (0.000)

Parents Divorced

Parents Divorced at Age < 18

Age Parents Divorced if Age was < 18

Socioeconomic Index for Locality

-0.0698***

-0.0703***

-0.0725***

-0.0729***

(0.002)

(0.007)

-0.0501***

-0.0233***

-0.0230***

(0.003)

(0.005)

0.0009***

(0.000)

(0.000) 57 0.0079***

0.0079***

Table 13: The Effect of Parental Education on Child Education According to Parental Divorce Status Male

Female

Mother's Education

(10) 0.0191***

(11) 0.0179***

(12) 0.0052***

(13) 0.0158***

Father's Education

(0.000) 0.0182***

(0.000) 0.0148***

(0.001) 0.0163***

(0.000) 0.0168***

(0.000)

(0.001)

(0.000)

0.0015

0.0022**

0.0055***

0.0026***

Parents Divorced

(0.001) -0.0720***

(0.001) -0.0732***

(0.002) -0.0611***

(0.001) -0.0698***

Parents Divorced at Age < 18

(0.011) -0.0198***

(0.010) -0.0263***

(0.014) -0.0169*

(0.009) -0.0262***

Age Parents Divorced if Age was < 18

(0.007) 0.0009**

(0.006) 0.0008**

(0.009) 0.0006

(0.005) 0.0007*

Socioeconomic Index for Locality

(0.000) 0.0078***

(0.000) 0.0079***

(0.001) 0.0074***

(0.000) 0.0070***

(0.000)

840 285,029

828 298,499

824 186,096

843 397,432 58

(Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)* Parents Divorced at Age < 18

Number of School Fixed-Effects Observations

Mother < 12 Educ Mother > 12 Educ

Table 14: The Effect of Parental Education on Child Education According to Family Size Child Passed Matriculation Exams

Mother's Education

Father's Education

Number of Siblings

Number of Siblings Squared (Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)* Number of Siblings

Socioeconomic Index for Locality

Log Total Family Income 1988-1989

Number of Siblings <=2

Number of Siblings>2

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

0.0238***

0.0311***

0.0243***

0.0222***

0.0183*** 0.0141***

(0.0004)

(0.0006)

(0.0007)

(0.0008)

0.0250***

0.0259***

0.0277***

0.0242***

0.0238*** 0.0186***

(0.0004)

(0.0006)

(0.0007)

(0.0008)

(0.0007)

0.1106***

-0.0370***

-0.0030*

0.0014

0.0035*

0.0016

(0.0102)

(0.0051)

(0.0018)

(0.0019)

-0.0366***

0.0005

(0.0036)

(0.0005)

All

-0.0044*** -0.0044***

(5)

(6)

(0.0007)

(0.0018) -0.0044*** 0.0029***

(0.0003)

0.0010***

0.0008**

0.0008** 0.0008***

(0.0003)

0.0107***

0.0098*** 0.0074***

(0.0002)

(0.0003)

(0.0002)

0.0219*** 0.0164*** 59

Table 14: The Effect of Parental Education on Child Education According to Family Size Boys

Girls

(9)

(10)

(11)

(12)

Mother's Education

0.0152***

0.0130***

-0.0004

0.0145***

Father's Education

(0.0010) 0.0201***

(0.0010) 0.0171***

(0.0017) 0.0234***

(0.0008) 0.0149***

Number of Siblings

(0.0010) -0.0033

(0.0010) 0.0060**

(0.0016) -0.0124***

(0.0008) 0.0134***

(0.0026) -0.0021***

(0.0024) -0.0036***

(0.0031) -0.0006

(0.0024) -0.0040***

(0.0004)

(Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)* Number of Siblings

0.0006

0.0010**

0.0022***

-0.0008**

Socioeconomic Index for Locality

(0.0004) 0.0074***

(0.0005) 0.0067***

(0.0004) 0.0067***

Log Total Family Income 1988-1989

(0.0003) 0.0164***

(0.0004) 0.0146***

(0.0003) 0.0148***

(0.0007)

(0.0006)

(0.0008)

(0.0005)

834 222,463

816 228,809

812 143,766

831 307,506

Number of Siblings Squared

Number of School Fixed-Effects Observations

Mom Less than HS Mom At Least HS Grad

Table 15: The Effect of Parental Education on Mother's Labor Force Participation By Family Size Mother Working Full-Time 1988-1989 (1)

Mother's Education

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

0.0370*** (0.0009)

Father's Education

-0.0002 (0.0009)

Number of Siblings

-0.0477*** (0.0022)

Number of Siblings Squared

-0.0009*** (0.0004)

(Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)* Number of Siblings

-0.0001 (0.0004)

Year of Birth1. Sample Restriction Mother’s LFP

Nonewith education rises 2. Mother’s LFP declines with number of siblings – more specialization. Number of School Fixed-Effects 835 3. No interaction between number of siblings and difference in parental Observations 377,322 education.

Table 15: The Effect of Parental Education on Mother's Labor Force Participation By Family Size Mother Working Full-Time 1988-1989 (1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Mother's Education

0.0370***

0.0287***

0.0374***

0.0362***

0.0355***

0.0357***

0.0376***

Father's Education

(0.0009) -0.0002

(0.0033) 0.0070**

(0.0034) 0.0014

(0.0035) 0.0037

(0.0034) 0.0032

(0.0036) 0.0046

(0.0035) -0.0007

Number of Siblings

(0.0009) -0.0477***

(0.0033) 0.0204**

(0.0034) 0.0180**

(0.0035) -0.0237***

(0.0033) -0.0432***

(0.0035) -0.0452***

(0.0034) -0.0234***

Number of Siblings Squared

(0.0022) -0.0009***

(0.0087) -0.0058***

(0.0087) -0.0051***

(0.0089) -0.0027*

(0.0085) -0.0013

(0.0089) -0.0007

(0.0090) -0.0042***

(0.0004)

(0.0014)

(0.0015)

(0.0013)

(0.0015)

-0.0001

0.0014

-0.0007

0.0013

0.0005

0.0006

-0.0001

(0.0004)

(0.0014)

None 835 377,322

1988 433 26,634

1987 441 26,704

1986 442 27,166

1985 434 27,545

1984 429 26,821

1983 411 27,336

(Mother's Educ - Father's Educ)* Number of Siblings

Year of Birth Sample Restriction Number of School Fixed-Effects Observations

1. Mother’s LFP rises with education 2. Mother’s LFP declines with number of siblings – more specialization. 3. No interaction between number of siblings and difference in parental education.

Table 16: The Allocation of Parental Time with Children and Family Size

Age

Age Squared

Number of Kids

Female

Female*Number of Kids

Education

Female*Education Female*Education*Number of Kids

Works FullTime

Works Full or Part-Time

Time with Kids

Works FullTime

Works Full or Part-Time

Time with Kids

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

0.042***

0.053***

-5.004

0.042***

0.052***

-5.078

(0.011)

(4.176)

(0.011)

(4.176)

-0.001***

0.064

-0.001***

0.064

(0.000)

(0.050)

(0.000)

(0.050)

-0.058***

-0.050***

-7.513

-0.058***

-0.049***

-7.382

(0.015)

(0.014)

(5.501)

(0.015)

(0.014)

(5.502)

-0.883***

-0.822***

-47.542

-0.936***

-0.444***

0.558

(0.133)

(0.126)

(48.644)

(0.176)

(0.166)

(64.512)

-0.004

-0.022

22.532***

0.019

-0.190***

1.150

(0.019)

(0.018)

(6.955)

(0.055)

(0.052)

(20.083)

0.004

0.012*

5.650**

0.004

0.012*

5.637**

(0.007)

(2.523)

(0.007)

(0.006)

(2.523)

0.033***

0.049***

9.143***

0.038**

0.012

4.461

(0.009)

(3.473)

(0.015)

(0.014)

(5.392)

-0.002

0.017***

2.149 63

Conclusion • It is important who is watching your kids. • Strong effects: parental education matters, but depends on how much time you spend with your kids. • Effects are bigger for girls versus boys. • Effects are coming from changes in the bottom part of parental education distribution. • Pattern of results reconciles other findings. • Helps explain why educated parents spend so much time with kids.

The End