Materials Technology and Testing_tcm4-384067

Materials technology and testing

DNV serving the energy industry

Go strong.

| THIS IS DNV | DNV is a global provider of 足services for managing risk. Established in 1864, DNV is an independent foundation with the purpose of safeguarding life, property and the environment. DNV comprises 300 offices in 100 countries, with 7,000 employees. DNV Energy is one of four business areas in DNV, alongside DNV Maritime, DNV Industry and DNV IT Global Services. Our vision is global impact for a safe and sustainable future.

DNV provides world-class expertise in technology, operations, management and risk. We combine our know-how into a professional service concept designed to safely improve the performance of your business. So you can go strong on all dimensions.

| Contents | Services Overview u Materials competence to meet future needs

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failure investigation and material selection Learning from mistakes

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corrosion and coating A multi-billion dollar problem

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advanced testing and analysis Establishing and verifying material properties

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welding technology and ndt u Improved confidence in the material joining process

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research & development u Materials for the future

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DNV SERVICES TO THE ENERGY INDUSTRY Enterprise Risk Management SHE Risk Management u Technology Qualification u Verification u Offshore Classification u Asset Risk Management u Training u IT Risk Management u Certification u u

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target segments Through these services, our teams of highly qualified professionals deliver cutting-edge solutions to customers across the industry: u Deep and ultra-deepwater field development u Floating offshore installations u Fixed structures u Offshore and onshore pipelines u Natural Gas/LNG u Refining and petrochemicals u Power generation and transmission u Wind, wave and tidal energy u Arctic operations and technology u Operations excellence u Carbon capture and storage

Solving

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The energy industry now operates in harsher physical environments than ever before. This creates a variety of problems, since existing materials may not be adequate for new applications and systems. Stretching the design envelope therefore requires not only innovation in materials design, but also deeper insight into the limitations of existing ones. This will allow the industry to cost-effectively and safely design, manufacture and operate better systems.

complex material challenges With a broad and deep competence in materials technology and testing, DNV is well positioned to help our clients solve complex materials challenges. We provide services such as materials selection, verification, qualification of new technology, laboratory testing, failure investigation and fabrication follow-up. Laboratories are an important part of the technology base at DNV and are fully integrated with our entire range of technical disciplines. We take a collaborative approach to both science and engineering, in order to develop the best solutions for you.

PAGE 4 | DNV Energy | Services Overview | Failure Investigation and Material Selection | Corrosion and Coating | Advanced Testing and Analysis | Welding Technology and NDT | Research & Development |

THE BUSINESS LIFE CYCLE

DNV – assisting companies in the energy industry along the entire life cycle to safeguard and improve business performance Project phases:

Strategy

DNV energy deliveries:

Feasibility & concept selection

design

BUSINESS CASE ASSESSMENT integrated field development support project due diligence project risk management SHE risk management reliability assessment technology qualification design support verification

offshore classification

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construction

installation & commissioning

operation & life extension

quality surveillance and inspection material and corrosion testing failure investigation

operations excellence troubleshooting Maintenance Management

DECOMMISSIONING

PAGE 6 | DNV Energy | Services Overview | Failure Investigation and Material Selection | Corrosion and Coating | Advanced Testing and Analysis | Welding Technology and NDT | Research & Development |

Services Overview

Materials competence to meet future needs

DNV’s materials experts solve problems collaboratively.

Companies are more often operating in conditions that stretch the established confidence boundaries of technology. In such situations, it is critical to make the right decision on materials. DNV’s highly qualified, multidisciplinary teams help you do this.

Energy projects are increasing in complexity and often located in harsh climates or remote locations. Under such conditions, the parties involved must collaborate more closely, using a multidisciplinary approach in order to solve problems.

DNV has helped the industry solve materialsrelated challenges for almost 50 years, using our broad range of materials technology, laboratory testing and structural integrity services. Our expertise spans both testing and systems, in addition to theoretical knowledge of materials and mechanisms. We have more than 250 employees, who provide global coverage from our laboratory facilities. The main laboratories are located in Norway (Oslo and Bergen), USA (Columbus) and Singapore.

Our laboratories are an important part of the DNV technology base. They are fully integrated with our services for industry segments such as pipelines, subsea systems, risers, umbilicals, well intervention, foundation, drilling and machinery.

We provide the following services globally:

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Early phase involvement (e.g. material selection, bid evaluations, initial concept studies, development of specifications)

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Consulting and testing related to welding technology

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Qualification of new technology and suppliers

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Quality surveillance, fabrication follow up and verification of specifications/ procedures

Consulting related to Non Destructive Testing (NDT) Research & development for standards, recommended practices and guidelines, typically in Joint Industry Projects (JIPs)

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Fitness for service assessment and failure investigation

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Our vision is to make a global impact for a safe and sustainable future. By working at the forefront of materials technology and testing, we are able to fulfil that vision.

Corrosion and coating services (design, verification and testing)

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Advanced testing and finite element analysis of metallic materials and composites

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Testing of metallic materials, thermoplastic materials, elastomers and fibre reinforced plastics

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Full scale and customised testing of components and equipment

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Case:

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INTERNATIONAL R&D CLAD AND LINED MATERIALS

For more than 25 years, the oil and gas industry has used clad and lined pipeline material to handle corrosive medium. To date, the most frequently used of these materials have been AISI 316L, Incoloy 825 and Inconel 625, for pipes with typical diameters of 14–36” and 6–24, respectively. The service record for these materials in pipelines has generally been ­positive. Several technical issues have been frequently encountered, which DNV has initiated a Joint Industry Project (JIP) to examine:

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Pressure containment capacity Local buckling resistance XXOvermatching filler materials for girth welds XXNon-Destructive Testing (NDT) XX XX

Fracture and fatigue capacity Corrosion testing XXCRA wall thickness requirements XXGripping force XXInduction bending XX

The objective of the JIP is to gain a better understanding of how these materials perform under different installation and service conditions. This research project will enable pipeline and materials engineers to make more appropriate decisions on the use of these materials in future projects. The technical findings will be incor­porated in a future revision of DNVOS-F101 (‘Submarine Pipeline Systems’).

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Failure Investigation and Material Selection

Learning from mistakes Critical components and equipment can and do fail, with significant safety, financial and environmental consequences. DNV can help you to investigate failures – and avoid them in the future – by selecting the right materials to begin with.

When components and equipment fail, the causes must be determined. This is often driven not only by regulatory requirements, but also the need to capture information for materials selection in the future. To help clients understand and minimise materials failure, DNV provides expertise in material selection and a complete range of failure investigation services.

Failure Investigation By determining the root causes of failures, investigations can help define corrective action, prevent reoccurrences and save costs in the future.

DNV has gained world-wide recognition for its work in this area. As an independent institution, we perform failure investigation in an objective and professional manner, applying a variety of methodologies. We have state-of-the art laboratories and personnel with both technical and practical experience.

Our laboratory services address many technical

fields, with an emphasis on the oil industry, transportation sector, insurance companies and official investigation authorities. The main laboratories are located in Norway (Oslo and Bergen), USA (Columbus) and Singapore.

Field Examinations Field examinations deal with in situ failure investigations and material characterisation for stationary components and materials.

This capability is valuable when cutting samples is not allowed or feasible, the equipment is still operational or costly to shut down, or the structure cannot be transported to the laboratory. We have equipment for performing a wide variety of tests and measurements in the field.

Materials Selection The objective of selection is to find materials which exhibit mechanical and corrosion properties that can provide resistance to a defined service environment without failure, during a specific design lifespan. This process

| Critical Issue: Materials for more complex and demanding reservoirs.

Solution: Joint industry development project (JIP).

KEY DeliverABLEs: Enhanced understanding of materials behavior.

Value to Client: Larger range of commercially viable clad and lined pipeline materials.

Failure investigation helps improve materials selection.

provides the client with a high level of confidence that the materials selected for a given system will have the appropriate strength and ability to resist corrosion.

DNV has the in-depth and multidisciplinary competence required to perform materials selection for each relevant service application. We also provide recommendations on candidate material qualification and testing methods. With our hands-on experience and software tools, DNV helps you save money through effective selection of materials.

PAGE 8 | DNV Energy | Services Overview | Failure Investigation and Material Selection | Corrosion and Coating | Advanced Testing and Analysis | Welding Technology and NDT | Research & Development |

Corrosion and Coating

A multi-billion dollar problem Corrosion has significant financial consequences: one of our studies shows that it costs $276 billion per year in the USA alone. We apply our expertise in material behaviour, selection and coating to help clients fight corrosion costs.

Corrosion is a constant threat in almost all operating environments. The process of preventing or mitigating it creates costs, which must be balanced against the severe financial, safety and environmental consequences of failures. DNV has the depth of expertise in corrosion and coating that clients need to develop the optimal corrosion control programme for their systems.

Corrosion control Corrosion control ensures that corrosion protection systems are designed and implemented in a cost-effective manner. Corrosion can be controlled through materials selection, application of coatings, and cathodic protection.

Ongoing monitoring and maintenance also help to maintain system integrity throughout the intended design life.

DNV’s consultancy services span the most important aspects of corrosion control and non-standardised testing. We have full scale corrosion testing facilities to verify that materials meet defined requirements. We also inspect painting systems and help clients select the optimal material for each application.

Some examples of the services we offer are:

Our services span all aspects of corrosion.

Design and verification of corrosion protection systems: —— Corrosivity calculations and assessments —— Materials selection —— Detailed design of cathodic protection systems —— Coating systems —— Addition of chemicals —— Fitness for purpose evaluations and assessments of remaining life XXSurveillance of manufacturing and fabrication Quality Control (QC) activities XXOn-site inspection of corrosion damage XXCondition monitoring of corrosion protection systems XXFailure analyses XXAssessment of potential detrimental effect of cathodic protection caused by Hydrogen Induced Stress Cracking (HISC) XX

Feasibility and conceptual studies for corrosion protection and materials selection

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Case:

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ORMEN LANGE CORROSION FATIGUE TESTING

The Ormen Lange gas field is the second largest on the Norwegian continental shelf. The field’s well stream fluid is corrosive. Inhibition will be used to counteract this. However, there were uncertainties about how this corrosive environment would influence material fatigue.

A standard approach, using the fatigue curves for free corrosion in seawater, would lead to extremely short allowable span lengths and a costly span intervention programme. Therefore, a fatigue test programme was conducted in the DNV laboratories, to examine both crack growth and S-N fatigue.

The primary objective of the tests was to establish the effect of the production fluid on the fatigue performance of the actual welds in the 30” multiphase pipelines which run from the field to an onshore processing plant. To accomplish this, the testing had to be performed in realistic field conditions: an operating temperature of 85 ºC and an oxygen level in the production fluid below 10 parts per billion (ppb). To satisfy these requirements, DNV built a closed loop fluid system, in which the corrosive fluid was heated to 85 ºC and a catalytic combustion in the gas phase reduced the oxygen content in the liquid water phase to less than 10 ppb.

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Corrosion control helps protect vital assets.

Testing DNV provides laboratory testing, in line with recognised standards. These include: Sour service testing (NACE TM0177/ TM0198, ISO 15156, EFC 16/17) XXHydrogen embrittlement (NACE TM0284, ISO 7539-7) XXPitting and crevice corrosion (ASTM G48) XXIntergranular corrosion (ASTM A262, ASTM G28) XXGalvanic anode material testing (DNV RP-B401, NORSOK M503) XXCathodic disbondment test (ASTM G8) XXCoating testing (NORSOK M501, IMO MSC 82/24/Add.1) XXSalt spray test (ASTM G85) XX

DNV also performs a wide range of customised tests, such as: Sacrificial anode testing Sour service testing XXCoating tests XXFull scale testing XX XX

We monitor corrosion protection systems.

Testing in natural and synthetic environments XXMarine environment exposure testing XXTesting at elevated pressure and temperature XXExposure testing under static and dynamic loads XX

Coating Technology Coating technology is a key element in corrosion protection systems for structures.

Selecting the appropriate corrosion protection increases asset operating time, while reducing maintenance requirements and the risk of harmful emissions.

DNV offers a wide range of coating technology services, including: coating evaluations, inspections, quality control, training, failure investigation, consulting, claims handling and type approval testing according to a range of standards, including ISO, IMO and NORSOK. We also perform coating identification to prevent delivery of inferior coating qualities.

| Critical Issue: Fatigue performance of 30� multiphase pipelines in corrosive well stream fluid.

Solution: Fatigue testing under realistic service conditions.

KEY DeliverABLEs: Corrosion fatigue data for crack growth and S-N fatigue.

Value to Client: Established realistic corrosion fatigue data.

DNV is involved in several research and develop­ ment programmes for coating technology.

These include corrosion protection, coating degradation and anti-fouling systems, for both ships and offshore structures.

Hard Face Coatings DNV has decades of experience in testing and failure investigation of wear-resistant coatings.

We have expertise in improving the component wear resistance of piston rod coatings used on riser tensioning systems. DNV has also collaborated with the industry to develop a guideline for qualification and testing of piston rod wear coatings. This guideline can be extended to other applications.

PAGE 10 | DNV Energy | Services Overview | Failure Investigation and Material Selection | Corrosion and Coating | Advanced Testing and Analysis | Welding Technology and NDT | Research & Development |

Advanced Testing and Analysis

Establishing and verifying material properties Materials, components and structural elements must be tested against the requirements defined in specifications and standards.

Where requirements do not yet exist, DNV can assist clients in developing them and performing the appropriate tests.

Testing and analysis are fundamental tools in improving our understanding of materials.

Through testing, we can define new performance requirements for material and verify against existing standards. DNV’s teams of materials experts can draw on a vast pool of facilities, tools and software in order to execute the tests that clients need.

Material and component testing DNV has facilities for conducting structural, large-scale, custom, component, material and welding procedure qualification testing. We also have unique competence in high and low temperature testing, ranging from -196°C to 200°C. With our knowledge and testing facilities, we are able to help clients verify that their materials, components and structural elements meet applicable specifications and standards.

Our testing services are comprised of: Qualification of new technical solutions Development of rules and standards XXCalibration of design equations XXDesign verification and proof load testing XXProduction verification testing XXQualification and verification of materials XX XX

DNV’s testing facilities include more than 2,000 square metres of laboratory space, including a test area that can be filled with circulating natural sea water, clay etc. for submersed testing. We have a comprehensive set

DNV has extensive testing facilities.

of equipment such as jacks, actuators, hydraulic systems and tensile testing machines.

We also have a number of purpose-built rigs to adapt various test conditions. The range of possible tests includes: static and dynamic loading, combined loading conditions, pressure, cryogenic or elevated temperatures and harsh or aggressive environments.

DNV has laboratories fully equipped for component and standardised materials testing. The services include testing of metallic materials, thermoplastic materials, elastomers and fibre reinforced plastics.

Testing and analysis of advanced composites At DNV, we combine state-of-the-art risk based methods for technology development, qualification and verification with advanced analytical tools and laboratory testing.

DNV facilitated the introduction of composite materials for lightweight, corrosion resistant

Case:

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MAJOR OPERATORS AND CONTRACTORS WIRE ROPES FOR SUBSEA INSTALLATIONS

One method of installing subsea structures is to lower the structure from a vessel to the seabed using a wire rope. To ensure that the equipment is stably positioned on the seabed during installation, it is necessary to compensate for vessel heaving caused by wave motion. This means the wire rope must be run in and out, using heave compensators. During this operation, the rope is bent over sheaves, which cause bending fatigue loading in it. To ensure that the installation is executed safely, operators need to verify the fatigue performance of the rope, so it can be replaced before it fails.

To establish representative fatigue data, DNV has built the world’s largest fatigue testing rig, capable of testing ropes up to a diameter of 109 mm. The rig is used to establish fatigue properties for different rope constructions.

During testing, automated inspection techniques are used to check the condition of the rope during testing.

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Our experts help define performance requirements.

structures in the maritime sector. The DNV Rules for High Speed Craft were the first, and are now the most proven, for composite designs. We went on to support the introduction of composites in the offshore and process industries, by issuing the only existing industry standard for composite components.

Since then, DNV has further expanded our reach in this area. We support qualification of new composite technology for: Pipes XXStorage tanks XXShafts and risers XXLNG storage and transport XXPressure vessels XXReinforced concrete structures XXSteel structure repair without hot work XX

We qualify and verify materials.

Fracture Mechanics Fracture mechanics analyses are important for evaluating the criticality of material discontinuities, such as cracks and planar weld defects, in all types of structures. These analyses are often required in fitness for purpose assessments and lifetime extensions. They are also a powerful tool for examining why different types of structures have failed during operation.

DNV is well positioned to assist clients in fracture mechanics analyses, with over three decades of experience. We have a large team of experts, software tools and laboratory facility for conducting full-scale verification and standard fracture toughness tests.

Finite Element Analysis Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is a simulation technique used to predict stress and strain conditions in specific components. FEA can help clients determine optimal designs, with respect to material selection. It also helps limit the level of destructive testing needed.

| Critical Issue: Safe installation of heavy subsea structures.

Solution: Built the world’s largest test rig.

KEY DeliverABLEs: Fatigue characteristics of wire ropes.

Value to Client: Safe installation of heavy sub-sea structures.

FEA is one of DNV’s core technology capabilities. DNV performs detailed FEA of structural and machinery components, either as a standalone service or in combination with testing and re-analysis, for a complete evaluation of component performance.

PAGE 12 | DNV Energy | Services Overview | Failure Investigation and Material Selection | Corrosion and Coating | Advanced Testing and Analysis | Welding Technology and NDT | Research & Development |

Welding Technology and ndt

Improved confidence in the material joining process Welding is the most common method of joining materials. As we push material performance to cope with more difficult operating conditions, welding requirements also become more demanding. DNV helps you ensure that the welded constructions perform as intended.

The industry is extending into extremely challenging physical environments, where higher performance is expected from materials. This in turn increases the importance of welding, as it is the most typical method of joining these materials. DNV has decades of experience in welding, going back to our origins in the marine industry. By developing, evaluating and verifying welding procedures, we help our clients ensure that welded materials meet their operating requirements.

DNV has years of experience with welding technology. We provide a variety of services for welding procedure development and testing, including: Welding procedure specification XXSpecification of welding procedures XXStandard welding procedure qualification testing XXHydrogen testing of weld deposits, in laboratory and on-site XXWeldability testing XXCTOD testing XX

DNV develops and tests welding procedures.

Testing of special welding systems

Solving welding-related problems

Selection of filler materials XXSpecification and testing of welding procedures XXWelding with strict control and registration of the welding parameters XXOn-site measurement of end restraint and residual stresses

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Prequalification and follow up Prequalification of materials and welding procedures XXProject implementation e.g. follow-up of welding procedures on-site XX

Weldability evaluation Calculation of HAZ (Heat Affected Zone) and weld metal hardness XXCalculation of predicted cooling time between 800°C and 500°C (Dt8/5) XXCalculations of pre- and post- weld heat treatment temperatures and times XXCalculation of hydrogen diffusion XX

Fracture mechanical calculations of acceptance criteria for weld defects XXMetallurgical examinations XXMeasurement of residual stresses XXRecommendations of requirements to post welding heat treatment Non Destructive Testing (NDT) NDT is an integral function of integrity management in both construction and operational phases. NDT technology is increasingly more important in order to utilise design and material capacities as well as to determine conditions and fitness for purpose assessments.

DNV has considerably expertise related to all NDT techniques (including Phased Array and TOFD) and qualification of advanced automatic NDT systems.

Case:

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MAJOR OPERATORS H2S SCAVENGING

Oilfield reservoir souring occurs when the concentration of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) in production fluids increases. H2S, a toxic and corrosive ‘sour gas’, can cause cracking and pitting of susceptible steels. A common control treatment for counteracting H2S is the injection of chemicals known as H2S scavengers.

DNV’s testing apparatus can simulate a wide range of production parameters, including: total pressure, temperature, pH, gas composition, gas and liquid flow rate, water cut, crude oil type, brine chemistry, and compatibility with other chemical treatments.

To evaluate this problem for our clients, DNV designed and built a unique Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR) as a testing apparatus.

We also developed a kinetic model. The model helped the clients optimise H2S scavenging treatment in off-shore fields and improved their understanding of the main parameters affecting the treatment.

DNV’s kinetic model considers the transport of the scavenger and the transport of gaseous H2S into the aqueous phase where the chemical reaction occurs. The change of concentration of the various species participating in the reaction over time can be calculated, in order to optimise the H2S removal.

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Research & Development

Materials for the future

We help develop and qualify materials.

The growth in energy demand is in turn driving innovation. New materials are being developed and existing materials are utilised in new applications. DNV helps you ensure that new solutions are safe and commercially viable.

The energy industry is experiencing a huge surge in materials innovation, to support its rapid growth and expansion into new opera足 ting environments. At the same time, new applications are being developed that utilise existing materials. It is important to develop insight into the performance of materials in these new contexts, so that companies can manage risk effectively. DNV applies its expertise and experience in materials research to help you take advantage of innovations, while remaining confident in the safety of your operations.

Biofuel Transportation and Storage Ethanol and other biofuels are transported and stored in carbon steel equipment.

However, our research has demonstrated that, under certain circumstances, Fuel Grade Ethanol (FGE) can cause Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) of carbon steel. Solving this issue is critical because steel pipelines are the most cost-effective method of transporting

ethanol over long distances. Operators handling ethanols also need to assess issues such as degradation of seals and gaskets, product contamination, monitoring and coatings.

DNV is using its testing, analysis, and modelling capabilities to identify the factors that cause SCC in steel exposed to Fuel Grade Ethanol.

DNV is also developing remote methods for real time monitoring and evaluation of SCC risk in tanks and pipelines.

Sensor Technology Continuous and remote monitoring of equipment and systems is important, in order to improve safety, security, and environmental stewardship. Sensor development, wireless communication, data storage, and decision analysis tools are all important aspects of a successful remote monitoring system. Furthermore, sensor location is important in ensuring that the data is relevant to the processes being assessed.

| Critical Issue: Increase in hydrogen sulphide (H2S) concentrations.

Solution: A unique testing apparatus and kinetic model.

KEY DeliverABLEs: Improved understanding of H2S scavenger treatment.

Value to Client: Improved risk management.

In collaboration with our partners, DNV has developed a wireless, mobile sensor and tested it inside a pipeline, to detect locations of water drop-out. We are also testing and validating several other sensor concepts for similar applications.

Polymer film against corrosion Corrosion continues to be a major problem.

The industry is constantly looking for new corrosion solutions, with a focus on cost, reliability of production and added function足 ality. Polymer film has been identified as one such potential solution, to replace conven足tional corrosion and anti-fouling coatings in shipbuilding. DNV has initiated a project to evaluate the performance of this new technology. The initial results have been positive.

PAGE 14 | DNV Energy | Services Overview | Failure Investigation and Material Selection | Corrosion and Coating | Advanced Testing and Analysis | Welding Technology and NDT | Research & Development |

DNV locations DNV serves the energy industry from more than 40 primary locations worldwide. In addition, we draw on DNV’s entire worldwide network of 300 offices in 100 countries.

Trondheim Bergen Stavanger Oslo Sandefjord Aberdeen Esbjerg Copenhagen Manchester Moscow Antwerp London Essen Paris

Astana

Tanggu Tripoli

Shanghai

Kuwait Doha

Abu Dhabi Muscat Mumbai Ho Chi Minh City

Lagos

Vung Tau

Kuala Lumpur Singapore Jakarta Luanda

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Calgary St. John’s Halifax Columbus Houston

Trinidad

Salvador Rio de Janeiro

Macaé

São Paulo Porto Alegre Buenos Aires

DNV ENERGY main offices: Aberdeen Cromarty House 67-72 Regent Quay Aberdeen AB11 5AR United Kingdom Tel: +44 1224 335000

Calgary Bay 123 2340 Pegasus Way NE Calgary AB Canada T2E 8M5 Tel: +403 250 9041

Antwerp Duboisstraat 39 b1 2060 Antwerp Belgium Tel: +32 3 206 65 40

Columbus 5777 Frantz Road Dublin, Ohio 43017-1386 USA Tel: +1 614 761 1214

Abu Dhabi The Towers Abu Dhabi Trade Centre Near Beach Rotana Hotel East Wing – E 108 Abu Dhabi United Arab Emirates Tel: +971 2 6457580

Copenhagen Tuborg Parkvej 8, 2nd Floor DK2900 Hellerup Copenhagen Denmark Tel: +45 39 45 48 00

Bergen Johan Berentsensvei 109-111 NO-5020 Laksevåg, Bergen Norway Tel: +47 55 94 36 00

Houston 16340 Park Ten Place Suite 100 Houston, TX 77084, USA Tel: +1 281 721 6600

Kuala Lumpur 24th Floor, Menara Weld 76, Jalan Raja Chulan 50200 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia Tel: +603 2050 2888

Paris Centre BFI, Tour AREVA, 92084 Paris La Defense Cedex Paris France Tel: +33 1 47 96 46 36

London Palace House 3 Cathedral Street London SE1 9DE United Kingdom Tel: +44 207 357 6080

Moscow Business-Center “Country Park” 3rd Floor, Panfilova 19 141407 Moscow Region Khimki, Moscow Russian Federation Tel: +7 495 739 4833

Luanda Edificio Monumental Rua Major Kanhangulo, nº 290 2º Andar Luanda Angola Tel: +244 222 391 631 Oslo Veritasveien 1 NO-1322 Høvik Norway Tel: +47 67 57 99 00

Mumbai Emgeen Chambers, 10, C.S.T. Road, Vidyanagari, Kalina Santacruz East Mumbai 400098 India Tel: +91 22 26650909

Rio de Janeiro Rua Sete de Setembro, 111 – 12o andar CEP 20050-006 Rio de Janeiro, R.J Brazil Tel: +55 21 3722 7232 Shanghai House No. 9, 1591 Hong Qiao Road Shanghai 200336 China Tel: +86 21 3208 4518 Singapore DNV Technology Centre 10 Science Park Drive Singapore 118224 Singapore Tel: +65 6779 1266 Stavanger Bjergstedveien 1 NO-4007 Stavanger Norway Tel: +47 51 50 60 00

DNV Veritasveien 1 NO-1322 Høvik, Norway Tel: +47 67 57 99 00 Fax: +47 67 57 99 11 www.dnv.com/energy

Concept and design: COBRA /CREUNA Images: Front cover DNV, p2 DNV, p6 DNV, p7 DNV, p8 DNV, p9 DNV, p10 DNV, p11 DNV, p12 DNV, p13 DNV. Production: Ressurs